Mechanical & Systems Engineering

Laboratory Assignment 1: Tensile Test on Mild Steel

https://sm-nitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp13/index.html

Aim
To study the mechanical properties of Mild Steel specimen under tension load

Equipment
Universal Testing Machine (UTM), Test Specimen of mild steel, Extensometer, Vernier caliper

Theory

In tension test ends of a test piece are fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load
measuring device. The test involves straining a test piece by tensile force generally to fracture for the
purpose of determining one or more of the mechanical properties.

The straining unit of universal testing machine consists of main hydraulic cylinder with robust base inside
and piston which moves up and down. The lower table connected to main piston through a ball & the ball
seat is joined to ensure axial loading. There is a connection between lower table and upper head
assembly that moves up and down with main piston. The control panel consists of a power pack complete
with drive motor and an oil tank, control valves and an autographic recorder. Load Indicator system
consists of a large dial and a pointer. A dummy pointer is provided to record the maximum load reached
during the test.

Load is applied by a hydrostatically lubricated ram. Main cylinder pressure is transmitted to the cylinder of
the pendulum dynamometer system housed in the control panel. The cylinder of the dynamometer is also
of self-lubricating design. The load transmitted to the cylinder of the dynamometer is transferred through a
lever system to a pendulum. Displacement of the pendulum actuates the rack and pinion mechanism
which operates the load indicator pointer and the autographic recorder. The deflection of the pendulum
represents the absolute load applied on the test specimen. Return movement of the pendulum is
effectively damped to absorb energy in the event of sudden breakage of a specimen.

STRESS STRAIN GRAPH OF MILD STEEL:

The stress strain graph of mild steel is divided into four areas in which the first section represents elastic
deformation and in remaining areas only plastic deformation will takes place. However, the material
behaves differently in each individual phase of plastic deformation. Area B defines the flow region here
the material is stressed beyond its elastic loadability and within the flow region the stress changes very
irregularly with increasing strain so that a wavy line results in the graph. In section C the stress increase
sharply and the plastic deformation also increases. At the maximum loadability the material’s cross-
section begins to reduce in size and ultimately failure occurs. increase sharply and the plastic deformation
also increases. At the maximum loadability the material’s cross-section begins to reduce in size and
ultimately failure occurs.

Elastic deformation (A)

The first phase of the stress-strain damage is elastic deformation. When the stress acting on the material
is removed the material regains its original length. This is called complete recovery or resilience. Again
the area of elastic deformation is divided into two phases. In the first phase the material stretches
proportionally to the stress acting on it. This extension is also called linear-elastic or proportional
deformation. The point at which the linear-elastic elongation is maximum is called the proportional limit.
Beyond this limit elastic deformation still takes place, however greater elongation occurs in this section
under increasing applied force. Therefore the elongation or strain is greater than the increasing stress.

The flow region (B)

Further small increase in stress can be enough to cause the proportional limit to be exceeded. The
highest flow point is the point accompanied by an initial sudden loss of quality. As a result, the stress
required to continue to elongate the material reduces immediately and reaches the lowest flow point.

After these points are exceeded even if the forces are removed immediately the material does not regain
its original properties. When the stress is increased again the dislocations start to wander and increases,
which leads to further quality losses at the first flow point, stress and strain behave irregularly in relation to
each other.

Material hardening (C)

If the stress is increased further an increasing number of upright dislocations form in the crystal lattice
prevents the movement of the previous still sliding dislocations. At the same time the stress in the crystal
lattice continues to increase which causes hardening of the material. Here the metal becomes stronger as
the strain increases. Hence, it is called as "Strain Hardening". However, this process cannot be continued
infinitely. Each material has its specific maximum force.

Necking (D)

If the maximum force is exceeded the material begins to neck.In the crystal lattice of the metal bar so
many dislocations have occurred that they can no longer lead to hardening but instead contribute to the
formation of voids or cavities. Apart from necking, the voids also cause the material cross-section to
reduce. The stress now acts on an increasingly smaller cross-section which enhances this process still
further. As the tensile test continues the necking increases until the tapered cross-section can no longer
withstand the stress. This is when the metal bar tears at the weakest point. Finally the specimen will have
increase in length and reduction in cross sectional area.

Percentage elongation: Increase in the gauge length of the test piece at maximum force, expressed as a
percentage of the original gauge length (li).The value of percentage elongation depends on the gauge

length chosen according to the B.I.S specifications a gauge length of     (5d rods) is to be used.

Where, Li= initial length

Lf= final length

Percentage reduction in area: Maximum change in cross-sectional area that has occurred at the neck
during the test expressed as a percentage of the original cross-sectional area.

Where, Ai= initial length

Af= final length

Tensile strength: Stress corresponding to the maximum force.

Yield strength: When the metallic material exhibits a yield phenomenon, a point is reached during the
test at which plastic deformation occurs without any increase in the force.

Modulus of elasticity: It is the slope of initial linear portion of stress strain curve.

Stages in ductile fracture:

The failure of ductile material under tensile loading can be attributed to cup and cone fracture. This form
of ductile fracture occurs in stages that initiates after necking. First small micro-voids form in the interior of
the material. Next deformation continues and the micro-voids enlarge to form cracks. The crack continues
to grow and it spreads laterally towards the edges of the specimen. Finally the crack propagation is rapid
along a surface that makes about 45 degree angle with the tensile stress axis. The new fracture surface
has an irregular appearance. The final shearing of the specimen produces a cup type shape on one
fracture surface, and cone type shape on adjacent fracture surface. In this central interior region has an
irregular and fibrous appearance, which signifies plastic deformation in material.
Detailed and important information on the mechanism of fracture can be obtained from microscopic
examination of fracture surfaces. This study is known as fractography.

Variation of local elongation with position along gauge length of tensile specimen:

The measured elongation from a tension specimen depends on the gauge length of the specimen or
dimension of its cross section. This is because the total extension consists of two components, the
uniform extension up to necking and the localized extension once necking begins.

The extent of uniform extension depends on the metallurgical condition of the material and the effect
of specimen size and shapes on the development of neck. The shorter the gauge length, greater is
the percentage elongation.

RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARD FOR TENSION TEST:

1. IS 1608(2005): Metallic Materials - Tensile Testing At Ambient Temperature
Procedure

STEPS
1. Click on the Tensile Test on Mild Steel file, a window will open as shown

2. Click on the NEXT button to move to the next step.

3. To measure the diameter of the specimen using Vernier Caliper, click on the calliper knob to
adjust to the diameter.

4. Click on the measuring scale to measure the length of the specimen between the grips

5. Click on hammer to make a punch mark at a distance of 2.5d, then click NEXT button.
6. Click on the rotating lever to lower the machine bottom part, drag the specimen and place it on
the position where the arrow is pointing, then again click on rotating lever to adjust the height
and then the dial gauge is mounted.

7. Readings on the dials of extensometer are adjusted to zero by clicking on adjusting knob of
extensometer.

8. Click on GREEN button to switch on the machine, the extensometer reading variation with load
is observed and can be downloaded via Download Data
9. Here the stress strain graph of test is shown, click on View Data to view the data.

10. Click on View Data or View Slope to view test data or the slope drawn to the plot.

11. Click on Join the pieces of the specimen to join it to measure the change in diameter.
12. Join the two specimens to measure the change in specimen length.

13. Input the calculated result and then click on Check to view the actual result.
Self-Evaluation

Check your understanding after you have gone through the basic theory and the procedure to use the
simulator. Mark the correct answer in bold font.

1. The law which influence the material up to yield point.

Bernoulli's law
Stress law
Poisson's law
Hooks law

2. Elastic deformation of the material is associated with

Ductility of the material
Toughness of material
Hardness of the material
Permanent deformation of the material

3. While conducting the experiment, the mode of fracture observed in mild steel specimen is
Star shape
Cup and cone shape
Granular shape
Fibrous shape

4. What is the distance between the punch marks in the experiment?

2.5d
3d
5d
4.5d

5. Yield point is the point on stress/strain graph where:

Plastic deformation commences
Elastic deformation commences
Failure of materials occur
Ultimate tensile strength occur

Please paste your self-evaluation results here:

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Simulator

Step 1: Measure the Initial Diameter of the tension test sample in two perpendicular
directions using vernier caliper. Note the diameters below:

dix = _12.55__ mm, diy = _12.55__ mm, Average initial diameter d = __12.55____
mm

Step 2: Measure the length of the specimen between the grips using the scale

Length of specimen between the grips = __190_ mm

Step 3: Punch marks are made at a distance of 2.5 d

Distance 2.5 d = 2.5 x __12.55__ = _31.38___ mm

Step 4: Insert the specimen into its position and mount extensometer on the specimen
Step 5: Readings on the dial A and B of the extensometer are adjusted to zero
Step 6: Experiment is conducted. Load, extensometer readings are read at regular
intervals of load up to yield point. Ivory scale readings are noted till the specimen
failure.
Click “Download Data” tab and save the readings in a excel workbook.
Step 7: Graph
Take a screenshot of this screen and paste it below
Step 8: Graph
Click on “View Slope” tab first to see slope calculations
Now, take a screenshot of this screen and paste it below

Step 9: Join two pieces of the test sample and measure the diameter at the neck of the
specimen
Final diameter = __7.5___ mm
Step 10: Measure the final length between three punch marks
Final length between the punch mark = ___82.1__ mm
Step 11: Observations and calculations
Click on “Observation” tab first to see observed readings from the virtual
experiment
Now, take a screenshot of this screen and paste it below
 After pasting the screenshot as instructed above, now click “Calculation”
tab to come back to the previous screen
Calculate the following parameters in the table below:
Parameter Your Calculations Formula
Yield Stress (N/mm2) 299.25

Tensile Strength 416.53

(N/mm2)
Modulus of Elasticity 210.611 Modulus of Elasticity (E) = Slope * ((1/LC) * Gauge Length/Ai)
(GPa)
Percentage Elongation 30.81
(%)
Percentage Reduction in 64.28
Area (%)
Now, enter the calculations above in the answer tabs (Refer image below
for reference)
After entering the readings, click “Check” tab
Now, take a screenshot of this screen and paste it below

Comment on the Percentage Error

Assignment

Answer the following questions:

1. Draw the stress strain diagram for a ductile and brittle material and what is the difference in it?
2. What do you understand by strain hardening?
3. What do you mean by percentage reduction in area?
4. Explain the steps in ductile fracture.
5. Explain the modes of failure in tension test.

Please paste your assignment answers here:

Quiz

1. Choose the correct answer

i) All work done on the specimen is stored in form of strain energy
ii) Part of energy is wasted in form of heat and sound

i) semisolid stage ii) plastic stage

i) elastic stage ii) semisolid
i) plastic stage ii) elastic stage
i) elastic stage ii) plastic stage

2. Following statement in relation to young's modulus are correct with exception of

It is the measure of modulus of stiffness

It is the measure of resistance to plastic deformation
It is the measure of resistance to elastic deformation
Equal to constant E identified in Hooke's law

3. Tensile stress measured in

Newton
Pascal
Watts
Half

4. Significant necking was found to occur in a tensile test piece. Examine the areas indicated on
stress/strain curve and indicate where necking of specimen has occurred.

A to B
C to D
B to C
D to E

5. Which mechanical property of the material is indicated by the total area under a stress strain curve

Ductility
Toughness
Strength
Ultimate tensile strength
Please paste your Quiz results here:

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