ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELecrRONIcs - 1805835 Module - 1 > Semtconductor Diodes Ly Photodsode u Light Emniteing ‘Diode Li PholoCouples > MDA Basing Ly Base bias L5 Collector to Base btar SS Voltage pevider bfat By: Rajeshwari ‘fy Asststauk Professor Dept. of CSE, STBIT Scanned by CamScanneraoe aod De Hal Module -T RAJESHWARIGL Assi. Professor, CSE | Photoprope | Se S53 Photodtede & a Legha detedor cemmteonductos device | thet converts leghd energy corto eleckete turcert of Voltage bihtch Clepends upon the enode of operation i> Ds normal Pon Jundkon cltode allows a small amount | 64 electrfe Current . [7B enewease the electrre current under reverse bias condition, le need do generate more mntooethy Casrfess. 7 A cmatt number of minorshy carsters are generated dlue to external reverse bras voltage. > The minorthy Covters generated ot n-stcle or p-stde Will recombise th the same motertal before they cross the function |itte No, eteetre covtent floss due tb Bhece checge Cee > Te overcome ths problem, We need Lo apply «xternal energy dltredly to the depletion regron to generate more charge Carctens. > Pi spectal type of deode calied Phetodtode & dlexsgned [55 gererte More Number of charge Carriers to the dephekton region, > To phebodsodes, We use Lepil or phobons a: the external eneagg to Gtoerete chagge Carriers tn the | depletion regren. Scanned by CamScanner| S Consteuctton 3 Consteu ctton \>. The typecal coostsuchton ef a photodstede és chown he ie igi. Thes example uses a concbrudfoo techatque | Catted fon tmplemertatton | [> The Surface Layer of N dype ei bormhorded votth PAyps stltcon tens do produce a P type Layex about tlm Centaometre) thecle ie Be the foermatton oe the deode, excess electrons | From “n-bype move towards P-type ord exces holes row P-type move towards n-type , thee procecs cabted aleffuston , | & the removel of free Charge carsfers close to PN Junction, so ona a deptehon Layer as shown to frat. i Use Relledkiv tage | | | sehtcon towtde (+03) ee 11 Pholodeod, Conskeudsen Cathode [Alueinton) Ly The top (Light teeing) of the diode ‘= protected by a hayes Of stlecor Deoxdde (s:03) £0 bohtch there % 2 vetadow pee Lege 4o shine © the Semtconductor | > Thes Window & coated wth a thin cake cefeckye Pie of ethtcon MHwtde (sen) to allow maxtmum abiorphton of nid Prode comechton of alumintum & provided Jo Pabype dae > Beneath the N type layer, there te a heavtly cloped N+ Layer to provicle low restibance connedtton £0 cathode - Scanned by CamScanner@ RAJESHWARIG L Asst. Professor, CSF |> IAlosktng Principle 3 Rae Sci acl ded: moves bred | depletion vregton stack cal > Wtth the incveare of reverse Vottage , the reverse Cureent alo shark increasing . the carne condlthton ca be obtaised en photodtodeveclhoud aprlyeng reverse voltage. i ie shous aes Photodltode bras Sgmbol, ¢d | ar R Inode Cathode ia de 2 te) ) Figa. (0) Photodtede io xeveese btar (t) Symbol > The junction ©} photodtode te éllumerabed by the | beg bat source, the Photons shrtke the functor Surface. 1? The photons émpark thetr energy tn the torn of beg lt | bo the function. eee eis aiceN elechrons oiyivaleaes hand get the enregy to cfermp énto the conductor band. [> Thee Leaves posttively charged holes tm the valence Lend, Lo ae ‘electron/hole pates ? to the depletion Lager. > Some dleclron hote pater are alco prochscedl tn the | p and w layers, but apack Prony those prociicaeliem the dlstuston regton WN) hayes, mest Withl be re-absorbed/ pthhn the Pand N matertals as heat. [go The electrons th the deptetton Layer are then svoaph | dousards the posthrve potentyal on the Cothacle , and) | He holes swept towards the negative Potenktal 0 the avede, so creating 2 phoho current, Ta thus way, Photodtede Converts leght energy tro electrical ene ngy Scanned by CamScannerS VT choradlersstrer of Photodiode Ls The charackertsdtes are shown da the negodive regten because the photodtode can be operated i revere beased mode oa e— Reverse Bas tn Volts a at 0 05 a n Pork cuscint — ? 10,000 L[ m2 3 15,000 Lm . ; ¢ 20,000 t/m> 5 | - 3 25,000 L/mm? os 2 a a NicT charackertstter of Photodsods 2 > The reverse Saturation current to He photodtode te denoted by To » Tt vartes Leneorhy ritth the tatensthp ©| photons aaa the drede surface. |-3 The curl under darge reverie Ptacve gin £ | ee ee Gh ee le | ie eee ) Where Dee = Sherk errcuth Corcent Van pesthtve for fee voldage and negative doe pavencentes Ve > veth equivalent fe dempecadare A> Unis (4) ee Germantuny et peace) enone Scanned by CamScannera4 Light prides Deode (ved) Pr pplecaksons of photodtade ye ) Phosodtedes Gre used tr Gonsumres oledrontes devices Like smoke debedors, Compa disc phaser, and | delewestons and remoke control tn wees = > Tr OUnes conumes devtcer kke clous tadzos , Camera le meer, Steck aa = phoowndudors axe wore Frequently used Aatlit than phobedtoder 1D Photodiode: are Irequenbly used tor exact meacurermh Of the tnbensthy of lagi tn serene and ihuctog, -s Lep te a PN-fundton ditode Whtdr emths Led when Qn eledvte current passes Hasouge th tn the forward direction . : Ls ftectso-luminescence &% pu property of the wuateredeeen Ee Converk olectrteol onerat toko digit enc ond fea PN jundten cvatle, Mgt when dedeteal en fQ applted do a Scanned by CamScannerD> Cons} ruckton Lep > The cemttonductor matertal used tn LED 80 Galltum Drcentde (9) » Galltun Phosphide (4?) eee Gallium Arreatde phosphide ( qaa.e) PP Ths colout ef sedated Leght changer weth the chapae tn matertal | For ext GaP matertal gives grea] ved colour wtth torusard voltgge 0{ 2:8 > The semteonductor Layper of Pdype t placed above N-type becaute the charge Casriex recombénatvou occurs En P-type [> The Light eenctted can be eastly £00 onthe susface O] the clevice- ie Fa ches aia ere Puce of ds Plead led. Connecting titre Dekl used Emtted Light < P-type future 3 Metal fete Ze cee ve Anode o) Epchantal N-type charge carries Recombination Gotd frlm cathode Lonnettow Fas Cross Sectional view of Diluted Len 1 Scanned by CamScanner@ DP The Pedype Lages to formed fromm dittuston of eemt- - Conductor mater tol. > On the other evde én N-type degton, Be epthaxsol Hager fo grown on Nolype subsrode The melat film co ured ou the pdype Layer to provide anode connectton to the dtocle. Ls Gold Petn Joyer te coated on nekyor 4 provide cathode connectton. (> The sagntlicancs A Golel-Pelm Layer on N-Lype abso provider refledon from the bottom Surface @ the dvode- » IAlerkeng Parenceple Carrters recombine Cra Pete beer |\> The cha PN junction, as dhe electrons cross from the. N-vesion | and secombine votth the holes extsting enthe Preqton Ls Eyes electrons are ta the conduction band of energy levels, Wthehe holes are in pee valence energy baud. Thus He eneray devele of te holes 6 Lec Bran the eneray Levels a EO Cone porbron of He sera mut be destpatedl to gecombene the olectron: and the holes. Thes onegd | tg emitted tm the form 0] heat and legit. > The Tee e| the Led depend: on quzetum theory | electrons | Scanned by CamScanner— The quantum theory states that when the ener. of electrons deueaces Prom hegher Level to Lower led, tk emtte energy tn the form of photons Ste cnecgy Qf the photons & equal tho the ger between the higher and Lower Level as shown on gt Forward Beartng Conpuctaon LEVEL Fosbtdden Ferent Level s\ Gap VALENCE Bano Fig f.. Werktag of lep > The LED ts connected tr Bes Srvoard biased, Wltch allows the current 40 How tn the Lorward dtretton. Eerie flow of currents Weratie of the movement of aleckrons tn the oppostte devectfon. Loy Tie srevombtnatton chows that the elecksons move trom the conduction land bo valence band and the emthe electromagnebic «eB ty the form of photons Scanned by CamScanner@ >The energy cl pholons ts equal bo the ger between Khe valence and the conduuton band. > Colour el Light voas dehkerontned boy the land gr of semntcondudcor mokertal. Appltcottons of Lep ) Used ta remobe contro! systems cudk as TY Of Led remote 2) Used tm eleckronte calculators -lor chowtng the diegttal data. D Used te drablec ctgnale. I) Used ta dtgetal comput eo Le desplaytng Lhe computes dada . 3) Used tm digtteh watches and automoltve heat Laneps. RAJESHWARIG L Asst. Professor, CSE Scanned by CamScannerPHoto couPleR PuHotofsoLato p / oprocoonen —> Phofocoupler ¢s a component that deans pore electatcal Stqnals Lbetwcen duo esolated etre! he b ma Leohh- ta a deal I> Photocouples are used do Lenk data across fo retin, they can be used wether opkical encoders [> Concbruchton ALL optocoupler conststp @f v0 elemenr. $ *) Light source > heh fo Light Enasttteg Biede (1<8) {D Phobocensor 2 whtdh © Pholodtode / Pholore:stor/ Phototranstsbor | trtac / celtvon-vowk- - soled geck| cox (ser) — Bot of thee clemenk are separated by a dteletstc Cnon conducting ) basrrer, TH hes aw LED on Hu tnput ctde and a phobodtode on the output side. ;> and the Sertes reststor LED, > The Left Source vo. cet up a currant teow! BS Ilorking Preaceple > then enput current ca opplted Lo the LED, ot suothche onMaheY epee nfrocd Light, Than dedecke Baiy Sight aod allows cuveent output stole of the Corantt. 2 The photocensos dy flow through the Scanned by CamScanneri a IS => Conversely , luhen Une LED ts OFF, no tusrent voit How trough Ha plotosensor, By thir method, the two Flovstng tusrents are cledetenlly trobabed . >I, ty 5.. LED &% fewward brased , photo dtode fs reverse btased and output exests across Re. 5 & hy > onoecte) Piel “an Jeo 4 Dara cae SI Power comtag Aron degstal Pra RAJESHWARIG Asst Professor, CSE Fig S- PHOocoveLeR OPERATION mt Ce ee |> The fge- deserthe: the bacte opesatton ol an eptocouples. > hthen current 6 not berg apphed uta Pind , the Le & OFF and He cercutt lometed to pias 4 and © {0 expertenctng no current flow. Scanned by CamScanner| > lalhen power ¢s appleed 40 the toput cereuth, the LED sustdches ON , the sensor detects the Le inthates Current IES tn the Output cereuth | tpplecabtons of Phobocoupher ) Used ta Susthch mode power supplies. 2) Used tn signe! tsolatton D> Used en Poveer control, Pe] Modem tommontialtons lus Used tn Controlling transtitors and tract. kk) sed tm taput ei output tis » expectally. én electronically nos enutronments . Scanned by CamScanner@ Bat Beaseng : [Bepolas Tt deo actaanurebey Beaseag ] Comecsing ao external supply +0 the trancerfor % -kooun NT eds bractag. | Wpes of Braking 4 “Thete ase mataly three types 4 biasing a transistor . They are! 1) Base btas or Feved bias #) Cottector to Base btac ety Vo teage Devider betas ost ns ) Bae be & : fo? See Be ® Calactos fo Base bias sa a\ | f ce ps Re Ae Beer | Cc | Nee Me RAJESHWAR} s Asst Protessor, ee Re $ a Fe > Re ee 9) Voltage dtvtdex béas Scanned by CamScanner| | Base Bras or Frved Creuse Speratton and Analyses Sence Vee and Ra are teved quantedtes, Le rematns es and hence tt ts also called tered beas For shes coobipurabion, the bearing arvengement <¢ as che roragens ty 6 |. St nen ce = sey 6. Base btac eescath Vee Lid Re + Base Reststance, Re Collector Recéstance, Ter Base Current, Te Collector Current . Ass iii le 1 claw (kvt) do Base Ceruth. pplg 4 kerchobh', Voltes mr ) ceaaty aan Vee ~ TeRe-Vee =9 Veo = Eg Ry + Vee Delrerene Wren cnet for selecon Vee te 0:39 for Germantunn Coblector cusrent rg Calculated as | Te Scanned by CamScanner| @ | | Prplytng kui 4o collector tereust ( corstids of Meo Re, | Vee = Te Re - Vee =0 | Where Vee renl | —@ | Equealton 3) gives the expresstou nb > colitis metneteen voltage of dered Leas Gruck. >| De Loadlene and epetalng Poeadel otrvedl: Gran eavenee nua os SS aS See > De load bere Oh a transsdor & @ shratght dine cbeavon on the output Charackercshtec Luhech ges the Vartous Zero segnol Values of Vee and I. De leadlene tuhtch represents the zero stgnal Valier of Veeg and Ig fn a dranstedoe co talted g- potuk or Quteccent Sheri Potuk The Q- potut 6 selected where the De load lene Cobersedk the curve of BIT Culput charactersskres Lhen Q- potat & on Y-axts, the tle ceqnal mog cause the transistor to caturate. A part of the olp seqnal well be clépped off [> | fee ibe Qe pork <6 on Xcakvs eae) oes ee lauwe | He Lvaoststor to cut-off , 4 porteou of He olp cgpal | te be aepped | RAJESHWARIGL ASSt Professor, CSE Scanned by CamScannerI Conctda> anal cledlin dias Crcutt as shown tr fs, tor He on Lips of pe load les. ie Apply kvt £0 te Velo loop , cer cle Ral WAei= oO) Near re eevee ena Va Veom| € € iS @ 7 Fer Graphecal construchton of Ie and Vee: Consider J. = Vee — Vee Re Poet on Y-axis + Teo £4" @ bewme TV Pack on agen Re Be = Ake, «2 EEE Bia Sitar Marae , SN [Vee =e | Potak on X-ax ty Te De doad bene Tee Nes Slope = “Vee a cioee ety hak, =O-m ne Vee -0 = SpMee Vee (v) ee Vee Rupe = = pe a Re see Tt Scanned by CamScanner4 @ Base beas or ferech beac clreucd using spp tas transestor —Vee fegt, Base beer crust ung tO Any changes to Vee changes Ty Change tn Ip cause: Te do change, and thiy bende 40 Beturn Te towards th oxigen Level, > Vestage across Ke ex clependent on Vee and Vie ts tndependent Of the Level Of I and Te. > Tf te tncrease above Hus destan Level there 9 an tneieciedl voltage dwop across Re, Se ty reduction a We > The reduced Vie cauce ty to be Lever than the dessqn level. Ls Sree Te= Bays Jy colleilor cirreal 16 allo alae Vimar! Lae | ph, it Scanned by CamScanner, teduchion to Te Produces on dnesease tn Vee, Athtch tncrease Ty , thus 4o the oréginal devel > Stmnttar fendtng to incveace Te back > Apply kvt_ 40 Pe outer loop Vee = Re (Ze+Ze) + Vee W Mee = Vee Re(Tet+Za) —> 4rO > Apple kvt to the boop Vee, In Rg and Vee Vee = Tg Rat Vee — eg © Pe tee Vee~ Re(IetTg) = Tp Re + Vee Nee -Vpe = Isp + Te Redete Ke Vee - Vee = Tol Re +R.) + TeRe Le=P Te te te above equador, FylRet Re) + panes MeV > SubsttJudtn oem be RAJESHWARIGL Asst Professor, CSE Scanned by CamScanner"4 Ehecd of Bmax) and Pemtn) te colledor bo base bias Cérentk > Tr dhe collector 20 base bras ctruth, the Pi Siaee | chrorn Bhe colledor to bere reduces Yra ebbash Clare 5 | Clue to tranctrlor replacement > Thu wieder do bare bear has Greater etabeclity than paren bec Pore @ given aange 9f & values. she bare current tra collector Jo Lace btac efrcuth doecnok remain conctant, sathes Te compensates ws Te taereare lac to negative Pidvack provided by te base bar aertetor Re, even Uthen the douse B lemkcrcelizel cs changed. > © peta [eg hl) eBlliedko r= Los Base Eieuaceers has greater chabilehy agatat B Spread value Yan bare blas Utreuth. I>» Collector to Bare betas céreuth sete pre tranetedos « Pe aS eee Ripa ESAS fo bare betas ctreuth uttng PAP Lranstshor, pobartttes and cureent dixecons fo npn trans tobor llledtor to PP Fox collector lobe hak the voltage je ote eeuersed compare bore bras Urcuth- > Theo “rut con ue arated tn exaukly dhe same vay as npr kranstsbor Chrauth - Scanned by CamScanner| @ mittter Current Bras i iy Bese Devider Bras Cerué 7 | Sei > Cercutt eperatton > Voltage devider bios also known as emttkes curceat bias, \e 7? Tt ta Hu most stable Of the Hrree baste draaststor beastng cércuthe oA voltage dtutder bla: Ureath i thovn wnliga > Votkage divider bias cruuthe are normally destgned 40 have the voltage devides cusrent Langer Han Lranctebor base Lusrent (Te) Tn thip ctreumsbance, Vee te Largly Phacted by Te, Go Vege Can be assumed bo be remata constant . Vas epee Ra ae Ns ] tm l e e | + cou ry I, ( ) ae eae y, RAJESHWARIGL | 19 pe Asst. Professor, CSE | Lae Te Re=Ne |>Re R AY rant € — | Re a= | Ve>>Vee = Fig 4. Mo Wage Devidee Bees Ctruath > Tokal De Lead sn serter Wath Ha tranctitor to (Rete) > Rectrbor Ri ond Re Contttute a voltege Vg Scanned by CamScanner= WHh Vg constank tre vo, actoss Lhe embhber vestitor % also constant . Therefore Ma emtlter current f tonstant, The Te wy Ig 0 also tonsdand. > The dranststor cotleclor to emthter Soe to, A [Vee Ven (ete ce en Sar NE Ain TF 2 Vottage devicler Litas cereus! can be anabgied ta hwo “ways t D Approxemate analyir wt) feccurate analycee iy Voltage devider btas by Opproxtmoade analyets ¢ > Voltage divider bias fs also known as emtbter - cusrene bias, buhech gtves the most shable Operatins poent. > The bevels 0] Te and Vee are tndepenclent ef B ov hpe value *> Tn approx imode aualaccs the bare turrent assumed do be muth smatles than the Voltage devidec | Cussent Ty Tp, << Ta > Restetor Ry and Re Condtluke g Volhage dtvtder that devides the suppl voltage (ve) #2 produce the base eee Vg [= t+ Ty a Scanned by CamScannerSire 0, SST, » tquolton () ltl be, Eee 26 5 ee Fug (0, Voltage devedex btar WE” Shelegenctutdamabte 4 Apeby Kvt trom Vee, Ri, Re RAJESHWARIG L Vee - TR, - Ta Ra =0 Asst. Professor, CSE VCS) Mini Voltage devours Ra Co Ve , ¥v Vala ea Ree Scanned by CamScanner1S: > Arp: je Soe across Re ta Ve le TeRe — 6 Apply kyu to Bare Emsbtes Loop Ve- Vae-Ve=0 Ne = Ve-Vee ae = Ve- Vee -\ *|Te = Va-Vee Iso Re Note: Vac = Ve-‘e BE Kvt bo colledor Emtther Groutt Ve- TeRe —Vee - TeRe =O" Vee = Vee ~TeRe-TpRe ala p oNieee— Vee le Ri o x IcRe [Mee = Vea: (tee) | eg lesicaeataee Equatton @ 4 eves Ha eX press fon 4 emt they wad of Vo Py MPprextmtade anatacen. + wolledor fo < deveder bea ttrased Scanned by CamScannerte t Vetkage divider btas by acurale analysts . > Th anurate analyte, the base Current Tp & conctdered En the analysts of the ctrcuet >The gestsdor Rt and Ra act a6 0 potentea! deveder givteg a fed Voltage to the base Vee RAJESHWARIG iB Asst. Professor, CSE 7 TP Te lneseases duc to change tr Lemperature Change to B , the emtiker Current (Te) treveases Voltage dvop auois Re tncreases — reduct : a Vie. ve Buc bo veduckton ta Vee , Te and Te also Aeduces, “Therefore negative feedbadk extibe . | \N let + Vee tems Cy al fe] Scanned by CamScannera ned Fig 44. shous the sémplifeed ctrcutt of velba a - divides bear. Nee Ros is i Ts, MM Ve ie et J Pigs. Theventns equivalent ctrcuet ie Volant Aevider lofas { [> Lene Re avealen ae replaced by Ry and Vv, nthere RS Parallel tombenalton of Rand Ry VST Thee entas Noles > Theventns Ce iC las ta Zi NEE Rt Re The equtvalent vestance of Parallel tombenatton of Yestskors R1 and Re Ore ea oe Scanned by CamScanner@} > mead kvt +0 the base Uscuth , | | Vr= IgR, + Vee t TeRe V, = TaRy + Vee + (1+B)r,Re | tp = V7 ~-Vee | R, a ( B)Re | oe aad The equatton gre the baste Current o| Theveatns | equtvaleat Grush by Voldage drvtder blas. 7? Avely KVL fo callecdor eereutt Mee ~TeRe-Vee — Te Re =O [er = Ve —me. —TeBe | peice Theo equation ptves the collector to emtller vo e o Voltage drutder bras a Acturede Cee RAJESHWARIG L Asst. Protessor, CSE Scanned by CamScanner3| Problems ¢ )| The base betas ctrcuth ts shown tn Figure t fey Ae Values tndtcateol. Calculate Tg, Te and Vee Sole | Geveo 4 Rea 4tokn Re= 2.2 KD Vera (8V > Ig= Vox Nee B = (8-04 = At0K g-0-4t 2 Beexoo a 440 x102 Th = 36.8 UA eee ase > Te= Ble : Joo x 26.8M = 3.62X10 A Te = 3.6@mA ly Vee= Wee DeRe = 18- (348x103 x 2,2x10") [Mee = 9.4v | Scanned by CamScannerVv, Coleutabe the maxtmun and mintmum levels of Te endl Vee Meee Bare beas ctreuth ty Ftg 2, wnlhen Permta) = 9° [Wipe tenn) = >] and hypcmay)= 200 hpe = 90) 5 Nene) aia | vi } Vee as Geven : Decrease hye lmax) = 200 > Dn= Vee - Vag Re Sasson = 440x103 36-2x 19° 3 hfe (max) = 200 7 RAJESHWARIGL Asst Professor, CSE R= TER = 200 x 36.2 xo = 4636 x)02 Ie = 4.36mp ei 1g -(4.26x107y 22x103 ) Vee = Vee~TeRe = e= 1.8V 7 Scanned by CamScannerCase to hfe (mtn) = 50 Is hy. Ie 6 = 50x 36.8X10 = 48y x04 Te = 184 mA Vee = Vee ~TeRe = (@ — (1.24 x10 vapaey) Te uma) Ope foe ha so Ge Seeto ay h iz Vee (wv) IS.asv The dvanstsfor Ape Value har a mafor lee on te Q-potnt for a base bia: treuth .Belek. the Q+ pont values (Te and Wee)! tor the Cercuet en f Vee = +1aVv Re=l0kn Ra=lookn ) B=100 | rs j Gevens Re = lwokn j; Vee = 12¥ Re = lOkN 4 {8 = too For collecko, to Base blac cescurh, Pee) — Vee Vee 5 drstume Vee = Otv | Ret (itp) Se = 12-04 (t0.0x103)+ (1+ 100) (tox103) Te =lo-1e 4A eerie see ble = toox 10184 RAJESHWARIGL ee ae] Asst. Professor, CSE a= \0i\em Ree Wee = ( Tc+ Fe) Re p = \2 - (10.\« x08 +f ore x 10 3) * 10K 10 Vee = VNR oeWy fa Ex nd Is, Ze and Ve Where Ve=o0.4\. Pree De Load Une and endicate the Q- port. £ele Gewen ; Vec=18v Ro = 2.2kn Rg = Ytoknr hye=100 (1p) Vee= 0.4V For base beac eet ee: eatin — Vice — Vee Re tie \g-o.F nsoxio32 | > Le = Pte = 1oox2e-«xio® [Ta= 262m | Ee as -TeR 3 Vee = Vee eRe ws ed ie — [s.c2xie xe. [Wee = 9-4~ _ | at Fey the base beas cece ie a npn hransesto eS. ey Res2.akn Peeiecic st, Vee teV, “fe IPAS %, “_pnrennnennnararnannnnpnpnnnpn« gngangeeegengnVV" , 32 TVIV ITI ITT ST eee theed Lene Mthen Te=05 Vee = Vee-Te Re becomes Vee =Vee & |Vce= 18 V When Nee =0 2 Nee = Vee~“TeRe © =Vec-TeRe Nel ic Ce lla i 222X103 o. (Ze=8.1g mA Ie (ma) Tece.isnb— pt load ne + 6 : 8 (aa v, 34am) 3 2 1 02 4 6 21s hae fe Veelv) "Vesiav DC Load bene and Q port For the cercuth cheven Fig. Coteatate Ty Te, Vee Ve, Ve and Ver. Assume Vge=0-4V, B=so Vee = 100 PAJESHWARIG | S31 Pratessor ¢Vee =lov Re = Boks Ric lea 0F > Te = Meee Re = Uploads “220 X10? Lg =e ates > Ic = Ble = 50% 42.24 x10- Te = 2.1mA 6 2? Vee = Wen ale Re =) LOM meRIEor se 1.2-X 102 | ma #.463v | | 2 eee |Neeaiaereeny Aeverse béas “ve voltage indicates Hat Base woUeclo, WKT Vee = Ve -Ye Vec = Vp -0 wt Vee= Ve- VE xe Sn Aenea Ae Aha Nn eT ek DA ee ee ee ee eee Pee er ee -For be Vollage dtutdes bfastag eercurt sham tn aa Compuke collector current and Q- potnt. Meee the bc toad Line for the ceveuth Ver = 30V Gtven BR = 6.6k in Ry =lerakn Ro= 3kN Re =460n Mcd= Soy Ulan ewer IeleToo Corcust Shown ta fe ure Can be crodelces tn ordes to Opry Bower eas by Accuxahe Coe Vee = 30 Res 4eoa AJESHWARIG | .5t Prefessor, CSI NAS Vee Ri B+ Ro Batol x 1-2 x 10° SO (6-6x 103) +(1-2 x10?) PRT TUT EPI eve ee aa eeeRr=R, Wee RRr Ri+Ra i il 6-6 x10? x 1.2 X10" (6.6% 109) + (.2x10%) Rr= lois ,.3e pP Ie= V+—Vse P+ (Fp) Re | = 4.6l-0-4 lots.3%4+(1+1t00)% 460 Tp= 90-24 UA | ~ 2 eee > Te= lite)iz = (14 oo) 50.24 x10® G 6 = 5-04 mA >? 2. = Be = = loox 50.24 X10 ee T. =5-02MA | hl Siam We Vee ea RemeneRe : = 50 - ( s.02 10x 3x108)- (5.07 x10 Xeon yes [veel AES Vee- Te (Ret Pe) * Tetma) DC Lead Lene NG | 4 De wad bens, imen reson VeerVew = 30V 44, =, 3 = Mew. ly lohen Weer 95 Te Bir p6 = BO 2x10? + #60 Ie= 4-44mA Sror} --Operatconal Annplifter Applecattons Creuths Drtroducton to opamp ; wd AO ee atronal ampltees te an hegh qin erect ie eHerental ampli tres hte ep Used to perform mathe - matteal operations cuth as added'on, cubtrackion , wlitplicatton, olefPerantvatton ete. NVERTING +Vee Oorpor TERMINAL -Vee OP-AmP symMBOL i OFFSET Nuce , Jy pel go iN A L NVERTING = -—}2 J——+ +\ice SUPPLY upuT + 4 ON- INVERTING 5 y |__. OutpuT NiPUT 4 6 meyice SUPPLY “4+ s}—— OFFSET Nutt Pin DETAILS OF MAaHt oud Fe SESHWARIGL a aS55 timer Ic ts widely used da > PIN BeLark of 555 Limes TC a. oS _—_—__ ~~"—_ Seounn Trrq ger Ovrpur Reset > Features Cy 995 Ic + 555 Timer Ic Pin DETAILS @p-amp appleatte Je + Vee 4 DISCHARGE fp. THResHotP Pee Goyreou VOUTANE PIN DETAILS oF 555 TIMER 4) 565 Lemer can be used $0 produce accurate and heghg ctable dtme delays. 2 Te has dwo oper modec3 t. Monocdable a. Prtable 3) 555 tone can operate Ith Nees caaead belcoe 45v do +18V and can drtve load Upto 2oomh ae peer 4) Ta es compatible Wit th Tre and cmos heate Cercuths | A ee vey hgh demperabure ee [-s5"¢ 4o 1a0'c] ss RAANANARNROAN © HH C6 Ce & freee QDIA ’, nie nan nA> Applecateon: o) 555 ttmer ; Pp ons Of S55 Hemer Pe ced as osetllator. Lenear vamp geerater enn ek. prom Waves, PPM > Frequency deveder > Automatic Ba- chavger. Baste ttmtag cz curtts fee Se (. ‘a—ae “. - Me e er Eltp Nop Rl = Baste Leming deagran O eratton | => Ascume thot output of CRE Lep flop oo heal. Pe= 4, 9-9 Then Will dive the Lvansestos tito saturation. Pn Pade drancestoe 06 across the capacitor | ri o capacitor cannot Coa RAJESHWARIGL asst Professor CSFaad Cordrol voltage &¢ set as reference | potenttal deveder Jocmed by ®, and Re. ( coe ( ( the eee ee Fpitca: Rit Ra Voltage — The voltape across dhe Capac tor (ve) ae Gites to nen toverdtag Lermtnal ©] comparator thee ale “0. aU BO eee deat Yalan f ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ 4 c Sence transetos t conducting | Ve=0 , ‘ a Voltage at eee) Jp: Ve= Ov ‘ Vo te, at & me o f note ye ees Crput (-) 3 Vee X Ra ' De, 5 a » RRL f fate Vita, pe oe Yp @ bese than a Volt inver 2 Sara. alee i “/P 5, Qutput reneetas of ixerc Comparator | Tipd Th ve sy, 3 Opes | E Vac ve @ o/P=0 : I" ss Comparator Output rematns at xero ‘ > New comparator o/p et mo capel Lo" [rus Flop] ' > Reset pin eo apptted’ with Aegh Melspaeis Flep\ Hiop geet eerel) ‘ fe GOD RAM le Onn = 4 : ( Theg turns drancector off and capactlo, shark aasneag exponent tally Sone R K@ ohihen Voie ee eepeePon sl. d) lo threshold cat ex oi ah 2/2 a Rhee ce io, et G)iconl rol volt the comparator Out Fen top, (MMMM EERE, Thee cormparador op soctt set te Sod woe, 4. J Bo ir? 4 =4 Pees © Tie eins ON and rigerb eg Jt. rood any The waver are at shown below; al OurTPur VOLTAGE — Tow klaveform K Mode: of Obenahion Iy Moenostable Mutttvibrato, Mode > Acdablic Mela ae emia anaad eo RAJESHWARIGL O22! Prolessor OSE)) MonostABlLE MuLTIVIGRATOR +V¥ee Ra (> Discuaree (6). TURE SHOUD TRrggee zneur (2) oe ——_+] ae = (4) req 1 Moenostance MULTIVIBRATOR USING IC SSS ale a eS aoe > Monoable multtvebrator has only one stable chal. ? Restslor Re and capacthor C are the Components ‘ comected externally to tesss ‘ —> Threshold voltage (6) anal descharae (4) Pos are , Comected +o each other "The Actas MR ctlee ee monoid atte co ( Shown ta ine Ae ; B : ieee SR = 2, | ? : NOTE ; ea ak nied. see ( Bisig2 + voll ase | Vettane a! Neds Be J ~ “srlsol volta@ Opexectton > Trestally Capactlor Vellage V=0 and Oubput eed is zero, Géneuneaa eee eS fo sek (921) and Transttor 8s Artven Sato satusahton . *. We =O) Same Eutput Voltage = 0 [-0] val Ph hihen negaktve greg tregge: pulse ce appleed ot inigge> foput 4 lowes comparator » then cert rematns uncheial undeh dregger Voltage Geet below Lvec. b Once treagan pula vobton. goers below Ly lowe: Comporetor cotpet goes hegh ass & a threshold Velde. goes below reference voles ($va)\ Upper corporates Selput goes bows (») & Output of the compar ator. SR #lep Prop. [New s=0) (eet to g-! | SR-FF ty verde Paring § 40 go Asgh and trans eto, Ti een off . | £0 whenever copat to they transestor % logec @, Hen ck welt Get Wake le open teoedel, ancl offers Ver hegh tmpedance Ore Given as enput to " Herefore Capaceto, shard, chal through Ra 0 an exponentral haonner. G The output Well remacn hegh ei, 4) to fen Pertocl E VARIG)Soe or | “> The percod. Ai do de to the Lime Ton of moror muttivibrator . Pb AL kets, the capactlor voltage ace B aa mere than 2 Vee and peitompastor output goes high. (3) 6b ence Lreager pulse voltage gee above BEvech lower Cdparator output jae how (0) “. {S=!l, R=-O [| @=41 ,§-0 RRA DO ne ee Ls Thes well set SR-FF Acgl, la=)) foreng G=08¢ Trenstetor Towns ON: . Lb So Wheneve® the copet do thes transéstor & € logee 4, and et well ack Leke a closecl! ceotdeh ¢ therdove capacctor cence do zero. ¢ & Output o# Q rermadas fous LeU the next desa94 Pulse és applced, > Thes low state of output & chable chase Vee 5 3 [ ourpur na > a + 4 | be an Se ee en EN eee ‘ ek _ 8. Tetggys teat =F oor MoNostABLE MuLITVTBLATOR USING IC-5S5 [sche roa bee Dia yrom eS xE | - | hlave. Omms @& of Mmooestable mulbivebratoy =e +Vce [AA an ie ORI Qmeeemipes CPPACZ TOR VarAge ov So 1 Tow Ovreur IAtave 4 Site 0! erent Orage ee | > Meothenatica| €X presseon for On pertool izes) | ce ae ry Papen Nie ey ahrn f EON Teme piewcad |e) ieee chavgéng time of Capacetor. on’ ts the Hime taken by Capactlor Baa): from 0 € 2yQ 3 e Geress Capacthor &c ave $45 STE a. vedas « on capactlor = OV Nes Frnol Ve Ltage elec t, - Velt) = Vee + (o-Vvec)e VRE Ra JESHWARIG L CSE WEle)= Vee fi — & °/02] aD ?G G As capacthor alas amar Ra, seplace R ty! At t= t2 (Ton) , te copacttor veddog~ erclian eae (pre 2Mecs Vee [re yee 3 ee e > Ten/ Rac Se SS alee Peply ies te en Boh Sede. . ~ Ton oN dn 2 = ae Then t6 the expresston a ON tte Perrot ll és dependent on Meat and (o. eh aoa es fee oe fe A OR UR A ee eee ere ie) i nn aeey Pls. of a moncstable Mae ly Frequency dbevtder 2> Messeng Pulse debectos 3) Padie witdth Modulator 4) Pulse Posthton Modulator 1 ' Frequency cltutder ¢ From the Waveform shown to a 2.2, We can sag Phat the operakton of crcuth ts a frequsenes heed er by 2. Output goes hegh corresponding bes' tre Bee negalte gorrg tvegges pulse a De ouiknee e ve dorm és ven Gn et a oe aa Liaeet gs a i Ton = 1.4 Rac. | Frere the tatavelenrie pb te ORteee (El ee mare Cees se Salata eetey then, Hie ferme pertod T of tregges copet seqnel. ee This operation of frequency deutston ts Posstble because mutttutbsates camot be Ariggered targa ON time wt Second Negative going drggey pulze neglected by monostable f Frequency of +: Sager caput Hawa aee co 2 rUrTrr? ieut Srequeney of output voltage fee = Thus fequiney deveston by 2 has taken ple RAJE NORIGL rTTtTTYT TS« | G + Vee G R 4 8 output changes + ie 3 5 G c 5 : : » je a oJ ‘ourpur Mes z ' » Veu Outpad 7 1 vous + FF owe Pee Thiam 2Npor or ae ent nd ns oe : e 2 Fig a1 t Monosraaie ON 1 Wavetown for teequeny ro | FREQUENCY DIVIDER divides appitcattons Migsscen Pulse Deledor “The: jeeseernes of Sad Felsen GD ieckoms cA. Shocan! tin Fy 2 and Wiavelorm tn Fig 2.1 2) aaAnen Tregges trput Mtaseng Paulie @ , + Vee Mec _ ecm 3 ae ear la Aas ik al, SKS z i 30,01 uF s anmece ea ac [% 23 Mtestng Pulse Detector Fig eu ges Pulse Detector Of > blhen tregges input & lov, embetter decode of th. trance oe aed beasecl. The capacttor C gets clenpe to 0.4V aod the output of the tones Goes hgh c > The céveurk te desegned such thot the Lime pertod of © monocdable Ctrcusk &6 Bae > LVen oe ersg ges Pulse ©@ He A dong the Lrsgger pulic tratn Keeps comtag at pta nod, P the output vermains high. SEE patie messes, the devgges toput & hégh and Lrans: stor tm cuba. | » |? 955 timer enters into normal chate ef moveckable operat ml The output goes low afer time T of the meno thot. wi Bes tape of cereus can be used to defect Bascatag heatt beat . Peoeast bese Ths Th can ako be ured for sperd conleod and mearuecment | ~ - | Problems on Monostable Multtvtbralor ‘a Per a monadable multvebsator tems delay Te=ltoom: nj And gesetance R=105kn. Calustate tHe capacttor value. m Gtveo: T= 100ms R= loskn WKT Ten = 1.4Re =3 C= les, ep tooratel =0.865x10° alee 1.4% 105x103 ye a eee ae / fied SS Na Find the restsdive element value do generate Tatom: tine mj clehay , Useng 55S timer as a meneskable mulktvibrator. Assume C=O0.44UF Gewe 2 Ttme delay , Texloms a2 2773 7 RAJESHWARIG | Cote Asst Protessor, CSF WkTr Tow = 1.4R0 Te ery oo 1tsu ka 4.4€ 4.4 xX OAK IO |? eee o.R= 14.34 KH) 5 We can choose chanderd Valse as 1RKsV Tm mc £ stable Multttvebsator 3 An astable multtuibrabor dloesnot have ang _stethe | state, ck keeps changteg He clate from tow to high and beg to low. —|The6 multtvebrator vp also called as Foxe cased multtyibrator Rectangular wave Gps Cor cue 3 Thes multwebrotor doesmok require an external trigger cereust +0 change the state of the outpel | =| The crveurt conbrquratton @| an astable mulkvebsator Shown tw eA 2: ® Vee Re « Re ce Fuep flop 2979%454°5,a2a2282424232°535329° 9 39 AAA A OC. ee le etn 529 9 2, Aitable Multtyibrato, use 4?MO Understand the opecalvon, Let us deve the ctecut} Operation into tivo time interval Toy and Torr 2 ON Time Operation 2 No At t-0, the voltae Ou the capathor Ve=O0. The same Capacthoy Voltons 0 appleed 4o both lregger Potat of lovcer comparator and threshold potat of Bier comparator - Ae capacttos voltage We=0, Wlhtch c¢ Less than LVer, #he Oukpur of lower comparetor gees Wp) As capaho, Voltag « Vce=0, whech te Les thes ae the Cutpul ef upper comparator gee low. t.[s=0, R=) 29-0 ,8=) | Then Causes TT’ to 9°. olf and capacthos stark, charging Hrougl Serfes resestovs Ry and Pp. hen Capactor Moras veadhes 2 Vee , ON deme t0 terminated . > OFF Teme Operation 4 eS BT corns Neen cat omc 3 th. output of Upper comporator = 4 the Output 2} lower Comparator ar) ory Ihe Wen dum on T and outpak at Pen ls) gore (tee RAJESHWARI GL Sbb Genee T te ON, the capactior dlcharges through Re through 'T! and to Hu Ground . Ls The discharge Hime Called ofr time (xt) depends on tu waolue Of Re and ic. s 9239 9DANARAAANABRACABEBEELE FC RAAARAAN Ls blhen Capactdor Voltage veache: 1 Vee pcm Comparator Output are hgh. Thes process of eoreicad aod erttoostiy & coodinuout and hence cereut# oser tates. les “The, teshyerattc iene een ae eels are Qs chown nm Fa 4.4 ~and Fag ok Metpectively), —e +Vce outpur a ; a 1 echematte of 3U-585 Eig be: Hideto fox 2 fo Astable Mocle Astable Opecadion a > Pextod of one cgcle tT] Te+ Tp a merase ence] 4) ates cal . a Pasaset « rr.| ee ay a) . Expreeston Jor T. ps feu Nite Pacted | oVostoge Across Chae capauttos gs veo by reer [ite meal ee Voltage on capactdor £6 Zi It there 6 come tothtal Voltage present , then RV ] [ve= Ve + (vie Vee 1® eRe ee) lhere Ve = Fenal vettage capactdos cao reach . Ve — Torkeal Voskage ©n Capacetos Dard ed tine, Wi Ve NVe= t 3 Vee 3 @O> 2 Vew aa Wer + [vee ~ Ver] eRe ' Also Laan takes place Dhrowgh Re and Ra as Mares Mees en Ne [ay] e BarReye » pera fel (2-!)ve eB Net ae CRNaRaD 3 3s fs » ‘Oita ' Vi = 7& Nee. € Menage) S » Boutes te + = © CRetRa)e ’ tg Sanat Leg on Both side (ee) = Bn (0-5) = — Te he TRatRe\c RAJESHWARIGL hs C4) Rect cralbe eT EO.6q3 = = Te La CRat Rade _ a 0.692(Rpt Re JC ae1 expresston d, Tp [ftecell | Cea devcharge: Srom 2. Vee # 4 Vee | *ie) Neo Sees | 3 Vee Ve = Ne 3 Auge dec chargtag dake: place Lhrougl Re Only . a is <7 | O => pve= Ot [eve-o]e Pec J | | a ae Nd a P/ Rec ign bso 2 ro = rT ie fe alg eh xt. Taken natural tog on € 5 en. Ln (0-5) = als Ke Ry © —0-6943 = -Tp Rac BE okies iy es Ons “Ais a Total perfod : T= Te tT beer WS Oete Rae ouReN CG ee eA Ran, = Px eq uency 7 dot frof = MMS 27s id (Ret 2 Re JC. Expresston Jor 5 pee he Aetegele . "AD = ON Ke a meateeo Total time i . . lees Ore eae 0.693 (Ra+2Re) Cc TH eh vary from 50% So 100°! Arpelicattons 9 A:table Multiveb rotor —==. ; = 1% Cquare Wlave Osetttator (Generator) Free runnta samp Gaal BY Voltage Controlled Oceetlator . Esk Generatos ele, Qquare Wave Osettlatos (Geneeator) Bite tc-rcutt [5 fquare lave Feet a and Felevank Witness ore. shove Rael and cee rane “1 ~ ~ _— - pk dats cyte of re oukpak Volbage Riau bers a Bee Se Te Hip Ra 4WARIGL as CSEouTPUT | ( ‘ | t Seg } 2 r : c Vcc - ¢ Vee =» : c | c ‘ Fig 5.2. ludeared pA a See | Operation Ls-the tteeuth ty astable cereuth only , Witth addetronal dod | > Connected acrors Re : L> Durtrg on dmc, the deode bee Rel Metased ek Pascer Mhe wSestor Ra thos ea a capactor Lake place ks ee Ra and D < ‘ ‘ ‘ &.ee ee ee es ‘7s 277 7 VIF vs ITF ‘v7 > €xprecsion Pos ON dtme, a tdeal diode to Gory, BION Tes 0.648 Rac = aa deschargéng déme “Tp , the dtode & reverse Beare! and discharging through Fa to Nee 0.693 Fee | fe Ot co (oave dbs be: perbect square ak the output We = “0,693 yl = 0.693 Ra CS ” | Re Re ] Py Freq usney of osceLlahion 5 Bre ule > I Ke taro, = 1 0.643( Ra + Rae UG55 tiner 01.4 Yottage Controlledl Oxcelato. (VN co) > Thep ctrestt p otso called ac Vakikage to Frequency Converter. DS The Cercuth detagraro fer the Same 6 Shen) tn Ay 5.3. Th 6 basteally a Astable Mullivitbrofor Witt Pin(s) Connected 40 a Wartable Ac Vedtage called control Voltage Ve (29 |}_. OUTPUT == Frg 5.3. VCO usteg 555 Qperetton ¢ > Greke We tonkeell wetteg elieiipeemeeee Nee oot (When = increases and exceeds Ve, the capacetor GC has +0 a higher voltgge to charge phe Output state nNnnane4eereeeenananr earn chevg- _5 Ds charging teme constant (Rpt Rao % Contant |, Capac quell take tonges Lime to charge +o the requtred vo dag sf 5 Semtharly te withL eke tae Lime to clescharge do Lvs thas the total dtme T=Tet tb well tnevease and Cub pub freq pietl decrease. Us lhen Nigeeeeoces Lelocs Bee eutpak Pre queney sll tncrease- | po een ae eee frequency 8 etactly = equal to normal astable outpub frequency. 64 Poin kite ob Ve appltecl ot pin (sy ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ Ms The faquney and Creuttp lAlork, as VCO-Problems on Asdable Multtvibrator =0.54 Fea an aslable etreush Ria 22kn, Ra= BOkR, C=05 | Ferd on and OFF pertod of the output waveform shown én 4 {ose © tven $ = 22k R2 = Z0okn Cc = OS MF Been ON pereod correspond i chenamal mieeatig| a Capactor aol charging takes ploce theo’ R41 and R2 Te = Ton = 0.693(R, +R3)C at 0-493/@extot)+(aazies)] x 0.5 x10 ¢ Tou = 18x 073 PRSEST ELE BE: Dy a iia OF po veil came aescharging eteicd ofa Capactho + ancl nT oae takes Place ther’ Bo Te = Terr = 0,643 R,C > S16 Taxi Sox/o2 - ai oy ee = 10,395 x93 7 OFF = 10.875 nicely fem A TEESE ESSER ESSE SSS : i RaA AN 2) A 535 tanemme conrgunecl BPE iede le. ailasie Wd bitty Ra=SkL, Ree ska ancl C=0,01HF, Debermoh | ' @iudey cycles eee mre i Ra +2Re D > Career (5x10) + (2x5x003) oe “Eee x 100 1S x 103 of [Di = ee ae a 2a 33°94 2 OT AIALALAEe A PARA Aa:(Ra t2Re) © Lubste me ubstetite Re-t ks Cr above eg Aes aah tC Rat ZR, XO.IXE [Rat FL Ra ) #0,1K15 2x10" = [1.44 ' —— Bi ft uy (a +2Ra)C | exit = 1.44 \ | 2Rax o.1xX107§ . ene Ry, = 1644 | 2X 2X10? « 04) x 19 my ke = 3-6 KNA A 3) Dectgn an Dikable Mulévthwader ustag Soe emer Jon a frequency of 2kHz and a dit egde ef 45H, Assume | C1 =0-1 YF , Sch Géven + fa onus ( D=75% = 2 (04s) ; C=O oF Then Period, Toy = 693 (Rn+ Ro )c — 2 ‘ The tere pevfod, Topp = 0.693 RaC -s| Jee pertod , 7 = Tow + Tore T= 21693 (pny 2Ra)c | > © 1S See rage Rec y) > Duty egele fe geven Cy oe 3 ewe? Cr f Rat2Re ‘ D = RatRae / ae EeE Ret2Re f 2 = Rat Ra a Ra +2Re 3 (Rat 2R,)= 4 (Rat Re) 38a + 6 Ra= URa+H Re 6 Re -4Rs = 4 Py -3Rp to Pa ean@ | Construct and observe the Waveform: @ a aki, Sauer msde. ‘ . htave forn Caan ustag dimer te duty Yy (2) D= oas le) D= 0.45 mee PK kin, pecs WTA Pe), \yy. stale | rr) (Rp +2 Ra)o Dis Vote «| aR Rot 2Rg Prerecming ere Ree ee ee : (Rat2 Ra) x 02 1X10" (Rar2es)= 1.44 2X 103~ o.1x 10° [C807 2Rs)= 4.25 ka CRat2Rs)= 4.25ka —@ 0:25= Kyot+Reg Rp +2Re u Subshetulig ein above eg 0.25= Rats H.2ck pH pe| Ré+2Ra = Yask A+ Pe = [silk Oa © a ae nea Ra = 5.44k an oa Re = S4ybk — ee | Faves , Dey | Wer f= |.by ———— (Rp +2Re)C 3 D= Rat Ra Re+2Re | Asse onlemicl tonsa | [Om 2 = hue (Rp+2Re)x ouxie$ © os = Rate Rot+2Rs Satie Neee eq"@ fn above eq” } O45 = Rat€&e 2a Rp tla = Eee 6 | 425K ce ae | | Peelveaas) eq’ © g@ | Rp + 2Re= F.25KN Rat Re = S43tkn ©Q Q oO Re = xBlsheaANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP) APPLIATION CIRCUITS ‘An Op-Amp is a direct-coupled high gain, high bandwidth differential amplifier with very high value of input impedance and very low value of output impedance. Yee Noninvertng | ‘eps Invorting 0 — — inp Basic Differential Amplifier & Circuit Representation of an OP-Amp ‘The ideal Op-Amp model was derived to simplify circuit calculations. The ideal Op-Amp model makes three assumptions Teal Opa Pracical Op Amp 1. Tnpat sistance (Impedance), Ry <0 Tove inpodnce aie Tapa Tptince rage TOKE Wo 2. Output resistance (impedance), R, = 0 00M 3. Open-loop (differential voltage) gain, Ay= 20 | | Owpatimpenienesire “Dap mpedansange Fo TOM vo 1000 Based on these three assumptions, ‘Ope Top ern voage Ban | Open Toop gan Wm he range OF other assumptions can be derived: a 10,9001 100,000 1. Sinee R\= 9, 1 Tai ie Tada ST 2 time tec ease, ‘BC apa an op st volage | Fine DC apr and op ta 3. Zero DC input and output offset voltages ET | 4. Bandwidth and slew rate are also infinite, as no fre 5. Drift is also zero, as there is no changes in performance over time, temperature, power supply Variations, and so 6. Since outpat voltage depends only on differential input voltage, it rejects any voltage common to both inputs. Hence, common mode gain = 0 Open-loop gain is the differential voltage gain in the absence of any positive or negative feedback. Practical Op- ‘Amps have ~ 1. Input impedance can vary from hundred of kilo-ohms (for some low-grade Op-Amps) to tera-ohms (for high grade Op-Amps).. 2. Output impedance may be in the range of 10 to 100.2 3. Open-loop gain in the range of 10,000 to 1, 00,000 4. Bandwidth i limited and is specified by gain-bandvidth product 5. There may be some finite DC output (refered to as output offset voltage), even when both the inputs are grounded,ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS .K DETECTORS: Peak detector detects holds the most positive value attained by the input signal. shows peak detector circuit, Yo Fen Detected* output DH: | i, ¥, 2 billie: | = cL J sosrer = | T4} switch t 7 During positive half cycle of the input, D-conducts and capacitor charges to peak (highest) value of the input. Capacitor retains its charged value unless and until it discharges with a help of switch ‘The op-amp is connected as a voltage follower and its output voltage will be equal the drop ‘across capacitor which is positive peak value of the applied voltage and will remain that for long periods until next more higher peak occurs at the input. For negative cycle of input, the diode is reverse biased and capacitor retains its value. Modified Peak Detector: More sophisticated peak detector that buffers the signal source from the capacitor is shown in the following, ‘As Op-Amp (A,) is connected as voltage follower, the circuit presents very high impedance to the signal source. Op-Amp (A2) acts as a buffer between the capacitor and the load. Output (Vo) at any given time is equal to the voltage on the capacitor which is nothing but, the peak value of the input occurred up to that time. Whenever the input signal has higher peak than the present one, the capacitor charges up to new high input level. Whenever input level gets dropped, then capacitor retains the peak value of input, asANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Dy gets reverse biased and diode D; prevents amplifier A, output from going into negative saturation, To hold the negative peak of the input signal, reverse the diode connections in the above Figure. © Used for AM in communication © Used in test and measurement instrumentation applications. \CHMITT TRIGGER (REGENERATIVE) COMPARATO! ‘A Schmitt trigger is a fast-operating voltage level detector. Inverting Schmitt Trigger: ‘The input voltage V, is applied to the inverting input terminal and the feedback voltage goes to the non- inverting terminal, This means, the circuit uses positive voltage feedback (i.e., feedback voltage aids the input voltage). If the input voltage at the inverting terminal is slightly positive than feedback voltage at the non-inverting terminal, the output voltage will be negative (negative saturation, Vi); and if the input voltage more negative than the reference feedback voltage, the output will be positive (positive saturation, +V,a). vA Hence, the voltage at the output switches from + Viq to ~Vyq oF vice-versa; are called Upper Trigger Point (UTP) and Lower Trigger Point (LTP). The difference between two trigger points is called Hysteresis ‘The upper and lower trigger points can be written as; UTP = eye Ve LP = aay Yet) i -_ Re Vays = UTP = LTP = Ee Vout — TE Rye Ms R2 ORRANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Anverting Schmitt Trij er: ‘The input voltage Vi, is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and the feedback voltage also goes to the non-inverting terminal. The inverting terminal is grounded... Initially, assume that the output is in the negative saturation (Vig). Then the feedback voltage is also negative. This feedback voltage will hold the output in negative saturation, until the input voltage becomes positive enough to make voltage positive. Let Vj is the voltage at point A. Hence, Vs = IR, Since no current passes through the Op-Amp, entire current flows through Ro, = en Mae ‘Therefore, | = mR ‘When Vi, becomes positive and its magnitude becomes greater than (R2/R,)Via» then the output switches to +Vsq. Therefore, the UTP at which the output switches to +V,s is given by; RoVeat Ry Similarly, when Vj, becomes negative and its magnitude becomes greater than (Ry/Rj)Vjux then the output urP switches to ~Vig, Therefore, the LITP at which the output switches t0 Vw is given by; urp = —Re¥sae “OR RD Mya sure =r = 2 (2) rg = 28% R2 Ry Applications of Schmitt Trigger: ‘Schmitt trigger is used in many applications, where level needs to be sensed. Hysteresis is used to reduce the multiple transitions that can occur around. © Digital to analog conversion © Level detection © Line reception.@ ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Design a Schmitt trigger whose threshold voltages are + 5 V. Draw its wave forms. Choosing op-amp with V.,, = + 13.5 V with supply + 15 V. Vure = +5V Now Vurp ie,5 = ORy+R2 = 2.7K. ie, = 1.7 Ry Choose Rp = 10kQ Ry = 17kQ(U: Ro x13.5 1+ Re ise18kQ) The designed circuit with waveform are shown below. For the circuit shown, R, = 120 © and R, = $1 kQ Determine the threshold voltages, if power supply applied to the op-amps are +15 V and —15 V. Given Vai = +¥ ec = +15V. - Vix = -15V. S1kQ, R2 = 1202 Vou! Rp _ 15120 et 235.2 mv. Ri+Rz 51x10 +120 - Vo Ro _ = 115x120 = = - 35.2mv RitR, — 51x10°+120 7 +¥ee= SV@ ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS: are +12 and ~ 12 V. Assume hysteresis with = 6 V. Given: Vou* =12V; Vou = -12V; andVy = 6V Hee 12.V Hysteresis is given by RoVea* Ro Vous Ri+R2 Ri+Rr ._ 2 Vu “Ri+Rp [Van Va] 2 Rz = 0.25 Ri +0.25 Ro 2.0.75 Ry = 0.25 Ry Ry _ 0.25 Re O75 Assuming 2 V [both positive ] Assume Design Schmitt trigger circuit with UTP = 4 and LTP Fone = 14 Vi Given: Vig = 14V,UTP = 4and LTP = 2V. Vat Ro Ri+Ra = Va Re Rit+Rz oe al ia 4-2 = 2xl4xRo (-) 28 Ri+Rz vet [= TOR] 28R2 = 28, +2R> ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 26R, = 2R; ies R, = 13x10k = 130kQ Design schmitt trigger circuit with UTP = — 2 and LTP =—4V. V, = 14V. We have, 2R2 UTP - LTP = 2R 2Ro Vous Ri+R Ri+R - 2445 28 Ro 2 RR = Ry = 1BRy Let Rz = 10k Also WKT ur + itp = 2RiVner : RitR2 Vret = ~ 2k For the schmitt trigger R, = 3 k® and Ry saturation voltages as + 12 V. Given: Vig* = 12 Vi a" De Ra = Dx1k oF. Vea WKT Vore av (12)x1k a “3k The hysteresis width is given by -4v Ry = 130kQ(120kstd) (Ri +R2 (UTP +LTP) -12V; Wega 14 Ve oF Y, ig = -14V 27 V. Vase = 1 KQ calculate the Vip Vizp and V,, Assume Ry = 3kQ Vee Ry = 2kQ; 24 say, - CID] =FANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS IVE FILTERS: Filter is a frequency selective circuit commonly used in signal processing that passes signal of specified range of frequencies and blocks the signals of frequencies outside the band. Active filters are attractive due to their — * Flexibility in gain control * Small component size * No loading Problem Pass band gain ‘+ Use of the inductors can be avoided Filters are useful in many areas of applications, such as Communication and Signal Processing. They are found in electronic systems like Radio, Television, Telephones, Radars, satellites, and Biomedical instruments. Digital Filters Passive Filters Broader Classification of Filters Active Filters Passive filters work for high frequencies: but at audio frequencies, the inductors become problematic, as they are large, heavy, high power dissipation, and expensive. Active filters use Op-Amp as the active element, resistors and capacitors as passive elements, SNo. Passive Filters ‘Active Filters Filters with only components like | Filters with components such as Op-Amps, 1 | resistors, capacitors, and inductors are | transistors, and other active elements are known known as passive filters, as active filters. Passive fillers do not require an external Active filters require an external power supply 2. | power source for operation; incapable of for operation; capable of providing power gain. providing power gain. Better stability and can withstand large | Oscillations and noise will be generated due to currents feedback loops. 4 [A passive filter has no frequency |Due to active elements, active filters haveANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS limitations. Frequency limitations. Passive filters circuits are bulky’ heavy due to the presence of inductors; they | Active filters circuits are more compact, less consume more power and operate with | heavy; and operate with high speed. limited speed. Difficult to fabricate in IC form and Can be fabricated in IC form and usually 6 | usually designed using discrete : designed using discrete components. components. Active filters offer the following advantages over Passive filters; * Gain and frequency adjustment flexibility + No loading problem & No insertion loss and weight © Cost Most commonly used active filters are ~ * Low-pass filter, High-pass filter, Band-pass filter, Band-stop filter (Band-reject filter), and All- pass filter. Frequency Response: Low pass Filter response High pass Filter response: | Ideal Response a Pass band top band Sy Frequency —> Band pass filter frequency response Band reject fiter frequency response deal Response ’ fq Frequency —>ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS ‘An active filter generally uses Op-Amp. Op-Amp has very high input impedance and low output impedance. The gain is determined by the resistive network in the feedback loop. First Oder Active Low-Pass Filter (LPF): ‘The first-order low-pass butter worth filter consists of a single RC filter stage, providing a low frequency path to the non-inverting input of an Op-Amp. The circuit diagram and the frequency response of the Voltage Gain. 0.7074, 46> (3 dB) Tu Frequency —> + From the graph; the gain (A,) is almost constant for the frequency range: 0 + Pass band gain is given by: Ap = 1+ Determine the values of Resistance required for second order low pass Butter worth filter having cut-off frequency as 15 k rad/sec with capacitor value as 0.01 HF. Given: wy, = 15 k tad/sec, C = 0.01 F. From equation (7.38) 1 Si= TrIRRCs But R, = Ry = Rand C, = C, = C and Cas 0.01 pF 1 1 fae, (R)? x(0.01x10-*)? “lexrxooxio® and @ y= 2mfy= 15 k rad’sec = 2m x fy=15 «10? fy= SAO 2.3870 kee on substituting f,,in equation(*), it becomes an R=667KQ R= Ry= 6.67 kA 2.3870x10° = Design a second order low pass filter with cut-off frequency of 10 KHz and unity gain at low Sequency. Also calculate the voltage transfer function magnitude at 15 kHz for the filter. 1 Given: Cut-off frequency fn = 2aRC c= =—1__=1592x10* 2nfy 2nx10x10 “6 Let R = 100 kQ, then 1592x107" = 0.159 pF 100x10 Therefore C, = 0.159 pF and C, = 0.159 pF The voltage transfer function is given by Vols) _ eos 1 (ie | 10x 6% Tals = 0.406ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS draw the circuit diagram. Given : fy, = 200 Hz. Choose R, = R; = R and C, = C,= C= 0.1 pF Now, let us find value of R ie 1 Sus choosing —-R, = 10k R 1 14451586 200=———_1_, “ 2nx RX0.1x10% R R= 7.96 kQ) FL a1, Ry = 5.86 k2 For adjustment use 10 kQ pot. High-pass filters passes higher frequency signals, attenuating all signals below cut-off frequency, f.. First Order High-Pass Butter Worth Filter: The filter circuit consists of a passive filter followed by a non-inverting amplifier. R R, 4 [Slope + 20 aBdecade a0, 4b Wane] oan) Stop band Pass hand 9 ht Frequency —> Atl reguoney:/< fi < An Ar inreases atthe ate of 20 Bea il + Atcutoff frequency, f= fi, the gain is 0.707Ap. # Atvery high frequeney /> fi, 22 Aris constant * The cutoff frequency is given by: fi = eRe # Pass band gai s given by: Ap 1+ 5ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Design a first order high pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 10 kHz with pass band gain of 2 Given: f, = 101 kHz (given) | Choose C <1 uF, Let C=0.01 pF 1 Caleulate R = 5 1 2%x10x10* x0.01x10°° Choosing R, = 10 kQ(say), ‘ond Order High-Pass Fil {A first order high-pass filter can be converted into a second order high-pass filter by using an extra RC- network in the input side. The frequency response of second order high-pass filter is same as the first order high-pass filter except that the gain at the stop band rolls off at the rate of 40 dB/decade Voltage Slope + 40 dBidecade 1 + The cutoff frequency is given by: fy = epee 1 © R= Ry=R& C= Cy= Cythen fy = =o © Pass band gain is given by: Ap =ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Forthe circuit shown in Figure find (a) lower cut-ofF frequency (B) pass band gain Given: Ry = R; = 16 kO and C, = C, = 0.01 uF (a) The lower cut-off frequency for second order high pass filter is given by 1 1 PARRA: og (6x10?) @.o1x10) Fz =1kHi| 5) The pass band gain is =1kHz Ry Apalt Se eR Ap = 1586 Active Band-Pass Filter: Active band-pass filters provide an effective means of making a filter to pass only a given band of frequencies. An active band-pass filter can be constructed by cascading a single low-pass filter with a single high-pass filter, as shown below: del Highepass |) Amplification Lig) Tow-rass Ly filter filter out ‘The cut-off frequency of the low-pass filter is higher than the cut-off frequency of the high-pass filter; and the difference between these frequencies at the -34B point will give the “bandividéh’ of the band-pass filter. A band-pass filter can be characterized by Quality factor (Q). The relation between Q, 3dB fe = fe Bw Fu-Te bandwidth, and the centre frequency, fo, is given by; QANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS ‘A low Q-filter will have a wide-pass-band; i., with Q < 10. It has wide flat response over the range of frequencies and bandwidth is large. R Single stage first order Bandpass filter: ji if Q WW RX CQ Ry % WE LPS Loy, Rs ‘ow Band-Pass Filter: ter will have a narrow-pass-band; ie., with Q@ > 10. It has a sharp bell type response, with high gain and high selectiv ° fe= sR asANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Comte Frequenty Frequency (H2) Filters (BPF, © BPFs are also used in optics like Lasers, LIDARS, etc. © BPFs are extensively used in wireless transmitters and receivers. © PFs are used in electronic devices like Sonar, Seismology; and medical applications like ECG, and electrocardiograms, ©. BPFs are extensively used for Audio signal proces ing, where a particular range of frequencies of sound is required while removing the rest. Band-Stop Filter (Band-Reject Filter): Band-Stop Filer (BSF) is another type of frequency selective circuit that functions in exactly opposite to the band-pass filter. BSF passes all frequencies with the exception of those within a specified stop band, which are attenuated. If this stop band is very narrow and highly attenuated over a few hertz, then the band-stop filter is referred as a notch filter. Wide Band-Reject Filter ‘The frequency response curve and the circuit diagram of a wide band-reject filter is given below. t A Pass Pas: aks Reject Band 0.707 |C- ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Design a basic wide-band, RC ban 4 higher cut-off frequency of 800 and Q of the circuit. Given: f, = 200 Hz, f,, = 800 Hz We have id stop filter with a lower cut-off frequency of 200Hz and 4. Find the geometric center frequency, -34B bandwidth The upper and lower cut-off. Frequency points for a band stop filter can be found using the same formula as that for both the low and high pass filters. Assuming a capacitor, C value for both filter sections of 0.1 uF, the values of the two frequency determining resistors, R, and R,, are calculated as follows. sc Low Piss Filter Section Teel ads fn = +} = 800K and C= O.1uF f= 00 Hz and C = ONE 0 ee Ry = ———!__ = 1990. or 2k ake 284 =F yx800%0.1x10