THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS BEGAN WITH PRIMITIVE DESIGNS IN THE EARLY 19TH

CENTURY AND WENT ON TO CHANGE THE WORLD DURING THE 20TH CENTURY.

The history of computers goes back over 200 years. At first theorized by mathematicians and
entrepreneurs, during the 19th century mechanical calculating machines were designed and built
to solve the increasingly complex number-crunching challenges. The advancement of technology
enabled ever more-complex computers by the early 20th century, and computers became larger
and more powerful.

Today, computers are almost unrecognizable from designs of the 19th century, such as Charles
Babbage's Analytical Engine — or even from the huge computers of the 20th century that
occupied whole rooms, such as the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator.  

Here's a brief history of computers, from their primitive number-crunching origins to the
powerful modern-day machines that surf the Internet, run games and stream multimedia. 

19TH CENTURY

1801: Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French merchant and inventor invents a loom that uses punched
wooden cards to automatically weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch
cards.

1821: English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-driven calculating machine

that would be able to compute tables of numbers. Funded by the British government, the project,
called the "Difference Engine" fails due to the lack of technology at the time, according to
the University of Minnesota. 

1848: Ada Lovelace, an English mathematician and the daughter of poet Lord Byron, writes the
world's first computer program. According to Anna Siffert, a professor of theoretical
mathematics at the University of Münster in Germany, Lovelace writes the first program while
translating a paper on Babbage's Analytical Engine from French into English. "She also provides
her own comments on the text. Her annotations, simply called "notes," turn out to be three times
as long as the actual transcript," Siffert wrote in an article for The Max Planck Society.
"Lovelace also adds a step-by-step description for computation of Bernoulli numbers with
Babbage's machine — basically an algorithm — which, in effect, makes her the world's first
computer programmer." Bernoulli numbers are a sequence of rational numbers often used in
computation.

1853: Swedish inventor Per Georg Scheutz and his son Edvard design the world's first printing
calculator. The machine is significant for being the first to "compute tabular differences and print
the results," according to Uta C. Merzbach's book, "Georg Scheutz and the First Printing
Calculator" (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1977).

1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch-card system to help calculate the 1890 U.S. Census.
The machine,  saves the government several years of calculations, and the U.S. taxpayer
approximately $5 million, according to Columbia University  Hollerith later establishes a
company that will eventually become International Business Machines Corporation (IBM).

EARLY 20TH CENTURY

1931: At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Vannevar Bush invents and builds
the Differential Analyzer, the first large-scale automatic general-purpose mechanical analog
computer, according to Stanford University. 

1936: Alan Turing, a British scientist and mathematician, presents the principle of a universal
machine, later called the Turing machine, in a paper called "On Computable Numbers…"
according to Chris Bernhardt's book "Turing's Vision" (The MIT Press, 2017). Turing machines
are capable of computing anything that is computable. The central concept of the modern
computer is based on his ideas. Turing is later involved in the development of the Turing-
Welchman Bombe, an electro-mechanical device designed to decipher Nazi codes during World
War II, according to the UK's National Museum of Computing. 

1937: John Vincent Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University,

submits a grant proposal to build the first electric-only computer, without using gears, cams,
belts or shafts.

1939: David Packard and Bill Hewlett found the Hewlett Packard Company in Palo Alto,
California. The pair decide the name of their new company by the toss of a coin, and Hewlett-
Packard's first headquarters are in Packard's garage, according to MIT. 

1941: German inventor and engineer Konrad Zuse completes his Z3 machine, the world's earliest
digital computer, according to Gerard O'Regan's book "A Brief History of Computing"
(Springer, 2021). The machine was destroyed during a bombing raid on Berlin during World
War II. Zuse fled the German capital after the defeat of Nazi Germany and later released the
world's first commercial digital computer, the Z4, in 1950, according to O'Regan. 

1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design the first digital electronic
computer in the U.S., called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). This marks the first time a
computer is able to store information on its main memory, and is capable of performing one
operation every 15 seconds, according to the book "Birthing the Computer" (Cambridge Scholars
Publishing, 2016)

1945: Two professors at the University of Pennsylvania, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert,
design and build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). The machine is
the first "automatic, general-purpose, electronic, decimal, digital computer," according to Edwin
D. Reilly's book "Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology" (Greenwood
Press, 2003). 

1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding from the
Census Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business and
government applications.
1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invent
the transistor. They discover how to make an electric switch with solid materials and without the
need for a vacuum.

1949: A team at the University of Cambridge develops the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator (EDSAC), "the first practical stored-program computer," according to O'Regan.
"EDSAC ran its first program in May 1949 when it calculated a table of squares and a list
of prime numbers," O'Regan wrote. In November 1949, scientists with the Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR), now called CSIRO, build Australia's first digital computer
called the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Automatic Computer (CSIRAC).
CSIRAC is the first digital computer in the world to play music, according to O'Regan.

LATE 20TH CENTURY

1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as
COBOL, which stands for COmmon, Business-Oriented Language according to the National
Museum of American History. Hopper is later dubbed the "First Lady of Software" in her
posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom citation. Thomas Johnson Watson Jr., son of IBM
CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr., conceives the IBM 701 EDPM to help the United Nations
keep tabs on Korea during the war.

1954: John Backus and his team of programmers at IBM publish a paper describing their newly
created FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, according
to MIT.

1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the computer chip.
Kilby is later awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work.

1968: Douglas Engelbart reveals a prototype of the modern computer at the Fall Joint Computer
Conference, San Francisco. His presentation, called "A Research Center for Augmenting Human
Intellect" includes a live demonstration of his computer, including a mouse and a graphical user
interface (GUI), according to the Doug Engelbart Institute. This marks the development of the
computer from a specialized machine for academics to a technology that is more accessible to
the general public.

1969: Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie and a group of other developers at Bell Labs produce
UNIX, an operating system that made "large-scale networking of diverse computing systems —
and the internet — practical," according to Bell Labs.. The team behind UNIX continued to
develop the operating system using the C programming language, which they also optimized. 

1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory
(DRAM) chip.

1971: A team of IBM engineers led by Alan Shugart invents the "floppy disk," enabling data to
be shared among different computers.
1972: Ralph Baer, a German-American engineer, releases Magnavox Odyssey, the world's first
home game console, in September 1972 , according to the Computer Museum of America.
Months later, entrepreneur Nolan Bushnell and engineer Al Alcorn with Atari release Pong, the
world's first commercially successful video game. 

1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox, develops Ethernet for
connecting multiple computers and other hardware.

1977: The Commodore Personal Electronic Transactor (PET), is released onto the home
computer market, featuring an MOS Technology 8-bit 6502 microprocessor, which controls the
screen, keyboard and cassette player. The PET is especially successful in the education market,
according to O'Regan.

1975: The magazine cover of the January issue of "Popular Electronics" highlights the Altair
8080 as the "world's first minicomputer kit to rival commercial models." After seeing the
magazine issue, two "computer geeks," Paul Allen and Bill Gates, offer to write software for the
Altair, using the new BASIC language. On April 4, after the success of this first endeavor, the
two childhood friends form their own software company, Microsoft.

1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak co-found Apple Computer on April Fool's Day. They
unveil Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board and ROM (Read Only Memory),

1977: Radio Shack began its initial production run of 3,000 TRS-80 Model 1 computers —
disparagingly known as the "Trash 80" — priced at $599, according to the National Museum of
American History. Within a year, the company took 250,000 orders for the computer,

1977: The first West Coast Computer Faire is held in San Francisco. Jobs and Wozniak present
the Apple II computer at the Faire, which includes color graphics and features an audio cassette
drive for storage.

1978: VisiCalc, the first computerized spreadsheet program is introduced.

1979: MicroPro International, founded by software engineer Seymour Rubenstein, releases

WordStar, the world's first commercially successful word processor. WordStar is programmed
by Rob Barnaby, and includes 137,000 lines of code, according to Matthew G. Kirschenbaum's
book "Track Changes: A Literary History of Word Processing" (Harvard University Press,
2016).

1981: "Acorn," IBM's first personal computer, is released onto the market at a price point of
$1,565, according to IBM. Acorn uses the MS-DOS operating system from Windows. Optional
features include a display, printer, two diskette drives, extra memory, a game adapter and more.
The Acorn was IBM's first personal computer and used MS-DOS operating system. (Image
credit: Getty / Spencer Grant)

1983: The Apple Lisa, standing for "Local Integrated Software Architecture" but also the name
of Steve Jobs' daughter, according to the National Museum of American History (NMAH), is the
first personal computer to feature a GUI. The machine also includes a drop-down menu and
icons. Also this year, the Gavilan SC is released and is the first portable computer with a flip-
form design and the very first to be sold as a "laptop."

1984: The Apple Macintosh is announced to the world during a Superbowl advertisement. The
Macintosh is launched with a retail price of $2,500, according to the NMAH. 

1985: As a response to the Apple Lisa's GUI, Microsoft releases Windows in November 1985,
the Guardian reported. Meanwhile, Commodore announces the Amiga 1000.

1989: Tim Berners-Lee, a British researcher at the European Organization for Nuclear Research
(CERN), submits his proposal for what would become the World Wide Web. His paper details
his ideas for Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), the building blocks of the Web. 

1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on PCs.

1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at Stanford University.

1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which at the time is struggling financially.  This
investment ends an ongoing court case in which Apple accused Microsoft of copying its
operating system. 

1999: Wi-Fi, the abbreviated term for "wireless fidelity" is developed, initially covering a
distance of up to 300 feet (91 meters) Wired reported. 

21ST CENTURY

2001: Mac OS X, later renamed OS X then simply macOS, is released by Apple as the successor
to its standard Mac Operating System. OS X goes through 16 different versions, each with "10"
as its title, and the first nine iterations are nicknamed after big cats, with the first being
codenamed "Cheetah.

2003: AMD's Athlon 64, the first 64-bit processor for personal computers, is released to
customers. 

2004: The Mozilla Corporation launches Mozilla Firefox 1.0. The Web browser is one of the
first major challenges to Internet Explorer, owned by Microsoft. During its first five years,
Firefox exceeded a billion downloads by users, according to the Web Design Museum. 

2005: Google buys Android, a Linux-based mobile phone operating system

2006: The MacBook Pro from Apple hits the shelves. The Pro is the company's first Intel-based,
dual-core mobile computer. 
2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7 on July 22. The new operating system features the ability
to pin applications to the taskbar, scatter windows away by shaking another window, easy-to-
access jumplists, easier previews of tiles and more,

2010: The iPad, Apple's flagship handheld tablet, is unveiled.

2011: Google releases the Chromebook, which runs on Google Chrome OS.

2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows 10.

2016: The first reprogrammable quantum computer was created. "Until now, there hasn't been
any quantum-computing platform that had the capability to program new algorithms into their
system. They're usually each tailored to attack a particular algorithm," said study lead author
Shantanu Debnath, a quantum physicist and optical engineer at the University of Maryland,
College Park.

2017: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is developing a new

"Molecular Informatics" program that uses molecules as computers. "Chemistry offers a rich set
of properties that we may be able to harness for rapid, scalable information storage and
processing," Anne Fischer, program manager in DARPA's Defense Sciences Office, said in a
statement. "Millions of molecules exist, and each molecule has a unique three-dimensional
atomic structure as well as variables such as shape, size, or even color. This richness provides a
vast design space for exploring novel and multi-value ways to encode and process data beyond
the 0s and 1s of current logic-based, digital architectures."