Exp.

No: 09
Soldering simple electronic circuits and checking continuity
Date:

AIM:
To soldering simple electronic circuits and checking continuity.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.
Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity
No.
1. RPS 9V 01
2. Resistor 500Ω 01
3. LED - 01
4. Test probes - 02
5. Soldering Board - 01
6. Soldering Kit - 01
7. Connecting Wires - As required

THEORY:
All the equipment used in electronics is prone to faults and defects and much of
this equipment contains a bunch of wires, finding faults in them could be a little
difficult. We can make a simple and inexpensive circuit to test these wires with a
continuity tester circuit. A continuity tester circuit is a device that is used to detect
the presence of continuity or break between the two ends of a conductor. It consists of
two test probes and an LED or a buzzer indicator.

PROCEDURE:
Step 1: Melting the solder.
Step 2: Cleaning the components
Step 3: Placement of the PCB
Step 4: Connect the component using soldering as given in the circuit.
Step 5: Cleaning the extra solders in the board.
Step 6: Verify the connection before switch on the RPS.
Step 7: Checking the connectivity using millimeter.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig 1: Circuit Diagram

WORKING EXPLANATION:
This is the simplest circuit that is using just a resistor and an LED along with a
voltage source. The two testing probes are used to be connected across the two ends of
the conductor/wire which needs to be tested. LED is made to switch on through
receiving the voltage via the wire/conductor being tested.

If the conductor isn‟t broken or the wire has on interruption, then the voltage
circulates through it to the LED to complete the circuit which will let the LED glow up.
Indicating the equipment is working fine. If the LED does not lights up it shows that
your wire or conductor is broken and there is some fault in the equipment.

Result:
Thus the soldering simple electronic circuits and checking continuity is done.

Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
Exp. No: 10 Assembling and Testing Electronic Components on a Small
Date: PCB

AIM:
To assembling and testing electronic components on a small PCB.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Diode IN 4001 - 01
2. Resistor 1KΩ 01
3. Transformer Step Down 230V/(12-0-12)V 01
4. CRO Analog 30MHz 01
5. Soldering Board - - 01
6. Soldering Kit - - 01
7. Connecting Wires and Probes - - As Required

THEORY:
Half-wave rectifiers transform AC voltage to DC voltage. A halfwave rectifier
circuit uses only one diode for the transformation. A halfwave rectifier is defined as a
type of rectifier that allows only one-half cycle of an AC voltage waveform to pass while
blocking the other half cycle. In this session, let us know in detail about the half-wave
rectifier.
A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only one
diode for the construction of a halfwave rectifier circuit. A halfwave rectifier circuit
consists of three main components as follows: diode, transformer and resistive load
One of the very important applications of diode is in DC power supply as a
rectifier to convert AC into DC. DC Power supply is the important element of any
electronic equipment. The first block of DC power supply is rectifier. Essentially
rectifier needs unidirectional device. Diode has unidirectional property hence suitable
for rectifier. Rectifier broadly divided into two categories: Half wave rectifier and full
wave rectifier.

PROCEDURE:
Step 1: Melting the solder.
Step 2: Cleaning the components
Step 3: Placement of the PCB
Step 4: Connect the component using soldering as given in the circuit.
Step 5: Cleaning the extra solders in the board.
Step 6: Verify the connection before switch on the RPS.
Step 7: Checking the output using CRO.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig 1: Half Wave Circuit Diagram

WORKING EXPLANATION:
In half wave rectifier only half cycle of applied AC voltage is used. Another half
cycle of AC voltage (negative cycle) is not used. During positive half cycle of the input
voltage anode of the diode is positive compared with the cathode. Diode is in forward
bias and current passes through the diode and positive cycle develops across the load
resistance RL. During negative half cycle of input voltage, anode is negative with
respected to cathode and diode is in reverse bias. No current passes through the diode
hence output voltage is zero.

Fig 1: Half Wave Rectifier Waveform

Half wave rectifier without filter capacitor convert AC voltage into pulsating DC
voltage. Filter capacitor is used to obtain smooth DC voltage.

Result:
Thus the Assembling and testing electronic components on a small PCB is done.

Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)
Exp. No: 11
Study an Elements of Smart Phone
Date:

AIM:
To study an elements of smart phone.

Introduction:
A smartphone is a portable device that combines mobile telephone and
computing functions into one unit. They are distinguished from feature phones by
their stronger hardware capabilities and extensive mobile operating systems, which
facilitate wider software, internet (including web browsing over mobile broadband),
and multimedia functionality (including music, video, cameras, and gaming),
alongside core phone functions such as voice calls and text messaging. Smartphones
typically contain a number of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC)
chips, include various sensors that can be leveraged by pre-included and third-party
software (such as a magnetometer, proximity sensors, barometer, gyroscope,
accelerometer and more), and support wireless communications protocols (such as
Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or satellite navigation).
The anatomy of a smartphone comes in two parts; the hardware and the
software.

(i) The Software:

There are two operating systems that dominate the mobile landscape: Android
and iOS. However, there are other operating systems to consider as well.
(a) Android:
Founded by Andy Rubin and supported by Google and drawing the
backing of many of the major hardware and software developers in the
smartphone sphere; Android has gone from strength-to-strength since it was
conceived on October 2003. It is the world‟s leading smartphone operating
system and has been dominant since late 2010.
(b) iOS:
Apple‟s operating system was, for a considerable period of time, the
leading smartphone operating system. It is unsurprising that it should be in 2nd
place in terms of market penetration today. Apple does not license its operating
system to other hardware providers nor does Apple operate in the budget sector
of the smartphone market. While it may be second in terms of market
penetration – there‟s no doubt that the average iOS user spends more money on
apps than the average Android user.

(ii) Windows:
Windows may be the dominant operating system on the desktop but it‟s a bit of
an “also ran” on the smartphone. There are fewer apps available for this operating
system and it tends to be a tertiary consideration (if it is considered at all) for most
developers.

(iii) Blackberry:
Blackberry was once the dominant force in corporate handset provision. Poor
management decisions led to Blackberry suffering a huge dip in market share after
smartphones launched. The operating system continues to exist and support millions
of subscribers – however the company launched their first Android operating system
handset in November 2015 and the future looks dim for Blackberry. It is unlikely that
developers will focus on Blackberry without an overwhelming business driver for doing
so.
(iv) Firefox OS:
Firefox‟s open source OS was launched back in February 2012. While there are
a few commercial handsets running Firefox OS at this moment it‟s not a primary
consideration for most developers.

(v) Sailfish OS:

Sailfish is based on Linux and Mer and has a unique programmable UI in the
form of Jolla (a multi-tasking interface). It is a project from MeeGo (consisting mainly
of ex-Nokia employees) and is yet to achieve any significant commercial uptake.

(vi) Hardware:
A smartphone is, at heart, a miniature computer and thus it shares many
similar components with computers – such as processors and memory. These
components are constantly upgraded in new generations of phones and it‟s important
to consider how to balance the demands you place on this hardware. If you take
advantage of latest generation technology; you rule out many existing smartphone
owners from using your product. Go back too far in generations and you risk releasing
a product which isn‟t as powerful as your competitor‟s.
However, in this section we want to look at smartphone specific hardware options that
are commonly found in smartphones that are not commonly found in desktop/laptop
computing. These are the hardware items that designers will want to consider taking
advantage of when developing smartphone user experiences.

Fig. 1: Smartphone Internal Components

 Fig. : Block Diagram Smartphone

(vii) Display:
Perhaps the most obvious component of a modern smartphone is its display. While
every detail you see is on the outside, it is actually an internal device component.
Display technologies in smartphones of today come in two main types:
 Those based on LCDs (IPS technology and its variations)
 Those based on LEDs (AMOLED or Super AMOLED and its variations)

(viii) Battery:
Batteries of phones typically use lithium-ion technology that is either removable
or non-removable in mobile devices. With these batteries, which are an essential
component of a smartphone, you will not have to worry about „calibration‟ or „testing‟
issues that were plagued with nickel-based cells. Still, this does not mean that
current-generation batteries are not filled with their issues, and users have to be very
careful when handling and using volatile components like these.
(ix) System-on-a-chip (SoC):

The SoC is perhaps the most essential component present in a smartphone, and
some users might confuse it as the device‟s processor. However, it is far more than
that; the SoC not only comprises the smartphone‟s CPU, but GPU, LTE modem,
display processor, video processor, and other bits of silicon that turn it into a
functional „system‟ in a phone.
While you might see phones touting different SoCs from Qualcomm, MediaTek,
Samsung, Huawei‟s own Kirin, and Apple‟s own developed chipsets, they are using the
same system architecture from ARM.

(x) Memory and Storage:

let‟s talk about RAM. Most mobile devices of today ship with LPDDR4X RAM,
while some high-end smartphones ship with LPDDR5 RAM. „LP‟ stands for „Low-
Power,‟ reducing the total voltage of these chips, making them highly efficient, and
giving mobile phones extended battery life.
LPDDR4X is more efficient and powerful than LPDDR4, while LPDDR5 is the
holy grail of RAM, resulting in unprecedented speeds and efficiency. LPDDR5 is more
expensive to produce, though, which is why you only see them in flagship
smartphones. When newer generations of RAM such as LPDDR6 are introduced, you
will see the flourishing of LPDDR5 memory in mid-ranged devices.
As for internal storage, it exists as flash memory, ranging from 32GB, and can
go all the way up to 256GB on some phones. Naturally, as users‟ requirements rapidly
increase based on the amount of storage that they use, phone manufacturers will
exponentially increase the amount of RAM present in smartphones. When you fire up
your device for the very first time, one thing that you‟ll notice is that the advertised
storage is not the same value as running on the phone.

(xi) Modems:
Since smartphones are just phones at the end of the day, they need
communication components to receive and send text messages and calls. That‟s where
modems come in, and every SoC manufacturer has their own brand of modems,
including Qualcomm, Samsung, Huawei, and several others.
These manufacturers are also battling it out to release the fastest and most
efficient category of LTE chips, so if you have come across the term Cat. 9 LTE
modem, that is the fastest one out there. However, if your cellular network does not
support those levels of speeds, then there‟s absolutely no point in having such
powerful chips present in smartphones.
Still, companies will do their best to make sure they produce the latest and
greatest chips of their desired category.
(xii) Camera:

All smartphones come with a rear-facing and front-shooting camera. A smartphone

comprises of three main parts:
 The sensor (which detects light)
 The lens (the component in which light comes through)
 The image processor

While the megapixels on the smartphone are still an essential part of the camera, it
carries less importance than they did a while back. Instead, the primary limiting factor
is the phone‟s camera sensor and how sensitive it is when light passes through the
lens.

(xiii) Sensors:
There are five primary sensors in a smartphone that allow it to give you the
functionality of a „touch-enabled smart device.‟ The names of all these sensors and
their importance have been detailed below:
 Accelerometer: Used by apps to detect the orientation of the device and its
movements, as well as allow features like shaking the phone to change music.
 Gyroscope: Works with the Accelerometer to detect the rotation of your phone,
for features like tilting phone to play racing games or to watch a movie.
 Digital Compass: Helps the phone to find the North direction, for
map/navigation purposes.
 Ambient Light Sensor: This sensor is automatically able to set the screen
brightness based on the surrounding light, and helps conserve battery life. This
would also explain why your smartphone‟s brightness is reduced in low-light
environments, so it helps to reduce the strain on your eyes.
 Proximity Sensor: During a call, if the device is brought near your ears, it
automatically locks the screen to prevent unwanted touch commands.

(xiv) Speakers:
These parts help with producing sounds and voices. You need quality speakers
for better audio quality.

(xv) Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a protocol that allows data transfer between two devices over short
distances. It‟s ever increasing popularity has led to a plethora of Bluetooth supported
accessories for mobile devices with hands-free headsets being the most popular.

(xvi) Wi-Fi:
Wi-Fi or IEEE 802.11 is an older protocol for data transfer but consumed much
more power and offered higher range and bandwidth. Wi-Fi too has undergone
multiple revisions with multiple improvements in each revision that led to a much
efficient system for data transfer.
(xvii) Near field communication:
NFC is a relatively new technology that allows communication over very small
distances. Currently only found on high-end phones NFC is slowly gaining popularity.
More and more applications are discovered with each passing moment.

(xviii) GPS:
GPS is one of the many global navigation systems based on satellites in space. It
is used to pinpoint your current position accurately within a few meters. There are
applications to help you navigate from one place to another, and then there are
applications which track your locations and the places you visit to generate social
profiles etc.
GPS requires that your device to establish communication with at least 3
satellites for a geographical location and a further 4th for altitude and error correction.
It‟s quite a handy feature for tourists to navigate foreign countries and locations
outside terrestrial transmission equipment‟s coverage.

(xix) SIM sizes:

With the ever increasing drive to shrink things even the SIM card had to
undergo shrinkage. We now have three variants -
• Mini-SIM
• Micro-SIM
• Nano-SIM

Result:
Thus the elements of smart phone were studied.
Performance (25)
Viva-Voce (10)
Record (15)
Total (50)