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ENGR7891 Fatigue and Fracture Analysis

Project 2: Fatigue
Automotive Suspension System
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Abstract
For an automotive suspension system in service – during working conditions, the leaf spring
experiences frequent cyclic loading. During the design step, it is of extreme necessity to
essentially simulate the fatigue life of the suspension system thereby assessing it
experimentally. It is important to closely consider and evaluate the key aspects of fatigue failure
and life by using some stress-analysis techniques, having as objective to overcome these failures
in real life. This work will help simulate the premature failure of an existing and proposed
model with generalized force elements under dynamic load conditions. Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM) was utilized to locate the bracket failure prone areas which indicate that the
cyclic load in the automotive suspension system is caused by road-induced vibrations and
bumps. This merely contributes to the increase of the fatigue fracture, which ends up with a
bracket failure. The results indicated that the fatigue life of existing bracket is low for rough
road conditions; the modified bracket has been optimized for the safe load conditions of the
vehicle – automotive – suspension system.

Some basic definitions

 Fatigue failure: this is the formation and propagation of cracks due to a repetitive or
cyclic load. Most fatigue failures are caused by cyclic loads that are significantly below
the loads which would result in yielding of the material. The failure occurs due to the
cyclic nature of the load which causes microscopic material imperfections (flaws) to
grow into a macroscopic crack (initiation phase).
 Fatigue life: this is a mechanical and scientific term that related to how long an object
or material will last before completely failing because of concentrated stresses. There
are a number of different factors that can influence fatigue life including the type of
material being used, its structure, its shape and temperature changes.
 Leaf spring: this is a simple form of spring commonly used for the suspension in
wheeled vehicles. A leaf spring suspension is made of a series of relatively long strips
of steel attached at both ends to a frame and suspending the axle in the middle.
 Cyclic loading: this is defined as the application of repeated or fluctuating stresses,
strains, or stress intensities to locations on structural components. In other words, it is
the loads that are applied, removed and reapplied, for example on a pavement, in a
relatively rapid and repetitive form.
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 Suspension bracket model: this simply consists of the springs and other devices
attached to the wheels, which give a smooth ride over uneven ground.
 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): this is an electron microscope in which a beam
of focused electrons moves across the object with the secondary electrons produced by
the object. Its uses are beyond the scope of this work as it is just assumed to be used.
 Bumps: these are vertical obstacles used in traffic management.
 Damping: this is a reduction in vibration over a period of time. Damping will eventually
bring a vibrating object or body to rest.
 Damping coefficient: it is a measure of how quickly an object returns to rest as a
resistive force dissipates its oscillation energy.
 Brake load: it is a key component which serves as a secondary braking mechanism by
controlling the lowering speeds of rated loads and preventing loads from free falling.
 Rigidity: also called stiffness, it is a measure of elasticity and represents a material’s
resistance to permanent deformation. It is a material’s resistance to bending, whereas
Strength is a material’s resistance to breakage.
 Cyclic stress: this is the repetitive occurrence and redistribution of forces acting on a
material. Periodic or regular cyclic stress conditions lead to increase wear and tear of
the material, thus increasing the rate of material degradation and failure.

General Introduction

An automotive machine - for example a vehicle, must be designed to have a suspension system.
The suspension system of a machine could simply be defined as a group of members or
components (which are mechanical in nature) that connects the wheels to the frame or skeleton.
In other words, it refers to the term given to a system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages
that connects a vehicle to its wheels thereby allowing relative motion between the two. The
suspension system separates the wheel-axle assembly for the frame or body. A vehicle needs a
suspension system in order to avoid shocks which may lead to loss of lives as well as economic
and social damages. On the other hand, the presence of a well assembled suspension systems
brings comfort to the users. The springs (which is part of the suspension systems) and other
components compress and expand as the wheel hits various obstacles on the road. This allows
the wheels to move up and down without moving the vehicle’s body.
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As far as the engineer is concerned, it is important to zoom out on which possible factors could
be responsible for the malfunctioning or the failure of a machine’s automotive suspension
system. In fact, even during the past, a considerable challenge of engineering effort has been
spent into the correct design of suspension systems leading to a continuing effort for the
improvement of the vehicle’s performances and handling along with the passenger’s safety and
comfort.
Undoubtedly, the automotive suspension system must provide occupants with convenient for
safe driving and must also protect the vehicle against damage. The automotive suspensions
system was originally intended to isolate the vehicle from extreme and dangerous road
conditions. The quality performance of these systems require at several levels a judicious
determinations of a well acceptable measurable standard. Haven understood the capital
important of this vehicle suspension system as well as the absolute necessity of extreme
accuracy in its design procedure, some radical comments and recommendations are going to be
proposed. A suspension system requires high damping and rigidity in order to successfully
achieve optimal stability. The damping coefficient can be reduced in off-road conditions to
improve smooth operation.
Failure damage assessment of a vehicle is a very crucial role in the design stage. The failure
analysis is used to replace the defected component to the existing problem. Different types of
cyclic load interactions can potentially lead to a significant acceleration or retardation in the
crack growth cycle. It has been noticed that the tensile over delayed load cycles and under
compressive load increased the development of fatigue crack.

This study is therefore important in that it aims to investigate the possible potential cyclic loads
that could lead to the fatigue failure of an automotive suspension system. The work will be
focused on four main points: firstly, a literature review will be presented. Here, a brief
background as well as figures introducing some essential details about an automotive
suspension system shall be provided. Also, a brief history around the fatigue failure of an
automotive suspension system will be presented.
After, a stress analysis – Finite Element Analysis (FEA) will be performed in which the
mechanical loads applied to an automotive suspension system in service shall be considered in
details. Thereafter, the fatigue analysis shall be performed using the stress-based approach. At
the end, recommendations will be made in order to improve the design of the automotive
suspensions system.
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Literature Review

The automotive suspension system of a vehicle – for example a car, is responsible for absorbing
energy to cushion and softens displacements in non-regular surfaces and terrains, and also
supports its bodywork. According to a notable market research, the global automotive
suspension market was valued at $55.23 billion in 2019 and is anticipated to reach $73.36
billion by 2027, registering a CAGR of 3.5%. Many researchers in the automobile industry have
taken the opportunity to improve the design of suspension system.

Why does fatigue failure occur in an automotive suspension system?

Fatigue is a phenomena associated with variable loading or more precisely to cyclic stressing
or straining of a material. In the same way we human beings get fatigue when a specific task is
repeatedly performed, in a similar manner metallic components subjected to variable loading
get fatigue, which leads to their premature failure under certain specific conditions. According
to the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials), fatigue life defines the number of
stress cycles of a specified character that a specimen sustains before failure of a specified nature
occurs. Due to cyclic loads on a suspension system of vehicle, it can run to failure. Thus, fatigue
study and life prediction on the suspension system is necessary in order to verify the safety of
this suspension system during its operation. There are a good number of factors and parameters
which affect the fatigue life of the structure and this include: Cyclic stress, Geometry, Surface
quality, Material type, Residual stresses, Size and distribution of internal defects, Direction of
loading, Grain size, temperature and environment.

Geometry

Suspension geometry is the geometric arrangement of the parts of a suspension system, and the
value of length and angles within it. Particular details about the studied suspension system are
given in the methodology section of the work. It is necessary to underline its importance.
Vehicles rely on their suspension systems to eventually maintain their wheels on the ground. It
is important to note that ground contact is necessary but not sufficient. For a vehicle to handle
and drive well, keeping its wheels pointing in the right direction and optimally loaded is a key
principle. That is where the geometry of the suspension system comes in. The geometry of the
suspension system should be able to ensure sufficient and adequate conditions in case of
external disturbance, independently of the types and nature of the loads acting on it.
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The goal of a good suspension geometry of a vehicle is to ensure an optimal extraction of the
traction that is generated from the tires. Failure to provide a good geometry of a suspension
system will potentially lead to expensive suspension repairs, uneven tire wear distribution and
more dangerously an unsafe vehicle.
Suspension geometry involves:
 Positioning and angular movement of other suspensions components and,
 Ensuring the effect this has on the eventual movement of the wheels and tires.

Figure 1: An overview of Suspension Geometries

Functions of automotive suspension systems

Regardless of which type of automotive suspension system is used on a vehicle, all suspensions
systems have the same basic functions to perform. These are:
 To safe guard passengers and goods against road shocks
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 Allow the springs and shock absorbers to absorb the energy of a bump for a smooth ride
and at the same time do not allow uncontrolled movement of the tires.
 To handle movements caused by vehicle acceleration, braking, and cornering.
 To provide suitable riding and cushioning properties.
 To provide excessive body squat (or body drive)
 To ensure the permanent wheel-road contact during driving, braking and cornering.
 To ensure the stability of the vehicle while in motion (Pitching or Rolling)
 Etcetera

Dimensions

Total weight of vehicle (without loaded condition) 10,550 kg

Total weight of vehicle (with loaded condition) 15,850 kg
Front axle weight 730 kg
Rear axle weight 1090 kg
Total load acting on the CG (W) 15,850 kg
Distance between front wheel to CG (bl) 1829 mm
Distance between rear wheel to CG (b2) 2527 mm
Distance between ground level to CG (h) 975 mm
Coefficient of friction for front wheel (𝜇) 0.2
Coefficient of friction for rear wheel (𝜇) 0.5
Unsprung weight = Front axle weight + Rear axle weight
Total sprung weight = Total weight – Unsprung weight

Table 1: Specifications of The Suspension System

Components of an automotive suspension system

It is important to underline the different components of a suspensions system as it will be

detailed in the course of the work. These are:
 Springs, which are responsible for the neutralization of the eventual shocks from the
road surface (Energy storage),
 Dampers, which act to improve comfort by limiting the free oscillation of the springs
thereby avoiding excess energy dissipations,
 Stabilizer, which prevents lateral swaying of the car, and
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 A linkage system, which acts to hold the above components in place and control the
longitudinal and lateral movements of the wheels.
Materials used for Leaf Springs
The composite suspension system is made of Glass-fiber reinforced plastics (GFRPs) because
they fulfill the vehicle’s suspension specifications.
Leaf springs are principally made of steel. The suitable steels that have been used for leaf
springs are given in below:
i. Chrome-vanadium Steel
Constituents Percentage
C 0.46
Mn 0.57
Si 0.17
Ni 0.15
Cr 1.40
Va 0.18
Table 2: Chrome Vanadium Steel Constituents in %

ii. Silico-Manganese Steel

Constituents Percentage
C 0.52
Mn 1.05
Si 1.95
Cr 0.05
Table 3: Silico-Manganese Steel Constituents in %

iii. Carbon Steel

Constituents Percentage
C 0.55
Mn 0.60
Si 0.20
Table 4: Silico-Manganese Steel Constituents in %
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Methodology

Initially, the automotive suspension system is loaded. As the suspension system is loaded and
powered by force bellows, a leaf spring absorbs the shock. The bellows on one end of the leaf
spring as well as suspension bracket is mounted at another end. Thus, any moment the system
force is exerted, the leaf spring and bracket absorb the shocks. The exact same process was
repeated when the vehicle is moving because of the irregularity of the road. Owing to repeated
cyclic process, bracket goes under fatigue. Consequently, this results in the formation of cracks
and bends in the leaf spring and suspensions bracket. Also, the bending of the bracket associated
with the spring area and the crack formation of the bracket area is visible along the side of the
frame. The defective leaf spring and bracket is suspected of failure because of the fluctuating
loads with uneven road surface conditions.

Forces and Moments acting on Leaf spring

i) Vertical force caused by vehicle
ii) Longitudinal forces caused by the tractive and braking effort
iii) Transverse forces caused by centrifugal force, side slopes, lateral winds
iv) Rotational torque action caused by the driving and braking efforts

Dynamic forces evaluation

When analyzing the system forces, dynamic forces such as brake load, bump load, corner
couple, and corner pretensions operating on the leaf spring bracket are all considered. The actual
motion only considers horizontal acceleration for the braking experience of vehicles on the road
level.
For analysis, we are going to apply Newton’s Laws of Motion and most particularly the Second
Law. According to Newton’s Second Law of motion, the algebraic sum of all vertical forces
acting on the body must be zero. The vertical forces and normal forces acting on the vehicle on
the road push the wheel against the gravity that is pulling downwards (always directed
downwards). Equilibrium is only applicable and affective in the center of gravity of the vehicle
(C.G). The motion only considers horizontal acceleration for the braking experience of vehicles
on the road level. We have,
 The center of gravity,

 𝑵𝟏 and 𝑵𝟐 normal forces,

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 𝑭𝟏 and 𝑭𝟐 braking forces along with the horizontal braking force on the route of

the wheel.

The weight (W) being the gravitational pull of the vehicle by the earth (due to the gravitational

force), the application of Newton’s Second Law of motion gives:

𝑵𝟏 + 𝑵𝟐 – 𝑾 = 𝟎 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝟏)

On the other hand, as the vehicle is in motion, there is no appreciable forward rotation. As
Newton’s laws are applied, we must also consider the equilibrium of moments in the sense that
it sums up to zero – the amount of the torques (lever arm strength). Considering the vehicle’s
center of gravity as our pivotal point, the normal and vertical force of the road acting on the
front wheel produces a torque in the clockwise direction having 𝑏 as the lever arm –
perpendicular distance, as seen in the figure, while the normal force at the rear wheel produces
a torque – moment due to a couple of force – in the anticlockwise direction 𝑏 . Clearly, we have
that 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐 = 𝑩, where 𝐵 is the wheelbase. Furthermore, the braking forces acting on the
front and rear wheel develop anticlockwise torques with lever arm h, which is the height of the
center of gravity from the roadway. Applying the equilibrium of moments – which stipulates
that the sum of clockwise and anticlockwise moments equals zero – we have:

𝒃𝟏 𝑵𝟏 − 𝒃𝟐 𝑵𝟐 − 𝒉𝒇𝟏 𝑵𝟏 − 𝒉𝒇𝟐 𝑵𝟐 = 𝟎 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝟐)

Where 𝑓 and 𝑓 are the respective coefficients of friction.

From equations 1 and 2, it is possible to obtain the normal forces 𝑁 and 𝑁 which yields the

below results:

𝑵𝟏 + 𝑵𝟐 – 𝑾 = 𝟎 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝟏)

𝒃𝟏 𝑵𝟏 − 𝒃𝟐 𝑵𝟐 − 𝒉𝒇𝟏 𝑵𝟏 − 𝒉𝒇𝟐 𝑵𝟐 = 𝟎 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝟐)

𝒃𝟐 𝒉𝒇𝟐 𝑾
⎧𝑵 = + 𝒉(𝒇𝟐 − 𝒇𝟏 )
⎪ 𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐
⟹
⎨ 𝒃𝟏 𝒉𝒇𝟏 𝑾
⎪𝑵𝟐 = + 𝒉(𝒇𝟐 − 𝒇𝟏 )
⎩ 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐
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When a wheel encounters an obstacle, – for example when it hits a bump – the vehicle is
subjected to a harder load which is imposed on it. This load is generally named as Bump load.
Also, if the vehicle is in motion, some irregularities like speed breakers fall on the road.
Therefore, the wheel axle is subjected to more loads as the vehicle passes over this imbalance
due to the consequent dynamic forces. Such forces are converted into a suspension system. In
this case, a significant number of loads must be removed from the suspension system. By
considering the implications of the following variables, the table below shows the various loads
acting on the brackets.
Finally, when brakes are applied on a vehicle, around 63% of the sprung mass exerted on the
front axle generates two particular forms of couples, like bump couple and angle pair. In the
two instances, one side of the wheel moves the force to the other side of the wheel. As one end
of the vehicle loses weight, the other end absorbs the normal couple load of this phenomena by
using the ground surface.

Figure 2: Fatigue Cycle Induced by Cyclic Stresses

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Results and Interpretation

In order to successfully carry out this analysis, a complete solid leaf spring and suspension
bracket model was developed using Solid Works software. The said model was then imported
in ANSYS engineering software for the 3D simulation. Although the leaf springs could initially
work well, it was noticed that they continually fail in operation due to fatigue failure by cyclic
load. The aim of the fatigue analysis is to evaluate the ability of the material to withstand a
number of cycles during its lifetime. The fatigue analysis was based on a stress-life approach
to evaluate the leaf spring fatigue life. The static condition takes into account the existing load
conditions by applying boundary conditions. The chosen material for the analysis has the
following mechanical properties:

 Young’s modulus, 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎 GPa;

 Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), 𝝈𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝟒𝟐𝟓 MPa;

 The fatigue strength, 𝝈𝒇𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒆 = 𝟐𝟖𝟎 MPa;

 Poisson’s ratio of 0.3.

The leaf spring dimensions are:

 Number of spring leaf, 𝒏 = 𝟔;

 Span length, 𝑳𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐𝑳 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎;

 Leaf thickness, 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟑 𝒎𝒎;

 Leaf width, 𝒃 = 𝟕𝟎 𝒎𝒎.

During the analysis, a 11000 N (11 kN) load is assumed to be applied on the spring, with an
allowable deflection.
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Figure 3: Fatigue life illustration

Discussion

The safe stress value of the shackle bracket should be increased in order to enhance the existing
model. This would lead to material transition and consequently to the difficulty in maintaining
an inventory for the designing of new materials.
Furthermore, the design change doses not affect the existing vehicle operation. Ultimately, the
concept of inserting ribs on the side of the bracket was conceived without changing the material
operation. The addition of support would enhance the stress distribution.
The calculation of all parameters and the input condition in every case was similar. For the
same process, the existing values can be used. The results obtained in the existing bracket
design demonstrate clearly that the original system needs to be strengthened.

Calculation of life cycle

Fatigue investigation is referred to as the method of initiation of the crack, typical in terms of
total life (S-N or nominal stress), initiation of the crack (E-N), and growth of the crack, which
involves the number of cycles up until the fracture.
In the fatigue studies, two cyclic stress or strain areas are mainly found, such as low cycle
fatigue and high cycle fatigue. The fatigue evaluation method contains material, loading, and
geometry details and analysis as well as the results. The load transition is extremely essential
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to perform an accurate and precise estimate of fatigue life. Under loading subjected to high
cycle fatigue exhibiting elastic stresses, the total fatigue life of the spring is achieved.

Conclusion, Recommendations and Perspectives

Automotive engineers design passenger vehicles to appeal a wide spectrum of drivers and
perform competently under a variety of conditions. The suspension systems have to be
intentionally designed to be as inoffensive as possible. In other to improve and optimize the
design of automotive suspension systems, it is important to take a look at each component in
the system and comment.
 Springs: For the reasons explained earlier, we firstly have to beef up the rear springs.
That is, replace the leaf springs with a set that offers a higher spring rate. This will create
more resistance or lift on the back-end, working against the weight of the fifth-wheel
trailer. The new springs, because of their increased strength, will level off the vehicle
and cause it to stand more upright on the road.
 Shock absorbers: Here, we highly recommend stiffer shocks.
 Stabilizer Bars: Also known as anti-roll or sway bays, these components work by
distributing the weight of a cornering vehicle to the opposite side of the car. Similar to
a torsion bar in operation, a stabilizer bar runs from one side of the vehicle to the other,
thereby attaching to the frame and control arms via a simple bushing arrangement. When
the vehicle goes through a turn, the bar begins to twist, but resists motion. The resistance
distributes vehicle’s weight more evenly from side to side, leading therefore to greater
stability of the vehicle.
 Strut tower base insertion.

References

1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/fatigue-failure
2. Design and simulation of fatigue analysis for a vehicle suspension system (VSS) by
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Christianah O. Ijagbemia, Bankole I. Oladapob , Harold M. Campbella , Christopher O.

Ijagbemi Retrieved from
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3. Design And Analysis Of Suspension System by Gangam Sohan Chaitanya And
D.K.Jawad Retrieved from
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228549584.pdf
4. Metal Fatigue in Engineering (Second edition Ed.) by Stephens, Ralph I,; Fuchs, Henry O,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc… (2001). ISBN 0-471-51059-9
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(2001), 339-354 by U .K ocabicak, M, Firat
6. A b W. Schutz, ‘A history of fatigue’, Engineering Fracture Mechanics 54(1996): 263-300.
DOI
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form http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877705816322834
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https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01916247/document
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