I.C.

Engine Emissions and

Control Measures
MCL 241
Submitted by
Ajit Kumar (2020ME10906)
Yojana Bansal (2020ME10987)

Under Guidance of
Prof. Krishnakant Agrawal

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
Index
Section 1 → Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………
Section 2 → History of Engine Emissions and Control ……………………………………….
Section 3 → Air Pollution Due to IC Engines……………………………………………………….
3.1 → Engine Emissions……………………………………………………………………………...
3.2 → Exhaust Emission……………………………………………………………………………...
3.2.1 → HYDROCARBONS (CHX)………………………………………………………......
3.2.2 → CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) Emission………………………………………...
3.2.3 → NOx Emission ………………………………………………………………………....
3.2.4 → Photochemical Smog …………………………………………………………......
3.2.5 → other Emissions………………………………………………………………………..
Section 4 → Emission Control Method……………………………………………………………....
4.1 → Thermal Converter……………………………………………………………………….....
4.2 → Catalytic Converter………………………………………………………………………....
4.3 → Particulate Trap………………………………………………………………………….......
4.4 → Modern Diesel engines…………………………………………………………………....
4.5 → Reducing Emission by chemical method…………………………………………..
4.6 → EGR………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4.7 → Modern Evaporative Emission Control System………………………………...
Section 5 → References………………………………………………………………………………………
 1. INTRODUCTION:
There are two types of IC engine and each engine generates undesirable
emissions during combustion process. Emissions generated during combustion
Causes many problems like:
(i) global warming
(ii) respiratory and other health hazards
(iii) odours
(iv) acid rain
(v) smog
Non-stoichiometric combustion are mostly responsible for these type of
emissions, impurities in air and fuel, NOx formation due to high flame
temperature. Some harmful emissions are: unburnt hydrocarbons, oxides of
nitrogen, COx , and solid carbon particulates, SOx.
Due to increasing global warming and environmental concern, there is need to
check these emissions. Many engineers and scientists are developing equipment
that can filter or remove these emissions before releasing to environment.
Another approach are to develop such fuels and engines such that low quantity of
emissions are released, and then these emissions can be discharged into
atmosphere without any major impact to environment.
In-cylinder reduction and after-treatment of exhaust gases both are being tried. In
after-treatment it consists mainly of the use of thermal or catalytic converters and
particulate traps. For in-cylinder reduction, exhaust gas recirculation and some
fuel additives are the part of research.

2. History of Engine Emissions and Control: -

In earlier times, there were very less number of IC engine on road, so there was
no any problem due to emissions. But as time passes and number of IC engines
increases, people start thinking about pollution due to emission from IC engines.
During mid 20th century, many state and local government in the US start study
about numerous air pollution. These studies show the significant amount of air
pollution due to engine emissions. By 1967 the State of California created the
California Air Resources Board, and in 1970, the federal United States established
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Both agencies and other agencies start
checking the emissions from IC engines. Similar agencies to check emissions from
engines start to established in other countries as well.
The first discovery towards reducing emissions from engines of automobiles was
the PCV (positive crankcase ventilation) system. This draws crankcase fumes
heavy in unburned hydrocarbons into the engine's intake tract so they are burned
rather than released unburned from the crankcase into the atmosphere.
By 1975, emission standard has tightened. Many emissions standard was
forcefully imposed. There were many efforts for emission controls was taken from
use of catalytic converter to unleading the fuel. All modern automobiles are now
equipped with catalytic converter and leaded fuels are no longer sold at filling
stations.

3. AIR POLLUTION DUE TO IC ENGINES

Before 20th century, number of IC engines was so small that emission from these
engines were tolerable. During this period environment was clean and there was
no problem from these small emissions. As the time passes, number of factories,
power plants, automobiles on roads and many other applications of IC engines
started to increase and hence emissions also started to increase in same
proportion. Increasing the number of IC engines started to increase the pollution
concern. During the late 1940s, air pollution as a concern was first recognized in
the Los Angeles basin in California. Two main causes of this were the large
population density and the weather of that area. During 1950s, pollution problem
started to increase due to increase in application of IC engines. During late 20th
century, fuel efficient engine was developed to reduce the use of fuel and hence
to reduce emissions. Also, treatment of exhaust was adopted. However, during
this time the number of automobiles increased very rapidly, resulting in no overall
effect in fuel usage.
3.1 ENGINE EMISSIONS:
Engine emissions are of two types:
(i) exhaust emissions
(ii) non-exhaust emissions
• Non-exhaust emissions also cause pollution but the main concern is
exhaust emission.

3.2 Exhaust Emission:

• There are different types of exhaust emissions. Like,
(i) unburn hydrocarbons (CHx)
(ii) NOx
(iii) Oxides of Sulphur
(iv) CO, CO2
(v) Smoke and soot.
• First four are common in both CI and SI IC engines but last is mainly in CI
engines due to higher temperature in CI engines.
 • These two graphs clearly shows that exhaust emissions are functions of
equivalence ratio. So, people are also thinking of controlling equivalence
ratio to reduce exhaust emissions.
Now, we will discuss about cause and control of different emissions in detail
separately.

3.2.1 HYDROCARBONS (CHX)

Exhaust gases exiting after combustion in SI engines contains up to 6000 ppm of
hydrocarbon that is about 1-1.5% of fuel. This is major concern of exhaust
emissions. As fuel is also a hydrocarbon. So, this hydrocarbon emissions contains
both unburnt emissions (directly from fuel) and burnt hydrocarbon. These burnt
hydrocarbon emissions are formed due of thermal cracking of large hydrocarbons
(fuel).
When these emissions are discharged into the atmosphere, they act as odorants
and irritants, some are capable of causing disease like cancer. These
hydrocarbons generally react with gases present in atmosphere and form
photochemical smog.

Causes of hydrocarbon emissions from IC engines are:

(i) Incomplete combustion
(ii) Cracking of fuel due to high temperature inside cylinder
(iii) Cracking of lubricant around hot regions
(iv) And many other factors
3.2.2 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) Emission:
➢ The process of carbon monoxide (CO) formation has a long track record of
success. Some of the carbon in the fuel may end up as CO because there is
not enough O2 in the area for full oxidation. The relative air-to-fuel ratio
affects the quantity of CO produced over a wide variety of fuel
compositions and C/H ratios.
CO + 1/2 O2 → CO2 + heat

➢ When an engine is running lean, the most CO is produced. When launching

or accelerating under load, a heavier mixture is needed. Carbon dioxide
(CO) is produced in an engine regardless of the combination of air and fuel.

3.2.3 NOx Emission:

➢ High-temperature combustion is a major source of nitrogen oxides in the
atmosphere. In order to make NOx, need to burn fuel in the air at a high
temperature. NOx emissions are a major problem in the cement and steel
sectors, as well as in chemical plants and steel mills. Soil microbes naturally
create NOx. One reason nitrogen oxides are considered pollutants is
because they contribute to the formation of ozone (smog) and diminish
visibility, both of which are harmful to human health.

➢ Up to 2000 ppm of nitrogen oxides may be found in engine exhaust.

Nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) will make up the bulk of
this mixture (NO2). Some other nitrogen-oxygen mixtures are expected to
exist. where x is an acceptable number. NOx is a harmful factor.
Regulations to decrease NOx emissions continue to tighten.

➢ It is possible that fuel contains minute quantities of NH3, NC, and HCN;
however, the impact of these components would be minimal. NO may be
 formed by a variety of processes. All of the constraints are likely to arise
during and soon after the combustion process.
O+N2 → NO + N
N+O2 → NO + O
N + OH → NO + H

➢ In addition to temperature, pressure and air-fuel ratio influence the

generation of NOx. Combustion time has a substantial impact on cylinder
NOx generation. The position of the spark plug inside the combustion
chamber has an effect on the quantity of NOx produced. The spark plug,
which experiences the highest temperatures, is where the greatest
concentration forms.
➢ NOx levels are greater in CI engines with split combustion chambers and
indirect injection (IDI) due to their higher compression ratios and higher
temperatures and pressures.

3.2.4 Photochemical Smog:

➢ NOx is a significant element to photochemical smog, a serious issue in
many major cities across the globe. Smog is created by sunlight reacting
with car exhaust. NO2 decomposes into NO and monatomic oxygen:
NO2 + solar energy = NO + O + smog

➢ Monatomic oxygen is very reactive and causes several reactions, one of

which is ozone formation:
O+O2 →O3
➢ Ozone damages the lungs and other organs. Every year, it kills crops and
vegetation. The substance is also harmed. Airborne HC, aldehydes, and
other nitrogen oxides react to generate ozone.
3.2.5 OTHER EMISSIONS:
➢ In addition to hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and NOx, the exhaust
contains a variety of additional pollutants. The parts that follow provide a
brief overview of the remainder of the emissions.

• Aldehydes:
➢ Aldehydes, a cause respiratory pollutant, are a severe hazard when alcohol
fuel is utilized. R denotes various chemical radicals in the chemical formula:
R-CH=O
➢ Unburned alcohol fuel is a big contributor to this issue.
➢ Many aldehydes are harmful. Formaldehyde permanently crosslinks protein
amino acids, creating embalmed corpses' hard flesh. Formaldehyde is a
severe respiratory irritant in confined spaces, producing nose bleeds,
respiratory discomfort, lung illness, and chronic headaches. Acetaldehyde,
present in the lips of smokers and individuals with poor oral hygiene, is
carcinogenic and mutagenic.

• Sulphur:
➢ Sulfur is found in small amounts in several CI fuels. When they are exhaled
as SO2 and SO3, they cause acid rain (SOx). Sulphur content in unleaded
gasoline ranges from 150 to 550 parts per million.
➢ Sulphur reacts with hydrogen at high temperatures to create H2S and with
oxygen to form SO2
H2 + S → H2S
O2 + S → SO2
➢ Then it combines in the air to create SO3
2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3
➢ In the presence of water vapors in the atmosphere, they react to form
sulfuric acid.
SO3 + H2O → H2 SO4
➢ Particulates in the form of sulphates contribute to the formation of PM-10
and the decrease of visibility. This contributes to engine damage as well as
Sulphur oxide emissions.
➢ There is a wide range of Sulphur content in natural gas, which may be
sweet or sour. In an IC engine, or any other combustion system, natural gas
may pose a significant emissions issue.

• Lead:
➢ New charge's self-ignition tendency is regulated by using lead in the fuel.
The knocking sound is caused by the engine's propensity to self-ignite. The
gasoline's octane rating is what you're looking for. The vast majority of lead
that enters the engine is discharged into the environment in the form of
very small oxide particles.
➢ Engine metals had to be reworked when lead in gasoline was phased out.
Hardened surfaces in the combustion chamber, valves, and valve seats are
caused by the use of leaded gasoline.
➢ Unleaded gasoline does not have a hardened surface. The failure of valve
seats or piston faces in a short period of time (10,000–20,000 kilometers in
a car) is usual. It was critical to progressively phase out leaded gasoline
when older vehicles came to the end of their useful lives and were
decommissioned.
➢ The lead content of leaded gasoline is 0.15 gm/l. Other combustion
products account for 10–50% of the total. Exhaust system and engine walls
are covered with lead. Fuel vapour could not pass through the toughened
combustion chamber surfaces because of the leaded gasoline. Because of
this, the HC emissions of these engines were reduced.
 • Phosphorus:
➢ Engine exhaust releases a little amount of phosphorous into the
environment. These impurities are the result of airborne pollution and
trace amounts of different gasoline mixtures and lubricating lubricants.

4. Emission Control methods:-

Combustion process in IC engines happens for very short duration ( in
milliseconds). Combustion of hydrocarbon do not complete in this short duration
of time. Exhaust gases continue to react in cylinder. Remaining hydrocarbon
reacts in cylinder or near exhaust port. Burning of hydrocarbons also depends on
Fuel-Air ratio in mixture. To reduce harmful emissions we should look after the
FAR and also some after exhaust treatment is necessary. so basically we have to
look at both conditions ie. During combustion and after combustion. Now, we will
discuss on details of some emission control methods.

4.1 Thermal converter:-

Secondary reactions occur more frequently and easily at high temperature. Using
this, thermal converter is used in some engines. Thermal converter consists of
high temperature chamber through which gasses are allowed to pass. This mainly
convert CO and unburnt Hydrocarbon into CO2 and other reactions also takes
place.
Main reactions that takes place are-
CO + ½ O2 → CO2
CxHy + zO2 → xCO2 + yH2O
These reactions takes place at about 600°C-700°C and some reaction time to
complete this reaction. Hence thermal converter is used just after exhaust
chamber( to reduce thermal loss from exhaust gases). Chamber should also be
large enough to provide reaction time to these exhaust gases.
But this thermal converter creates two serious problems. First is compatibility,
specially in automobiles and air-crafts spaces are very low. Fitting a large chamber
in this low space is itself a challenge. And second is thermal insulation. As
chamber operate at about 700°C, it should be thermally insulated to reduce
thermal loss and also to save engine compartment from very high temperature.
But thermal insulation is ideally not possible.
Some converter also provides additional O2( from air) for reaction to occur
successfully. But this creates an another problem, as chamber operates at high
temperature, providing air will reduce the temperature of chamber and will
create a passage to leakage of thermal loss.
Even though amount of CO and unburnt hydrocarbon is reduced by thermal
converter, NOx cannot be reduced using this onverter.

4.2 Catalytic converter:-

As we know, temperature of any reaction can be reduced using suitable catalyst.
Problem of high temperature in thermal converter can be reduced using catalyst.
It is most successful exhaust treatment method. Modern IC engines are mostly
using this technology.
Catalyst is the substance that accelerate reaction rate (reducing rection time) and
also reduce reaction temperature. It is not consumed in whole reaction. Catalytic
converter consists of a chamber with catalyst in it, exhaust gases are allowed to
pass through this chamber and rection takes place inside it.
Generally catalytic converter reduces the concentration of all three main exhaust
( CO, CH and NOx). the most commonly used catalysts are palladium, platinum
and rhodium. Palladium and platinum mainly promotes the oxidation of CO and
CH whereas rhodium reduces concentration of NOx.
Some reaction that takes place inside chamber are:-

NO + CO → ½ N2 + CO2
2 NO + 5 CO + 3H2O → 2 NH3 + 5 CO2
NO + CO → N2O + CO2
NO + H2 → ½ N2+ H2O
2 NO+5 H2 → 2 NH3 + 2 H2O
2 NO+ H2 → N2O + H2O

• Catalyst converter efficiency as a function of temperature:-

 • Catalytic Converter efficiency as a function of equivalence ratio

4.3 Particulate trap:-

Generally in CI engines, there is a lot of particulate emissions. Particulate trap are
used to trap these particles before exhaust. It is generally made up of ceramic
material or of mess like structure of metals. Mess like structure are generally used
due to its availability and cost effectiveness. When exhaust pass through the
mess, particles get trapped in it.
As particle is trapped in mess, mess get jammed after some times. This increase
pressure and temperature inside the engine compartment. To reduce this
problem, particulate trap is changed when it get saturated. Sometimes it also
regenerated to use again.
Modern particulate trap is not satisfactory, as it is costly, need to regenerate and
also not durable. A good solution should be cost effective, delf regenerative and
durable.
4.4 Modern Diesel Engine:-
Carbon soot particulate generation has been reduced at large extent in modern CI
engines by advanced technology in fuel injectors and changing design of
combustion chamber. Speed of mixing of fuel and air has been increased by
changing geometry of combustion chamber, improvement in exhaust and fuel
injector. And also combustion time has been reduced by wisely improvement in
injector and proper mixing. Some modern, top level CI automobile engines have
reduced particulate generation enough that they meet standards without the
need for particulate traps.

4.5 REDUCING EMISSIONS BY CHEMICAL METHODS: -

Cyanuric acid has been used in large stationary engines to minimize NOx
emissions in research. N2 and H2O are formed as a result of the reaction between
the isocyanide formed by the gas dissociation and the NOx emissions. Due to
current technological limitations, this technique is not suitable for use in
automotive engines.
Zeolite molecular sieves are being investigated as a means of reducing NOx
emissions. Fuel mixture ratio, temperature, flow velocity, and zeolite structure
are being used to study NOx reduction in CI engines. The method's long-term
viability is now challenged.
During periods of high production, H2S emissions are more likely to occur. In order
to convert H2S from a rich engine to SO2 in a lean engine with sufficient oxygen,
chemical technologies are being developed. Following is the reaction equation.
H2S+ O2 → SO2 + H2

4.6 EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION (EGR): -

Combustion chamber temperatures should be kept as low as possible to reduce
NOx emissions. This is a very unpleasant strategy, since it diminishes the engine's
thermal efficiency.
The only neutral gas easily accessible for engine usage is exhaust gas (EGR), which
may be added to the input air-fuel combination to lower flame temperature and
NOx production.
This is done by piping exhaust gas back into the intake system, generally shortly
after throttle. Flow might be up to 30% of total intake. EGR works in conjunction
with the preceding cycle's exhaust residual to decrease the maximum combustion
temperature. The engine management system controls EGR flow rate.
EGR is expressed as a mass percentage of the total inlet flow (CFM): -
EGR = (m˙ EGR / m˙ cyl)× 100
Input and exhaust conditions are monitored to control the flow upto 15 –30%.
Stoichiometric combustion with maximal EGR produces the lowest NOx emissions
and the highest fuel economy.
EGR is not used at low speeds or while the vehicle is idling. Increased combustion
inefficiency with maximum exhaust residual. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) may
be tolerated by engines that burn quickly.

4.7 MODERN EVAPORATIVE EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM: -

The evaporative emission control system seen in Figure is a modern example. The
fuel tank features a chamber-shaped vapor-liquid separator. The fuel return pipe
is used to return gasoline to the fuel tank once it has been separated from the
fuel vapor. Fuel vapors exit the carburetor via a vent valve or hole. The canister's
vent hole is connected to it through a tube. The gasoline vapors are contained
inside the canister. Activated charcoal are used to adsorb the gasoline vapors.
Fuel tank and carburetor vapors are drawn into the canister. Hydrocarbons
remain in the canister after adsorption, and the canister's air supply is expelled
into the environment.
The vapors of gasoline are expelled from the canister by the force of the wind.
The engine's induction system receives the hydrocarbons (HC) through a purge
control solenoid valve. ECM (Electronic Control Module) of the CCC (Computer
Command Control) system in contemporary vehicles controls the purge control
solenoid valve.

5. References:-

1. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=
&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjp3M6X9-
32AhVSyjgGHSQJCyMQFnoECAMQAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nitjsr.
 ac.in%2Fcourse_assignment%2FME4255_3.pdf&usg=AOvVaw14x-
7_V3C8P4p3MasG1kiP
2. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=
&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjp3M6X9-
32AhVSyjgGHSQJCyMQFnoECEUQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slides
hare.net%2FDrRamachandranThulas%2Fic-engine-emission-and-control-
of-the-emissions&usg=AOvVaw2Kit2yCrMvrSefvQ-QHkE0
3. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=
&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjp3M6X9-
32AhVSyjgGHSQJCyMQFnoECCgQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britan
nica.com%2Ftechnology%2Femission-control-
system&usg=AOvVaw3yXsjUhLq5OBjJg2W1qr3H
4. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=
&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwi4uv2A-
O32AhXvwjgGHSbNBOoQFnoECAgQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipe
dia.org%2Fwiki%2FInternal_combustion_engine&usg=AOvVaw2uCK5M
DDGWbjzIocfIHDm7
5. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=
&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwi4uv2A-
O32AhXvwjgGHSbNBOoQFnoECCMQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikip
edia.org%2Fwiki%2FEngine_control_unit&usg=AOvVaw0NWhx9_acjQZ
MjQFo6vcTM
6. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=
&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwi4uv2A-
O32AhXvwjgGHSbNBOoQFnoECEYQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fsimple.wi
kipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FInternal_combustion_engine&usg=AOvVaw2vAX
tZfoBO2uHOXR1WafmQ
7. https://bikeadvice.in/types-emissions-
effects/#:~:text=Most%20of%20the%20lead%20that%20enters%20the%
20engine,remain%20suspended%20in%20the%20atmosphere%20for%2
0some%20time.
8. https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch03/final/c03s04.pdf
THANK

YOU