SHASHEMENE POLY TECHNIQUE COLLAGE

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT SERVICE

IMPLEMENT MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

MODULE TITLE: Implement Maintenance Procedures

LEARNIG OUTCOME:-
1. Determine best practices for equipment and software maintenance
2. Revise practices, where appropriate
3. Identify and analyze IT system components to be maintained
4. Apply maintenance procedures

Introduction
This unit defines the competence required to set up maintenance
procedures to keep equipment and software operating effectively and
efficiently.
 INFORMATION LO1
Determine best practices for equipment and
SHEET
software maintenance
MODULE Implement Maintenance Procedures
Definition of maintenance
Maintenance is an activity that ensures the fullest availability of equipment, utilities and related
buildings for the purposes they were designed at optimal cost and under satisfactory conditions of
quality, safety and protection of the environment. It is not only checking, adjusting, and replacing worn
parts, it is a total approach aimed at reducing down time. Therefore, Maintenance is part of the full life-
cycle of equipment or building or machine etc, from purchase to final disposal.
Types of Maintenance strategies
Any organization which is involved in machinery, plant, equipment and facilities must have a clear-
cut maintenance policy in order to ensure cost effective operations and availability of facilities.
However, each individual organization, big or small simple or complex, or using highly advanced or
simple technology must choose a maintenance system which best meets its individual needs. Based on
complexity, purpose and size of the institutes, there are different maintenance policies and strategies that
could be followed. These are:
1. Preventive maintenance
Preventive maintenance is a strategy primarily based on essential care, condition monitoring and
fixed time maintenance to keep buildings and equipment in satisfactory operating condition.
Preventive maintenance utilizes systematic scheduled repairs and inspection, detection and
correction of faults either before they occur or before they develop in to major defects and result in
costly repairs.
Use of preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is used to reduce the probability of hardware or software problems by
systematically and periodically checking hardware and software to ensure proper operation.
Check the condition of cables, components, and peripherals. Clean components to reduce the likelihood
of overheating. Repair or replace components that show signs of abuse or excess wear.
Use the following tasks as a guide to create a hardware maintenance program:
 Remove dust from fan intakes.
 Remove dust from the power supply.
 Remove dust from components inside the computer.
 Clean the mouse and keyboard.
 Check and secure loose cables.
Verify that installed software is current. Follow the policies of the organization when installing security
updates, operating system updates, and program updates. Many organizations do not allow updates until
extensive testing has been completed. This testing is done to confirm that the update will not cause
problems with the operating system and software.
Use the tasks listed as a guide to create a software maintenance schedule that fits the needs of your
computer equipment:
 Review security updates
 Review software updates
 Review driver updates
 Update virus definition files
 Scan for viruses and spyware
 Remove unwanted programs
  Scan hard drives for errors
 Defragment hard drives
Be proactive in computer equipment maintenance and data protection. By performing regular
maintenance routines, you can reduce potential hardware and software problems. Doing this will reduce
computer downtime and repair costs.
A preventive maintenance plan is developed based on the needs of the equipment. A computer
exposed to a dusty environment, such as a construction site, will need more attention
than equipment in an office environment.
Some benefits of preventive maintenance include the following:
 Increases data protection
 Extends the life of the components
 Increases equipment stability
 Reduces repair costs
 Reduces the number of equipment failures
2. Corrective Maintenance
This planned but unscheduled maintenance is defined as the work performed to replace worn parts,
adjust loose equipment, prevent a major failure and return the equipment to as new operational
condition. The Actions requiring corrective maintenance are generally found during preventive
maintenance activities.
3. Breakdown Maintenance
Breakdown maintenance, sometimes known as emergency maintenance, is defined as maintenance
resulting from the occasional and unavoidable unavailability of equipment due to unforeseen
circumstances requiring unplanned repairs.

Caution
Power supplies and monitors contain very high voltage. Do not wear the antistatic wrist strap when
replacing power supplies or monitors. Also, some printer parts might become very hot when in use, and
other parts can contain very high voltages. Make sure that the printer has had time to cool before making
the repair. Check the printer manual for locations of various components that can contain high voltages.
Some components might retain high voltages even after the printer is turned off.
Identify Safety Procedures to Protect Equipment from Damage and Data from Loss
Static electricity is the buildup of an electric charge resting on a surface. This buildup and
sudden release of energy, called electrostatic discharge (ESD), can be destructive to the
electronics in a computer system.
ESD, harsh climates, and poor-quality sources of electricity can cause damage to computer
equipment. Follow the proper handling guidelines, be aware of environmental issues, and
use equipment that stabilizes power to prevent equipment damage and data loss.
At least 3000 volts of static electricity must be built up before you can feel the ESD, but
less than 30 volts of static electricity could damage a computer component. For example,
static electricity can build up on a person walking across a carpeted floor. When the person
touches another person, they both receive a shock. If the discharge causes pain or makes a
noise, the charge was probably above 10,000 volts.

ESD Protection Recommendations

ESD can cause permanent damage to electrical components. Follow these recommendations
to help prevent ESD damage:
  Keep all components in antistatic bags until you are ready to install them.
 Use grounded mats on workbenches and on the work area floor.
 Use antistatic wrist straps when working on computers.
 Avoid working on carpeted areas if possible.
Climate also affects risks when working with computer equipment. Consider the following
recommendations:
 If the environment temperature is too high, equipment can overheat.
 If the humidity level is too low, the chance of ESD increases.
 If the humidity level is too high, equipment can suffer from moisture damage.
The following table shows how environmental conditions affect the risks of ESD.

Power Fluctuation Types

Voltage is the force that moves electrons. The potential difference between two points in a
circuit is what causes electricity to move. The movement of electrons is called current.
Computer circuits need voltage and current to operate electronic components. When the
voltage in a computer is not accurate or steady, computer components might not operate
correctly. Unsteady voltages are called power fluctuations.
The following types of AC power fluctuations can cause data loss or hardware failure:
C Blackout: Loss of AC power. A blown fuse, damaged transformer, or downed power
line can cause a blackout.
C Brownout: Reduced voltage level of AC power that lasts for a period of time.
Brownouts occur when the power line voltage drops below 80 percent of the normal
voltage level. Overloading electrical circuits can cause a brownout.
C Noise: Interference from generators and lightning. Noise results in unclean power,
which can cause errors in a computer system.
C Spike: Sudden increase in voltage that lasts for a very short period and exceeds 100
percent of the normal voltage on a line. Spikes can be caused by lightning strikes, but can also occur
when the electrical system comes back on after a blackout.
C Power surge: Dramatic increase in voltage above the normal flow of electrical current.
A power surge lasts for a few nanoseconds, or a few billionths of a second.
Power Protection Devices
To help shield against power issues, use power
protection devices to protect the data and
computer equipment:
■ Surge suppressor: Helps protect against damage from
surges and spikes. A surge suppressor
diverts extra electrical voltage on the line to the ground.
■ Uninterruptible power supply (UPS): Helps protect against potential electrical power problems by
supplying electrical power to a computer or other device. The battery is constantly recharging while the
UPS is connected to a power source. The UPS is able
to supply a consistent quality of power when brownouts and blackouts occur. Many
UPS devices are able to communicate directly with the operating system on a computer.
This allows the UPS to safely shut down the computer and save data prior to the UPS losing all
electrical power.
■ Standby power supply (SPS): Helps protect against potential electrical power problems
by providing a backup battery to supply power when the incoming voltage drops below
the normal level. The battery is on standby during normal operation. When the voltage
decreases, the battery provides DC power to a power inverter, which converts it to AC
power for the computer. The problem with this device is the time it takes to switch over
to the battery. If the switching device fails, the battery will not be able to supply power
to the computer.
Identify Tools and Software Used with Personal
Computer Components and Know Their Purpose
For every tool there is the right job, and for every job there is the right tool. Ensure that you
are familiar with the correct use of each tool and that the right tool is used for the current
task. This will reduce the chances of damage or injury. Skilled use of tools and software
makes the job less difficult and ensures that tasks are performed properly and safely. Figure
The following figure shows a sample tool kit used to install, connect, remove, and repair PC
components.

In addition to hardware tools, software tools are also available that help diagnose problems and
determine which computer device is not functioning correctly.
A technician must document all repairs and computer problems. The documentation can then be used as
a reference for future problems or for other technicians who might not have encountered the problem
before. The documents might be paper based, but electronic forms can be easily searched for specific
problems.
Identify Hardware Tools and Their Purpose
A tool kit should contain all the tools necessary to complete hardware repairs. Using the
wrong tool for a job might lead to bodily injuries or result in equipment damage. As you
gain experience, you will learn which tools to have available for different types of jobs.
Hardware tools are grouped into the following four categories:
■ ESD tools
■ Hand tools
■ Cleaning tools
■ Diagnostic tools
ESD Tools
There are two common ESD tools:
■ Antistatic wrist strap: Protects computer equipment from ESD damage when grounded to a
computer chassis.
■ Antistatic mat: Used to stand on or to place hardware on to prevent static electricity
from building up, thereby protecting the equipment from ESD damage.
Hand Tools
Most tools used in the computer assembly process are small hand tools. They are available individually
or as part of a computer repair tool kit. The correct tools can save time and help you avoid damaging the
equipment. Tool kits range widely in size, quality, and price.
The list that follows describes the small hand tools that you will most commonly use:
■ Flat head screwdriver: Used to loosen or tighten slotted screws.
■ Phillips head screwdriver: Used to tighten or loosen cross-head screws.
■ Torx screwdriver: Used to tighten or loosen screws that have a star-like depression on
the top, a feature that is mainly found on laptops.
■ Hex driver: Sometimes called a nut driver, this tool is used to tighten nuts in the same
way that a screwdriver tightens screws.
■ Needle-nose pliers: Used to hold small parts.
■ Wire cutters: Used to strip and cut wires.
■ Tweezers: Used to manipulate small parts.
■ Part retriever: Used to retrieve parts from locations that are too small for your hand to fit in.
■ Flashlight: Used to illuminate areas that you cannot see well.
Cleaning Tools
The appropriate cleaning tools are essential when maintaining or repairing computers.
These tools will ensure that computer components are cleaned correctly. The list that follows
describes the cleaning tools that you will most commonly use:
■ Soft sloth: Used to clean different computer components without scratching or leaving debris.
■ Compressed air: Used to blow away dust and debris from different computer parts without touching
the components.
■ Parts organizer: Used to hold screws, jumpers, fasteners, and other small parts to prevent them from
getting mixed together.
Identify Software Tools and Their Purpose
A technician must be able to use a range of software tools to help diagnose problems, maintain
hardware, and protect the data stored on a computer. The sections that follow describe the various disk
management tools and protection software tools that you will encounter.
Disk Management Tools
You must be able to identify which software to use in different situations. Disk management
tools help detect and correct disk errors, prepare a disk for data storage, and remove
unwanted files.
Disk management software includes the following:
 Fdisk: A command-line tool used to create and delete partitions on a hard drive and set active, or boot,
partitions
Format: Used to prepare a hard drive to store information
Scandisk or Chkdsk: Used to check the integrity of files and folders on a hard drive by scanning the
disk surface for physical errors
Defrag: Used to optimize space on a hard drive to allow faster access to programs and data
Disk Cleanup: Used to clear space on a hard drive by searching for files that can be safely deleted
Disk Management: Used to manage hard drives and partitions, initialize disks, create partitions, and
format partitions. Use the Windows XP boot disk for troubleshooting and repairing corrupted files. The
Windows XP boot disk is designed to repair Windows system files, restore damaged or lost files, and
reinstall the operating system. Third-party software tools are available to assist in troubleshooting
problems.
Protection Software Tools
Each year, viruses, spyware, and other types of malicious attacks infect millions of computers.
These malicious attacks can damage an operating system, application, and data.
Computers that have been infected can experience hardware performance problems or component
failure.
To protect data and the integrity of the operating system and hardware, you should use software
designed to guard against attacks and to clean out malicious programs.
Here is a list of various types of software used to protect hardware and data. Examples of protection
software tools include the following:
■Windows XP Security Center: Allows you to check the status of essential security settings on the
computer. The Security Center continuously checks to make sure that the software firewall and antivirus
programs are running. It also ensures that automatic updates are set to download and install
automatically.
■ Antivirus software: Protects a computer against virus attacks that can infect other computers.
■ Spyware remover: Protects against software that sends information about web surfing habits to an
attacker. Spyware can be installed without the knowledge or consent of the user.
■ Firewall: A program that runs continuously to protect against unauthorized communications to and
from your computer.

INFORMATION LO2
Revise practices, where appropriate
SHEET
MODULE Implement Maintenance Procedures

Safety Measure
When we open a computer case, we need to make sure that Electro static discharge does not affect the
computers’ internal componenets. ESD occurs when an imbalance in the amounts of positive and
negative charges on the surface of an object is released.
The amount of damage caused by ESD can be divided into three categories:
1) Catastrophic failure: This damage causes a computer component to fail immediately. Heat and
sometimes noise and smoke are generated during the process. This type of failure is easy to identify as
the device fail completely. You can replace such components.
2) Upset failure(degradation failure): ESD causes erratic fault in a component. This problem is very
difficult to detect and repair because the failure is intermittent. The best way to solve this problem is
replacing suspected parts until the fault stops appearing.

3) Latent failure: this type of failure weakens the actual transistor. The part will seem normal in most
operations and will frequently pass quality control and conformance tests. Like upset failure, it is
difficult to identify.
Preventing ESD
Preventing ESD is the best defense against it. The number one cause of ESD is improper handling of
electronic devices during installation or maintenance. The key prevention to ESD is to keep all
electronic components and yourself at a common electric al point. When you open a computer, ground
yourself by touching the case(chases) of a computer.
There are also devices that enable us to protect ESD. These devices include:
1) Anti-static wristband: these devices have a strap that you wrap around your wrist or ankle on one end.
The other end of the strap is attached computer case to keep ground between the computer and you.
2) Anti-static mats: these are mats that you place on the work surface and on the floor in front of work
area. They make an excellent place to place your tools and components when you work on a system.
3) Anti-static bags (pouches): they have special coating or filament that prevents ESD. They are used to
store any sensitive electronic device like cards, RAM, drives, etc when they are not installed in a
computer.
4) Anti-static pad: It is an insulating foam pad in which individual chips with exposed pins should be
embedded when they are not installed in a computer.
Rules for opening computer:
1) Turn off (shut down) the computer
2) Remove the power cable (unplug it)
3) Remove peripheral devices like mouse, printer, keyboard, etc
4) Open the case. Take care of ESD. Wear anti-static wristband or hold the case to ground yourself.
5) Take care when you hold internal components of computer like RAM, Cards, CPU, etc. Hold them on
the sideways.
5) Take care when you hold internal components of computer like RAM, Cards, CPU, etc. Hold them on
the sideways.
Motherboard
At the heart of every PC live certain core components. Motherboard is the PCs center of activity. All
devices in a computer are in some way or another are connected to motherboard.
Motherboard hosts the largest single collection of chips of any pc component. It has a grid of wires that
link all components making it possible to communicate with each other. Open circuit paths called traces
that resemble complicated road map carry signals(data) and voltage across the motherboard. It defines
the computer’s limit of speed, memory, and expandability.
Chipsets
A motherboard comes with a variety of support chips soldered in place. These chipsets are designed to
work with CPU. These chips are highly complex and coordinated ICs that help CPU manage and control
the computer system. When replacing CPU, you must make sure the CPU works (compatible) with the
chipset supported by the motherboard. Otherwise the computer will not work. A basic chipset consists
of:
1) Bus controller
2) Memory controller
3) Data and address buffer
4) Peripheral controller
The number of chips a motherboard differs from one type of motherboard to another.
Types of Motherboard
Motherboards come in several standardized configurations called form-factors. Form-factors define the
size, location of expansion slot, what sorts of power supply it uses, its physical organization, etc of the
motherboard. The following are some of the common form-factors:
1. Obsolete form factors:
 Baby AT
 Full-size AT
 LPX
2. modern form factors:
 ATX
 Micro-ATX
 Flex ATX
 NLX
 WTX
Baby AT
The first popular pc motherboard was the original IBM PC released in 1981. IBM released a
motherboard called XT in 1983. This motherboard became very popular. Based on this motherboard,
IBM released AT motherboard in 1984.
Baby AT motherboards are 8.5x13 inches. They are distinguished by their shape and usually by the
presence of single full sized keyboard connector soldered onto the motherboard. All other devices are
connected to the motherboard via cards and expansion slots or cables. The serial and parallel ports are
attached using cables that go between the physical connectors mounted on the case and pin headers
located on the motherboard.
Full Sized AT
Full Size AT is larger than Baby AT. It is 12 inches wide by 13.8 inches long. These motherboards fit
into towers only. They do not fit into Baby AT or mini tower cases. This kind of motherboard is
common in older machines, 386 class or earlier.
Both Full Size AT and Baby AT form factors put the processor sockets(slots) and memory sockets at the
front side of the motherboard.

AT motherboard
AT motherboards get power through P8 and P9 connectors. Each of them has two black wires for
grounding and these powers must be kept together when the connectors are plugged in i.e. all the four
black wires sit in the center when plugged unless stated on motherboard manual.

P8 and P9 connectors
ATX Motherboard(AT Extended)
ATX form factor was introduced in 1996 by Intel. It measures 12 by 9.6 inches. Although it is
approximately the same size as Baby AT, the ATX motherboard is rotated 90 degrees; the processor sits
near the back of the board.

ATX motherboard
In ATX motherboards, the connectors COM1, COM2, LPT, keyboard, mouse, and USB are directly
mounted on the motherboard. This motherboard requires a specifically designed chassis with an I/O
access opening.
ATX motherboard is more intelligent than ordinary type. It has advanced control facilities where BIOS
program checks the CPU temperature and voltage, and the cooling fan RPM(rotation per minute), etc. If
overheating occurs, the PC will shutdown automatically.
Some of the advantages of ATX over AT are:
1) Soft power support: the ATX power supply is turned on and off using signaling from the
motherboard, not a physical toggle switch. This allows the PC to be turned on or off under software
control, allowing improved power management.
2) Reduced expansion card interference: the CPU and memory modules are relocated so they can’t
interfere with any bus expansion cards. This makes upgrade easy because removing any installed cards
is not necessary.
3)Reduced drive bay interference: since the board is essentially 90 degrees form AT style, there is much
less overlap between the board and drive bays. This means easier to access the motherboard and fewer
cooling problem.
4) Better Power Connector: ATX uses a single 20-pin connector instead of two confusing connectors.
You don’t have the risk of blowing up your pc motherboard by connecting the power cable backwards.
5) Better air flow(cooling effect): The ATX power is intended to blow air into the case rather than out of
it. This cuts down dust. Furthermore, processor sockets and RAM are located next to power supply.
Because of this the power supply fan can cool CPU heat sink. Current power supply fans blow air into or
out of the case.
6) Integrated I/O connectors: AT motherboard uses pins and cables. In ATX, the port is directly
mounted on the motherboard. This improvement saves cost, installation time, and improved reliability.

ATX power supply

Chipsets
Chipsets are a bunch of intelligent controller chips, which are found on any system board. They are
closely tied to the CPU, and they help the CPU control the system. Without chipset, neither RAM nor
I/O buses like AGP,PCI, ISA could function together with CPU.
Chipset represents the connection between the CPU and everything else. The processor can’t talk to the
memory, adapter boards, devices, and so on without going through chipset. Since chipset controls the
interface or connection between the processor and everything else, they end up dictating what type of
processor you have, how fast it will run, how fast buses run, the speed, type and amount of memory you
can use,etc.
New chips often enable:
 Higher speed on one or more buses
 Utilization of new facilities like new RAM types, new buses, improved EIDE, etc.
There are several suppliers of Pentium chipsets:
 Intel
 SIS(Silicon Integrated System)
 Opti
 Via
 Ali (Acer Laboratories, inc)
Chipset Evolution
When the first motherboard was introduced by IBM, they used several discrete chips:
 Math coprocessor
 Clock generator
 Bus controller
 System timer
  Interrupt and DMA controllers
 CMOS RAM and clock
 Keyboard Controller
Intel Chipsets
Intel joined the chipset market in 1989 by introducing the 420 series chipset along with 486 processor.
Intel produced CPU before 1989. For new CPUs produced by Intel to be on market, compatible chips
are necessary. Before chipsets are produced for new Intel CPU it takes as long as a year. This means
Intel could not sell its CPU as needed. Because of this, Intel started to produce chipset for its CPU.
Intel started a pattern of number its chipsets:

Chipset number Processor family

420XX P4(486)
430XX P5(Pentium)
440XX P6 (Pentium pro/II/III
450XX P6 server( Pentium pro/PII/PIII Xeon)
8XX P6(PII/III/IV) hub architecture
9XX P7(Pentium IV) hub architecture
Intel used two distinct chipset architectures:
 North/south bridge architecture
 Hub architecture
1) North South Bridge Architecture
Most of earlier Intel chipsets and all non-Intel chipsets are broken down into a multi-tiered architecture.
This includes what is referred to as north bridge, south bridge, and super I/O chip.
North Bridge:
The North Bridge handles communication between the CPU, RAM, AGP on PCI Express and South
Bridge. It handles communication with faster devices. Because different processors and RAM requires
different signaling, North Bridge will typically work with one or two classes of CPU and generally one
type of RAM. There are a few chipsts that support two types of RAM. This occurs when there is a shift
to new standard.
South Bridge:
Because the south bridge is further removed from CPU, it is given the responsibility for slower devices
on a typical micro computer. A particular South Bridge will usually work .
 north and south bridge
With different North Bridges but these two chips must be designed to work together. Traditionally the
interface between North Bridge and South Bridge was the PCI Bus. However, this created bottleneck in
performance. Most current chipsets use a different interface with higher performance.
The functionality found on contemporary South Bridge includes:
 PCI bus
 ISA bus
 Interrupt controller
 DMA controller
 IDE controller(SATA or PATA)
 Real time clock
Super I/O Chipset:
The major function of Super I/O chips are:
a) Serial Port controller: super I/O chip controls the serial ports
b) Parallel port control: it provides the circuitry to drive the parallel port. This includes support for
newer parallel port types.
c) Floppy disk control: support for floppy disk drives is provided by the super I/O chip
d) Keyboard and mouse controller
Troubleshooting Motherboard
Here are lists of common problems of motherboard:
1. When you shutdown the PC, it loses date, time, and BIOS settings.
Solution: Change CMOS battery. It is exhausted.
2. Your mouse or keyboard does not work.
These ports are not built to withstand repeated insertion.
Solution: re-solder them or have professional re-solder fix them.
3. The system does not work after installing new components:
Possible Solutions:
 Check if the CPU, RAM, or AGP card is properly installed or fit
 Remove the new component and run the system
 Check the system for some sort of burn during the process
 Check the jumper setting of the system.
Tips to troubleshoot motherboard:
1. Remove peripheral components from motherboard including expansion cards, external peripherals,
etc. and see if the problem is solved
2. Check the motherboard jumper setting: make sure that they are all correct and not causing the
problem.
3. Reset BIOS setting to default and check
4. Inspect the motherboard for:
 Is Motherboard cracked?
 Is there any broken pin?
 Is power Connector fit properly?
 Is there any loose components?
 Are all cables connected properly?
CPU
CPU, also called microprocessor or simply processor, is the brain of PC. It performs the system’s data
processing activity like calculation, comparison, etc. It is the most expensive single component in the
system, costing four or more times than the motherboard it plugs into.
The first CPU was created in 1971 by Intel. It is called the 4004.
Brain of PC: it directly or indirectly controls the functions and activities of your computer. It transmits
information between devices and tells the devices what to do. This is done by sending control
information.
Major producers of CPU are:
 Intel
 AMD
 Cyrix
 Sparc
Intel Chipsets
The first CPU was created in 1971 by Intel. It was called the 4004. Data was transmitted 4 bits at a time.
In April 1972, Intel released another processor called the 8008. The major change was that it is an 8-bit
processor.
In 1974, the 8080 was introduced. This was 10 times faster than than the 8008 due to faster clock rate.
This processor was regarded as revolutionizing the PC because it is the first CPU that is used in the first
Personal Computer. The CP/M operating system was written for this processor.
Z-80: is a processor produced by a company called Zilog based on 8080. It was very popular. In 1976,
Intel released the 8085. But it was not as popular as Z-80.
Generations of CPU
There are several generations of CPU.
1) First Generation Processors (P1)
First generation CPUs are:
 8086
 8088
i) 8086
In 1978, Intel introduced the 8086. It was a dramatic improvement over previous chips: it was a full 16
bit design with 16-bit internal registers, and 16 bit data bus. This means it could work on 16 bit data at
time.
 It contains 29,000 transistors.
 It runs at speed of 5MHZ
 It uses 20 bit address bus. It could address up to 1MB of memory using this mechanism.
The Chip brought with it the original x86 instruction set that is still present x86 compatible chips such as
Pentium IV. It was very expensive.
ii) 8088
Though 8086 was a great chip, it was expensive and more importantly required an expensive 16-bit
support chip and motherboard design. To reduce cost down, in 1979, Intel released a crippled version of
the 8086 called 8088. The 8088 processor used the same internal core as 8086, had the same 16-bit
registers and could address the same 1MB memory. However, external data bus is reduced to 8 bits. This
allowed:
 Less expensive boards could be made
 Compatible with 8085 8-bits chips to be used
 Fully software compatible with 8086, it could run 16-bit software
2) Second Generation Processors (P2)
Intel introduced the 80286 in 1982. It is also called 286. 286 has two modes of operation:
 The real mode
 The protected mode
The two modes enable 80286 resemble one chip two chips in one.
Real mode:
 Acts essentially as 8086 chip
 It is fully object code compatible with 8086 and 8088 i.e. can run codes written for 8086 and 8088.
 Used to run older softwares written for 8086 or 8088
 Recognizes 1MB of RAM
Protected Mode:
 In this mode, the chip is something new.
 It can address 16MB of RAM using 24 bit address.
 It allows multitasking system
80286:
 it uses 24 bit addressing mechanism (16MB of memory can be addressed)
 uses virtual memory. Virtual memory is an area in hard disk that is used as RAM when RAM is not
enough to hold the data.
 first chip that supports multitasking
 speed of 6-12MHZ
 only few software took advantage of the mode
Disadvantage:
 Protected mode to real mode switching requires restarting
3) Third Generation Processors (P3)
Intel introduced 80386 in 1985. It is a full 32 bit processor optimized for high speed operation and
multi-tasking operating system.

32 bit eternal buss

32 bit register true 32 bit processor
32 bit address bus

It can execute real mode instructions of 8086 or 8088 processor. It can switch mode under software
control without resetting. It also has another mode called virtual real mode. This enable several real
modes to run simultaneously under protected mode. The protected mode of 386 is fully ccompatible
with the protected mode of 286. It runs at a speed of 16-33MHZ
4) Fourth Generation Processors(P4)
The persistent push fir speed and performance resulted in the development of 80486. It was introduced
in 1989. It has 1.2 million transistors i.e the first to reach millions. The speed varies from 25-120 MHZ.
It could address 4GB of RAM and 64 TB of virtual memory. It has built in math coprocessor( older
versions offered separate math coprocessor as an option). The combination speeded up graphics
programs that used floating point math.
P4 supports pipelining. Pipelining is the process of doing instruction fetching, decoding, execution, and
result storage parallely. Prior to this they are done sequentially. This increases the speed of the processor
very much. Such processors are called superscalar.
Heat sink and fan is introduced for the first time.
5) Fifth Generation Processors (P5)
Intel dropped the numbered naming of CPUs and called them Pentium. Still they are considered as x86
machines.
Pentium MMX(Multimedia Extension)
This is an enhanced processor for multimedia and communication processing capability.
It has 57 special multimedia instructions.
Speed: 66-266MHZ
Onboard cache(L1)
6) Sixth Generation Processors (P6)
Pentium Pro
Introduced in 1995 to compete for the high end server market. It is SPGA with 387 pins. It is connected
to the motherboard via socket 8. It had 64 bit data bus and 36 bit address bus. Using this method, upto
4GB of RAM could be addressed. It had 16kb of L1 cache memory, and L2 cache of 256,512,1MB. The
presence L2 cache gives performance boost. It has a speed of 150-200MHZ. It is considered as Pentium
I.

CPU
Pentium II
Introduced in 1997. It has 64 bits data bus and 36-bit wide address bus. It has a speed of 233,266,300,or
333 MHZ. It has 32 KB of L1 cache and 512 KB of L2 cache. It combines the software performance of
Pentium pro and multimedia capability of MMX. It uses slot rather than socket i.e. they SEC CPU type.
They are connected to the motherboard through slot 1.
Pentium III
Introduced in1999. It has 28million transistors.
Speed: 500-733 and upto 1GB. It incorporates MMX technology and streaming SIMD extensions for
enhanced floating point and 3-D application performance.
It consists of 70 new instructions that enhance the possibility and performance of advanced imaging, 3D,
streaming audio, video, and speech recognition.
Processor Sockets and Slots
Socket: CPU socket is the connector that link CPU to motherboard particularly those compatible with
Intel x86 architecture. Most CPU today are built around PGA(Pin Grid Array) architecture where the
pins in the underside of CPU are inserted into the socket. In contrast to this, several current and
upcoming CPUs use LGA(Land Grid Array) where the pins are on the socket and they com in contact
with the processor.
Slot: in this case, processors are cartridge shaped and fix into slot that looks like expansion slot. The
CPU looks like card.
Both slot and socket are used to connect CPU to motherboard.
Socket number Pin number Pin layout Supported processors
Socket 1 169 PGA 486
Socket 2 238 PGA 486
Socket 3 237 PGA 486
Socket 4 273 PGA Pentium
Socket 5 320 SPGA Pentium, AMD K5
Socket 6 235 PGA 486
Socket 7 321 SPGA Pentium, AMD K5/K6, cyrix MI/II
Socket 8 387 SPGA Pentium Pro
Socket 370 370 SPGA Pentium III, Celeron
Slot A 242 Slot AMD Athlon
Socket A 462 PGA AMD Athlon, AMD Duron
Slot 1 242 Slot PII/PIII, Celeron
Slot 2 330 Slot PII/PIII Xeon
Socket 478 478 PGA P IV, Celeron
Socket T (LGA 775) 775 LGA P IV, Celeron D
Socket T: uses Land Grid Array and is the latest socket type.
PGA: Pin Grid Array
SPGA: Staggered Pin Grid Array
CPU Types
1) Dual Inline Pin Package(DIPP): has a set of pins that protrude in two sides of the CPU. Used in
8086,8088,80286 CPUs
2) Pin Grid Array(PGA): the pins form straight line.

3) Staggered Pin Grid Array(SPGA): the pins form diagonal line.

4) Single Edge Contact(SEC): no pins and it uses slot.

CPU Cooling
Specialized cooling system became serious starting from 486. Earlier chips ran at alow speed and
contained relatively few transistors. Because of this they needed no specialized cooling. Heat sinks
conduct heat from CPU to heat sink and then radiate it to air. Good cooling depends on the transfer of
heat between the CPU and heat sink. The heat sin and CPU should contact each other to the maximum
surface area possible. This allows heat to flow easily002E
There are two cooling mechanism:
1. Passive Heat Sink
Passive heat sinks have no moving parts. They are made up of aluminum. An aluminum extrusion
creates fins. They cool the CPU by using thermal conduction and radiation. The heat sink draws heat
from the CPU and air flowing through the heat sink cools the heat sink itself.
 2. Active Heat Sink
Active heat sink adds a small fan that blows directly onto the heat sink metal to ensured direct air flow.
An active heat sink cools better than passive heat sink by forcing air flow. Unfortunately, the fans have
short life span and they are the first thing to fail in most PCs.
Overheated CPU causes:
 System crash
 Random reboot
 Memory errors
 Disk problems
 Application errors
Troubleshooting
If the CPU does not work, the system gives beep sounds when turned on. The number of beeps varies
from BIOS to BIOS. On AMI BIOS, five beeps indicate CPU problem.
Replacing and Upgrading CPU
Upgrade: installing another device which is better than the previous one in terms of performance. Poor
upgrade may lead to total failure.
Replace: substitute with equivalent device in case the previous one failed.
One thing to consider when we replace/upgrade CPU is the CPU socket on your motherboard. Three
most common sockets are:
 Low Insertion Force(LIF)
 Zero Insertion Force(ZIF)
 Single Edge Contact(SEC)
LIF
Removing an old CPU requires force. There are special tools that are designed for this. Use these tools:
 Flat head screw driver
 Chip puller
ZIF
Is the most popular socket for PCs. It is easy to remove and insert CPU. It is introduced in early 1990s
as a means to provide user-friendly CPU upgrade.
To maximize performance, you always upgrade to the fastest processor your particular board will
support. This is determined by the type of socket on your motherboard. For example, if your
motherboard has slot 1, you can’t upgrade to Pentium IV which uses socket type connector instead of
slot. Therefore, when you buy a new CPU for upgrade, select the type of CPU that matches with the
socket on your motherboard.
Upgrade Advice:
 Be careful when you handle CPU or any exposed IC. Static discharge could damage the chip.
 Take care not to bend any pins
 If you encounter any resistance, stop and figure out what is wrong. Do not use any force to insert the
CPU.
Installing CPU:
1) turn off the PC and unplug the power cable
2) Disconnect external devices like mouse, keyboard, etc.
3) Follow appropriate ESD procedure
4) Remove the cover
5) Install CPU
6) Install heat sink and fan
Computer Memory
Memory is used to hold binary strings of data that is going to be manipulated by CPU. There are two
major classes of memory: non-volatile and volatile. Non-volatile memory keeps the content even if the
computer is off or power is gone. The set up data held in CMOS uses this technique. In volatile memory,
the data is lost when the computer loses power. It keeps data as long as only computer is on. Random
Access Memory is good example of volatile memory. By default, when we say memory, we mean
RAM.
RAM
Whenever you run a program on your computer, that program first loads into RAM before anything
happens. It holds temporary instructions and data for manipulation when the system is running.
It is called Random Access because CPU can access or place data to and from any part of RAM on the
system. RAM come in wide variety of modes defined by physical size, access speed, electrical set up,
and width of the bus measured in bits. The bit width of RAM defines the amount of information your
CPU can access or write to your RAM within one cycle.
Types of RAM
There are two types of RAM based on the way they keep data:
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
1) DRAM
This memory id dynamic. Because of this, it must be constantly refreshed periodically( every few
milliseconds). Otherwise the memory will drain and the data is lost. During the process of refreshing,
the CPU can’t access the memory. It is called wait state. Refreshing caused DRAM to be slower than
SRAM. They also use much power than SRAM. But because of their cheapness, they are the primary
RAM in all computers.
The memory cells in DRAM use tiny capacitors that retain charge. Capacitors are devices that can keep
charge for some time until discharged. They use one transistor per bit. Because of this they can be
densely packed. This allows more memory capacity per chip than other types of memory.
Note: there are 256million transistors in 256MB RAM chip. Compare this with Pentium II which has 7.5
million transistors.
Disadvantage:
DRAM is slow, much slower than CPU. This affects the speed of CPU. It may take as much as 10% of
CPU time.
2) SRAM
It is called static because it does not require periodic refreshing unlike DRAM. It is much faster than
DRAM and able to keep pace with processor. As long as there is power, SRAM keeps what is stored.
SRAM uses transistors for storage purpose, no capacitors are used. Because of this, no recharging
required. It uses 6 transistors (flip flops) per bit. DRAM is lower in density which means they are larger
physically and store fewer bits overall. The high number of transistors used per bit makes it more
expensive and physically larger. This prevented its wide use as computer memory. SRAM is used to
build cache memory.

Type speed density Cost

DRAM slow high Low
SRAM fast low High
RAM Modules
There are two types of RAM modules (memory packages)
 Single Inline Memory Module(SIMM)
 Dual Inline Memory Module(DIMM)
1) SIMM
SIMMs are available in two forms:
 30 pin and
 72 pin
The 30 pin SIMMs are available in sizes 1-16MB. They transmit one byte of data (8 bits) at a time. They
are older standard.
The 72 pin SIMMs are available in 1-32MB. They transmit 4 bytes (32 bits) at a time.
SIMMs are inserted into a socket on the motherboard that will tightly hold them. They are available in
single sided or double sided which means DRAM chip is available in both sides of the SIMM or not.
30 pin—single side
72 pin—both single and double sided
2) DIMM
DIMM is used in latter versions of computer system. DIMM has 168 pins. They transmit 64 bits of data
at a time. They are becoming very popular. They are not available in smaller sizes such as 1MB or
4MB. They are available in capacities from 8 MB to 256MB.
DIMMs are inserted into special sockets on the motherboard similar to those used for SIMMs. They
differ from SIMM in:
 they are larger and wider
 SIMMs have contact on both sides of the circuit board but they are tied together. A 30 pin SIMM
has 30 contacts on each side of the circuit board but each pair is connected. This is true for 72
pin SIMMs. DIMMs, however, have different connections on each side of the circuit board. So,
168 pin DIMM have 84 contacts on each side and they are not redundant.
A small version of DIMM is seen which is called Small Outline DIMM (SODIMM). They are used for
laptop PCS. Two types:
144 pin SODIMM-64 bits wide
72 pin SODIMM-32 bits wide

SIMM and DIMM comparison

Asynchronous and Synchronous DRAM
Conventional DRAM, the type that has been used in PCs since the original IBM PC days, is
asynchronous. In asynchronous memory, the memory is not synchronized to the system clock. A
memory access is began and at certain period of time later, the memory value appears on the bus. It
works in low speed memory bus system but not suitable for use in high speed systems.
A newer type of DRAM called synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) is synchronized to the system clock. As
a result, timing is much tighter and better controlled. This memory is much faster than asynchronous
DRAM. It is suitable for high speed systems.
Memory Banks
Manufacturers arrange memory slots on motherboard in electronic groups of one, two, or four RAM
slots according to the type of RAM and processor. This grouping is called memory banks. The memory
bank matches the processors’ data bus.

The number of slots to form a bank = bus width of CPU

bus width of RAM slot
e.g. CPU bus=64 bits
RAM bus=8 bits
Bank=64/8=8 slots. 8 slots form one bank in such case.
The basic rule of bank is you need to fill a bank completely with identical RAM modules. Banks should
be filled completely or left completely empty. You should fill at least one bank on the computer for it to
work properly. For 64 bit CPU, one 168 pin DIMM slot makes a bank. For the same CPU, two 72 pin
SIMM slots form a bank.
Cache Memory
Cache is a high speed buffer made up of SRAM that directly feeds the processor. It runs at the speed
close or equal to the processor. This enables the CPU to use its full potential by getting data and
instructions from the cache memory without any wait state. RAM is slow and slows down the processor
because the processor has to wait during memory refreshing. To avoid wait states, data is preloaded
from RAM (DRAM) to cache memory and the CPU can continue to process during wait states by
getting data from cache memory though RAM is not available.
There are two types of cache memory:
 L1 cache
 L2 cache
L1 Cache (Level 1)
It is directly built into the processor and is actually part of the processor. Starting from 486, there are
internal caches in CPU. All commands for the processor go through this cache. It stores a backlog of
commands so that if wait state is encountered, the CPU continues to process using commands from the
cache.

CPU and L1 cache

L2 Cache
This cache is mounted directly on the motherboard, outside CPU. It is called Level 2 cache. It is same as
L1 cache but larger. It can be expanded (add additional capacity) on some motherboards. If you install
additional L2 cache, check the CMOS set up and enable the cache. Some L2 caches are found on the
processor itself. L2 caches located on the motherboard run at the speed of motherboard.
The original Intel processor could use only 1MB of RAM to the maximum. The original IBM PC
allowed only 640KB of 1MB RAM for direct use.
Troubleshooting Memory
If there is a memory problem in your computer, your computer does not display anything on the
monitor the same as when CPU failed. When it is turned on, the BIOs gives you a beep sound-continous
beep sound.
Upgrading And Replacing RAM
Before you buy a new chip for upgrading/replacing, check what type of RAM fits into the RAM slots of
the motherboard. What type of RAM does the motherboard support?
 EDO RAM
 SDRAM
 DDR RAM
 RDRAM, etc
Buy one that is supported by the motherboard.
Steps to install RAM:
1. open the system following safety cautions.
2. check in which direction the memory fits into the slot i.e. it does not fit in the wrong direction. To
determine direction, check the notches of the RAM and slot.
3. Properly align the RAM on the slot. On some systems especially older ones, the RAM is inserted in
some angle to the motherboard, not straight. Newer RAMs fit perpendicular to the motherboard.
4. Push the RAM proportionally form both edges. A holder on both edges of the slot should hold the
RAM.
5. Check if the RAM is fully inserted and does not move.
Storage Devices
Storage devices are used to store data permanently. Data is stored on them for future use. We have
different storage media:
 Floppy disk
 Hard Disk
 Compact Disc (CD)
 Flash Disk
Each of these devices have a device that read data from them or write data onto them. This device is
called drive
Floppy Drive
Floppy disk is made from a thin piece of plastic coated with magnetic material on both sides. The
magnetic material is iron oxide most of the time. Data is written to disk by magnetizing and
demagnetizing the magnetic material.
Floppy is divided into logical areas for storing data on them. These are called sectors and tracks. Tracks
are narrow concentric circles on a disk. Sectors are pie shaped slice of individual tracks. Sectors form
the unit for data storage. Data is written or read one sector at a time. A single sector can store 512
bytes.The division allows floppy to be random access device. Data can be read from any sector or track
easily.

sector and track of floppy disk

Note: the division is not visible for us. It is a logical division which is understood by computer only.
Data is stored on both sides of the disk .i.e. double sided. Early disks use only one side of the disk i.e.
single sided.
Floppy Drive Components
Floppy drive contains several basic components. Some of the components are:
1) Read Write Head
Floppy drive normally has two read-write heads one for each side of the disk. Both heads are used for
reading and writing on their respective disk sides.
Read-write heads convert binary data electromagnetic pulse when writing to disk. They do the reverse
during reading i.e. convert electromagnetic pulse into binary data. The head move in and out over the
surface of the disk to position themselves over correct track and sector. It is moved by a motor called
actuator.
The read-write head is made up of soft ferrous (iron) compounds with electromagnetic coils. To read or
write data, the head must be in direct contact with magnetic medium. Very small particles of loose
oxide, dust, dirt, smoke, fingerprints, or hair can cause problems with reading or writing the disk.
Because of this, we have to handle the disk carefully.

2) Head Actuator
The head actuator is the device that physically position the read-write head over the correct track on the
surface of the disk. Floppy disks contain 80 tracks per side. The actuator is driven by a motor called
stepper motor. The motor turns a precise specified distance and stops, it does not spin around
continuously. The stop positions are the tracks of disk.
3) The Spindle Motor
The spindle motor spins(rotates) the disk. The normal speed of rotation is either 300 or 360
RPM(rotation per minute). This is low speed compared to hard disk. This is also why floppy has low
data transfer rate. But the low speed makes it possible for the drive heads to be in physical contact with
the disk without causing friction damage.
4) Circuit Board
A floppy disk drive incorporates logic boards. The logic board contains the circuitry used to control the
head actuator, read-write heads, spindle motor, disk sensors and other components on the drive. The
circuit on this board also talk to floppy disk controller over floppy interface. Theoretically, the logic
board can be replaced or repaired.
5) The controller
First : the controller was an expansion card installed on ISA bus. It is a dedicated controller
Later on: a multifunction card that provides IDE/ATA, parallel port, serial port, and floppy interface.
Today: PCs have floppy controller integrated into the motherboard usually in the form of super I/O
chip. It includes parallel and serial ports too.
6) Connectors
Power Connector: 31/2 floppy uses the mini connector for power
51/4 floppy uses Molex connector.
Data Cable: Most floppy drives use the standard floppy interface. It uses 34 pin connector where a
ribbon cable is inserted. A ribbon cable connects floppy drive and motherboard. It transfers data
between them.

Rules for
handling
floppy
disks:
Floppy
disk can
be
damaged
easily if
we don’t
take care
for them:
 Do
not

touch the recording surface with your fingers

 Do not bend the disk
 Do not spill coffee or other substaces on the disk
 Do not put floppy near heat
 Do not put floppy near magnetic materials
 Do not write on the label with ball point pen
 Keep from dust, smoke, dirt, etc

Troubleshooting
1) The floppy LED remains on continuously.
Reason: data cable is backward either at the drive or controller side. Reinstall the cable.
2) Drive dead: the disk does not spin or LED is not on
Possible reasons:
 Bad power supply: measure the power at the cable using multimeter. 12v and 5v are expected to
be supplied into the drive. If not, there is power problem.
 Bad data cable: the cable may be defective. Replace it and retest.
 Defective controller: install a card controller and retest
Hard Disk
Hard disk is the data center of PC. It is here that all your programs and data are stored.

A hard disk drive contains rigid, disk-shaped platters. The platters are usually constructed of aluminum
or glass; so they can’t bend or flex unlike floppy disk. The platters are coated by magnetic substance on
both sides.
Data is written to hard disk by magnetizing and demagnetizing the surface of the platters. Data is stored
on both sides of the platter.

Hard disk platters with read-write head

The stack of platters form a hard disk. There is one head per platter side i.e. two head per platter. These
heads do not touch the platters during normal operation. If forceful contact with spinning platters is
created that is forceful enough to do damage, the event is called head crash. Dust and shock may cause
head crash. Head crash could be catastrophic depending on situationsdata loss, damage to heads,
damage to surface of disk, etc.
During rest, the read-write head rests on the platters. It is during spinning that they should not touch.
Hard disk is also divided into tracks and sectors like floppy disk.

hard disk sectors and track

Most hard disk spin at 3,600 RPM-approximately 10 times faster than floppy disk. Some hard disks spin
faster than this. Spinning rate affects data transfer rate.
Types of Hard Disks
Based on the connectors used to connect hard disks to motherboard, there are three types of hard disks:
 SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
 SATA (Serial ATA)
 IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) or ATA or PATA(Parallel ATA)
1) IDE
It is also called ATA(AT Attachment). In IDE, the interface electronics or controller is built into the
drive itself; why it is called Integrated Drive Electronics. IDE is an evolutionary version of earlier
interfaces that used separate drives and controllers.
Today, IDE is used to connect not only hard disk, but also CD-ROM drives, tape drives, and high
capacity super Disk floppy drives.

The Power Supply

The basic function of power supply is to convert the type of electrical power available (Alternate
Current-AC) to the type computer circuitry can use (Direct Current). Power supply is designed to
convert 120v (American standard) or 220v (European standard) Alternating Current (AC) into +3.3v,
+5v, and +12 Direct Current (DC) needed by the computer components. Usually the digital electronic
components and circuits in the system (motherboard, adapter cards, drive logic boards) use +3.3v or +5v
power. The motors like disk drive motors, and fans use +12v power.
Fact: Almost everything in your home runs off standard AC power. But they actually use DC internally.
E.g printers, external modem, scanner, etc. This necessitates conversion of the AC power to DC power.
In addition to supplying power to the system, the power supply also ensures that the system does not run
unless power supply is sufficient to operate the system properly.
In other words, the power supply actually prevents the computer from running (starting up) or operating
until all correct power levels are present Each power supply completes internal checks and tests before
allowing the system to start. If tests are successful, the power supply sends a special signal called
Power_Good to the motherboard. If this signal not present, computer does not run.
Types of Power Supplies
Power supplies are available in a few standardized sizes and shapes. There are two classes of power
supply: obsolete and modern
Obsolete:
 PC/Xt style
 AT style
Modern:
 LPX style
 ATX style
 SFX style
AT Power Supply
A pair of almost identical connectors designated P8 and P9 links the power supply to the motherboard.
Each of these connectors have 6 pins. When you plug these connectors to the motherboard, keep the
black connectors together i.e. both in the middle unless stated on the motherboard manual.
The following table shows the voltage values for each color coded wires on P8 and P9
Cable Color Voltage tolerance
Yellow +12 +10%
Blue -12 +10%
Red +5 +5%
White -5 +5%
Black 0(ground) N/A

P8 P9
Silver O power good black O ground
Red O +5V black O ground
Yellow O +12V white O -5V
Blue O -12V red O +5V
Black O ground red O +5V
Black O ground red O +5V
Caution: plugging the power connectors in the wrong direction could damage the computer Pay
attention when you plug.
ATX Power Supply
ATX uses a single P1 connector instead of P8 and P9 connectors. This has an advantage of not plugging
in the wrong direction which is a common problem in AT power supplies. P1 connector include 3.3V
wire along with the standard 5V and 12V wires. It has 20 pins on the connector.
Cable Color Voltage
Yellow +12V
Red +5V
Blue -12
Black 0(ground)
Brown +3.3V
Magenta +5V stand By
Silver Power Good
Green +5V remote power on/off
White -5V
ATX power supply supports soft power feature which means the operating system (software) can turn
off the PC. It also support system to cool itself.
Remark: the power supply generates not only +3.3V, +5V, and +12V but also -5V, and -12V. The
positive voltages gives power to everything in the system. What are the negative voltages used for? The
answer is not much. Some communication circuits have used -12V power as a bias current but rarely is -
5V used at all today. The newest power designs no longer include -5V. -5V is required on ISA bus.
SFX Style
Intel recently released a third new motherboard specification called Micro-ATX. This motherboard is
intended for low end systems which are designed with an even smaller foot print than NLX, and with
potentially smaller power supply requirements. It uses very small power supply called SFX (Small Form
Factor). It can also use ATX power Supply. SFX is specifically designed for use in small systems
containing a limited amount of hardware. SFX is wholly a separate standard and wholly compliant with
other motherboards as well. SFX uses the 20-pin connector defined in ATX standard.
ATX Optional Connector
In addition to the 20 pin power connector, the ATX specification defines an optional 6 pin
connector(two rows of three pins each). The computer uses these signals to control and monitor the
cooling fan, monitor 3.3V signal to the motherboard and provide power and grounding to devices. It is
called P2.
Connectors to Peripheral Hardware
Two standard types of connectors are used to connect power to peripheral devices:
 Molex connectors
 Mini connectors
Molex Connector
This is the most commonly used connector. It provides both +5V and +12V power. Hard disk drives,
internal tape drives, CD-ROM drives, DVD drives, and older 51/4 floppy drives use this power
connector. It has four pins.
Pin wire color signal
1 yellow +12V
2 black ground
3 black ground
4 red +5V
Mini Connector
It is used primarily for 3.5 floppy disk drive. It has four pins and four wires. Connecting the connector
backward could damage the system. The good thing is it does not fit in the wrong direction
Power Failure
Power supplies are affected by quality of local power source. Though we don’t notice sudden changes in
the quality of electrical power, computer and other sensitive electronics are affected. Common power
delivery problems are:
 Spikes
 Surges
 Sags
 Brown outs
 black outs
Surge This is a brief increase in the voltage source This is sometimes catastrophic. This may originate
from power source but most often due to lightening strike.
Spikes Spikes are very short over voltage conditions. Spikes are measured in nanoseconds, whereas
surge is measured in milliseconds.
Sags A brief decrease of voltage at power source.
Brown Outs If a sag lasts longer than 1 second, it is called brown out. The overloading of primary
power source can cause this.
Black Outs This is a complete power failure. This could be caused by equipment failure, or accidental
cutting of power cable. When a power returns after black out, there is power spike and danger of a
power surge.
Power Control There are different devices that enable us to control power. Their function varies from
device to device depending on what we use.
a) UPS(Uninterruptible Power Supply):
A UPS helps in black out situations when the power is gone totally, and brown outs, when voltage is low
though there is power. UPS has batteries that provides back up power. When the power is gone, the
battery provides voltage to the PC so that you can save your work. But it does not provide unlimited
power. There are two types of UPS:
Standby UPS: SPS has a battery that begins generating power as soon as the unit detects a sag in the
power supply. It takes only a split of seconds to come online. The disadvantage is that till the UPS
become online, your data might get lost.
Online UPS: It provides electricity to the PC all the time. It uses electricity from the AC outlet to
simply recharge its batteries. When the power goes, the data is not affected because the UPS is
supplying power.
b) Surge Suppressor:
Surge suppressors help to absorb power surges so that your computer does not feel their effects. They
come as either separate modules or incorporated in the UPS.
c) Voltage Stabilizer
It is a transformer that deliver relatively constant output when output voltage changes over time. The
output voltage is regulated using transistor.
Battery Computer has a Chip that combines real time clock and non-volatile memory. This chip is the
CMOS chip(CMOS RAM). They are designed to consume low power.
The CMOS chip stores basic system configuration like amount of memory installed, type of floppy and
hard disk drives, type of keyboard and mouse, etc. This is powered by battery when system is off. This
battery keeps the time chip running and the CMOS powered. Most systems use lithium type battery
because they have very long life.
Most of the higher quality systems sold today have a new type of chip that has the battery embedded in
it. These chips are notable for long life. Under normal conditions, the battery lasts for 10 years. Most of
the time, these chips-battery combinations are installed in a socket on the motherboard. Some systems
do not use battery at all.
Expansion Bus and Cards
The components inside the computer communicate to each other using a path that carries data. Most
internal components including the processor, memory, expansion cards, storage devices, communicate
to each other over a bus. Bus is simply a channel over which information flows between two or more
devices. There are different types of bus:
C memory bus
C cache bus
C processor bus
C I/o bus(expansion bus)
Memory Bus
- used to connect chipset to RAM
- is second level bus

memory bus
Cache Bus
This is the bus that connects the processor (CPU) with the cache memory. It is also called Back Side Bus
unlike Front Side Bus. It is high level bus.

cache bus
Processor Bus
It is the highest level bus. It is used to send information to and from the processor.
Expansion Bus
Expansion bus provide connection between internally connected peripherals and system
board(motherboard).

There are different types of I/O buses. These are:

-ISA(Industry standard architecture)
-EISA(Extended ISA)
-MCA(Micro Channel Architecture)
-PCI(Peripheral Component Interconnect)
-VESA(Video electronics Standard Association)
-USB(Universal Serial Bus)
Most modern PCs all have basic peripheral devices built into the motherboard. Still, we want to add
additional devices to our PC like sound card, network card, modem, video adapter, SCSI card, etc. These
cards are installed on expansion buses on the motherboard.
i) ISA
ISA stands for Industry Standard Architecture. It was introduced in 1981 with the IBM PC. There are
two types of ISA bus:
-8 bit ISA bus
-16 bit ISA bus
8 bit ISA Bus:
-provides eight data lines
-runs at 4.77 MHZ
-introduced with the first IBM PC
16 bit ISA Bus:
-provides 16 bit data bus
-runs at 8MHZ(8.33 MHZ)
-introduced by IBM in 1984

ISA bus layout

ISA bus is black in color.
In general, ISA buses have problems:
-slow in terms of speed
-configuration of cards is difficult-setting IRQ and other resources
-No intelligence like plug and play-manual set up, not automatic
ii) MCA
-was introduced by IBM in 1986. The aim was to replace the ISA bus with something bigger and better.
-32 bits wide
-it is proprietary
-It offers several significant improvement over ISA
-It is intelligent and self configuring(plug and play)
-supports speeds of up to 10.33MHZ
-incompatible with ISA. This affected its acceptance in the market

MCA channel lay out

iii) EISA
-stands for extended ISA. It was introduced by Compaq as a response to the introduction of MCA by
IBM- because of the proprietary nature of MCA. It was introduced in 1988-89.
-provides 32 bit bus width and 8.33MHZ speed
-It is intelligent and self configuring
-It is compatible with ISA and it is non proprietary. You can install ISA card on EISA bus(compatible).

EISA bus
iv) Local Buses
The I/O buses discussed so far are relatively slow in speed. As the need better speed GUI operating
system and graphics applications arises, the need for better speed bus was unquestionable.
To solve the problem of speed, engineers developed the local bus. Local bus connects special
peripherals to the system board through expansion slot and enable the peripherals to work at the speed
close to the microprocessor.
The major local buses are:
-VESA (Video Electronics Standard Association)
-PCI(Peripheral Component Interconnect)
-AGP(Advanced Graphics Port)
1) VESA
-introduced in 1992 by a group called VESA
-it was introduced to improve video performance. It was developed for video adapters(cards).
-It moves data 32 bits at a time, 33 MHZ speed
-It worked best in 486 processors. It is obsolete today.
2) PCI
-introduced in 1992 by Intel. It has the same goals as VESA, solving speed bottlenecks. It is the most
popular today.
It has a lot of benefits:
-high performance (the highest performance I/O bus)
-low cost
-automatic configuration (plug and play)
-it runs at the speed of 33MHZ. Its advantage over VESA lies in the chipset that controls it. It has a
special chipset in the circuitry that is designed to control it.
-it supports a wide variety of cards compared to VLB(VESA). It supports video cards, SCSI adapters,
high speed network cards, etc. Hard disk drives are also connected to PCI bus on the motherboard.
-PCI slots are white in color.
3) AGP
-created by Intel as new bus specifically for high performance graphics and video support.
-It is based on PCI but contains a number of improvement over PCI. It is brown in color.
-was developed in response to greater and greater performance requirements for video.
-runs at speed of 66MHZ (double that of PCI) base clock rate
-AGP will allow the speed of video card to pace the requirements of high speed 3D graphics rendering
and full motion video on the screen.
4) USB
-stands for Universal Serial Bus
-used to connect external peripheral devices like keyboard, mouse, printer, scanner, etc.
-You can connect any device to USB port and it supports it.
Configuring Expansion Cards
External and internal computer hardware such as disk drives, monitors, and internet lines can be
connected to computer motherboard by using expansion cards. The most common cards connected to
expansion slots include:
-Network Interface Card(NIC)- A circuit board that connects the computer to the rest of the network
usually using special cables called network cable configured with RJ45.

NIC

-Internal modem- Modem card is the place where the computer is connected to the phone line and it is
connected to motherboard on the slot found on motherboard (slots).

Modem card

-Graphics card- for video display(monitor control): Connects the computer to the monitor. It is a
circuit board attached to the motherboard that contains the memory and other circuitry necessary to
send information to the monitor for display on screen.

Video card

-TV card- to display TV on computer

-Sound Card- The card w/c is used to connects the speakers and microphone to the computer for
displaying and entering sound from and in to the system.

All cards installed in the expansion slots need three things to function
properly:
 -I/O address (Input Output Address)
-IRQ (Interrupt Request)
-DMA (Direct Memory Access)
I/O Address
Bus system establish a connection between CPU and expansion devices(cards). They provide a path for
flow of data. But the CPU has to know which device is sending data and which device should receive
data. This is done using I/O address.
I/O address is a unique ID given to devices for identification purpose. Everything in computer, hardware
or software, requires a unique name and address for the CPU to be able to identify what is going on.
The CPU must identify the device before any data is placed on the bus. CPU uses two wires(bus wires)
to notify the devices that the address bus is not being used to specify memory address, but rather to read
or write to a particular device:
-Input/Output Read(IOR)
-Input/Output Write(IOW)
Though address bus has more than 20 wires(20 bits), when IOW or IOR has voltage, only 16 wires (16
bits) are relevant (monitored). These 16 wires are used to send the ID of the device that is involved in
the communication. These wires carry I/O addresses of a device in another word.
-no two devices can have the same I/O address
-I/O addresses are written in the form of hexadecimal number
-I/O address is written in capital letters(case sensitive
-0 is the first number in I/O addresses and it is ignored(you don’t have to write it)
On AT motherboard, the following input output addresses are available:
-220h-26Fh
-320h-32Fh
You can use these addresses for configuring expansion cards.
Configuration:
-using jumpers
-using switches
-using BIOS
IRQ(Interrupt Request)
The CPU does a lot of activities like running application programs, running the operating system, etc. It
has no time to give full attention to devices all the time. So when a device needs CPU attention, it sends
a request to the CPU. Then the CPU stops what it does and pays attention to
Every CPU has a wire called interrupt(INT). If voltage is applied to this wire, the CPU interrupts what it
is doing and attends to the device. E.g. mouse click causes interruption of what CPU does and listen to
it. But CPU has only one INT wire, but it handles many peripheral devices. A CPU is helped by a
chipset to identify which device is interrupting. This chipset is called 8259 chip. Every device that
needs to interrupt CPU is provided with a wire called IRQ.
 interrupt number
Direct Memory Access(DMA)
CPU has to move a lot of data using considerable CPU time and power for what is a simple task. This is
wastage of CPU resource. To reduce this wastage, a chip called DMA was installed to work with CPU.
The purpose of this chip is to move data. It handles data movement from peripherals to RAM and from
RAM to peripherals. It is numbered as 8237 chip.

Not all devices use DMA. The following devices use DMA:
-few SCSI controllers
-Sound Cards
-Network Cards
-Some CD-ROM drives
No two devices can use the same DMA channel. DMA conflicts cause problem in the PC.
DMA Channel Function
0 available
1 available
2 Floppy disk controller
3 ECP parallel/available
4 First DMA controller
5 second sound card
6 SCSI/available
7 available

Configuration:
-use jumpers
-use switches
-use BIOS

To install any non-plug and play card:

-first read device manual
-assign unique DMA, I/O address, and IRQ
-document these configurations for future use
To install plug and play card:
-install the device(insert it into the motherboard)
-turn on the PC and use it
COM and LPT Ports
Serial and parallel devices have preset combinations of IRQ and I/O addresses. The preset combinations
are called ports. The purpose of port is to make installation easier. Devices like external modems,
printers do not require IRQ or I/O addresses.
Port I/O address IRQ
COM1 3F8 4
COM2 2F8 3
COM3 3E8 4
COM 4 2E8 3
LPT1 378 7
LPT2 278 5

I/O Connector
Modern PC uses input and output ports to connect external devices to motherboard. The most common
input output ports are:
-Serial port
-Parallel port
-USB(Universal Serial Bus)
Serial Port
Serial ports transfer data one bit at a time. Data communication is done serially, not parallel. Each
character that is sent over a serial connection is framed by start-and-stop signal. This way of
communication is called asynchronous because synchronization between the two communicating
devices is not needed. Serial ports could use synchronous way of communication as well.
What devices are connected to serial port? A lot of devices could be connected to serial port:
-modem
-barcode reader
-plotter
-mouse
-keyboard
-older type of printers
-computer
In serial ports, the communication is two-ways: from pc to the device and from device to PC.
There are different types of serial ports:
-Enhanced serial ports(ESP)
-Super high speed serial ports(SHSSP)
Most motherboards have at least one serial port. Serial port 1 is called COM1. If there are more than one
serial ports, they are named as COM1, COM2, etc.

Serial Port Configuration

When you install devices on ports, you do not have to set IRQ, I/O address and DMA channel. This has
been set already for ports during manufacturing. Serial ports use the following resources:
COM X I/O Ports IRQ
COM1 3F8-3FFh IRQ4
COM2 2F8-2FFh IRQ3
COM3 3E8-3EFh IRQ4
COM4 2E8-2EFh IRQ3
Types of Serial Ports
There are many serial port connectors:
-DB9
-DB15
-DB25
Parallel Port
Parallel ports are used to connect printers to PC in early days. Now parallel ports have become much
more than that and used as more general purpose, relatively high speed interface between devices. Data
is sent/transmitted eight lines at a time (a byte at a time). The data transfer rate is high because of
parallel transmission. Parallel port transfer data only in one direction in early days i.e. from computer to
the device though this is not the case today.
Some of the devices that could be connected include:
-Printer
-CD-ROM drives
-ZIP drives
-Scanner
Remark: Parallel port is used to connect printers. But it is not used exclusively for printers. Other
devices can also be connected to parallel port as listed above.
Parallel ports are named as LPT1, LPT2 which means Line Printer Terminal. There are different types of
parallel ports:
-unidirectional(standard parallel port)
-bidirectional
-Enhanced parallel port (EPP)
-Type 1(standard)
-Enhanced Capabilities Port (ECP)

parallel port
Unidirectional
In unidirectional parallel ports, data is transmitted only in one direction-from computer to the device.
The device do not send feedback to the computer. But it is sometimes necessary to get feedback from
devices to the computer.
Bidirectional
IBM introduced bidirectional parallel port in 1987. This type of port allows true communication i.e. the
port allows printers to send information to computer unlike unidirectional port. The printer tells the
computer the following:
-out of paper
 -paper jam
-out of ink, etc
EPP
The Enhanced Parallel Port outperforms the standard parallel port. But it is compatible with standard
port. Originally EPP is used primarily by peripherals other than printers like CD-ROM, hard disk drives,
network adapters because they require constant two way communication with the PC.
-It offers high speed two way data transfers
-It handles hand shaking and synchronization between devices
ECP
-Like EPP, ECP offers improved performance for parallel port
- released in 1992
-developed by Hewlett Packard and Microsoft
-It is designed for high performance parallel communication for operation that involve moving large
chunks of data but no monitoring like scanners, CD-ROM drives.
There are different types of parallel connectors:
-DB 25
-DB36
The ports have male and female specification. Male connectors have pins most of the time. The part of
cable that fits into computer side port is male. The part of computer where we insert cable is female port.
The male is inserted into female and connection is created.
DB25: It has 25 pins on the cable side and a place where it fits on the motherboard.
DB36: It has 36 pins on the cable side and a place where it fits on the motherboard
Parallel Port configuration
Configuration is not needed for parallel port devices because this has been done during manufacturing.
The resources used by parallel port devices:
Standard I/O port IRQ
LPT1 378-37Ah IRQ7
LPT2 278-27Ah IRQ5

USB
Universal Serial Bus is an external bus standard designed to bring plug and play to attach external
devices to PC. It can help to connect external devices without the need to configure the device by
installing on expansion card. This makes the configuration of new devices easier.

USB logo
USB allows upto 127 devices to run simultaneously (at the same time). Intel has been the primary
proponent of USB. USB transfers data both synchronously and asynchronously:
-1.5MPS for devices such as mouse and keyboard
-12MPS transfer rate for high-bandwidth devices such as modem, speaker, scanner, and monitors. You
can connect USB devices while the computer is running while unlike other ports.
Input Devices
Keyboard and mouse are the most commonly used type of input device. Modern mouse and keyboard
use USB port which is easy to use for external devices. But before the introduction of USB, they use
their own port or serial port.
Keyboard
There are different layout of character on the keyboard. Based on this, keyboards are divided into:
-101 key enhanced Keyboard
-104 key windows keyboard
-83 key PC and XT keyboard(obsolete)
-84 key AT keyboard(obsolete)
The connectors used for keyboard can be
-5 pin DIN connector
-6 pin Mini-DIN connector
-USB
-COM1/COM2
PS/2 Connectors: a dedicated keyboard port.
Mouse
Mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbert in 1964. Since then it passed through many modifications.
Today, mouse is one of the most commonly used input device. Mouse can be connected to the
motherboard through one of the following:
-serial interface
-dedicated motherboard port(PS/2)
-Bus card interface
-USB port
Serial Interface:
Older PCs use serial port to connect mouse to the motherboard. The connector on the other end of cable
is either 9 pin or 15 pin male connector. The mouse could be connected in COM1 or COM2.

Ps/2 Mouse ports

Dedicated Mouse Port(PS/2):
Most computer today come with a dedicated mouse port built into the motherboard. This dedicated
interface is called PS/2mouse interface. It was introduced in 1987 by IBM.
Bus Card Interface: Assume your mouse port has malfunctioned and you do not have any free COM
port. What do you do? In such cases, you can install a mouse interface card on expansion slot and
connect your mouse to the card.
Disadvantage:
-it occupies a slot that could have been used for other peripherals
-difficult to find such mouse or card in the market
BIOS
BIOS stands for Basic Input Output System. It is the lowest level software that acts between the
hardware and software(operating system). Your Pc can be described as series of layers that interface
with each other.
 layers of computer
When you power on your PC, electricity flows into the pc and it wakes up. First, the power good wire
wakes up the CPU. The CPU then starts a set of essential programs called the Basic Input/Output
Services (BIOS). Every modern PC has a special read-only memory (ROM) chip on the motherboard
that stores the System BIOS.
When your Pc is turned on, BIOS is loaded into memory. After loaded, the BIOS performs series of tests
called POST. POST means Power On Self Test. During this stage, BIOS checks the
functioning/presence of hardware resources. Based on tests, BIOS gives error messages or beeps. If
there is non-functional device is found or if device is missing.
The beep codes for each PC vary according to the BIOS manufacturer, although you’ll find certain
codes on most PCs. A single beep at boot up signals all is well and the system is ready to load the
operating system. A long, repeating beep often signals a problem with RAM. A series of beeps one long
and three short usually point t a problem with the video card or connection.
The BIOS is computer system could be:
-motherboard ROM
-adapter card ROM
-device driver
BIOS performs the following four functions:
i)POST (power on self test): The POST tests your computer’s processor, memory, chipset, video
adapter, disk controllers, disk drives, keyboard, and other crucial components.
ii) Setup: System configuration and setup program. This is usually a menu-driven program activated
by pressing a special key during the POST, which allows you to configure the motherboard
and chipset settings along with the date and time, passwords, disk drives, and other basic system
settings. You also can control the power-management settings and boot-drive sequence from the BIOS
Setup. Some older 286 and 386 systems did not have the Setup program in ROM and required that you
boot from a special setup disk.

iii) Bootstrap loader: a routine that reads the disk drives looking for a valid master boot sector. If
one meeting certain minimum criteria (ending in the signature bytes 55AAh) is found, the
code within is executed. This master boot sector program then continues the boot process
by loading an operating system boot sector, which then loads the operating system core
files.

iv) BIOS (basic input/output system): this refers to the collection of actual drivers used to act as a
basic interface between the operating system and your hardware when the system is booted
and running. When running DOS or Windows in safe mode, you are running almost solely
on ROM-based BIOS drivers because none are loaded from disk.
The Booting Process
Booting is the process of starting a computer. When you turn on the computer, it passes through many
steps before becoming ready for use. All these processes are performed one after the other. This process
is termed as booting(boot process). Most computers execute what is found in the ROM/ROM. But
operating systems are stored on hard disk. Who loads the OS from hard disk? This is what happens
during starting your computer.
1) Electric power is turned on
2) The CPU starts executing ROM BIOS
3) The BIOS performs tests to verify basic system functionality. This test is called POST. Any error
during this stage is reported using “beep” sound because video is not initialized yet.
4) Any new device is installed and configured if they are plug and play compliant.
5) The BIOS performs Video ROM scan. BIOS looks for video adapter BIOS found in video adapters. If
successful, video is initialized.
6) The ROM searches for boot records at cylinder 0, head 0, sector1. The BIOS loads Master Boot
Record form the specified location. MBR is part of the OS that loads the OS. The MBR in turn loads the
OS.
CMOS
CMOS is a memory area with battery backup used to store system configuration settings. The CMOS
chip retains configuration information such as the date and time, and specifics about components
common to all PCs, such as serial and parallel ports, keyboard settings, and more.
Video Card
Introduction
The video monitor has long been one of the most popular methods of displaying computer data. At the
heart of the monitor is the cathode ray tube (CRT), familiar to us from the television receivers we have
in our homes. As a matter of fact, the early personal computers used televisions as video units. The basic
difference between the television and a monitor is that no radio-frequency demodulation electronics are
used in the video monitor. As an output device, the monitor can be used to display alphanumeric
characters and graphic images. There are two possible methods used to create these displays: the raster-
scan method, and the X-Y, or vector, scan method. All television sets, and most video displays, are of
the raster-scan type. Therefore, this is the type we will concentrate on in this text. An oscilloscope
display is a prime example of vector scanning.
The popularity of portable computers has created a large market for lighter display devices. The main
devices used in this market are the LCD and gas-plasma displays. These devices do not use a CRT tube
or its supporting circuitry. Therefore the weight associated with the CRT and its high-voltage
components is not present. The flat-panel nature of these devices also works well in the portable
computer because of its reduced size.
CRT Basics
A CRT is an evacuated glass tube with an electron gun in its neck and a fluorescent-coated surface
opposite the electron gun. When activated, the electron gun emits a stream of electrons that strike the
fluorescent coating on the inside of the screen, causing an illuminated dot to be produced. The position
of the beam along the face of the screen can be manipulated through horizontal and vertical deflection
coils attached to the tube. They cause the beam to deflect, according to electromagnetic attraction and
repulsion principles. The deflection coils are usually combined into a single unit, called a yoke, that slips
over the neck of the tube. By applying specific signals to the coils, the beam can be positioned anywhere
along the face of the screen. In the raster-scan method of creating displays, separate signals are applied
to the horizontal and vertical deflection coils to cause the electron beam to move across the screen. As
the beam moves, it leaves an illuminated trace that requires a given amount of time to dissipate. The
amount of time depends on the characteristics of the fluorescent coating. This dissipation quality is
referred to as persistence.

CRT monitor

The electron beam begins at the upper-left corner of the screen and sweeps across its face to the upper-
right corner, leaving a line across the screen. This is called a raster line. After reaching the right side of
the screen, the trace is blanked-out and the electron beam is repositioned to the left side of the screen,
one line below from the first trace (horizontal retrace). At this point, the horizontal sweep begins
producing the second display line onscreen. The scanning continues until the horizontal sweeps reach
the bottom of the screen. At that point, the electron beam is blanked again and returned to the upper-left
corner of the screen (vertical retrace), completing one field.
VGA Adapters
Introduced by IBM in 1987. On that same day, IBM introduced the lower resolution Multi-Color
Graphics Array (MCGA) and higher resolution 8514 adapter. But both did not become as popular as
VGA. Unlike previous adapters which use digital system, VGA uses analog system. IBM moved to
analog graphics to enhance the color capabilities of the system. It can display 262, 144 different colors.
It s compatible with CGA or EGA. It came in both monochrome and color modes. VGA, at its 16-color
640X480 resolution, has coma to be the baseline for PC graphical display configuration.
SVGA Adapters
SVGA has capabilities that surpass those offered by the VGA adapter. SVGA refers to not an adapter
that meets a particular specification but to a group of adapters that have different capabilities. SVGA
was released by competitors of IBM to compete with VGA or XGA which was released after VGA. The
Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) includes groups from various companies associated
with computer video adapters and it controls SVGA.
Printers
Printer is used to produce hard copy of information. There are different types of printer based on the
technology used to produce print. Printers are divided into two based on how they produce print on a
paper:
-Impact printers
-Non-impact printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print by striking paper, ribbon, and cartridge together. Most of them take continuous
paper.
1) Dot Matrix
They print by striking wire pins against inked ribbon. The print head of such printers contain pins. When
this pin is pressed against a ribbon and paper, it prints small dots. The combination of small dots printed
closely together form character. The pins are arranged in a rectangular grid called matrix. The original
print heads had 9 pins while the newer ones have 24 pins.

Dot matrix printer print heads pins

2) Daisy Wheel Printer
It has a plastic metal wheel on which the shape of each character stands out in relief. A hammer presses
the wheel against ribbon producing characters on paper.

Daisy wheel printer

Disadvantage:
-They can’t print graphics
Non-Impact printers
They use a mechanism that does not strike paper to produce print. They print by spraying ink or by using
heat and pressure to fuse powder onto paper. Examples of non-impact printers are: inkjet printer, laser
printer, and thermal printers.
1) Ink Jet Printer
Ink jet printers work/operate by propelling tiny droplets of liquid ink onto paper. They use tiny nozzles
to spray liquid ink directly onto paper. There are two types of printers: thermal inkjet printer and
piezo(piezoelectric) inkjet printer.
 inkjet printer print head

c) Laser Printer
Laser printers rely on photoconductive properties of certain compounds. They use light called laser light
to produce print on the paper.