Stuvia 132863 An Illustrated History of Britain1

An Illustrated History of Britain
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An Illustrated History of Britain

Earliest Times

1. The Foundation Stones

The Island: British Isles ! United Kingdom ! Great Britain.
The British Isles lie in the way of the Gulf Stream, which brings warm water and
winds from the Gulf of Mexico. Within Britain there are differences of climate
between north and south, east and west.
Southeast Britain has always been the most populated part of the Isles because
most of the south and east are fairly flat or low-‐lying which is good for
agricultural.

People and geography
-‐ Why did they come? ! Research
-‐ What did they bring? ! Judicial system, structure, constructions.

Neolithic people (new stone age)
About 3000 bc, people crossed the narrow sea from Europe in small round boats
of bent wood covered with animal skins. They were small, dark and long-‐headed,
and may be the forefathers of dark-‐haired inhabitants of Wales and Cornwall
today. These were the first inhabitants, settlers form Iberia and Spain.
Features:
-‐ From hunting and gathering to agriculture. (farming)
-‐ Impact comparable to Industrial Revolution. (moving around, staying in
one place)

Beaker people (bronze age)
After 2400 bc new groups of people arrived in southeast Britain form Europe.
They were round-‐headed and strongly build and taller than Neolithic Britons. It
is not known whether they invaded by armed force, or whether they were
invited by Neolithic Britons because of their military or metal-‐working skills.
Their arrival is marked by the first individual graves, furnished with pottery
beakers, from which these people get their name: “Beaker” people.
Features:
-‐ Indo-‐European Language
-‐ Skills to make bronze tools (replacing stones)
-‐ Military skills

New farmers grew wealthy because they learned to enrich the soil with natural
waste materials so that it did not become poor and useless. This change probably
happened at about the same time that the chalk uplands were becoming drier.



The Celts (Iron Age) (Asterix & Obelix)
Around 700 bc, another group of people began to arrive. Many of them were tall,
and had fair or red hair and blue eyes. These were the Celts, who probably came
from central Europe or further east, from southern Russia, and had moved
slowly westwards in earlier centuries. They were technically advanced, they
knew how to work with iron, and could make better weapons than the people
who used bronze. It is possible that they drove many of the older inhabitants
westwards into Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Celts began to control all the
lowland areas of Britain, and were joined by new arrivals form the European
mainland. They continued to arrive in one wave after another over the next
seven hundred years.

The Celtic tribes continued the same kind of agriculture as the Bronze Age before
them. But their use of iron technology and their introduction of more advanced
ploughing methods made it possible for them to farm heavier soils. Increase of
hillforts, suggests that the Celts were highly successful farmers, growing enough
food for a much larger population.

Economic: The Celts traded across tribal borders and trade was probably
important for political and social contact between the tribes. Trade with Ireland
went trough the island of Anglesey. For money the Celts used iron bars, until
they began to copy the Roman coins they saw used in Gaul, France.

Features:
-‐ Polytheists
-‐ Rich mythology
-‐ Reincarnation
-‐ Equal rights men and women
-‐ Circular view of the world
-‐ Tribal communities
-‐ Ruled by warrior class and Druids: human sacrifices

The most famous female Celt was Queen Boadicea, she died in AD61 when she
destroyed London before she got defeated and killed.



The Romans (55BC) (43AD settlement)
The Romans had invaded because the Celts of Britain were working with the
Celts of Gaul against them. Britain also became an important food producer
because of his mild climate. The Romans could make use of British food for their
own army fighting the Gauls.
They brought skills of reading and writing, the written word was important for
spreading ideas and also for establishing power.
The Romans conquered the whole south of Britain, but could not reach Scotland.
At last they build a strong wall along the northern border, named after the
Emperor Hadrian who planned it. At the time, Hadrian’s wall was simply
intended to keep out raiders from the North, but it also marked the border
between the two later countries; England and Scotland.
Roman control of Britain came to an end as the empire began to collapse. The
first signs were the attacks by Celts of Caledonia (picts) in AD367. The Romans
found it more and more difficult to stop raiders at Hadrian’s wall. The same was
happening in Europe, the Roman border was to big for them to defend.

The Roman Empire:
Edges: Chinese, Germanic tribes, Persians.
Why so powerful: -‐ Emperors gods, army, copied a lot from the greek society
(political system, gods, building techniques, literatures, philosophy and
education and language.

What happened after the Romans had left?
-‐ Others invaded Britain, and Britain got devided in kingdoms: Anglo’s, Saxons
and Jutes.
How did this change society?
-‐ Institutions, administrative areas based on shires, or counties ! English
agriculture.
How did Christianity spread throughout Britain?
-‐ Monk Augustine travelled through Britain to re-‐establish Christianity.
What did Christianity bring?
-‐ Increasing the power of kings, they had “gods approval”, learning-‐system, law,
history book.
Why did the Vikings come?
-‐ The Vikings were tempted by Britains’ wealth.
How was life under Viking rule?
-‐ Danelaw, the Vikings quickly accepted Christianity and they didn’t disturb
anything.
Why was 1066 such a crucial year?
-‐ King Edward died, big question: Who should be king?
Why was feudalism implemented and how did it work?
-‐ The king gave land to others in exchange for crops, devided land so he had
more control.


2. The Saxon Invasion

The Invaders
Germanic tribes raided Britain, later they began to settle.
Powerful Germanic tribes :
-‐ Saxons
-‐ Angles
-‐ Jutes
The Jutes settled mainly in Kent and along the south coast, and were soon
considered no different form the Angles and Saxons. The Angles settled in the
east, and also the north Midlands, while the Saxons settled between the Jutes and
the Angles in a vand of land from the Thames Estuary westwards. They pushed
back the Celts into the Mountains, or Scotland which the Saxons called “weallas”
meaning “the land of the foreigners”
This was the start of “old English”, days of the week were named after Germanic
gods.
King Offa of Mercia build Offa’s dyke to keep out the Celts. He was the first King
of England. The power of Mercia did not survive after Offa’s death. At that time, a
king’s power depended on the personal loyalty of his followers.

Saxon place names:
-‐ing ! meaning, folk or family. (Hastings, family of Hasta)
-‐ham ! meaning, farm (Nottingham)
-‐ton ! meaning settlement (Southampton)
(Kingston is a frequent place-‐name since Anglo-‐saxon kings often established
settlements)

Government and society
King’s Council, called the Witan. The Witan probably grew out of informal groups
of senior warriors and churchmen to whom kings like Offa had turned for advice
or support on difficult matters.
The Saxons divided the land into new administrative areas, based on shires, or
counties. These shires remained almost exactly the same for a thousand years.

Manorial system
Each district had a manor (large house). Here local villager’s paid taxes, justice
was administered and men met together here to join the Anglo-‐Saxon army, the
fyrd. The lord of the manor organized all this.
Loyalty went from family to lord and king.
The peasant got land and housing in exchange for taxes and sharing crops.
This greatly improved the agriculture.
later became feudalism.


In 597 Pope Gregory the Great sent a monk, Augustine, to re-‐establish
Christianity in England. He went to Canterbury, the capital of the king of Kent.
(the kings wife came from Europe and was already Christian.)
Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in 601
Augustine only brought Christianity to several ruling families in England. This
because Augusting was interested in establishing Christian Authority and that
meant bring rulers to the new faith.

The Celtic Church brought Christianity to the ordinary people of Britain.

Two types of Christian churches.
-‐Roman: focused on authority and organization
-‐ Celtic: focused on the needs and hearts of the people
• Roman church extended influence over Celtic church. (disagree date of
easter, Syod of whitby the kind of Northumbria decided to support the
Roman Church)
• Saxon Kings accepted the faith
• Saxon kings were given the devine right to rule.
Monastries (minsters): places of learning and education

-‐Law
-‐Education of the people
-‐Anglo-‐Saxon Chronicle

Divine Right to rule for kings: Rule directly in the will of god, “Gods Approval”

663 Nearly all of Britain is Christianized.

The Vikings (from Norway and Denmark)
End of the 8th century: Viking raids.
-‐ Tempted by Britain’s wealth
-‐ Raiding and burning down cities and monasteries

865: Viking settlement
-‐The Anglo Saxon kingdoms were quarreling among each other and therefore
couldn’t keep the Vikings out.
By 875 only King Alfred in the West of Wessex held out against the Vikings. After
some serious defeats Alfred won a decisive battle in 878 and 8 years later he
captured London. He was strong enough to make a treaty with the Vikings.
The Vikings:
-‐ Accepted Christianity
-‐ Did not disturb local population
The Danelaw: West and East were ruled by the Vikings. In the rest of the
country Alfred was king.


Who should be king?

-‐ 950 Vikings continue to raid westwards.
-‐ King Ethelred (Saxons) pays Danegeld to Vikings in order to leave. !beginning of
tax-‐system.
Ethelred died ! Cnut became king.
Cnut and son die ! Edward (son of Ethelred) becomes king
‘’Edward the confessor’’
Edward was of Norman descent (Children and grandchildren of the Vikings who
had settled in Normandy, well known for their fighting skills)
Edward dies in 1066, without an obvious heir, then Harold became king chosen
by the Witan.
King Harold was faced by two dangers, one in the south and one in the north.
The Danish Vikings had not given up their claim to the English Throne. After he
defeated the Danes, he decided not to wait for the whole Saxon army to gather,
he thought he could win the battle near Hastings without Williams army, but he
didn’t.
William marched to London, which quickly gave in when he began to burn
villages outside the city. He was crowned king of England in Edward’s new
church of Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day, 1066.



3. The Celtic Kingdoms

What happened in Celtic kingdoms?
-‐ Pushed back into Wales by the Anglo-‐Saxons.
-‐ 779: Offa’s Dyke built to keep Welsch out of England.

Wales
By the 18th century most of the Celts had been driven into the Welsch peninsula.
They were kept out of England by Offa’s Dyke. These Celts, called Welsch by the
Anglo-‐Saxons, called themselves “cymry”, “fellow countrymen”.
The crymry could only live in the crowded valleys because Wales in
mountainous. The rest of the land was rocky and too poor for anything except
keeping animals, for this reason the population remained small. Slavery was
common, as it had been all through Celtic Britain.
Society: family groupings, each of which owned on or more village or farm. One
by one each group a strong leader made himself king, who later became
overlords over neighbors. Each of them tried to conquer the others, the idea of a
high or senior king was developed.
These kings travelled around their kingdom to remind the people of their
control, the ordinary people ran away into the hills and woods when the king
approached their village.
In 1039 Gruffyd ap Llewelyn was the first Welsch king strong enough to rule
whole Wales, and he was also the last. Gruffyd was killed by a crymry while
defending Wales against the Saxons. Welsch kings after him were only able to
rule Wales after they had promised loyalty to Edward the Confessor.

Ireland
-‐ Ireland was untouched by the Romans and Anglo-‐Saxons, “Golden Age”. It was a
land of tribal communities, family groupings, same as Wales.
-‐ Five kingdoms grew up in Ireland: Ulster, Munster, Leinster, Connaught and
Tara. With Tara as the seat of the high kings of Ireland.
-‐ 430: St. Patrick (British slave) brings Christianity to Ireland.
-‐ Building of monasteries.
-‐ This was the “Golden Age” of Ireland, their culture remained untouched.
-‐ 9th century; Vikings, end of Golden Age.
-‐ Viking trade led to the first towns and ports in Ireland.
-‐ Brian Boru, ruler of Ireland, tried to create one single Ireland, died in battle
against the Vikings.
-‐ Normans helped the king of Leister to conquer the Vikings, which was a good
excuse to broaden their empire.



Scotland
Scotland had two different societies:
-‐ The Highlanders: Picts and Scots. (celtic)
-‐ The Lowlanders: Britons and Angles.
Unity between Picts, Scots and Britons was achieved for several reasons:
-‐ They all shared a common Celtic culture.
-‐ Language
-‐ Economy maily depended on keeping animals
-‐ Land was hold by tribes, not individuals.
-‐ Spread of Celtic Christianity in 400 by Columbia.
Scotland was a hard country to rule, travel was often impossible in winter, and
slow and difficult in summer.


The early Middle Ages

4. Conquest and feudal rule

The Norman Conquest
-‐ 1066: William the Conqueror becomes king of England.
-‐ For twenty years Normans and Anglo-‐Saxons fight each other.
-‐ 1086: Most of England held by Normans

Feudalism
All land was owned by the king but held by others, called “vassals”, in return for
services and goods.
-‐ William parcels out land to his nobles.
-‐ The nobles (knights, barons and lords) rule over and protect their
peasants and serfs
-‐ The peasants and serfs produce food for their lords.
By 1086, William wanted to know exactly who owned which piece of land, and
how much it was worth ! William takes a census of England, survey of people
asking each settlement about their worth.

Kingship: a family business
-‐ 1087: William dies leaving three sons: William Rufus, Robert and Henry.
! William Rufus becomes king of England, Robert becomes Duke of Normandy.
-‐ 1100: William Rufus dies in a hunting accident shot by an arrow.
-‐ 1100: Robert fighting in the Holy Land against the Muslims, Henry had to act
quickly to become king of England.
-‐ Robert is very angry at Henry and invades England.
-‐ Robert failed and was send back to Normandy.
-‐ 1106 Henry captures Robert and becomes Duke of Normandy ! Normandy
and England were reunited under one ruler.
-‐ 1135 Henry dies, he had no son so his nephew, Stephen of Blois, takes the
crown.
-‐ Stephen described as “outstanding at fighting, but an idiot at all else, and inclied
towards evil”
-‐ Matilda (daughter of Henry) and Stephen agree to a truce, that he could keep
the throne if only her son Henry II could succeed him.
-‐ 1154 Stephen dies, Matilda’s son, Henry II becomes king of England.
-‐ Henry II marries Eleanor of Aquitaine, and his empire stretched from the
Scottish border to the Pyrenees.
-‐ 1189 Henry II dies, his eldest son, Richard the Lionheart, becomes king.
-‐ Richard fights in the Holy Land with honour and skills (popular)
-‐ On his return to England he is captured and ransomed by the duke of Austria.
-‐ 1199 Richard dies, his brother, John, becomes king.
-‐ England loses its French lands to the king of France.
-‐ John’s greed and high taxes made him very unpopular with his people.
Magna Carta: The nobles and merchants forced King John to sign the Magna Carte
– an agreement that disallowed the king to go beyond its feudal rights. The Magna
Carta signalled the beginning of the end of the feudal system.

Why was signing Magna Carta such an important event? Why/how did
it happen? It was an important event because it was the beginning of the end of
the feudal system, the feudal system had to end because the king went beyond its
feudal rights.

Why was the Hundred Year’s War declared by Edward III? What was the
effect of it? The Scots were done with the attempts of England to take over their
counties, so they looked for allies. France became their ally, who was the enemy
of England, the effect was that England their overlord ship of Scotland stopped.

During the dark days of the Hundred Years War, chivalry harkened back
to an ‘earlier’ mythical era. Why was chivalry so important? How was it
used in European medieval society? Chivalry was a useful way of persuading
men to fight by creating the idea that was a noble and glorious thing.

How was the system of feudalism affected in the fourteenth century?
Because of the dramatic fall in population, the prices rose and that had led to
landlords to stop paying their workers for their labour, and go back to serf
labour to avoid losses.

What were seeds of growing discontent with the state in the Late Middle
Ages? – The Curch was greedy. – People got aware of their Englishness and they
payed taxes to the pope who lived in France, the enemy’s country.. so they
figured he was on the enemy’s side.

What are key factors in the start of the War of the Roses?
-‐ Henry VI was simple-‐minded and book-‐loving, he was a dreamer, not a
good king, and he choose the wrong advisers.
-‐ Lancastrians: in favour of Henry VI. Yorkists: Supporters of the duke of
York. (claimed the throne)
-‐ Duke of York died, his son becomes king, he put Henry VI in the tower of
Londen. 9 years later, a Lancastrian army chased Edward out.
Edward returns, kills Henry.



5. Power of the kings of England

Church and State
Struggle for power and money.
-‐ 1170 Henry II accidentally has his friend, Thomas Becket Archbishop of
Canterbury assassinated. (holiest place, on the altar steps)
-‐ Canterbury becomes a pilgrim site for Christians all over Europe.
-‐ 1209 King John argues with the pope and the Church. The Church
threatens to excommunicate England.
-‐ 1214 King John accepts the Pope’s decision of who should be Archbishop
of Canterbury.

The beginnings of Parliament
King John had signed Magna Carta unwillingly, and it quickly became clear that
he was not going to keep the agreement. The nobles pushed John out of the
southeast, but civil war was avoided because John died suddenly in 1216. His
son, Henry III becomes king at nine years old, till his 25th he was tied by Magna
Carta.
-‐ Henry spends a lot of time abroad fighting for the Pope. 1258 Simon de
Montfort sets up a parliament in the King’s absence, which forced Henry
to get rid of his foreign advisers.
-‐ 1265 Henry kills Simon de Montfort, again full royal authorirty, but
careful to accept the balance which Simon had set up.
-‐ 1272 Henry II dies, his son, Edward I, becomes king. Edward I starts first
Parliament – primarily to ensure that taxes were paid to him. With
“representative institution”, an arrangement of taxes which could provide
the money he needed.

Dealing with the Celts
-‐ 1169 Normans conquer Ireland.
-‐ 1272 Edward I drains Ireland of wealth.
-‐ 1282-‐84 Edward captures and kills the last Welsh leader and unites
Wales to England.
-‐ Ownership of Wales is legitimised by naming each firs-‐born royal son
“Prince of Wales”.
-‐ 1286090 Edward invades Scotland. Edward steals the Stone of Destiny.
-‐ Wallace captured and executed in Londen.
-‐ Robert Bruce leads Scottish uprising.
-‐ 1307 Edward I dies on the way to Scotland. Edward II becomes king of
England.
-‐ Robert becomes king of Scotland and takes back castles.
-‐ 1314 Edward II attempts to invade Scotland but is beaten back at
Bannockburn.



6. Government and society

The Growth of government
Kings travelled all over the country to make sure their authority was accepted.
They had a lot of followers who made sure they had food and the kings had
somewhere to stay the night. That could have terrible effect ! food ran out and
prices rose.
This only worked in a small kingdom, when kings ruled a larger kingdom,
including other countries (france for example), they send their nobles and
knights from the royal household.
Taxes, fines and administration was held in Westminster to make sure all the
taxes were paid.

Law and Justice
Henry I introduced the idea that all crimes, even those inside the family, were no
longer only a family matter but a breaking of the kings peace. Travelling judges:
travelled and made sure that all the crime that was committed got punished
equally. The law administered by these travelling judges became known as
common law.

Religious Beliefs
-‐ Priests weren’t allowed to marry. By the end of the thirteenth century
many families put their kids into the local religious house, so there were
fewer mouths to feed.
-‐ The monasteries were centres of wealth and education.
-‐ The brotherhoods of friars, wondering preachers. They lived among the
people to spread Christianity.

Ordinary people in country and town
-‐ Manorial system: the basis of this was; exchange of land for labour.
-‐ Guilds: These were brotherhoods of different kinds of merchants or
skilled workers.

The growth of towns as centres of wealth
Wool.

Language, literature and culture
-‐ Renaissance made that the people had to learn to write and read.


7. The century of war, plague and disorder

War with Scotland and France
1314: English army defeated by Scotland at Bannockburn, 1318 England gives up
overlord ship Scotland.
The scots were done with the attempts of England to take over their country, so
they looked for Allies ! France.
France interrupts England’s trade routes ! England (Edward III) went to war
with France because it could not afford the destruction of its trade wit Flanders.
Why the English were more successful on the battlefield:
-‐ They were experienced by the wars in Wales and Scotland.
-‐ They were lightly armed, therefor quick in movement.
-‐ Welsh longbow, effective because of its quick rate of fire.

The age of chivalry
Edward III and his son “The Black Prince” become living symbols of chivalry
(knightship) because of their courage on the battlefield.
Interest in the legends of king Arthur grows ! he was the code of chivalry.
1348: Edward III founds order of the gartner.
Chivalry was a useful tool to motivate men to fight in wars.
Edward III and his son were loved in England, but feared in France.

The century of plagues
Black Plague, it killed one third of the entire population of Britain.
Sharp rise in prices led to stop paying serfs. End of serfdom ! workers were
scarce and could demand money for their labour, in return villages were given
land to farm.
Standards of living improved, for the first time they had money to build more
solid houses, replacement of wool by finished cloth as England’s main export.

The poor in revolt
1377: Edward III dies, Richard II becomes king.
New taxes led to discontent, this tax was enforced for a third time and also
increased to three time the previous amount.
There were also other reasons for discontent, the landlords had tried to force the
peasants back into serfdom. The leader of the Revolt, Wat Tyler, was the first to
call for fair treatment of Englands’ poor people. But the revolt lasted only four
weeks, Wat Tyler and other leaders got killed.

Heresy and Orthodoxy
-‐ Discontent of the Church grew, because of its greed. The people got aware of
their “Englishness” and the Pope was a foreigner… where they had to pay taxes
for, the pope lived in france, so it seemed obvious that the pope was on the
French side, so they were actually helping France against England.


8. The crisis of kings and nobles

The crisis of kingship
Struggle between nobles and kings. First crisis: Edward II was deposed and
cruelly murdered ! 11-‐year old son, Edward II becomes king.
1327: Edward II killed and murdered (allegedly under orders form his wife,
Queen Isabella of France)
The death of Edward II broke the principle that kings ruled by devine right.

Wales in revolt
Edward I had conquered Wales in the 1280’s, and colonised it. Owain Glyndwr
was the first and only Welsh Prince to have wide and popular support in every
part of Wales. ! Welsh nation idea.
Owain fought a succesfull guerrilla war which was an extremely expensive
problem for the English. In 1410 he lost his support because the Welsh realised
that no matter what they did they would never be free of the English.
Owain was never captured. He created a feeling of national identity.

The struggle in France
Henry IV died in 1413.
Henry V became king, (on e of englands favourites).
100 years war began again in 1415 when Henry renewed Edward III claim to the
throne of France.
The English were proven to be more skilful. ! longbow.

The English army was twice defeated by the French, who were inspired by a
mysterious peasant girl called , Joan of Arc. She was captured by the Burgundians
and given to the English. The English gave her to the Church in Rouen which
burnt her as a witch in 1431.

England was now beginning to lose a very costly war. With the loss of Gascony in
1453, the 100 years war was over. England had lost everything except for Calais.

The war of roses
Henry VI ! simpleminded. Chose the wrong advisers.
Duke of York claimed the Throne in 1460. He died a year later and his son
Edward took over.
Edward IV put Henry in the tower of London, 9 years later he was chased out by
a new lancastian army, He came back, killed Henry in the tower of London.

Edward’s brother Richard took the throne when Edward died. He killed Edwards
two sons. ! he became king Richard III (not poular bothe yorkist and
lancastrians disliked him)

Henry Tudor wanted to claim the throne. He met Richard at Bosworth, half
Richard’s army changed sides and he lost and was killed. Henry Tudor was
crowned king on the battle field. (End war of the Roses)


The nobility had nearly destroyed itself. (died in wars) This fact made it possible
for the Tudors to build a new nation.

9. Government and society

Government and society
1476: William Caxton’s first English printing press.
-‐ Spread literature and knowledge ! new ideas.
-‐ Standardized grammar and spelling.
Middle class educated class:
-‐ Questioned organisation state and church.
-‐ Questioned effectiveness of feudal system.
Rebirth of English literature
-‐ Canterbury Tales (Geoffrey Chaucer)
Both latin and English used in law and schools
Many schools were founded.

Tudor rule (1485-‐1603)
-‐ Henry VII built the foundation of a wealthy nation state and a powerful
monarchy. Henry VII avoided quarrels with Scotland and France
-‐ War and glory were bad for business. He wanted peace and prosperity.
-‐ Avoided war
-‐ Forbade everyone but himself to have an army
-‐ Made an important trade agreement with the Netherlands.
-‐ More income ! made the crown financially independent.
-‐ Built many ships for a merchant fleet.
-‐ leaves behind 2 million pounds

His son Henry VIII made the church in England truly English by braking away
from the Roman Catholic Church. (wasted the wealth of his father)
Henry VIII was cruel and wasteful. He failed to gain an important position in
European politics.
Henry wanted to centralise state authority (he didn’t want to pay taxes to the
church)
Married Catherine of Aragon-‐ tried to persuade the pope to allow him to divorce
her because she couldn’t give him a son. Pope was forced to do as Charles V
(Catherine nephew) wanted and forbade the divorce.
In 1531 Henry persuaded the bishops to make him head of the church. !
parliament passed the Act of Supremacy in 1534. Henry divorced Catherine and
married Anne Boleyn.
Henry died in 1547.

His daughter, Elizabeth, brought glory to the new state by defeating the powerful
navy of Spain. (weakened quality of the government by selling posts, she did this
to avoid parliament asking for money)
Elizabeth I encourages merchant expansion.
England helps the Netherlands against Spain.
From 1570 onwards English privateers (pirates) sponsored.

Kids Henry VII:

King Edward IV: Protestant.
Queen Mary: Catholic (William of Orange)
Queen Elizabeth: protestant. (Virgin)

The Protestant – Catholic struggle
Mary, the catholic daughter of Catherine of Aragon became queen when Edward,
aged sixteen, died. She succeeded entering London and took control of the
kingdom. Mary married King Philip of Spain, that was an unfortunate choice,
ordinary people disliked the marriage as Spanish friends of Philip were quick to
notice in England. The Parliament only accepted king Philip as king of England
for Mary’s lifetime.

11. England and her neighbours

The new foreign policy
Elizabeth’s grandfather, Henry VII had built a large fleet of merchant ships, his
son, Henry VIII, had spent money on warships and guns, making English guns the
best guns in Europe.
Elizabeth recognized Spain as her main trade rival and enemy. Spain ruled the
Netherlands over sea, because they couldn’t travel over the enemy’s (England)
land. Elizabeth helped the Dutch Protestants by allowing their ships to use
English harbours form which they could attack Spanish ships, often with the help
of the English. ! war with Spain.
Philip buit “armada” to defeat the Dutch rebels, hoping catholic Englishmen
would help him. This fleet failed. Philip started again, and built the largest fleet
that had ever gone to sea. Peace was only made with Spain when Elizabeth was
dead.

The new trading empire
Elizabeth followed two policies:
-‐ Encourage sailors like John Hawkins and Francis drake to continue to
attack Spain who were bringing silver and gold.
-‐ Encourage English traders to settle abroad and create colonies. ! led to
British colonial empire.
1562: First slave cargo.
Trading in spices begun.


The Stuarts

13. Crown and Parliament

Parliament against the Crown
1578 James VI (mary, Queen of Scots, son) becomes king of Scotland.
1603 Elizabeth I dies, James I becomes king of England.
James tries to rule without Parliament but fails. He needs money to finance his
wars.
1625 James dies. Charles I becomes King
Charles hates Parliament just as much as his father.
He manages to rule England successfully without it.

Religious disagreement
-‐Charles dislikes Protestant, particularly the Puritans
-‐ He appoints his friend, William Laud, to be Archbishop of Canterbury.
-‐ 1637 Laud tries to organise the Scottish Kirk in the same way as the Church of
England.
-‐ 1638 Scottish armies cross into England. Charles I sets up Parliament to borrow
money to pay off the Scots. However, he undermines Parliamentary power.

Civil war
-‐ James I had continued Elizabeth’s policy and had colonised Ulster, the northern
part of Ireland. ! Irish Catholics rebel against Protestant settlers.
-‐ Parliament refuses to give Charles money to quash the rebellion.
-‐ Civil war between Royalists (Cavaliers) and Parliamentarians (Roundheads).
-‐ 1645 Charles run out of funds. Royalists lose against Parliamentarians. Charles
captured.



14. Republican and Restoration Britain

Republican Britain
-‐ 1645 Oliver Cromwell captures king Charles I .
-‐ Even imprisoned Charles encourages the Scots to attack the
Parliamentarians.
-‐ Scots defeated. Puritans want to execute Charles for treason.
-‐ 2/3 of MPs elect to restore Charles as king
-‐ 1449 31st January Charles I still executed much to the dismay of many
people.
-‐ From 1649-‐1660 Britain is a republic.
-‐ Cromwell disbands monarchy, House of Lords and the Anglican Church.
-‐ Scotland allies with Charles II (Charles I’s son)
-‐ Scotland defeated and Charles II escapes to France.
-‐ Cromwell leads an army to Ireland to punish the Catholics for the 1641
rebellion.
-‐ 1653 Parliament dissolved. Cromwell rules alone and becomes Lord
Protector.
-‐ Cromwell’s government highly unpopular. He maintains the peace
through martial law.
-‐ Celebrations, singing, dancing and games forbidden.
-‐ 1658 Oliver Cromwell dies
-‐ 1660 Charles II is invited to rule over England.
-‐ Charles manages to stay friends with his enemies, only punishing those
who were directly responsible for his father’s execution.

Catholicism, the Crown and the new constitutional monarchy
Charles was attracted to the Catholic Church. ! Parliament passes a law stating
that Catholics cannot hold public office. ! This resulted in the first political
parties in Britain: Whigs and Tories
Whigs: Afraid of an absolute monarchy, and of the Catholic faith with which they
connected it. They also didn’t want an “standing” army.
Tories: (irish name for thieves) they upheld the authority of the Crown and the
Church, and were natural inheritors of the “Royalist” position.
1685: Charles II dies, his brother, James II, becomes king.
-‐ James dislikes anti-‐catholic laws and tries to revoke them. He also wants
to bring the catholic church back.
James daughter, Mary, marries William of Orange. (a protestant ruler)
-‐ 1688 Parliament invites William III of Orange to invade Britain. William
becomes king of England. James flees England.
-‐ “Glorious Revolution” – The Parliament now has the power to raise or
dissolve a king.
-‐ 1689 Bill of Rights written up to establish Parliament’s power over the
monarch.
-‐ 1701 Act of Settlement – only Protestants can inherit the crown.


Scotland and Ireland

Scotland and Ireland were unhappy with the removal of King James II.
-‐ 1707 England offers to remove trade limits if Scotland becomes part of
England. (Great Britain) (Act of Parliament)
-‐ 1689-‐90 William of Orange defeats James’ armies in Ireland (Battle of the
Boyne)

Foreign relations
During the seventeenth century Britain’s main enemies were Spain, Holland and
France. War with Holland resulted form competition in trade. When Britain had
reached the trade position they wanted, peace, and Britain and Holland
cooperated against France.
By the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, France accepted limits on its expansion (Louis
XIV)
The capture of foreign land was important for Europe’s economic development.
Britain establishes colonies on the east coast of North America, trade in sugar
and slaves.
Establishment of the East India Company.

15. Life and thought

The revolution in thought
Puritanism increases in the 17th century. It was the Puritans who persuaded
James I to permit a new official translation of the Bible. It was published in 1611.
! more people were able to read the bible but understood it in their own way, a
large number of small new religious groups appeared.
1620: The Mayflower brings the first English pilgrims to America.
-‐ The revolution of religious thinking was happening at the same time as a
revolution in scientific thinking.
-‐ Adelard of Bath: “nature has his own patterns and order”
-‐ 1628 William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood and this led to
great advantages in medicine.
-‐ Natural science advances (Newton and others)
-‐ Architectural advances (Christopher Wren)
-‐ Improved infrastructure (shipping, roads and canals)


THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

16. The political world

Politics and finance
1714: Queen Anne, the last Stuart and sister of May, dies.
George of Hanover (married to the granddaughter of James I) is crowned George
I king of England.
Robert Walpole – Britain’s first Prime Minister.
1720: South Sea Bubble: Investors in the South Sea Company lost all their
investment money.
1756: Britain and France at war – the navy stopped French ships reaching for
French ports.
1760: George III becomes king and he did not want to continue that expensive
war, they made peace with France.
-‐ Britain’s international trade increased rapidly, expanding empire.

Wilkes and liberty
George III wanted to be active in the governing of Britain.
Parliament set up a voting system which was often influenced by the rich and
powerful.
John Wilkes, a Whig, did not like the new Government of George III, he believed
that “free speech” should be enjoyed by everyone.
Newspapers and political discussion increase ! public opinion.
Parliament to represent ordinary people, not just the powerful, political groups
occurred outside the Parliament.

Radicalism and the loss of the American colonies
1764: Serious quarrel over taxation between the British government and its
colonies in America. “No taxation without representation”
1773: The Boston Tea Party, they threw a lot of tea into the sea rather than pay
tax on it. ! Britain closes the port ! America only prevent Britain with food
until they open the port. ! The American War of Independence.
! Rise of Democracy and parliament control.

Ireland and Scotland
Up until 1770 irish Catholics faced hars laws and penalties.
1715: Scotland unsuccessfully try to put James II’s son on the English throne.
1745: Under Bonny Prince Chrlie, grandson of James II, the Scots drive out the
English from Edinburgh.
1746: English defeat the Scottish – kilts and bagpipes forbidden.



Pre-‐industrial revolution
-‐ Increased food production.
-‐ Coal used as fuel – increased iron production.
-‐ 1769 Steam engine.
-‐ 1779 World’s firs iron bridge (River Severn)
-‐ Machines for wool and cotton manufacturing.
-‐ 1799 Luddites attempt to destroy machinery.

18. The years of revolution

Industrial revolution
Increased food production made it possible to feed large populations in the new
towns, these populations were made up of the people who had lost their land
through enclosures and were looking for work.
Machines made “mass production” possible.
The main problem holding back the industrial revolution growth was fuel. There
was less wood, and in any case wood could not produce the heat necessary to
make iron and steel either in large quantities or of high quality. ! use of coal.
! Iron bridge, Britain leading producer of iron.
-‐ Woollen cloth, cotton cloth.
-‐ Cost of goods became cheaper because of improved transport.
-‐ Luddites (rioters) started brake up machinery because they got
unemployed.

Revolution in France and the Napoleonic Wars
In France the Revolution had been made by the “bourgeoisie”. They were
frightened by the danger of “awakening” of the working classes.
1792 King Louis XIV executed.
1799: Napoleon.
1793 Britain war with France
1814 Napoleon unsuccessfully invades Russia
1815 Napoleon defeated at Waterloo.


THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

19. The years of power and danger

The danger at home, 1815-‐32.
-‐ 1815 Mass unemployment after Napoleonic wars.
-‐ 1815 Migration form country to towns.
-‐ Cities grow into large industrial centres, bad conditions in the city resulted in
riots.

Reform
The Whigs understood better that the Tories the need to perform the law in
order to improve social conditions. The Tories believed that Parliament should
represent “property” and the property owners, an idea that is still associated by
some with todays Tory Party. The Radicals believed that Parliament should
represent the people.
1832 Reform Bill – Parliament should represent the rights of all the people, not
just property owners. (Whig government – social conditions first place)

Workers revolt
Workers were allowed to join together in unions, one of their aims was to make
sure employers paid reasonable wages, they also tried to prevent other people
from working in their particular trade, as a result the working classes still found
it difficult to act together.
In 1834, Tolpuddle riots. ( protest against employer cruelty)
Working together for the first time, unions, workers and radicals put forward a
People’s Charter in 1838. The Charter demanded rights that are now accepted by
everyone: the vote for all adults, secretly.
1840 New postage system allowed faster communication.

Family life
People no more married for political reasons, but for personal happiness. Wifes
were not equals.
Individualism: strict parental behaviour, regular beating of children, cruel
conditions for those boys at boarding school.
Scotland: women are higher.


20. The years of self-‐confidence

In 1815 Queen Victoria opens the Great Exhibition to show the world the
greatness of Britain’s industry.
Britain had become more powerful because it had enough coal, iron and steel for
its own enormous industry. Britain made and owned more that half the world’s
total shipping. This great industrial empire was supported by a strong banking
system developed during the eighteenth century.

Railways
The greatest example of Britain’s industrial power in the mid-‐nineteenth century
was its railway system that increased the distribution and transport of goods
and people. Richer class could live in suburbs, travelling by train to the centre.

The rise of the middle classes
Middle class: merchants, traders and small-‐farmers. In the nineteenth century,
the middle class grew more quickly than ever before and included greater
differences of wealth, social position and kinds of work. This class included both
the very successful and rich industrialists and the small shopkeepers and office
workers of the growing towns and suburbs.

Growth of towns and cities
The cities and towns were dirty and overcrowded, diseases were spreading
quickly, so the middle class moved to the suburbs.
Towns began to provide proper drains and clean water, which quickly reduced
the level of disease. They provided the towns with parks, libraries and public
baths.

Population and politics
In 1851, an official population survey was carried out for the first time. It
showed that the nation was not as religious as its people had believed.
Several opinions ! increased political and voting rights.

Queen and empire
1839 Opium wars: attacked China and forced it to allow profitable British trade
in opium from India to China.
Colonial wars:
Russia advanced towards India which resulted in a disastrous war in
Afghanistan.
The Indian Mutiny: unwise treatment of Indian soldiers in British pay resulted in
a revolt.
Britain’s interest in Africa had increased by reports of European travellers and
explorers. Britain succeeded in taking the most areas in Africa of Europe, but lost
from the Dutch Boers.


Why did all the countries of Europe want colonies? ! The more land, the more
power.
There was an other interest in creating colonies, there was a rapid increasing of
the population of Britain, and more colonies would create space for the British
population. They settled in Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

21. The end of an age

Social and economic improvements
Between 1875 and 1914 the condition of the poor in most of Britain greatly
improved as prices fell by 40 per cent and real wages doubled. Living at home
was more comfortable, most homes contained heating and lighting. As a result of
falling prices poor families could afford better food.
In 1870 and 1891 two Education Acts were passed. All children had to go to
school up to the age of thirteen.
The authority of the Church was also weakened, in the country, the village priest
no longer had the power he had a century earlier.
Why did the poor no longer go to church? – The Church of England offered them
no help with the problems of their daily lives. – They were not any more forced
to go to Church by the squire, who employed them. Now they were free and
chose to stay away.
The invention of the bicycle was also important, for the first time people could
cycle into the countryside, it gave a form of freedom.

The importance of sport
Cricket and football had become of great interest to British public.

Changes in thinking
The most important idea of the nineteenth century was that everyone had the
right to personal freedom, which was the basis of capitalism.
However, it soon became very clear that the freedom of factory owners to do as
they pleased had led to slavery and misery for the poor. ! A number of laws to
improve working condition. (working hours, abolishing slavery)
Literature was influenced by the new mood of change. Painting too was affected
everyone bought paintings now.
Above all, Victorian society was self-‐confident. The Origin of Species, the theory
of Charles Darwin, based upon scientific observation, was welcomed by many as
proof of mankind’s ability to find scientific explanation for everything.


The storm clouds of war

By the end of the century it became clear that Britain was no longer as powerful
as it had been. Germany was united and had become very strong, and the USA
was the greatest steel producer.
Why did Britain lose the advantages it had over other countries at the time of the
Great Exhibition of 1851? ! -‐Other countries, Germany particularly, had greater
natural wealth, including coal and iron, and wheat-‐producing lands. – Most
British people invested their money abroad rather than in building up home
industry. –British workers produced less than those in other countries, and
Britain was behind others in science and technology. As well in management
skills and did little to change this.
Britain’s foreign policy was unpopular in the rest of the world.
The danger of war with Germany had been clear form the beginning of the
century, and it was this which had brought France and Britain together. Germany
builds strong battleships.
In August 1914 Germany’s attack on France took its army through Belgium
(trench war), and Britain immediately declared war. ! 1st world war.


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An Illustrated History of Britain

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An Illustrated History of Britain

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2. The Saxon Invasion

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Monastries (minsters): places of learning and education

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Who should be king?

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The early Middle Ages

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7. The century of war, plague and disorder

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8. The crisis of kings and nobles

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Kids Henry VII:

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Scotland and Ireland

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THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

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THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

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20. The years of self-­‐confidence

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The storm clouds of war

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20. The years of self-‐confidence