OPEN DATA CHATBOTS

AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS

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Contents
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................2
CHATBOTS BACKGROUND.................................................................................................3
METHODOLOGY.....................................................................................................................3
STAGE 1: GATHERING INFORMATION.........................................................................3
STAGE 2: ARTICLE FILTERING AND REVIEWING......................................................4
LITERATURE REVIEW ANALYSIS......................................................................................4
IMPLEMENTATION APPROACHES TO CHATBOT.......................................................5
RULE BASED CHATBOTS.................................................................................................5
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE CHATBOTS......................................................................5
DATASETS USED....................................................................................................................5
EVALUATION..........................................................................................................................6
DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................6
CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................7
References..................................................................................................................................8
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ABSTRACT
Chatbots are active conversational computer systems that are programmed to mimic human
speech and provide automatic online advice and assistance. Open data refers data that can be
freely used, re-used, and redistributed by anyone - subject only, at most, to the requirement to
attribute and share alike. Due to the general rising benefits of chatbots, numerous sectors
have adopted them to provide virtual assistance to customers. Chatbots use methods and
algorithms from two Artificial Intelligence domains: Machine Learning and Natural
Language Processing. However, there are numerous obstacles and limitations in their use. In
this survey, we will look at some of the most recent advancements in chatbots, including
Artificial Intelligence and Natural Language Processing. We will discuss the limitations and
benefits of integrating open data with chatbots and, the major highlights, issues and
limitations of existing research and offer suggestions for future research. (Keyner)

INTRODUCTION
A wide range of industries and applications are presently using chatbots, from education and
e-commerce to healthcare and entertainment. As a result, chatbots like as Mitsuku & Jessie
Humani, which are geared toward "small talk" and intended to foster a sense of human
engagement, can offer both support and fun to their users. It appears that chatbots are more
interesting to users than a website's conventional Constantly Asked Questions (FAQ) page.
Chatbots can assist numerous customers at once, making them more efficient and less
expensive than human customer service representatives. For the end user, chatbots can also
be utilised to provide amusement and friendship in addition to customer support and help. In
spite of this, chatbots appear to have varied levels of human-likeness, as well as different
levels of disclosure, which affects how and when users engage with and trust chatbots.
It has grown increasingly widespread in recent years because to the commoditization and
increase in computational power as well as the spreading of open-source tools and
frameworks. As AI and NLP approaches continue to improve, chatbots are becoming more
adaptable in terms of applicability and maintainability, while also becoming better at
mimicking human communication. A few areas for development include contextual &
emotional understanding & gender biases when it comes to human-chatbot interfacing.
Chatbots, on the other hand, lack the ability to recognise conversational context or emotional
linguistic cues, which hinders their ability to communicate in a nice and entertaining manner.
Chatbots, on the other hand, preferred to receive on traditionally feminine roles, which they
do with traditionally feminine traits and often demonstrate stereotypical behaviour, revealing
a bias against women in chatbots' implementation and use. (Følstad)
Improvements in the implementation and evaluation of chatbots are essential research
subjects since they are widely used and implemented in so many different fields. Deep
Learning algorithms are the focus of this paper's review of the literature on chatbots, which
includes an in-depth look at current implementation methods, as well as an examination of
the limitations and challenges of chatbot implementation and use, as well as suggestions for
future research into the topic. This paper also makes recommendations for future research
into chatbots.
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CHATBOTS BACKGROUND
In 1950, after he presented the question "Can computers think?" Alan Turing is regarded to
have been the first individual to conceptualise the concept of a chatbot, although this pursuit
has profound origins in human history. It's easy to associate Turing's depiction of an
intelligent machine's behaviour with the widely accepted notion of a chatbot.
As computational power and Natural Language tools and methods have improved, chatbots
have evolved. In 1966, the creation of ELIZA resulted in the first successful deployment of a
chatbot that mainly depended on linguistic rules & pattern matching techniques. Using a
keyword-matching algorithm, it could connect with users. In order to deliver a response to the
user, it looks for an acceptable transformation rule. Eliza was a ground breaking system that
sparked a wave of innovation in the industry. Because it relied on limited context
identification and pattern matching criteria, ELIZA's reach of knowledge was constrained
because it couldn't be easily deployed in other fields. (Adam)
In the 1980s, the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in chatbots was a significant
development. Because A.L.I.C.E is an extension of XML, it uses the Artificial Intelligence
Scripting Language, or AIML for short. A.L.I.C.E.'s software could benefit from the addition
of dialogue pattern information thanks to this programme, which was created specifically for
that purpose. For data objects in AIML, themes and categories are used as the building
blocks. Essentially, categories are the building blocks of knowledge, that are made up of a
rule to connect user inputs to the chatbot's outputs. The user input is expressed by rule
pattern, while the chatbot's output is specified by rule templates, A.L.I.C.E knowledge base.
Because of the ease with which the AIML knowledgebase could be expanded to
accommodate new data objects, it represented a considerable improvement over earlier
pattern matching systems. In addition, more Loebner Prize-winning chatbots were built with
Chat Script, the successor to AIML.
Essentially, the goal behind this cutting-edge technology was to produce the desired output
by matching user-supplied text to a certain topic and applying rules relevant to that topic. In
the wake of Chat Script, chatbots entered a new age of technological advancement. Semantic
analysis and comprehension began to take precedence. (AbejideAde-Ibijola)

METHODOLOGY
There are two parts to the methodology we used to gather the data for this literature review.
Each stage has a variety of tasks. Search terms relevant to the subject matter and databases of
research publications are first identified. Then, we gather research articles about chatbots
from the databases we've chosen. The goal of these activities is to obtain as much information
as possible about the subject. Analysis of retrieved articles is the focus of our second phase of
research. According to the four features of chatbots that have been documented in literature:
design, implementation, application, and assessment methodologies, we categorise the papers
into four groups. We'll go into more depth about each of these tasks in the sections that
follow.
STAGE 1: GATHERING INFORMATION
To locate studies on chatbots, we combed through the databases of three major publishers.
ScienceDirect and Springer are two of the most popular. Peer-reviewed works in the areas of
Linguistics, Artificial Intelligence, & Human-Computer Interaction can be found in these
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databases. Additionally, we searched AR-XIV, Google Scholar, or JSTOR because they

yielded a large number of papers and resources. ' Information technology, computer science,
computer engineering, and social communication arts were all included in our selection of
articles. They were all chosen because they provided unlimited access towards the
publications, plus they provided the ability to query articles using search terms.
STAGE 2: ARTICLE FILTERING AND REVIEWING
We searched the databases after coming up with a list of potential search terms. The search
terms yielded a large number of academic papers. There were thousands of results from the
1970s to the present day in the first search. We've narrowed down the search results by
sorting them alphabetically by publication date in an effort to streamline the analytic process.
We focused on publications from 2007 until 2021. Our goal was to narrow our search to
publications published within a certain time period and with a title that was relevant to our
research. According to the Database search, there has been a growth in the number of articles
published on chatbots since 2000. According to the graph below, research on chatbots has
been steadily increasing since 2005, with a little fall in 2005, but a sharp rise in 2020. We
focused on studies published between 2007 and 2009 as this was the peak year for chatbot
research. 62,254 papers were published between 2007 to 2021 in the specified databases and
other sources. The number of articles obtained using our search terms in various databases is
shown in the table below. "Human-computer conversational systems" was not found in any of
the databases searched. More recently published publications were found in the AR-XIV or
Google Books databases. (Xueming Luo)

Finally, we looked through the bibliography of the 115 papers to see if there were any other
relevant sources. On Google Scholar, we found full-text publications that appeared in the
bibliographies of 115 papers, and we retrieved them. We were able to find an additional 201
related articles through this technique. 316 articles in all were available for evaluation,
making this a massive undertaking.
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LITERATURE REVIEW ANALYSIS

According to our findings in the literature review, the following are the main elements of
chatbots: techniques for building chatbots, public databases that have been utilised in prior
data-driven approaches to building chatbots, key assessment methods for assessing bot
performance, and many applications for bots in various fields.
IMPLEMENTATION APPROACHES TO CHATBOT
Implementation methods for chatbots will be discussed in detail in the following section.
Chatbots based on rules and those based on artificial intelligence (AI) will be distinguished.
We shall further distinguish between Information-Retrieval chatbots & Generative chatbots in
AI-based chatbots. There are both advantages and disadvantages to each implementation
method, as well as current advancements in the field to examine.
RULE BASED CHATBOTS
The initial chatbot implementations were rule-based. Rule-based models are simpler to build
and deploy, but their capabilities are constrained by their inability to respond to complicated
questions. Chatbots that employ a rule-based approach to answering users' questions are more
likely to provide incorrect answers when they encounter a language that does not fit a
predefined pattern. In addition, manually implementing template matching algorithms can be
time consuming and complicated. Besides being brittle and domain specialised, pattern
matching rules also don't transfer well between problems.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE CHATBOTS
Unlike rule-based models, AI models rely on Machine Learning methods that allow students
to learn from an already-existing database of human interactions. Machine Learning
techniques must be used in order to train the models using a training data. Chatbots may now
be increasingly flexible and far less reliant on specific subject knowledge thanks to the
adoption of Machine Learning techniques, which eliminate a need to manually create and
code new template matching rules. Information Retrieval and Generative AI models are
subcategories of each other. Models for the Retrieval of Information. A dataset of textual data
is fed into an information retrieval model, which then uses the user's input to retrieve the data
it needs. Information Retrieval systems that use Rule-based and Deep Learning algorithms
are also possible. The method used is typically a Deep Learning approach. These models are
based on information retrieval, and they have a predefined set of possible answers. The
chatbot uses this predefined set to choose an answer to the user's query. A database of inquiry
pairs is typically used as the knowledge foundation for this type of model. This database is
used to create a chat index, which lists all the possible responses depending on the message
which prompted them. Information retrieval models similar to those used for online inquiries
are used to match the data from the user to similar pieces in the chat index when a user
delivers a query to the chatbot.
Answers are paired with questions in a chat index, and the user receives the answer to both of
those questions in their output. Since the responses are not created automatically, this model
provides a guarantee of quality. With the rise of Web 2.0 and the availability of more textual
data on social media sites, forums, & chats, these models have become increasingly popular.
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DATASETS USED
Datasets that appear to be the most often utilised to train deep learning chatbots models will
be discussed in this section. To begin, we must distinguish between datasets that are open to
the public and those that are private. There seem to be just few open domain databases that
are often utilised in the literature:
Daily-Dialog, Open-Subtitles, and Cornell are all part of this project. We'll go into greater
detail about each of these datasets. Contrary to popular belief, no closed domain datasets
were found to be frequently referenced in the research reviewed. In some cases, this is
because the datasets in question are so narrowly focused on a single issue or goal. For the
sake of time, we won't go into great detail about any of these datasets.
Open-Subtitles. In a number of works of literature, the Open-Subtitles collection is used.
XML-formatted movie subtitles are stored in an open-source database. Many languages' open
access movie subtitles can be found in this database. There appear to be millions of sentence
pairs in the dataset, but the data appears to be of poor quality; scene descriptions, nearer
captioning, & segmented sentences appear in the conversations, which can be troublesome
when trying to train an open domain chatbot, because the coherency of the dialogue can be
lost. This is a problem when trying to train an open domain chatbot.

EVALUATION
Since human communication serves a variety of purposes, evaluating dialogue technologies
has proven to be difficult. Metrics for evaluating a chatbot's performance can vary based on
its intended purpose. The effectiveness of a chatbot's engagement with a user will be a major
factor in determining its success. In contrast, a companion chatbot would be judged on its
own ability to keep the discussion continuing and to keep people engaged. Human evaluation
& automated evaluation metrics are the two primary methods for evaluating a chatbot.

DISCUSSION
The architecture of chatbots still has some flaws, despite recent advances in Deep Learning &
Natural Language Processing. Because of an improper approach to dialogue modelling,
different language models offered as the architecture of chatbots are still unable to accurately
simulate human interaction. For example, this model attempts to tackle conversational
difficulties by using a "next-step" method in which it aims to predict the greatest possible
answer given an input. As a rule of thumb, however, this is not how human conversation
works, which takes into account a succession of preceding stages, the context in which it is
taking place, as well as the information being exchanged among the participants. Chatbot
designs portray human conversation as a series of discrete steps, but in reality, human
interaction is more like a continuous back-and-forth, with each step dependent on the one
before it or the one after it. Even while some new versions have attempted to capture this
conversational context, there is still a long way to go.
The apparent absence of a learnt AI model in Information Retrieval chatbots is another
critical flaw in the architecture of chatbots. Because they can provide coherent answers to
specific topics (e.g., booking an appointment or product specifics, returning an item, &
finding learning materials), these chatbots are highly popular all over industries (e.g.
healthcare, e-commerce, customer support and education) because they can find a similar
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answer in their knowledge base. A lack of adaptability to varied datasets appears to be a

problem with all of the trained models for Information Retrieval chatbots that have been
developed thus far. Large generative models appear to be the emphasis of study these days,
rather than simpler, more simply built models that can be used across domains. A model like
this might be used in a variety of sectors.
The absence of free access domain-specific language data, as well as the wide range of
sectors and industry-specific issues to which such systems would be applied, pose a
significant hurdle to the development of such models.
According to the literature study, Section 4, there still is a chasm between current industry
models and advances in the field when it comes to applications. It's still too computationally
intensive and time consuming for the industry to easily implement the huge models represent
the most recent advances in the area, whether they're dialogue models or general-purpose
language models. The use of chatbots in various businesses is becoming increasingly
common, as we've already mentioned. Conversational interfaces rely on a variety of
knowledge-based or rule-based frameworks to accomplish their goals. These frameworks
include conversation managers and/or decision trees. It's clear, due to the widespread use of
these models, that smaller, more specific solutions, which require a smaller amount of data
and provide more accurate answers in open-domain conversations, are preferred over larger,
more general ones, which may perform better in closed-domain conversations but not as well
in open-domain ones. When it comes to models, open and closed domains are clearly distinct
(industry-oriented applications). This gap can be bridged by smaller, more flexible, and less
domain-dependent models. Open-domain, generative chatbots, on the other hand, tend to be
less accurate and efficient in its answers. (Deloitte)

CONCLUSION
We've done a literature review and a state-of-the-art analysis of machine translation,
applications, datasets used, and assessment systems in this research. Moreover, we've
highlighted the present issues and limitations, and also highlighted gaps in the research.
Despite advances in AI, chatbots are unable to mimic human speech, despite advances in AI.
Dialog modelling has been done incorrectly, and there are no domain-specific data sets
available for free. Also, there is a lack of a learned AI model for Information Retrieval
chatbots. This kind of model could be put to use in a number of different fields. Despite
recent advances in the industry, there is still a chasm to be bridged in terms of application. It
takes a lot of computer power and training data to build large models. There is no standard
way to evaluate chatbots. However, human evaluation is costly, time consuming, difficult to
handle up, biased and lacks coherence for several models that rely on human evaluations.
There should be a new, dependable automated evaluation approach offered to overcome these
limitations. There is also a lack of data on most recent breakthroughs in language models that
could be applied to chatbot like Transformers, as indicated by recent studies. As a result, data
utilised to train multiple models must be thoroughly examined and analysed. Using this
method, researchers are able to more accurately compare the outcomes of various models. In
fact, it's hard to tell the difference between a chatbot's applications and a chatbot's social or
companion functions. It is an interesting challenge that combines Deep Learning & Natural
Language Processing to create chatbots. Chatbots have been around for sixty years, yet
they're still evolving and posing fresh challenges. Smaller, more flexible, and less domain-
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dependent models could help bridge these gaps. Language models for industry-specific
applications, better human-like model topologies and better evaluation frameworks would be
significant advancements in the field of artificial intelligence.

References
AbejideAde-Ibijola, Chinedu WilfredOkonkwo. Chatbots applications in education: A
systematic review. 2 March 2021. Webpage. 11 November 2021.
Adam, Martin. AI-based chatbots in customer service and their effects on user compliance.
17 March 2020. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12525-020-00414-7. 21
May 2021.
Deloitte. Chatbots Point of View. 11 March 2018. PDF. 21 May 2020.
Følstad, Asbjørn. Future directions for chatbot research: an interdisciplinary research
agenda. 19 October 2019. PDF. 19 November 2021.
Keyner, Sophia. Open Data Chatbot. 16 May 2020. Document. 17 October 2019.
Xueming Luo, Siliang Tong, Zheng Fang, and Zhe Qu. Machines versus Humans: The
Impact of AI Chatbot Disclosure on Customer Purchases. 6 JUNE 2019. PDF. 11
MARCH 2021.