UNIT – 3

NETWORK LAYER
PART – A

1.Identify when the forwarding table used.

 The decision-making table, a router normally uses for applying this action is
called the forwarding table.
 The forwarding table is conceptually just a list of (NetworkNum, NextHop) pairs.
 There is also a default router that is used if none of the entries in the table
matches the destination’s network number.

2. What are the metrics used by routing protocols?

The following are metrics used in determining the best path for a routing protocol:
 Bandwidth – Throughput speed in bits per second
 Cost – An arbitrary value assigned by an administrator for the intersecting of
networks
 Delay – Network latency caused by such factors as distance or congestion
 Hop Count – The number of routers (hops) a packets passes through to its destination
 Load – Measurement of traffic that flows through a router
 MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) – The largest unit size allowed to be transmitted
on all routes from source to destination
 Reliability – Represents the amount of network downtime, that is, how reliable a
network path is?
 Ticks – Measurement of delay, where is tick is 1/18 of a second. A tick is used as
part of the routing protocol IPX RIP

3. Choose the class of the following IP address:

(a) 110.34.56.45
(b) 212.208.63.23

(a) 110.34.56.45
Class A
(b) 212.208.63.23
Class C

4. How would you design Class A, Class B and Class C of IP?

5. Define routing
The process by which nodes exchange topological information to build correct
forwarding tables are said to be routing.

6. Draw the sketch of IPv4 packet header.

7. What is Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an inter domain routing protocol using path vector
routing traffic on the internet can be classified into two types:
 Local traffic that starts/ends on nodes within an AS
 Transit traffic that passes through an AS

8. Discover the network address in a class A subnet with the IP address of one of the
hosts as 25.34.12.56 and mask 255.255.0.0?

Subnet address = IP address of system logical and with bnet mask Given IP address is
25.34.12.56 and subnet mask is 255.255.0.0 Then subnet address is calculated by
9. Demonstrate the need for sub netting?
Subnetting is breaking up a single network into smaller networks. To do this, you add
more bits (more numbers) to the subnet mask. Traditionally, we are used to seeing subnet
masks that look like 255.0.0.0, 255.255.0.0, or 255.255.255.0.

10. Explain packetizing.

 The first duty of the network layer is definitely packetizing.
 This means encapsulating the payload (data received from upper layer) in a
network-layer packet at the source and decapsulating the payload from the network-
layer packet at the destination.
 The network layer is responsible for delivery of packets from a sender to a receiver
without changing or using the contents.

11. What is the need for fragmentation?

Fragmentation is necessary for data transmission, as every network has a unique
limit for the size of datagrams that it can process. This limit is known as the maximum
transmission unit (MTU).

12. Analyze how routers differentiate the incoming unicast, multicast and broadcast IP
packets

 Unicast: from one source to one destination i.e. One-to-One

 Broadcast: from one source to all possible destinations i.e. One-to-All
 Multicast: from one source to multiple destinations stating an interest in
receiving the traffic i.e. One-to-Many

13. What is multicast routing?

 Multicast routing is the process by which the multicast distribution trees are
determined or, more concretely, the process by which the multicast forwarding tables are
built.

14. Can you relate the two different classes of routing protocol?

15. Differentiate between forwarding table and routing table

ROUTING TABLE FORWARDING TABLE

A routing table uses a packet's destination
IP address to determine which IP address
should next receive the packet, that is, the
"next hop" IP address.
A routing table is a representation of the L3
forwarding table, based on IP
"Routing table" is a subset of "forwarding
table". All routing tables are a form of
forwarding tables.
A forwarding table uses the "next hop" IP
address to determine which interface should
deliver the packet to that next hop, and
which layer 2 address (e.g., MAC address)
should receive the packet on multipoint
interfaces like Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
A "forwarding table" is a more generic term
that could include L2 forwarding, MPLS
forwarding, PBR forwarding, or anything
else that isn't strict IP routing.
Forwarding table is not a subset of routing
table.

16. Discover the OSPF header format?

Major fields of the OSPF packet header are as follows:
 Version—OSPF version number, which is 2 for OSPFv2.
 Type—OSPF packet type from 1 to 5, corresponding to hello, DD, LSR, LSU,
and LSAck, respectively.
 Packet length—Total length of the OSPF packet in bytes, including the header.
 Router ID—ID of the advertising router.
 Area ID—ID of the area where the advertising router resides.
 Checksum—Checksum of the message.
  AuType—Authentication type, ranging from 0 to 2, corresponding to non-
authentication, simple (plaintext) authentication, and MD5 authentication,
respectively.
 Authentication—Information determined by authentication type. It is not defined
for authentication type 0. It is defined as password information for authentication
type 1, and defined as Key ID, MD5 authentication data length, and sequence
number for authentication type 2.

17. Recommend the benefits of Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol?
OSPF ADVANTAGES:
 Authentication
 Support for hierarchy within a single routing domain
 Multiple same-cost paths and
 Integrated support for unicast and multicast routing.

18. Determine the two major mechanisms defined to help transition from IPv4 to IPv6.
The two major mechanisms defined to help transition from IPv4 to IPv6:
 Dual Stack Routers
 Tunneling
DUAL STACK ROUTERS:
In dual-stack router, A router’s interface is attached with IPv4 and IPv6 addresses
configured are used in order to transition from IPv4 to IPv6.
TUNNELING:
Tunneling is used as a medium to communicate the transit network with the
different IP versions.

19. Test whether the following IPv6 address notations are correct.
(a) ::0F53:6382:AB00:67DB:BB27:7332
(b) 7803:42F2:::88EC:D4BA:B75D:11CD
(a) ::0F53:6382:AB00:67DB:BB27:7332
x The given IPv6 address notation ::0F53:6382:AB00:67DB:BB27:7332 is valid.
(b)7803:42F2:::88EC:D4BA:B75D:11CD
The given IPv6 address notation 7803:42F2:::88EC:D4BA:B75D:11CD is invalid.
Two or more block of zeroes can be represented only by two ::
But in the above address there mentioned three ::: by this IPV6 is proved to be invalid.

20. Identify all the metrics used by routing protocols?

The following are metrics used in determining the best path for a routing protocol:
 Bandwidth – Throughput speed in bits per second
  Cost – An arbitrary value assigned by an administrator for the intersecting of
networks
 Delay – Network latency caused by such factors as distance or congestion
 Hop Count – The number of routers (hops) a packets passes through to its destination
 Load – Measurement of traffic that flows through a router
 MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) – The largest unit size allowed to be transmitted
on all routes from source to destination
 Reliability – Represents the amount of network downtime, that is, how reliable a
network path is?
 Ticks – Measurement of delay, where is tick is 1/18 of a second. A tick is used as
part of the routing protocol IPX RIP

4. TRANSPORT LAYER
PART – A

1.Conclude what would you infer from the term RTT?

Round-trip time (RTT) is the duration in milliseconds (ms) it takes for a network
request to go from a starting point to a destination and back again to the starting point.

2. List the flag used in TCP header.

Flag contains six control bits known as flags.
 URG — segment contains urgent data.
 ACK — value of acknowledgment field is valid.
 PUSH — sender has invoked the push operation.
 RESET — receiver wants to abort the connection.
 SYN — synchronize sequence numbers during connection establishment.
 FIN — terminates the TCP connection.

3. Summarize IP addresses versus port numbers

An IP address is the address of the layer-3 IP protocol. Different layer-3 protocols use
different addressing, e.g. IPv4, IPX, and IPv6 each have different addressing. A port number
is a layer-4 address used by some layer-4 protocols, e.g. TCP and UDP. Some layer-4
protocols use different addressing, or none at all.

4. What is the purpose of TCP push operation?

To assure that data submitted to a TCP is actually transmitted the sending user
indicates that it should be pushed through to the receiving user. A push causes the TCPs to
promptly forward and deliver data up to that point to the receiver.

5. Identify how a well-known port different from an ephemeral port?

 The client program defines itself with a port number, called the ephemeral port
number.
 The word ephemeral means “short-lived” and is used because the life of a client is
normally short.
 An ephemeral port number is recommended to be greater than 1023.
 These port number ranges from 49,152 to 65,535 .
 They are neither controlled nor registered. They can be used as temporary or private
port numbers.
 Eg. while the daytime client process, a well-known client program, can
use an ephemeral (temporary) port number, 52,000, to identify itself, the daytime
server process must use the well-known (permanent) port number 13.

6. List the different phases used in TCP connection

THE DIFFERENT PHASES USED IN TCP CONNECTION:
 Connection establishment
 Data transfer connection termination

7. Differentiate between TCP and UDP

TCP
It is a communications protocol, using
which the data is transmitted between
systems over the network.
TCP is a connection oriented protocol.
In TCP the data is transmitted in a particular
sequence which means that packets arrive
in-order at the receiver.
TCP is slower and less efficient in
performance as compared to UDP. Also
TCP is heavy-weight as compared to UDP.
Retransmission of data packets is possible
in TCP in case packet get lost or need to
resend
UDP
It is same as the TCP protocol except this
doesn’t guarantee the error-checking and
data recovery. the data will be sent
continuously, irrespective of the issues in
the receiving end.
UDP is a connection less protocol
On other hand there is no sequencing of data
in UDP in order to implement ordering it
has to be managed by the application layer.
On other hand UDP is faster and more
efficient than TCP.
On other hand retransmission of packets is
not possible in UDP.

8. Identify when can an application make use of UDP?

APPLICATION OF UDP:
 UDP is used for management processes such as SNMP.
 UDP is used for route updating protocols such as RIP.
 UDP is a suitable transport protocol for multicasting.
 Multicasting capability is embedded in the UDP software
 UDP is suitable for a process with internal flow and error control mechanisms such as
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP).
 UDP is suitable for a process that requires simple request-response communication
with little concern for flow and error control.

9. Discover the services provided by Transport layer protocol?

 Process-to-Process Communication
 Stream Delivery Service
 Full-Duplex Communication
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Reliable Service

10. List the various congestion control techniques in TCP.

1. Additive Increase / Multiplicative Decrease (AIMD)
 2. Slow Start
3. Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery

11. How does UDP address flow control mechanism?

 UDP is a very simple protocol.
 There is no flow control, and hence no window mechanism.
 The receiver may overflow with incoming messages.
 The lack of flow control means that the process using UDP should provide for this
service, if needed.

12. State the purpose of service model.

A service delivery model is used by a network operator to define and manage how a
service is engineered in the network. It can be used by a human operator (such as via a
management station) or by a software tool to instruct network components.

13. How RTT is computed?

Round Trip Time (RTT) is the measure of how long it takes for a very small packet to travel
across the network and for an acknowledgment of that packet to be returned. The propagation
delay is usually the dominant component in RTT and you can get a good estimate of RTT by
a simple formula: RTT = 2 x Propagation delay.

14. Justify that TCP is a reliable byte stream protocol?

TCP guarantees the reliable, in order delivery of a stream of bytes. It is a full-duplex
protocol, meaning that each TCP connection supports a pair of byte streams, one flowing in
each direction.

15. Classify the advantages of connection oriented services over connectionless services
ADVANTAGES:

1. In connection oriented service authentication is needed, while connectionless service

does not need any authentication.

2. Connection oriented protocol makes a connection and checks whether message is

received or not and sends again if an error occurs, while connectionless service
protocol does not guarantees a message delivery.

3. Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service.

4. Connection oriented service interface is stream based and connectionless is message

based.

16. Suppose a TCP connection is transferring a file of 5000 bytes. The first byte is
numbered 10001.What are the sequence numbers for each segment if data are sent in
three segments, each carrying 1000 bytes.

Segment 1  sequence number: 10,001 ( range: 10,001 to 11,000)

Segment 2  sequence number: 11,001 ( range: 11,001 to 12,000)
Segment 3  sequence number: 12,001 ( range: 12,001 to 13,000)
17. What is a socket address?
Socket address is the combination of an IP address (location of computer) and a port (
application program process) into a single entity.

18. Formulate what will happen if Congestion Control is not implemented in a Network

19. List down TCP services

 Process-to-Process Communication
 Stream Delivery Service
 Full-Duplex Communication
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Reliable Service

20. Compare unicast, multicast and broadcast routing