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COMPLEX ANALYSIS
,LAPLACE AND FOURIER
TRANSFORMATION

COURSE CODE:3111
GROUP NO:06

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Taylor’s series and Laurent series

Taylor series:

Taylor series is a clever way to approximate any

function as a polynomial with an infinite number
of terms.
In other hand,A Taylor Series is an expansion of
some function into an infinite sum of terms,
where each term has a larger exponent or higher
degree than the precending term like x, x2, x3,
etc.

'' '''
f ' ( a) f ( a) f ( a)
f ( a)+ ( x−a )+ ( x−a )2 + ( x−a )3 +. .. . .. ..
1! 2! 3!

The above taylor series expansion is given for

f (x )
a real values function where
' '' '''
f (a ), f ( a), f ( a)
e.t.c denotes the derivative
of function at point a.if the value of point ‘a’ is
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zero then the taylor series is also called

maclaurin series.
Taylor’s series theorem:

Assume that if f (x ) be a real or composite

function,which is a differentiable function of a
neighbourhood number that is also real or
composite.then the series describes the following
power series:

f ' (a ) f ' ' (a ) '' '

2 f (a )
f (x )=f (a) ( x−a)+ ( x−a) + ( x−a)3 + .. .. . .
1! 2! 3!
in terms of sigma notation the taylor series can be
written as:
∞ n
f (a )
∑ n ! ( x−a)n
n=0

Proof:

We know that the power series can be defined as:

∞
f (x )= ∑ an x n =a0 +a1 x 1 +a2 x 2 +. .. ..
n=0
When,
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x=0 and
f (x )=a 0
No differentiating the given function:
f ' ( x )=a1 +2 a 2 x+3 a 3 x 2 +. .. .. .. . .. ..

Again x=0,
'
f ( 0 )=a1
'' 2
f ( x )=2 a2 +6 a3 x +12 a 4 x +. .. ..
….………
….……………
By generalising the equation,we get
n
f (0 )¿ !=a n
Now substitute the values in the power series we
get,
''
' f (0 ) 2
f (x )=f (0)+ f ( 0) x+ x +. .. .. . ..
2!
Generalise f in more general form, it becomes:
2
f (x )=b+ b1 ( x−a)+b 2 ( x−a ) +. .. . .. .. .

n
Now, x = a, we get, bn =f (a) ¿ !
Now, substitute bn in a generalised form:
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' ''
f (a ) f (a )
f (x )=f (a) ( x−a)+ ( x−a)2 + .. .. .. . .
1! 2!
Example:
Determine the taylor series at x=0 for f(x)=ex
Solution: given f(x)=ex
Differentiate the given equation,
f ( x )=e x
'

'' x
f ( x )=e
f ( x )=e x
'''

' 0
f ( 0 )=e =1
f ( 0 )=e 0 =1...........
''
[at x=0]

When taylor series at x=0,then the maclaurib

series is:
'' '' '
' f (0) 2 f (0 ) 3
f (x )=f (0)+f (0) z+ x+ x +. . .. .. . ..
2! 3!
2 3
x x x
e =1+x (1)+ + . .. .. . .. ..
2! 3 !
therefore ,
x x2 x 3
e =1+x+ + .. . .. ..
2! 3 !
Taylor series is used to evaluate the value of a
whole function in each point if the functional
values and derivatives are identified at a single
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point.that means the sum of partial series can be

used as an approximation of the whole series.

Laurent series
A Laurent series about a point  z 0  includes
negative as well as perhaps positive powers
of  z−z 0  and is useful for expanding a
function f(z) about a point at which it is singular.
Laurent’s theorem states that if f(z) is analytic
between two concentric circles centered at  z 0 , it
can be expanded in a series of the general form:
−3 −2 −1 1 2
f (z )=. ..+a−3 ( z−z ) +a−2 ( z−z ) +a−1 ( z−z ) +a0 +a1 ( z− z) +a 2 ( z−z ) +.. .. .

with the series convergent in the interior of

the annular region between the two circles. The
portion of the series with negative powers of z-
z0 is called the principal part of the expansion.

It is important to realize that if a function f(z) has

several ingularities at different distances from the
expansion point z0, there will be several annular
regions, each with its own Laurent
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expansion about z0. Figure 17.5 illustrates a
situation in which there are singularities at z0,z1,
and z2, so there is a different Laurent expansion
valid for each of the three regions R1,R2, and R3.

If the largest negative power of z-z0 in a Laurent

expansion for the region immediately
around z=z0 is for some finite value of -n,
then f(z) can be identified as having a pole of
order n at z0. If the values if n extend to -∞,
then f(z) has an essential singularity at z0. In the
special case that all the coefficients a-n vanish,
we have a Taylor series for f(z) and f(z) is
analytic in the neighborhood of z0.

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It is not necessary that the expansion point of a

Laurent series be at a singularity, and if there are
multiple singularities there may be several
different annular regions of analyticity, each with
its own Laurent expansion. For a given function,
expansion point, and annular region, the Laurent
expansion is unique, and may be found by any
legitimate mathematical method. The coefficients
in the expansion are given by general formulas
that involve integrals, but it is often easier to
proceed in other ways.

Summary:The laurent series of a complex function

f(z) is a representation of that function as a power
series which includes terms of negative degree.It
may be used to express complex functions in
cases where a Taylor series expansion cannot be
applied.

Rouche’s theorem

Statement:
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If f(z) and g(z) are two analytic functions within

and on a simple closed curve C such that |f(z)| > |
g(z)| at each point on C, then both f(z) and f(z) +
g(z) have the same number of zeros inside C.

Given:
Two analytic functions f(z) and g(z) inside and on
a closed contour C.
Also, |g(z)| < |f(z)| or |f(z)| > |g(z) at each point on
C.

To prove:
f(z) and f(z) + g(z) have the same number of
zeros inside C.

Proof:

First, let us prove neither f(z) nor f(z) + g(z) has a

zero on C.
Let us assume that f(z) has a zero at a, i.e., z = a.
So, f(a) = 0

Thus, |g(z)| < |f(z)| can be written as:

|g(a)| < |f(a)|

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⇒ g(a) = 0 {since f(a) = 0}

⇒ |f(a)| = |g(a)|

That means |f(z)| = |g(z)| at z = a.

This is the contradiction to the initial statement

that |g(z)| < |f(z)| on C.

Now, let f(z) + g(z) has a zero at z = b on C.

So, f(b) | g(b) = 0

⇒ f(b) = -g(b)

⇒ |f(b)| = |g(b)|
Or

|f(z)| = |g(z)| at z = b.

Therefore, neither f(z) nor f(z) + g(z) has a zero

on C.

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Let N1 and N2 be the number of zeros of f(z) and

f(z) + g(z), respectively inside C.

Now, we need to prove that N1 = N2.Type equation here .

As we know, f(z) and f(z) + g(z) are analytic

functions within and on C.

Also, they have no pole inside C.

Thus, from the argument principle, we can write

as:

dz= N 1 −P
❑
1 f ' ( z)
∫
2 πi c f ( z )

When P = 0,
'
1 f (z)
∫
2 πi c f ( z )
dz=N 1

Similarly,
The difference of the above two equations is:
' ' '
1 f (z )+ g ( z ) f ( z )
∫ − ' dz=N 2 −N 1
2 πi c f (z )+ g ( z ) g ( z )
………..(1)
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Let Φ(z) = g(z)/f(z)

From this we can write g(z) as:

g(z) = f(z) Φ(z), i.e., g = fΦ

Consider |g(z)| < |f(z)|

That means, |g(z)/f(z)| < 1

|Φ(z)| < 1

Also,

[f’(z) + g’(z)]/ [f(z) + g(z)] = [f’(z) + f’(z) Φ(z) +

f(z) Φ’(z)]/ [f(z) + f(z) Φ(z)]
{since g(z) = f(z) Φ(z)}
= [(1 + Φ(z))f’(z) + f(z) Φ’(z)]/ [f(z) (1 + Φ(z))]

= [f’(z)/f(z)] + [Φ’(z)/ (1 + Φ(z))]……………(2)

From (1) and (2), we have:

1 ϕ' ( z ) 1
N 2 −N 1= ∫ dz= ∫ ϕ ( z ) (1+ϕ( z))−1 dz
'
2 πi c 1+ϕ ( z ) 2 πi c

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As we already got |Φ(z)| < 1 that means the

binomial expansion of (1 + Φ(z))-1 is possible.

However, the powers of Φ(z) in the binomial

expansion of (1 + Φ(z))-1 will be uniformly
convergent.

Therefore,

∫c Φ’(z) (1 + Φ(z))-1 dz = ∫c Φ’(z) [1 – Φ(z) +

Φ2(z) – Φ3(z) + ……] dz………….(4)

From the given,

f(z) and g(z) are analytic functions within and on

C such that f(z) ≠ 0 and g(z) ≠ 0 for any point on
C (which is proved above).

Therefore, Φ(z) is an analytic function since Φ(z)

= g(z)/f(z), and is non-zero for any point on C.

Consequently, we can say that Φ(z) and all of its

derivatives are analytic functions.

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Thus, by Cauchy’s theorem, the RHS of equation

(4) vanishes.

That means, ∫c Φ’(z) (1 + Φ(z))^-1 dz = 0.

Then from equation (3) and the above equation,

we can say that N2 – N1 = 0

Therefore, N1 = N2

i.e., f(z) and f(z) + g(z) have the same number of

zeros inside C.

Hence proved…..

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