BSME FABRICATION AND TESTING OF A THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM USING PHASE CHANGE MATERIAL 2021

FABRICATION AND TESTING OF A THERMAL

ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM USING PCM

By

Babar Tanvir
BME173030
Ghufran Malik
BME173068
Talha Orangzab
BME173112

A Project Report submitted to the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Faculty of Engineering
Capital University of Science & Technology,
Islamabad
August, 2021
FABRICATION AND TESTING OF A THERMAL
ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM USING PCM

By

Babar Tanvir
BME173030
Ghufran Malik
BME173068
Talha Orangzab
BME173112

A Project Report submitted to the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Faculty of Engineering
Capital University of Science & Technology,
Islamabad
August, 2021

ii
Copyright © 2021 by CUST Student

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part in any form requires the prior written
permission of Babar Tanvir, Ghufran Malik, Talha Orangzab or Mr. Saif Ullah.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are very grateful to our supervisor Mr. Saif Ullah for his guidance in this project. It has
been a good experience and learning time under his supervision. It wasn’t possible without
his dedication and help. He pushed us very positively to accomplish this project.
We are also tankful to ASHRAE ®, USA for funding this project under 2019-20
Undergraduate Equipment Grant.

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 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
It is certified that the project titled “Fabrication and Testing of a Thermal Energy Storage
System using PCM” carried out by Babar Tanvir, Reg. No. BME173030, Ghufran Malik,
Reg. No. BME173068, Talha Orangzab, Reg. No. BME173112, under the supervision of
Mr. Saif Ullah, Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad, is fully adequate,
in scope and in quality, as a final year project for the degree of BS in Mechanical
Engineering.

Supervisor: -------------------------
Mr. Saif Ullah
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad

HoD: ----------------------------
Dr. M. Mahabat Khan
Associate Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad

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 DECLARATION

It is declared that this is an original piece of our own work, except where otherwise
acknowledged in text and references. This work has not been submitted in any form for
another degree or diploma at any university or other institution for tertiary education and
shall not be submitted by us in future for obtaining any degree from this or any other
University or Institution.

Babar Tanvir
BME173030

Ghufran Malik
BME173068

Talha Orangzab
BME173112

August, 2021

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 ABSTRACT

The aim of this fabrication and testing was to investigate the important inlet
parameters which accelerate the melting rate of PCM in a horizontal Latent Thermal Energy
Storage Unit (LTESU) having eight longitudinal fins. High thermal energy storage between
the low temperature ranges. Paraffin wax is used as PCM and is placed in the outer tube
(shell of Pyrex) and inner most (tube) of copper made. HTF flows inside the annulus and
transfer heat both the inner and outer shell. The main aspect of this project was to fabricate
the thermal energy storage unit that store maximum latent heat in minimum time. In this
study a triple tube heat exchanger is numerically and experimentally investigated as the
latent heat thermal energy storage unit. The purpose of this research is to reduce the
discrepancy between energy supply and demand, as well as for improving the efficiency of
solar thermal energy systems. Among the different types of thermal energy storages, phase
change materials (PCM) thermal energy storage has gained significant attention recently
because of its high energy density per unit volume at nearly constant temperature.
Experimental results of charging and discharging processes are examined by varying the
mass flow rate and inlet temperatures. When this experimental setup incorporating an
electric heater is successfully tested then it will be shifted to a solar based water heater for
space heating.

This research was part of the funded project “2019-20 Undergraduate Equipment
Grant” for “Solar Thermal Energy Storage for Room Heating” by American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), USA.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...................................................................................................... iv
DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. vi
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. xii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. xiv
LIST OF ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................xv
NOMENCLATURE ........................................................................................................... xvi

Chapter 1......................................................................................................1
Introduction.................................................................................................1
1.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Statement of Problem .................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Specifications of Proposed Solution ............................................................................. 3
1.4 Purpose of Project ......................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Deliverables .................................................................................................................. 4
1.6 Applications of the Project............................................................................................ 4
1.7 Project Plan ................................................................................................................... 5
1.8 Report Organization ...................................................................................................... 6

Chapter 2......................................................................................................7
Literature Review ............................................................................................7
2.1 Thermal Energy Storage ................................................................................................ 8
2.1.1 Sensible Heat Storage Systems .......................................................................... 10
2.1.2 Latent Heat Storage Systems …………………...………………………...…... 10
2.1.3 Thermochemical Storage Systems ……………………………………………. 11

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2.2 Geometries of Triple Tube Heat Exchanger for LTESU............................................. 12
2.3 Phase Change Material ............................................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Paraffin Compounds as Phase change material ................................................ 19
2.3.2 Phase Change Substances ................................................................................. 20
2.4 Limitations .................................................................................................................. 21
2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 21

Chapter 3....................................................................................................23
System Detail and Design ............................................................................ 23
3.1 Grid Size Independence ............................................................................................... 23
3.2 Problem Formulation .................................................................................................. 24
3.2.1 Domain Configurations and Thermo physical Properties of Heat Exchanger... 24
3.2.2 Governing Equations ........................................................................................ 25
3.3 System Introduction .....................................................................................................28
3.4 Selection of PCM based Heat Exchanger and Designing ........................................... 29
3.4.1 Design of Triple Tube Heat Exchanger ............................................................ 29
3.4.2 Design Specifications ........................................................................................ 30
3.5 Design Calculations .................................................................................................... 31
3.5.1 Amount of Heat Energy to be Stored ................................................................. 33

3.5.2 Estimation of Amount of PCM .......................................................................... 33

3.5.3 Mass of PCM in Triple Tube Heat Exchanger ................................................... 34

3.6 CAD Model of TTHX .................................................................................................. 35

3.6.1 Inner Tube .......................................................................................................... 36

3.6.2 Annulus .............................................................................................................. 37

3.6.3 Outer Shell ......................................................................................................... 38

3.6.4 Longitudinal Fin ................................................................................................ 39

3.6.5 Fin placed on Annulus ....................................................................................... 40

3.6.6 Inner and Outer Shell assemble with Annulus ................................................... 40

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 3.6.7 Caps ..................................................................................................................... 41
3.6.8 Fully Assembled .................................................................................................. 42
3.7 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 42

Chapter 4.................................................................................................... 43
Experimental Setup and Procedures …......................................................... 43
4.1 Schematic diagrams of Experimental setup ................................................................ 43
4.2 List of Major Components .......................................................................................... 44
4.3 Working of Physical Model ........................................................................................ 44
4.4 Incorporating Heat Exchanger with Solar Water Heating Application …….….….... 46
4.5 Operations Performed .................................................................................................. 47
4.5.1 Metal Working .................................................................................................... 47

4.5.2 Coupling Process ................................................................................................. 47

4.5.3 Arc Welding ........................................................................................................ 48

4.5.4 Threading operation on lathe machine ................................................................ 49

4.5.5 Temperature Sensor Used ................................................................................... 49

4.5.6 Data Acquisition System (DAQ) ........................................................................ 50

4.5.7 Other Miscellaneous Processes ........................................................................... 50

4.6 Cost Table ................................................................................................................. 51

Chapter 5.................................................................................................... 52
Numerical Modeling ..................................................................................... 52
5.1 Solution with complete technical specifications ......................................................... 52
5.1.1 Case 1, Case 2 and Case 3 Melting Fraction Contours……………….………....56
5.1.2 Case 1, Case 2 and Case 3 Temperature Contours ............................................. 57
5.2 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 57

Chapter 6.................................................................................................... 58
Project Results and Discussion ..................................................................... 58
6.1 Temperature graphs of Experimental Results ............................................................. 58
6.1.1 Constant Inlet temperature (70°C) and variable mass flow rate ....................... 58
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 6.1.2 Constant Inlet temperature (75°C) and variable mass flow rate ......................... 59
6.1.3 Constant Inlet temperature (80°C) and variable mass flow rate ......................... 60
6.2 Comparison of Energy Storage Rate .......................................................................... 61
6.3 Experimental Results of Temperatures at Inlet and Outlet ……………………….... 62
6.4 Important Non-Dimensional Numbers ……………….………………………….…. 63
6.4.1 Stefan Number vs Fourier Number …………………………............................ 64
6.4.2 Nusselt number and Rayleigh number ………………………………...……… 65
6.5 Comparison of numerical results ………………………………………………...… 66
6.6 Shortcomings and Limitation ………………………………………………………. 67
6.7 Future Recommendation …………………………………………………………… 67
6.8 Summary …………………………………………………...………………………. 68

Chapter 7.................................................................................................... 69
Conclusion .................................................................................................... 69
References ………………………………….………………….….………. 70

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Gantt Chart of the Project ............................................................................ 5

Figure 2.1: Latent Heat Storage from Web of Science ................................................... 8

Figure 2.2: Types of Solar Thermal Energy Storage (TES) ........................................... 9

Figure 2.3: Behavior of Sensible vs Latent heat ............................................................ 11

Figure 2.4: Geometries of TTHX (a) + sign fins direction (b) × sign fins direction….. 12
Figure 2.5: Symmetry Lines on Triplex Tube Heat Exchanger ……............................. 13
Figure 2.6: a) The schematic of the triplex tube LHSHE and b) the dimensions of the
proposed system Cross flow in Inner and Outer Tube to Heat transfer ……................. 14

Figure 2.7 (a) Schematic and Physical Configuration of All Cases (b) Liquid Fraction for
all Enhancement Cases …………………………………………………………….…. 28

Figure 2.8: Vertical Shell and Tube with Fins …………………….......................…... 29

Figure 2.9: TES Systems ……………………………………………………………... 30

Figure 2.10: Classification of phase change material ………………………………... 31

Figure 2.11: Paraffin Wax …………………………....…………………………….…. 32

Figure 2.12 Vertical Triplex Tube Heat Exchanger ………………………………...... 33

Figure 2.13: TTHX Configuration of maximum heat transfer area ………………….. 33

Figure 2.14: A) Longitudinal fins attached to the tubes surface B) Replacing the longitudinal
fins to strips fins with same volume fraction C) Schematic of fluid motion around in
longitudinal fins case, D) Schematic of fluid motion in strips fins case.……………… 36

Figure 2.15: Solar Evacuated Tube Based TESU ...……………………...………….... 37

Figure 3.1: Fins (a Cross Sectional View) ..................................................................... 17

Figure 3.2: CAD model of TTHX ................................................................................. 19
Figure 3.3: Center Casing with 8 longitudinal fins at 45◦ Angle .................................. 20

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Figure 3.4: The Inner Tube filled with PCM, in Center Tube passes heat transfer fluid and
outermost shell also filled with PCM……………………. ........................................... 20
Figure 4.1: Fabrication Model of Project ....................................................................... 23
Figure 4.2: Assembled Design Layout ........................................................................... 24
Figure 4.3: Schematic Diagram of Charging PCM......................................................... 25
Figure 4.4: Schematic Diagram of Discharging PCM ................................................... 26
Figure 4.5: Schematic Diagram of Heat exchanger with Solar Collector ...................... 27
Figure 5.1: 8 External Fins at 45° ................................................................................. 29

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Thermo- Physical Properties of Paraffin Wax ......................................... 25

Table 3.2: Properties of water at 70°C ...................................................................... 32
Table 5.1: Thermo- Physical Properties of Materials ............................................... 47
Table 5.2: Design Specifications .............................................................................. 48
Table 5.3: Time Specifications ................................................................................. 48
Table 5.4: Boundary Conditions ............................................................................... 49
Table 5.5: Solution Methods ..................................................................................... 49
Table 5.6: Under Relaxation Factors.......................................................................... 49
Table 6.1: Non Dimensional Numbers ...................................................................... 63

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS

PCM Phase Change Material

HTF Heat Transfer Fluid
LHSU Latent Heat Storage Unit
LTESU Latent Thermal Energy Storage Unit
SHSU Sensible Heat Storage Unit
LHTES Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage
TTHX Triple Tube Heat Exchanger
CFD Computational Fluid Mechanics
CUST Capital University of Science and Technology

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 NOMENCLATURE

ℎ Sensible Enthalpy

∆H Change in Enthalpy

𝐻 Total Enthalpy

ℎ𝑟 Reference Enthalpy

𝛽 Liquid Fraction

𝛼 Melting Fraction

(𝛼)̅ Average Melting Fraction

𝑐𝑝 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure

𝑇𝑆olidus Solidus Temperature

𝑇Liquidus Liquidus Temperature

𝐿 Latent Heat

tf Fin Thickness, (mm)

𝑇tt Tube Temperature

𝜌 Density

Lf Fin Length

𝐷1 Inner Diameter

𝐷2 Central Diameter

D3 Outer Diameter

Ttube Tube Temperature

tm Melting time, (min)

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νl Kinematic Viscosity, (m3/s)
µ Viscosity, (kg/m.s)

ᵦ Coefficient of Thermal expansion, (1/K)

ath Thermal diffusivity, (m2/s)

kPCM Thermal Conductivity of PCM, (W/m. K)
THTF Heat transfer fluid temperature, (K)
TPCM PCM temperature, (K)
Ra Rayleigh number
Ste Stefan number
Fo Fourier Number
ER Enhancement Ratio
QE Total Energy Storage, (W)

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Chapter 1

Introduction
Latent heat storage unit (LHSU) works on the principle of fusion heat which energy required
for solid to liquid phase change. Nowadays, the rising concern to minimize the carbon
emissions and some restrictions of fossil fuels such as resource limitations and environmental
effects, have caused the global community to look towards the renewable energy. Renewable
energy is playing a major role in the clean energy making and reducing hazards of fossil fuels.
Use of different renewable energy sources like wind, solar and tidal are increasing day by day
by decreasing the gap between energy demand and energy supply. Nature provides thermal
energy in the form of solar energy which is broadly available, free of cost, causes no
environmental issues and easy to use.

In this project thermal energy storage unit known as Latent Heat Storage Unit (LHSU) is
designed and fabricated. Triple tube heat exchanger (TTHX) helps to improves the heat transfer
from the phase change material (PCM) to heat transfer fluid. There are two major types of
energy storage units including, Latent Heat Storage Unit (LHSU) and Sensible Heat Storage
Unit (SHSU) Purpose of selecting LHSU is because it can store energy for longer periods of
time and it also has more capacity to store energy as compared to other two units. The efficiency
of a triple tube heat exchanger is higher compare to a double tube heat exchanger. Basically it
consists of three tubes which are concentric to each other. There are two tubes and one shell in
this type of heat exchanger such as inner, central tube and outer shell. The transformation to
the triple tube heat exchanger from the double tube heat exchanger due to the idea of increase
in heat transfer area and reduction in the length of heat exchanger. As, an energy preservation
concern the triple tube heat exchangers have high effectiveness as compared to the double tube
heat exchangers [1]. Utilization of thermal energy storage (TES) along with an alternate energy
source such as solar energy, at the time of high demand can save the capital cost.

Initial Design was selected from the work of Danish Ali et.al [2] and then we do some
modification in this design. After this, fabrication is done to analyses and compare the
experimental results with the computational and analytical results. Variations of two
parameters inlet temperature and mass flow rate are studied to determine their influence on the
melting rates and overall performance of the system. For analyses and computation purposes
ANSYS® 20.0 is used. Latent heat storage unit (LHSU) volume required to store energy will

1
be decreased to accommodate the low thermal conductivity ( 0.2 W/m K) of the phase change
material (PCM), used to store the energy [2][3]. During the melting process temperature of the
substance remains constant while heat transfer occurs from heat transfer fluid (HTF). For the
reverse process during the solidification the heat transfer occurs from substance to the liquid
[3][4].

1.1 Overview
Owing to latent energy of melting/solidification, such a heat storage system is called latent heat
storage unit (LHSU). Water is used as heat transfer fluid (HTF) for melting the PCM. In order
to get a constant temperature HTF an electric heater is used with AC supply. PCM will store
energy through melting process with respect to time and upon melting PCM change its phase
and stores large amount of latent heat energy supplied to it. At night time the stored energy is
used to heat up a space by heat circulating cold water between space and TES. Different types
of comparisons are done in this project like change in inlet temperatures such as 70°C, 75°C
and 80°C of the HTF. Mass flowrates are also varied to check their effects on melting rate of
PCM. Selection of phase change material (PCM) is based on its thermo-physical properties.
The main problem with PCMs is their low thermal conductivity, but some heat transfer
improvement approaches with heat exchanger their can overcome this problem. Numerical
analysis is performed with the help of ANSYS® fluent module. All the three cases were
analyzed on the ANSYS® fluent before going into fabrication part and experimentation.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Thermal energy is being stored in material called phase change material (PCM) by exchanging
heat from a heat transfer fluid to the PCM. In order to exchange heat with the PCM a triple
tube heat exchanger is used. Complete setup consisting of a triple tube is also called latent heat
storage unit (LHSU). In a concentric triple tube heat exchanger, a two dimensional numerical
analysis of latent heat storage is performed as a transient problem. Analysis was done on the
selected geometry and configuration to ensure the best heat enhancement that will provide
maximum thermal energy storage in less time, and the stored thermal energy will be utilized
for space heating purposes. After performing simulations on this heat exchanger design an
optimal heat exchanger would be selected and will be fabricated for getting experimental
results. The main issue in (TES) design is that they are extensively studied by using numerical
and analytical approaches but very less experimental work is done on them. By varying
different parameters, we will select the optimum performance design.

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1.3 Specifications of Proposed Solution
For selection of the appropriate triple tube heat exchanger for melting and solidification of
PCM, first step is to determine whether complete melting of PCM is assured or not. According
to the application of proposed project which is heating a space during winter season, design
considerations are taken in such way that would result in complete melting of the PCM.
Different parameters are selected for analysis to study the maximum heat transfer to the PCM.
Different geometries are also studied for heat exchanger design in order to assure the most
suitable design that gives maximum heat transfer to the PCM. Main purpose of heat exchanger
geometry is to provide maximum heat transfer between HTF and PCM and reduce melting time
of PCM.

Moreover, as mentioned nine different cases were experimentally tested and case 9 (80°C
constant temperature and 0.37Kg/s mass flowrate) is the optimum case. Whole PCM melted in
21 mints in this case and we were able to obtain 52.44KJ/min power per mass in this case. All
the material selection was based on its economic feasibility and availability. All the machining
performed on the prototype was a simpler one and was easily available in the market. All the
energy sources have huge impact on the environment and causing environmental problems.
This proposed solution for energy source is reliable and has minimum effects on the
environment.

1.4 Purpose of project

Solar energy is considered as the most potential source of renewable energy in all over the
world. Before going to solar system first this TES will be test on AC supply electric heater, if
performance of the thermal energy storage system is efficient then it could be shifted to solar
energy. The main purpose of our project to investigate the effect of various parameter like inlet
temperature and mass flowrate on TES performance. The aim of this project is to design an
efficient latent-heat thermal energy storage unit. As discussed in the overview section this
energy would be stored in a phase change material (PCM) by exchanging heat with water as
HTF with the help of a concentric triple tube heat exchanger. In this project, an effective PCM
and concentric triple heat exchanger with appropriate geometry are selected on the basis of the
design. Researchers have proposed different types of geometries in the past to reduce the
melting time and ensure maximum PCM melting.

 The key aspect of this project would be high heat storage between low temperature
ranges.

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  Extensive testing on experimental setup to enhance the melting fraction and reduce the
melting time. Fabricate the system that store the maximum energy.

 The results will also be compared with the models analyzed in other research papers in
order to check the optimization and enhancement of the system in this project.

1.5 Deliverables
Deliverables of this project include a numerically approved design of a triple tube heat
exchanger (TTHX). This designed heat exchanger will be fabricated and its experimental
results would be compared with numerical results obtained. The key aspect of this project
would be high heat storage between low temperature ranges.

1.6 Applications of the Project

Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage (LHTES) systems are becoming more attractive for
heating and cooling of space in buildings. Some important and key aspects of LHTES and
PCMs (phase change material) are given below:

 Solar energy is a renewable and can be utilized for storage of energy(charging)

throughout a day time, and delivering(discharging) it at night time, especially for winter
heating of the space and improving the degree of thermal comfort.

 This project can be used as an energy source in the power plants due to its low
cost and availability.

 The PCM based parabolic trough collector is very applicable in industries. It is also
applicable in power plants.

 The production of electricity is low in our country, TES heat exchangers can be used to
reduce by the difference between off peak and peak electricity production.

 These can be used to save the electricity cost by storing the energy during off-peak
periods and utilizing it during peak periods. For example, electricity cost is much
cheaper at nights.

Al Hinti [3] experimentally investigated use of water as a PCM for a solar water heating system.
By the use of PCM water remained 30oC hotter as compare to ambient temperature. Beside
this, Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage systems can also help to investigate the phase change
material applications in windows, ceiling, walls and floors etc. Yosr Allouche [4] studied
integrated solar driven ejector based Air conditioning system by using PCM. This study

4
depicted that PCM can not only serve for heating purposes but can also serve for cooling
purposes specially in Air conditioning industry. Furthermore, thermal energy storage systems
have a wide range of applications and the goal to reduce the reliance on non-renewable energy
resources can be met by applying different technique and procedures.

1.7 Project Plan

The completion of the project is broken down into different sub-phases which primarily include
the comprehensive literature review of different geometries, selection of design parameters,
CAD and Visio modelling, fabrication of experimental setup, extensive testing on it by varying
parameter and numerical modeling and report writing. In the first part of project we fabricated
the concentric triple tube heat exchanger and built its testing setup. We selected the suitable
sensors and data acquisition system for it. In the second part of the project we tested and
analyzed the results and compared these with analytical calculations to check the difference
between these.

Gantt Chart

Fig 1.1 Gantt Chart of the Project

5
1.8 Report organization
In this project, the report has been organized for reader to get idea what is done in this project.
First chapter contains introduction of the project in detail, it includes statement of the problem,
mathematical formulation of the solution, purpose and applications, overview of the project
and domain configuration. Second chapter is assigned to the literature review of the related
published research. In this section detailed study is given about previously published research
papers on this topic.

Third chapter contains information about project design and implementation and also tells us
about the system detail and design of thermal energy storage system by using phase change
material. It discusses the important phases of the project and their interrelations.

Fourth chapter contains experimental setup and procedures of it. It covers the manufacturing
and assembly of the project based on the design selected in third chapter. The phase of the
manufacturing process is discussed, along with the challenges faced during fabrication and
assembly of the heat exchanger parts. It also covers the implementation and testing of the
system.

Fifth chapter contains the numerical modeling of the system and last the Sixth chapter contains
conclusion of the project. It also discusses possible improvements to the design and
recommendations for future works.

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Chapter 2
Literature review

Phase change materials (PCMs) are important for their high latent heat but have naturally low
thermal conductivity. These problems make PCMs limited to store and release energy in an
optimal span of time. So, for solution to this problem different types of geometries have been
studied and analyzed by researchers. Renewable energy is considered as one of the best sources
to utilize and to obtain energy as compare to the fossil fuels and other sources of energy. The
main source to store energy in our project was PCM. The effective and dominant mode of heat
transfer in PCM is natural convection. When vortices induce by buoyancy forces in the flow it
enhances the heat transfer rate. Sensible and latent heat are two basic types of heat storage
through SHSU and LHSU. Sensible heat shows linear graph between temperature and time but
in latent heat due to phase change a lot more heat is stored or released because of this maximum
energy capacity LHSUs are preferred.

Phase change materials are significant because of their environmental friendliness. T. Kober et
al., [5] stated that the significant approaches to keep the atmosphere safe and clean are the
continued development of renewable energy, increased energy efficiency, and carbon capture
and use or storage. PCMs are substances that release large amount of thermal energy during
phase transition but it is difficult to store that thermal energy. For this purpose, it usually
required special container or heat exchanger such as triplex tube. The setup of PCM based heat
exchanger is essential part of TES. The configuration and orientation of fins in heat exchanger
are considerable parameter for better performance in LHSU. The major limitation of using
paraffin wax as PCM is its low thermal conductivity and that’s the reason that makes heat
transfer difficult. Nano-particles are used in PCM to improve the thermal conductivity but
dispersion of these particles after melting concentrate at one place and particle sedimentation
occurs.

The heat surface area plays important role in natural convection heat transfer which affect
melting time and heat exchange rate of PCM. The parameter under examination is constant
inlet temperature that come from the hot water tank and mass flow rate is also investigated to
identify the effects on the charging and solidification of PCM in TTHX. Triplex tube heat
exchanger is chosen for thermal energy storage because it has higher heat transfer area as
compared to double tube shell and tube as discussed by K. Y. Leong et al., [6].

7
2.1 Thermal energy storage:
Thermal energy storage (TES) systems have ability to bridge the gap between energy delivery
and energy consumption that’s why these are very important in engineering field. TES is
accomplished with a large range of advancements which assist a whole range of needs. It allows
surplus thermal energy to be saved for later use at a different place, town or any regional scale
for some different purpose on certain technology. So, energy required can be adjusted
according to day or night timing; heat collected in day by solar collectors can be utilized in
night. TES is a revolution that basically stores energy by either heating or cooling a collection
medium so that the stored energy can be used in a different time period. TES systems are
specifically used in large buildings and in factories/industries. These days, circumstance on
energy markets is unique. The increasing on the costs of the conventional energy sources and
the environmental awareness have leaded to build the utilization of sustainable power source
and energy effectiveness. Thermal energy storage PCMs have intrigued more attention in
recent years and next 50 years its technology fully developed. The below figure presents the
numeral studies and research regarding PCMS and TES from 2006 to 2016.

Fig 2.1 Literature regain by Keywords of ‘PCM(s)’ and

‘Latent Heat Storage’ from Web of Science (2006-2016)
(Reproduced as it is from Zhang et.al., [7])

8
The main objective of TES upgrading is increasing requirements of energy by buildings. Latent
heat storing systems correlated with PCM for use in different processes of storing heat or heat
pump methods besides thermo-chemical stock. Thermal energy storage system can store the
energy for temporary duration of time. Material temperature changes due to sensible heat
storage and phase transformation occurs because of latent heat storage. Effectively stored
thermal energy is also called internal energy. Reason for using PCM as a source of energy is
because they can provide us with high latent heat storage capacity and provide with very minor
volume changes.

Fig 2.2 Types of solar thermal energy storage (TES)

Nikolay et.al [1] studied different sustainable energy sources. Mainly there are

three main types of thermal energy storage systems which includes:

• Sensible heat storage systems.

• Latent heat storage systems.

• Thermochemical storage systems.

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2.1.1 Sensible Heat Storage Systems
Sensible heat storage units (SHSU) are one of the widely used sources for the thermal energy.
Energy is obtained by heating respective solid or liquid medium. Thermal energy can be stored
in the medium by heat transferring which increases the temperature of that medium and later
this energy can be extracted for the required applications. SHSU can store energy up to 10-15
hours [1]. Only concern with SHSU is they have low energy density and requires more volume.
Some common materials which can be used in SHSU are water, molten salt, ceramics, sand,
graphite, concrete rocks etc. Total energy obtained through sensible heat storage systems can
be calculated by using equation (2.1).

𝑸 = 𝒎 × 𝑪𝒑 × ∆𝑻 (2.1)

Here Q is the amount of energy stored, m is the mass of storage material, 𝐶𝑝 is the specific heat
and ∆𝑇 is the change in temperature.

2.2.2 Latent Heat Storage Systems

S. Arunachalam [8] studied LHTES is more preferable because of maximum energy storage
ability per unit volume of phase change material. Latent heat storage can be obtained gas to
liquid, liquid to solid or solid to liquid phase change. A test of PCMs physical and chemical
properties must be performed before finalizing which PCM to use in TES. In order to reduce
the charging time, the heat transfer area and the heat transfer rate need to be optimized. TES is
very important in the previous years due to balancing of energy demands and improvement in
competency of solar systems. It has basic and specific abilities to refine the working of storage
mediums. Working of PCMs for energy storing advantages are notable, but lower range of
thermal conductivity is a major drawback in this process. For its compensation, phase change
material is used in an applicable design for proper working of the system. During isothermal
state of materials LHS uses the energy releasing from the system. In other words, PCM is a
structure with relatively high heat of fusion in which melting and solidification can save a huge
amount of energy. Latent heat storage units (LHSU) uses phase transition phenomenon for the
extraction of energy. Most commonly solid to liquid phase transition is possible for the energy
extraction. Solidification and melting are two common processes involved in the LHSU. Due
to melting process heat is transferred and stored in the material and later due to solidification
this heat releases and respective amount of energy is obtained.

10
 Figure 2.3: Behavior of Sensible vs Latent heat

Due to non-toxic, non- poisonous behavior of PCMs, LHSU are considered as one of
the environmental friendly thermal storage systems. Moreover, they have higher
energy density they require less volume as compare to SHSU. The problems related to
LHSU are sub cooling, corrosion, low thermal conductivity etc. which makes them
less suitable for vast applications [2]. Total energy obtained from LHSU can be
calculated by using equation (2.2).

𝑸 = 𝒎 × ∆𝒉 (2.2)
Here Q is the amount of energy stored, m is the mass of material (PCM) and ∆ℎ is
the change in enthalpy during phase transition.

2.1.3 Thermochemical Storage Systems

Thermochemical storage systems provide energy due to chemical reactions. Both endothermic
and exothermic reactions play their role in these system. Mainly it can be noticed in reversible
reactions. Endothermic part involves absorption of the energy and exothermic reaction results
in giving back that energy. Best example is hydration of salts. They have high cost of equipment
and expensive as compare to other two competitors.

11
2.2 Geometries of triple tube heat exchanger for LTESU:
The first configuration studied is triple tube heat exchanger with inner and outer shell. This
configuration is comprised of 3 concentric tubes. It can further be divided into different
geometric configurations. One with internal tube, one with outer tube shell and the last one
with both internal and external fins. Other possibilities are related to the arrangement of PCM
and HTF, in one configuration PCM is contained in the inner and the outer shell while HTF
goes through the middle tube. In this study the placement of PCM and HTF are reversed. The
purpose of this change is to improve the charging process of PCM by reducing the melting time
and enhancing the heat exchange.

Fig 2.4 Geometries of TTHX (a) + sign fins direction (b) × sign fins direction

As discussed in the domain configuration section of numerical models there are total two
geometries used for the simulations. The geometries differ on the basis of both orientation of
the fins and the number of fins that each geometry contains. All of the geometries have
longitudinal fins. These configurations are of triple tube heat exchanger system in which two
tubes are concentric within an outer shell. PCM is contained within the internal and external
tube while HTF flows through central tube. Two geometries contain four fins that are placed
to the tube having PCM as shown in Figure 2.4. In one of these configurations the fins are
arranged in the form of plus sign (+) with each fin being 90 degrees apart from the other. In
second geometry the fins are also at 90 degrees from one another but in this configuration, fins
are arranged in such a way that they make multiplication sign (×) i.e., the starting fin is at 45

12
degrees from the origin. This work is performed by Danish Ali et.al [2] and now we will
redesign and optimize this configuration in our design. In this design heat stored in the LHSU
is maximum and charging time is also optimal. But it further need improvement by increasing
the number of fins.

J. M. Mahdi et.al [11] presented the idea of reduction of melting time by increasing the heat
transfer area. Triplex tube heat exchanger provides maximum natural convection so that rapid
PCM melting can be achieved. Upper symmetry line and lower symmetry line are investigated
with reference of buoyancy forces. Due to natural convection heat transfer in upper side is
maximum and in lower symmetry a pool is created, that means PCM makes an envelope around
its solid part.

Fig 2.5 Symmetry Lines on Triplex Tube Heat Exchanger

PCM is placed in central tube and HTF is flow through inner and outer most tube. Both tube
convert heat into PCM by natural convection, its means the reduction of melting time but it
stores energy minimum. Buoyancy force exert force upward that’s why heat transfer in upper
side is maximum. Heat transfer area is increase in triple tube as measure of shell and tube heat
exchanger. The results clearly show that using a minimum number of moderate sized fins at
the top symmetry region of the shell is enough to increase an improve the natural convection
into the PCM to the reduction of melting time. Moreover, the fin structure and large fin does
not affect the growth of vortexes caused by natural convection in the top region of shell. In
other case the bottom region of shell requires many large fins to supply to enhances of the
conduction dominated nature of heat transfer in this region. After this, comparison between the

13
system the same amount of PCM with fins and change the orientation. Amin Shahsavar [12]
inspected the entropy age thought in an adjusted math of a TES by fusing channel waviness
and a higher number of HTF tubes to accomplish superior energy stockpiling. The charging
and releasing occasions decline for a higher wave adequacy because of a higher warmth move
region between the HTF and PCM.

Fig 2.6 a) The schematic of the triplex tube LHSHE and

b) the dimensions of the proposed system [12]
Al-Abidi [12] studied numerically different configurations of triple tube heat exchanger. In this
research seven cases were run by changing the fin orientation, number of fins and without fins.
He compared the result of melting fraction with respect to time. PCM melting fraction change
with respect to time in TTHX with various geometric configuration. However, the melting rates
were varying in different cases. It is due to initial stage of melting, the natural convection and
conduction heat transfer improvement, and increase caused by the presence of fins at the upper
area of latent heat energy storage system that boosted the melting in this region. However, since
there is increase in number of fins in lower region to enhance the melting. He extracted the
result after this study that case with eight fins placed at 45° angle orientation is much efficient
and gave better performance. It takes minimum time to melt all the PCM compared to other
cases. Heat transfer improvement for a triplex tube heat exchanger material is also investigated,
Number of fins, using internal and external fins to accelerate the melting rate were analyzed
numerically by K. Sopian et.al., [13]

14
Fig 2.7 (a) Schematic and Physical Configuration of All Cases (b) Liquid Fraction for all
Enhancement Cases (Reproduced as it is from Al-Abidi et.al)

15
Muris et.al., [10] [14] compared two design solution of heat exchanger of same material for
latent heat storage. The devices are exposed to controlled energy-charging and discharging
process by virtue of internal water flow. The experiment confirms that heat transfer for design
with fins is significantly larger than in the case of smooth plain tubes. The unit with plain tube
reveals strong temperature gradient in radial direction. In the setup with fined tube, higher
temperature in storage material as well as shorter charging and discharging times are achieved.
Vertical temperature gradient arising during the heating after the phase change indicates
development of heat exchange in fluid state. Phase change material, however, turns out to be
inhomogeneous yielding remaining solid parts as well as entrapped air bubbles. Results of
charging and discharging of PCM with the fined configuration were compared with simple
shell and tube and there was reasonable difference of melting time between two geometries.

Fig 2.8 Vertical Shell and Tube with and without fins

Xiaohu et.al., [9][16] suggested a fractional analysis on liquefying process of PCM in a shell
and pipe (LHTES) unit using fin arrangement. PCM that was selected to investigate process is
paraffin and water is used as a heat transfer source. To investigate effects like height, thickness
and number of vanes on process, finite volume method simulations are performed. Different
geometries are investigated to analyze the behavior of heat transfer and heat storage rate. Focus
has been devoted to justifying the part of natural convection to entire process of phase change.
Conclusion verified that the inserting of annular fins into PCM, the full melting time of the
process could possibly be reducing by 65% as compared to a simple case.

16
Saleh Almsater et.al [19] [23] studied the evolution and experimental setup testament of a
computational fluid dynamics model for vertical triple tube heat exchanger based on PCM. A
computational fluid dynamics model has been developed for vertical TTHX with PCM. This
configuration has been developed by including free convection. It was observed that the
charging phase duration is generally quicker compared to solidification process due to the
effect of natural convection.

Fig 2.12 Vertical triplex tube heat exchanger

Len et al. [15] examined physically the charging and discharging properties of CaCl2.6H2O
as a PCM in a vertical concentric double pipe heat storage system as TES. Different geometry
and important parameters were investigated, such as the increase the number of fins inside the
PCM, by varying mass flow rate, and the inlet constant heat transfer fluid temperature [15].
They studied that the impact on design specification was more significant than the effect of
the operating parameter. Wasim Saman et.al [16] studied temperatures of the HTF is important
to investigate the effectiveness of heat exchanger. HTF passes in the shell and six temperature
sensor were placed in the PCM to investigate the experimental results and analyzed the CFD
results. The average effectiveness just as the span of the stage change measure at every
experimental spot were determined and results from the Computation fluid dynamics model
and observed to be in acceptable

17
 HTF

PCM
HTF
ri
r0

rm
Fin

Fig 2.13 TTHX Configuration of maximum heat transfer area [16]

Different type of fins configuration has been seen in Fig. 2A and Fig. 2B, respectively. Two
type of fin occupy the volume of annulus is same between the inner and outer shell. As shown
in Fig. 2C, free convection has been included by longitudinal fin. Therefore, hot flow is trapped
under the each eight of the longitudinal fins. However, as shown in Fig. 2D, strips fins commit
free convection flows between strips fins in circular cross section area

Fig 2.14. A) In tube surface two longitudinal fins placed B) The same volume fraction with
strips fins and longitudinal fins changing C) HTF pattern around the longitudinal fins D)
Schematic of fluid motion in strips fins case. Improvement accomplished by utilizing inner fins
at 11%, inner-outer fins at 12%, and outer trigonal vanes at 15% were observed. he fins have
more power in heat transfer enhancement in PCM than the nanoparticles.

18
2.3 Phase change material:
A Phase Change Material (PCM) is a substance with high heat of fusion, that is capable of
storing and releasing large amount of energy, which when melted and solidify at a certain
temperature. PCM is basically a substance which is being used as a substance to store heat.
Analyzers had uncovered many possible phase change materials which can be used for energy
storing applications including both organic and inorganic substances. On behalf of a large range
of temperature changes there are different number of phase change materials in industries
nowadays. A Phase Change Material (PCM) is a substance having high heat of fusion, and
PCM has an ability to store and release very large amount of energy as compared to the sensible
heat storage.

Fig 2.10 Classification of phase change materials

2.3.1 Paraffin compounds as phase change material:

Paraffin waxes are chemically formed mixtures of n-alkanes denoted by CnH(2n+2). They are
obtained from by-products of refined crude oil. Phase transition temperatures of paraffin
usually fall between 18 to 71°C [13][17], that means these can be used for lower temperature
applications. Their production scales are large and comparatively low in cost than pure n-
alkanes. Chemical stability, low vapor pressure, no phase separation, self-nucleation, high
latent heat density are the properties of paraffin’s which are desirable. However, their major

19
drawbacks include moderate flammability, low compatibility with the container, liquidity and
low thermal conductivity which declare their use as a challenging task [14][18]. However,
problem of low thermal conductivity can be resolved by using different heat transfer
augmentation techniques. Which involve use of heat transfer fins, multi-tubes, inclusion of
nano particles in PCMS and shell shape modifications. These heat transfer augmentation
techniques can be studied and analyzed by experimental and numerical approaches.

Fig 2.11 Paraffin Wax (PCM)

2.3.2 Phase change substances:

LHS can be attained by solid to liquid, solid to solid, liquid to gas and solid to gas phase change
in PCM. Solid to liquid is only phase change which is used for PCMs. There is a high exchange
of heat in liquid-gas transitions than solid-liquid transitions. PCM intrigues heat without a
proper rise in temperature until the whole substance is converted into the liquid state. In order
to store thermal energy different organic and in-organic phase change material are used.
Among these, organic PCMs gain a valuable attention both for research work and its
considerable applications because their resistance against corrosion, non-toxicity, low cost,
stability and large latent heat make them most favorable.

PCM solidifies as surrounding temperature across the liquid medium decreases with release of
latent heat. There are a lot of PCMs which can be recognized from calculating or measuring
their melting point temperatures or latent heat of fusion. For that purpose, in our project it was
important to utilize minimum amount of PCM for the melting and to obtain maximum energy
through that melting. Jatin Vadhera et al. [15][19] examined the required properties of PCM
if they are utilized to be used as heat storage materials. The PCM selection is based on various
important properties that are thermal, physical, chemical properties and economic
considerations.

20
2.4 Limitations
Nanoparticles ready to further develop heat move in PCM and decrease dissolving season of
PCM dependent on mathematical examinations. Experimental works show that there is
limitation on the utilization of nanoparticles fixation in PCM. Low nanoparticles focus is liked
to stay away from significant increment of consistency and diminishing of free convection. The
utilization of various PCMs masterminded layer by layer either toward heat move stream or
spiral way can increase heat move pace of PCM in heat exchanger. The limit of the use of
single kind of PCM is diminished in temperature contrast between the warmth move liquid and
PCM along the stream heading of warmth move liquid. This will reduce the heat transfer rate
and eventually the heating and melting performance. The heat storage will be for very limited
time, and cannot be used after longer time periods.

2.5 Conclusion
The following conclusions are made from the literature review:
1- Paraffin wax is a good option for the phase change material, for solar water heating
application, due to its easy workability, melting temperature and availability.

2- A horizontal tube in shell type storage system is a simple and effective way of storing
thermal energy using phase change material.

3- Use of phase change material is an effective way of storing thermal energy and has
advantages of high storage density and isothermal nature of energy storage.

4- Comparison of presently proposed triple-tube storage system with a double-tube

storage, both having the same inner tube radius and containing the same amount of
PCM, indicated that the melting time of PCM can be reduced considerably by using the
proposed storage configuration instead of the classical double-tube TES.

5- During the parametric studies, as much as six times shorter melting times obtained,
especially for thicker PCM layers.

6- In this chapter literature review of the related technologies to the project and the
phase change material (PCM) have been carried out. It was important to study various
technologies that were designed by different researchers in order to study how these
latent storage systems store the thermal energy and how the melting of the PCM is
carried out in each design.

21
7- The experimental results indicate that the total melting time of the phase change
material increases as the mass flow rate and inlet temperature of heat transfer fluid
decrease. The fluid inlet temperature influences the heat fraction considerably as
compared to the mass flow rate of heat transfer fluid during the melting process of the
phase change material.

8- As the Stefan number is increased by increasing the HTF temperature, the total
melting time decreases, i.e., faster melting is achieved. This is because an increase in
the HTF temperature increases the buoyancy forces, i.e., the Rayleigh number
increases.

9- It is clearly indicated that in designing a triple-tube storage system, the radial position
and the thickness of the PCM layer are the most important parameters that affect both
the charging time and the capacity of the storage significantly.

22
Chapter 3
System Details and Design

After the study of different types of heat exchangers and PCMs, now it is important to select a
particular heat exchanger and PCM and perform necessary analysis on this system. The
analysis will allow as to get a better idea about the behavior of the system. Analysis was
performed to study the melting process of the PCM and also the performance of the heat
exchanger configurations. ANSYS® Fluent was used to perform the required simulations.

Initially a simple shell and tube heat exchanger system was selected and PCM melting process
in this system was analyzed. This was done in order to study the methods that were applied on
this system. In order to check for the correctness of the method used, two results from the
published work were selected and those work were reproduced. Comparison between the
present work and published work was done in order to check for any deviations or errors. After
studying the simple geometry, the selected method was applied on the triple tube geometry
with internal longitudinal fins and this configuration was analyzed in detail. This geometry was
further elaborated into three more designs with either varied number of fins or change in the
orientation of the fins. After careful analysis of all the geometries the design with optimal
performance was selected.

3.1 Grid Size Independence

An important aspect of the computational analysis is to study the effect of grid size on the
results. We are required to perform a gird independent study on the system in order to avoid
undesirable effects that girds have on the parameters being studied. For this study we have
selected three different grid systems i.e. Grid 1, Grid 2 and Grid 3 consisting of 16,000, 22,000
and 28,000 grids respectively. The variation in temperature of fraction contours for these three
grids is presented in the Figure 3.1. The results clearly show that there are no marked variations
between the results of Grid 1, Grid 2 and Grid 3. There are very small deviations of melting
fraction between Grid 1 and Grid 2 i.e. in the range of 2-3 %. While the minimum deviation
between Grid 2 and Grid 3 is even smaller and it hardly reaches 1%. So, from these results we
have selected Grid 2, which consists of 22000 computational elements, for further analysis.

23
 Figure 3.1 Grid Independence

3.2 Problem Formulation

3.2.1 Domain Configurations and Thermo Physical Properties

The domain for computation consists of a two-dimensional triple tube heat exchanger. In this
configuration two tubes are concentrated within an outer shell. The inner and outermost tubes are
filled with the PCM while the HTF is flowing through the central tube. Two concentric copper
tubes with inner diameterD1 = 43mm and central diameter D2 = 92mm are placed within an acrylic
shell of diameter D3 = 150mm.
Paraffin wax is selected as phase change material in this project due to its superior properties than
other phase change materials i.e., non-toxicity and non-corrosiveness. The melting point of this
PCM is also relatively low and melting can be achieved when using solar collectors to heat water,
which acts as a heat transfer fluid. Also, this PCM has a very high latent heat i.e., 5 to 6 times
higher than other PCMs. This indicates that paraffin wax can store much more energy than other
PCMs.

24
 Table 3.1: Thermophysical Properties of Paraffin Wax

Melting point 58-62°C

Density 900 Kg/m3

Latent heat of Fusion 186.5 KJ/Kg

Specific Heat, solid 2384(J/kg.k)

Specific heat, liquid 2890 (J/kg.K)

Coefficient of thermal expansion 0.00714

Thermal conductivity 0.240 (W/m.K)

Dynamic viscosity 0.0063 (kg/m.s)

3.2.2 Governing Equation

There are multiple equations in this analysis which act as governing equations for the system.
These equations actually help in determining and solving the systems. The melting process
include buoyancy force flow of liquid PCM which is in fact an unstable, incompressible smooth
flow. The governing equations that describe the triple tube concentric heat exchanger’s thermo-
fluid characteristics are actually a set of non-linear partial differential equations. These
governing equations which consist of continuity, momentum and energy equations are
presented in the equations (Eq. 3.1 to Eq. 3.5)

25
The natural convection effects are generated due to density difference produced by the
temperature variations and gravitational effect. The density variation is approximated by using
Boussinesq relationship which involves thermal expansion coefficient (β) and temperature
ρl
difference to calculate the density variation ρ = (β (T – Tl) + 1). Boussinesq approximation is

used as the density of the PCM varies during the melting process and hence the normal density
function cannot cater for this continuous variation. Moreover, k shows the thermal
conductivity, T is the temperature, and h is enthalpy. The change in enthalpy of PCM depends
of three stages i.e.

 Phase change material is fully solid

 Phase change material is both in liquid and solid form.

 Phase change material is completely liquid.

26
This change is studied analytically in the (Eq. 3.6 and Eq. 3.7).

The enthalpy of the material is examined as the total of the sensible enthalpy, h and
the latent heat ΔH:

The latent heat content can now be written in terms of the latent heat of the material,
L;

The latent heat content can vary between zero (for a solid) and L (for a liquid).

For solidification/melting problems, the energy equation is written as

27
The enthalpy-porosity strategy treats the soft area (to some degree hardened locale) as a
permeable medium. The porosity in every cell is set equivalent to the fluid part in that cell. In
completely hardened areas, the porosity is equivalent to nothing, which smothers or wipes out
the speeds in these locales. The energy sink because of the diminished porosity in the soft zone
takes the accompanying structure.

Where α is the fluid volume part, ϵ is a modest number (0.001) to forestall division by nothing,
mushy is the soft zone steady, and Vp is the strong speed because of the pulling of hardened
material out of the area (likewise alluded to as the draw speed).

3.3 System Introduction

The objective of our project is to fabricate thermal energy storage system by using phase
change material and after this extensive testing is done on it by varying parameters. The main
aspect of this system is to store maximum latent heat in minimum time. When the system is
fully charged then it used for long period of time. It means solidification of PCM takes
maximum time. The critical problem is that if we utilize the solar energy for this system, we
do not get the constant temperature water for testing. The issue with solar energy is constant
temperature that could not be achieved due to variation in solar radiation. In this system inlet
temperature is the main parameter that reduce the melting time of PCM. That’s why the hot
water is used from an electric heating in this system to ensure constant temperature at inlet.

Phase Change material (PCM) has ability to store thermal energy when its melting point is
achieved. Hot water from heating system is circulated in the loop to melt the PCM that in a
Triple tube heat exchanger. During the evening it utilize the stored energy to heat the cold

28
water. The latent heat materials based triple tube heat exchanger would be attached with solar
collector after this successful testing to store thermal energy in TESU.

3.4 Selection of PCM based heat exchanger and designing

The following points are important before design and fabrication of the heat exchanger.

1- First of all, determine how much energy needs to be stored in latent heat storage system.

2- A good latent heat PCM should be selected for the TESU.

3- Heat exchanger should be selected according to required purpose

4- Triple tube heat exchanger has ability to store maximum thermal energy as compared
to double tube heat exchanger.

5- Calculate different parameters of heat exchanger.

6- Heat transfer area and latent heat storage of heat exchanger should be optimized and
cost effective.

3.4.1 Design of Triple Tube Heat Exchanger

For latent thermal energy storage system shell and tube heat exchanger are very suitable and
effective option. TTHX is the best option to store maximum latent heat as compared to double
tube heat exchanger. Al-Abidi et.al. [28] studied the TTHX and produced the result by using
HTF in inner and outer tube and PCM in central tube. Triple tube heat exchanger is also one of
its type that has three concentric tube that is a modification of double concentric tube design.
In this way there is option between heat transfer fluid and PCM to flow in central tube or in
inner most and outermost tubes. Similarly, phase change material to be placed in central tube
or outermost shell and inner tube. Heat stored is required at night times is the main purpose
which requires phase change material to be filled in maximum area of tubes.

We will reproduce the TTHX design results at similar inlet temperatures and mass flow rates
by changing the configuration. In our design PCM is placed in inner tube and outer most shell
and heat transfer fluid flow in middle annulus. We selected this configuration because of
maximum PCM heat storage. If we place PCM in annulus than heat transfer area is increased
but latent storage portion is reduced due to less mass of PCM. Our project proposes to develop
an optimized configuration that has maximum heat transfer rate and also has maximum storage
capacity.

29
Fig 3.2: (a) Cross sectional view (b) Longitudinal view

In this configuration PCM is placed in inner tube and outer most shell, HTF passes through the
annulus. Eight longitudinal fins on the 45° angle are placed on the outer side of the central tube.
Inner tube is made of copper and it is without fins because it was difficult to joint fins on the
inside of this tube. Experimental results of charging and discharging processes are examined
by varying the HTF mass flow rate and inlet temperatures.

3.4.2 Design Specifications

Design Specification Dimensions(mm)

D1i 40
Inner shell diameter (D1)
D1o 43

Central tube diameter (D2) D2i 88

D2o 92

Outer shell diameter (D3) D3i 145

D3o 150

Inner shell length (L1) 870

Central tube length (L2) 840

30
 Outer shell length (L3) 755

Fins length 705

Fins thickness 4

Fins height 22

Number of outer fins on 8 (Longitudinal)

central tube

Material of Inner tube, central Copper

tube & Fins

Material Acrylic
(Outer most shell)

3.5 Design Calculations

Inlet temperature = Tin = 70°C
Outlet temperature = Tout = 61°C
Inner tube diameter = D1o = 0.043m
Central tube diameter = D2o = 0.092m
Outer shell diameter = D3o = 0.15m
Fin length = Lf = 0.705m
Fin thickness = 0.004m
Fin height = 0.022m
Copper is the material selected for inner and central tube
𝑊
Thermal conductivity of copper = 385 𝑚.𝐾

31
Phase change material (PCM) properties

Material: Paraffin wax (CnH2n+2)

Melting temperature = 58°C

𝐾𝐽
Latent heat of fusion = 186.5 𝑘𝑔

𝑘𝑔
Mass flow rate of HTF = ṁ = 0.27 𝑠

Table 3.2 Properties of water at 70°C

Description Values

Prandtl number Pr 2.624

Dynamic Viscosity 𝑘𝑔
0.404⨯10-3 𝑚/𝑠

𝑤
Thermal Conductivity k 0.56 𝑚.𝑘

Density ρ 𝑘𝑔
997 m3

Reynolds number calculation

4ṁ
Re = 𝛱𝐷ℎµ

Dh = (0.088 ─ 0.043) m
Dh = 0.045m
Re = 18919 > 2300 (flow is turbulent)
Nusselt number calculation using Dittus-Boelter equation
4⁄
NuD = 0.023⨯𝑅𝑒 5 ⨯Pr 0.3

NuD = 81.08

32
Hot side Convective coefficient (hh) is determined
𝑁𝑢𝐷 ⨯k
hh = 𝐷
50.64⨯0.5672
hh = 0.045
𝑾
hh = 638.3 𝒎𝟐 𝒌

The overall heat transfer coefficient becomes

1 1 1
U = 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑡𝑜𝑡

1 1
U = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
1 1
U= 𝑟 + 𝑟
1 ln( 2 ) 1 1 ln( 3 ) 1
𝑟1 𝑟2
+ + + +
ℎ2𝛱𝑟2 𝐿 2𝛱𝐾𝐿 ℎ2𝛱𝑟1 𝐿 ℎ2𝛱𝑟2𝐿 2𝛱𝐾𝐿 ℎ2𝛱𝑟3 𝐿

r1 = 0.0215m
r2 = 0.046m
r1 = 0.075m
𝑾
U = 169.4 𝒎𝟐 ∗𝑲

33
3.5.1 Amount of heat energy to be stored
Energy required to raise the temperature of water one degree is almost 4.19KJ/kg
called specific heat.

Mass of water (m) = 22.71 Kg

Temperature difference (∆T) = 313K – 300K = 13K

As we know that,

Heat required is

Q = m × Cp ×∆T

Where,

Q = heat stored energy in KJ

m = mass of water in kg

Cp = heat capacity of water (KJ/kg. k)

∆T = change in temperature in K

Now form heat stored equation

Q = 22.71 x 4.19 x 13

Q = 1237KJ

3.5.2 Estimation of amount of PCM

1237 𝑘𝐽
m=
186.5𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔

m = 6.63 kg

3.5.3 Mass of PCM in Triple tube heat exchanger

Inner diameter = D1o = 0.043m

Center diameter = D2o = 0.092m
Outer diameter = D3o = 0.15m
Inner pipe length = L1 = 870mm
Central pipe length = L2 = 840mm

34
Outer pipe length = L3 = 755mm
Mass of PCM
m=ρ×V
where volume is;
π
V1 = × 𝐷1i2 × 𝐿1
4
V1 = 0.00109𝒎2

V3 = π/4 × (𝐷3i2 – D2o2 ) × 𝐿3

V3 =0.0067𝒎2
Total volume is;
Vtot = V1 + V3
Vtot = 0.00109𝒎2 + 0.0069𝒎2
Vtot = 0.00799𝒎2
density of PCM is;
𝐾𝑔
ρ = 900 𝑚3
m = 7.19 kg
Q = mL
Where L is the latent heat of fusion
𝐾𝐽
Q = 7.19 × 186.5 (𝑘𝑔×𝑘g )
Q = 1340.985 KJ

3.6 CAD Model of TTHX

Now based on the selection of the different types of components we will create CAD models
which will depict the shape of our components in the physical model of the project.

35
3.6.1 Inner Tube

Fig 3.3a (Front View)

Fig 3.3b (Side View)

36
3.6.2 Annulus

Fig 3.4a (Front View)

Fig 3.4b (Side View)

37
3.6.3 Outer Shell

Fig 3.5a (Front View)

Fig 3.5b Side View

38
3.6.4 Longitudinal Fin

Fig3.6a (Front View)

Fig3.6b (Side View)

39
3.6.5 Fins placed on Annulus

Fig 3.7 CAD model of Fins placed on Annulus

3.6.6 Inner and Outer Shell assemble with Annulus

Fig 3.8 CAD model of Inner and Outer Shell assemble with Annulus

40
3.6.7 Caps
1- Inlet Cap

Fig 3.9(a) CAD Model of Inlet Cap

2- Outlet Cap

Fig 3.9(b) CAD Model of Inlet Cap

41
3.6.8 Fully Assembled

Fig 3.10 CAD Model of Fully Assembled

3.7 Summary
This chapter include detailed explanation about the working of the thermal energy storage
system. Concentric triple tube heat exchanger is designed on the basis of requirement of stored
energy storage. Phase change material are the fundamental part of the LHSU and selection is
made after comprehensive review of their thermo-physical properties. Paraffin wax is suitable
choice for phase change material because it melts on low temperature and give maximum latent
heat of fusion. In the next chapter detailed discussion about experimental setup and testing
results is presented.

42
Chapter 4
Experimental Setup and Procedures

4.1 Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup

In the schematic diagram, the working of the project can be seen in greater details. Based on
the working of the project, we can use that information to create a well-structured schematic
diagram for the project which will include all the components which will be present in the
physical model of this project as well as the components which need to be designed numerically
in this chapter. The schematic diagram is shown below as:

Fig 4.1 Schematic diagram of Experimental Setup

The system contains the two water reservoir, one is hot and a cold reservoir. For charging loop,
hot water reservoir valve is opened and connected to the pump. Water is hot by the heating
element that is placed in tank. These heating element connected to the temperature controller
for control the temperature of hot reservoir that set as constant value. For mass flow rate
control, a control valve is fitted after circulation of pump.

43
Two thermocouple are placed in inlet and on the outlet. When the experiment is performed,
first the initial values are monitored on data loggers. Inlet hot water is passes and pump is
switched on to create the flow in the closed loop. As shown in schematic diagram ten
thermocouples are placed in radial direction to monitor the variations of melting temperatures.
When the pump is operating, the rotameter with the help of valve regulate and maintained the
flow rate of water. The desired temperature is achieved using loop. We used the data loggers
to measure and check the readings at different points on the heat exchanger. For discharging
loop, the water in the cold storage tank is heated from the PCM.

4.2 List of Major Components

Following are the major components of this project

 Triple Tube Heat Exchanger.

 Hot Water Reservoir.

 Pump.

 Digital Rotameter.

 K-Type Thermocouples.

 Cold Water Reservoir.

 Data Acquisition System.

 Temperature Controller.

 PCM.

 Heating Elements.

4.3 Working of Physical Model

From the schematic diagram Figure 4.1, we can see how the physical model operates. First of
all, source water will be heated in a hot water container using electrical heaters, once the
required temperature of the source water is reached the hot water pump will be turned ON. The
system contains two water reservoir a cold and a hot reservoir. So, for melting phase of the
PCM hot reservoir is opened and connected to the circulation pump. Flow rate of the water is
controlled by the valve fitted after circulation pump. Water is heated with heating rods in hot
reservoir which is insulated in order to minimize heat loss and maintaining water at constant

44
temperature. Nine thermocouples are fitted on the outer shell at three different radial locations
and one in inner tube in order to collect temporal variation of temperature of the PCM.

Two thermocouples are fitted at inlet and outlet of the water. Purpose of putting thermocouples
at inlet and outlet of water is to validate the assumption made in numerical simulation of
negligible temperature drop across the tube. All the thermocouples are connected to a data
acquisition device and their data is recorded and stored on computer after every half minute.
To control temperature of the hot reservoir the electric heater is connected to a temperature
controller device which trips the rod when they reach temperature of at three different
temperature set 70°C, 75°C, and 80°C. Two heating elements are used to heat water with power
consumption of 1500 Watts each. The mass flow rate of water is also variate 0.15kg/s, 0.27kg/s
and 0.39kg/s to see the effect on melting rate. Second loop is called the cold-water loop. Once
PCM gets the energy stored in water and gets fully melted then that energy is extracted by
circulating the cold-water loop from same tube. In same manner data for solidification can also
be collected just after PCM is fully melted and temporal variation can be noted.

Fig 4.2 Complete Physical Experimental Setup

45
4.4 Incorporating heat exchanger with solar water heating application

Fig 4.3 Schematic diagram of Heat Exchanger with Solar Collector

46
The main components of this system is solar collector with evacuated glass tubes and PCM
based triple tube heat exchanger. The orientation of this TTHX is horizontal and it monitored
with thermocouples in radial direction. The well-insulated water storage tank is the basic unit
of this setup. In the day time when sunlight is available charging process of thermal energy
storage system is carried out. In this layout, for melting purpose valve 1 is kept open and valve
2 is closed. In this way, the cold inlet water is passed through the solar collector that is heated
with the solar radiations. The temperature of water rises when it passes through the evacuated
tubes and further passes through TES system and transfer the heat. After this, it flows back to
the water storage tank and this system works in a closed loop cycle.

During the evening time, when the solar radiations are not available valve 1 is kept closed
and valve 2 is opened. Heat is discharged of heat to the cold water and the phase change
material discharges energy and solidifies. After this the same cycle is followed till the PCM
discharges the energy fully and ultimately solidifies.

4.5 Operations Performed

4.5.1 Metal Working

We obtained all the necessary materials and performed metal working operations to create the
work pieces we needed to assemble the triple tube heat exchanger.

4.5.2 Coupling Process

To seal the both end of triple tube heat exchanger, we used the coupling process create inlet
and outlet cap on the work pieces and then assemble them mechanically.

Fig 4.4 Coupling Process

47
4.5.3 Arc Welding

We gathered all the materials needed to form the frame which we used as a means to assemble
and position all the other components of the system as well as to provide an aesthetically
pleasing look to the entire project. We then used the arc welding process to weld the parts of
the frame together. In arc welding, we use an electrode to create an electric arc between the
electrode and the work piece to generate heat [28]. This heat causes the metal to melt upon
which a filler metal can be added to finish the weld.

Fig 4.5 Arc Welding

48
4.5.4 Threading Operation on Lathe Machine

Fig 4.6 Threading Operation on Lathe Machine

4.5.5 Temperature Sensor Used

For this project, we used a K-type thermocouple temperature sensor as it will provide more
accurate values.

Fig 4.7 Temperature Sensor Used

49
4.5.6 Data Acquisition System (DAQ)

Fig 4.8 Data Acquisition System (DAQ)

Data Acquisition system (DAQ) is used to get the readings of temperatures at various points
in the triple tube heat exchanger.

4.5.7 Other Miscellaneous Processes

Some other minor processes were used to finish this project, which includes
 Surface finishing including sanding and painting.
 Plumbing of PVC pipes
 Electrical wiring
 Temperature controller attached with heating element and display for a better, clean
finished look
 Woodwork on stand to create an aesthetic system to conceal wiring and provide a clean
look

50
4.6 Cost Table

Description Amount (PKR)

Copper material middle tube 22500

Acrylic material shell 17500

Data Loggers 13000

Temperature Controller 7400

Copper material fins 6900

Frame 5000

Two water reservoir tank 4500

Paraffin wax 4100

K-type thermocouples 3900

Copper material inner tube 3000

Brass Bushes 2540

2 Heating Elements 2000

Insulation 1400

Total 93,740

51
Chapter 5

Numerical Modeling
5.1 Solution with complete technical specifications
We have selected triple tube heat exchanger for fabrication and testing in this project. In this
heat exchanger system, there are two concentric tubes within a shell. For fabrication ease we
have chosen the triple tube configuration with external outer fins in order to study the effects
of fins on the melting time of the PCM.

In this project, we have studied and fabricated the triple tube heat exchanger in which 8 external
fins at orientation angles of 45°were used. This allowed us to analyze and understand how fin
arrangements can affect the melting of the PCM.

Figure 5.1: 8 External fins at 45°

The Figure 5.1 shows the 2D cross-section of this project. It is a triple tube heat exchanger
comprising three tubes. Paraffin Wax is used as a PCM and is stored in the inner and outer
casing of the configuration. While Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF) flows through the annulus.
Internal fins were not feasible to fabricate due to lack of resources and technology. Outer shell
of the system is assumed adiabatic wall because very less heat can escape from the pyrex shell.

52
The outer wall is therefore not insulated. In case of heat loss from the outer shell, it must be
insulated. The inner and the central tube are at the same temperature as that of the HTF and the
heat transfer across the system is negligible. The initial temperature of PCM is same as that of
the room i.e. the PCM is at 298 K at the start of experiment.

The eight fins are used in the outer region and are located on the outer surface of the central
tube. One fin is placed along the x-axis and all the other fins are then placed at an angle of 45°
from one another. These fins were added to enhance the melting time of the PCM and to study
the time needed to melt the PCM completely. The main factor that contributed in the selection
of this design is the melting time enhancement. Technical specifications of this project include
thermo-physical properties of materials, solution methods for the numerical analysis, under
relaxation values and most importantly the boundary conditions and design specifications.
Values of all these important parameters are given in various tables i.e. Table 5.1 to Table 5.6.

Table 5.1: Thermo-Physical Properties of Materials

Properties Paraffin Wax Copper

Thermal conductivity, k (W/m.K) 0.240 385

Dynamic viscosity, µ (kg/m.s) 0.0063 -

Thermal expansion coefficient, β (1/K) 0.00714 -

Melting Temperature, TM (K) 331-335 -

Density (solid), 𝜌𝑠 (kg/m3) 775 8940

Density (liquid), 𝜌𝑙 (kg/m3) 900 -

Specific heat (solid), Cps (J/kg.K) 2384 381

Specific heat (liquid), Cpl (J/kg.K) 2890 -

Latent heat of fusion, Lf (J/kg) 186.5 -

53
An important aspect in heat transfer domain is an optimized system and one of the criteria for
optimization and increased efficiency is the lower total melting time. This will also result in
less HTF required to melt the PCM and hence a lot of energy can be saved.

Table 5.2: Design Specifications

Design Specifications All Cases

Inlet Temperatures (HTF) Case 1 70°C

Case 2 75°C
Case 3 80°C

Inner Diameter (D1i) 43 mm

Central Diameter (D2i) 92 mm

Outer Diameter (D3i) 150 mm

Outer fin thickness 4 mm

Outer fin height 22 mm

Table 5.3: Time Specifications

Time specifications All Cases

Time step size 0.123

Maximum no. of time steps 100,000

No. of iterations per time step 80

54
 Table 5.4: Boundary Conditions

Boundary Conditions All Cases

External wall Adiabatic

Inner and Central Wall Isothermal

HTF inlet temperatures 343 K,348 K and 353 K

PCM initial temperature 298 K

Table 5.5: Solution Methods

Solution Methods Case 1,2, and 3

Scheme Simple

Gradient Least Square Cell Based

Pressure Presto! (Second Order)

Momentum Third Order Muscle

Energy Third Order Muscle

Table 5.6: Under Relaxation Factors

Under Relaxation Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Pressure 0.3 0.3 0.3

Density 1 1 1

Body Forces 1 1 1

Momentum 0.7 0.7 0.7

After performing the numerical analysis on the designed cases. The results were obtained by
using the ANSYS built-in post processor. The main results obtained are melting fraction and

55
temperature contours with respect to time. These results are obtained at different times and they
show the amount of PCM that is melted with time. These results allow us to understand the
melting process of the PCM as these contours clearly indicate the regions from where melting
phenomenon starts and how it proceeds further with time. The melting and temperature
contours of all the cases are given in the Figure 5.4 and Figure 5.5 below.

5.1.1 Case 1, Case 2 and Case 3 Melting Fraction Contours:

Melting Fraction

Time(sec) 0 3 6 9 12 15 19.33

Melting Fraction (%)

56
5.1.2 Case 1, Case 2 and Case 3 Temperature Contours:

Temperature

Time(sec) 0 3 6 9 12 15 19.33

Temperature (K)

298 303 309 314 320 325 331 336 342 347 353

5.2 Summary
In this chapter different design configurations of the project have been discussed in detail.
Important parameters and considerations for each design and the materials used have been
mention which includes thermo-physical properties of the materials, design specifications of
each case, boundary conditions for the numerical analysis and solution methods. The detailed
discussion regarding the results displayed in this chapter and the other results and comparisons
with different literature results will be in the next chapter.

57
Chapter 6

Project Results and Discussion

6.1-Temperature Graphs from Experimental Results

6.1.1 Constant Inlet temperature (70°C) and variable mass flow rate

Fig 6.1 Constant Inlet temperature (70°C) and variable mass flow rate

In this case 70°C temperature constant at inlet and mass flow rate vary to 0.15,0.27 and
0.39kg/s for check the melting enhancement. In this graph it clearly shows that when mass flow
rate vary with increase the turbulence in it , the melting time of PCM is reduce.

For Case 1a the melting time is 37.5 min, Case 1b takes the melting time is 34min and 1c takes
the comparatively low melting time is 31.5mint. it shows that when the mass flow rate increases
the reduction in melting time but very minimal change.

58
6.1.2 Constant Inlet temperature (75°C) and variable mass flow rate

Fig 6.2 Constant Inlet temperature (75°C) and variable mass flow rate

In this case 75°C temperature constant at inlet and mass flow rate vary to 0.15,0.27 and
0.39kg/s for check the melting enhancement. In this graph it clearly shows that when mass flow
rate increase it increase the heat transfer rate and melting time of PCM is reduce.

For Case 2a the melting time is 31 min, Case 2b takes the melting time is 26min and 2c takes
the comparatively low melting time is 24 mint. it shows that when the mass flow rate increases
the reduction in melting time but very minimal change.

59
6.1.3 Constant Inlet temperature (80°C) and variable mass flow rate

Fig 6.3 Constant Inlet temperature (80°C) and variable mass flow rate

In this case 80°C temperature constant at inlet and mass flow rate vary to 0.15,0.27 and
0.39kg/s for check the melting enhancement. In this graph it clearly shows that when mass flow
rate increase it increase the heat transfer rate and melting time of PCM is reduce.

For Case 3a the melting time is 28.5min, Case 3b takes the melting time is 25min and 3c takes
the comparatively low melting time is 21 mint. it shows that when the mass flow rate increases
the reduction in melting time but very minimal change.

60
6.2 Comparison of Energy Storage Rate

To obtain energy from the LHTSU is the final requirement of this project. This section
includes energy storage rate for all the 9 cases which were tested in this project. Total energy
of the system consists of two different types of energies that are sensible energy and latent
energy. Sensible energy is the energy which is present in PCM below its solidus temperature
when there is no phase transition. As soon as phase change process starts sensible energy
replaces latent energy. It is important to calculate latent energy rate for any LTHSU. For that
purpose, calculate energy rates enthalpies were calculated and they were multiplied with the
mass. Energy rate directly depends upon the melting of the PCM in LHTSU. Greater melting
results in greater energy rate. Moreover, it can be seen from case 1 provides minimum energy
rate among all the other cases due to minimum melting of the PCM. For practical
implementation it is very important to obtain higher energy rates so configurations with
maximum melting must be selected.

Fig 6.4 Rate of energy storage

61
6.3 Experimental Results of Temperatures at Inlet and Outlet

Fig 6.5 Experimental Results of Temperatures at Inlet and Outlet

Two thermocouples are fitted at inlet and outlet of the water. Purpose of putting thermocouples
at inlet and outlet of water is to validate the assumption made in numerical simulation of
negligible temperature drop across the tube.

62
6.4 Important Non-Dimensional Numbers

The important non-dimensional numbers such as, Nusselt number (Nu), Rayleigh number
(Ra), Stefan Number (Ste) and Fourier number (Fo) are presented below:

Nusselt number (Nu) is the non-dimensional number to study temperature variations for a
LHTSU. It is the ratio between conduction and convection heat transfer.

ℎ𝐷𝑡
Nu = 𝑘𝑃𝐶𝑀

Stefan number (Ste) is the ratio of sensible heat to latent heat.

𝐶𝑝𝑙 ( 𝑇𝐻𝑇𝐹 − 𝑇𝑙 )
Ste = 𝐿𝑓

𝐶𝑝 is the specific heat, ∆𝑇 is the temperature difference between two phases and Lf is the
latent heat.

Rayleigh number (Ra) is a non-dimensional number which is used to convection problems. It

is defined as ratio of buoyancy forces to viscous forces. Higher Rayleigh number means that
flow is turbulent flow and for lower value flow is in laminar region.

𝑔 𝛽 ( 𝑇𝐻𝑇𝐹−𝑇𝑙)𝐷𝑡3
Ra = 𝑛𝑢𝑙(𝑎𝑡ℎ)𝑙

Here g is the acceleration due to gravity, 𝛽 is the thermal expansion coefficient, 𝜐𝑙 is the
kinematic viscosity and 𝑎𝑡ℎ is thermal diffusivity.

and Fourier (Fo) is the ratio of the heat conduction rate to the thermal energy storage rate.

𝑘
( )𝑡
𝑝𝑙𝐶𝑝𝑙
Fo = 𝐷2

For this project these numbers were calculated at three temperatures for optimum case i.e..
All the values at these temperatures can be seen in Table 6.1.

63
 Temperature (K) Rayleigh Number Nusselt Number Stefan Number Fourier Number

343 2.59 × 108 33.68 0.1859 0.0690

348 3.89 × 108 40.14 0.2634 0.0538

353 5.37 × 108 45.96 0.3409 0.0440

Table 6.1 Non Dimensional Number

6.4.1 Stefan Number vs Fourier Number

Stefan number is plotted against Fourier number. With the increase in temperature Stefan
number also increases. Due to increase in temperature Fourier number decreases which can be
noticed. Moreover, it does not remain linear during the decrease in melting time and at certain
value of Stefan number reduction in melting time starts proceeding slowly. The reason behind
this phenomenon is boundary layer thickness. At higher Stefan numbers boundary layer
thickness increases which creates an insulated region around heating surfaces and due to that
insulated region heat transfer rate declines which ultimately increases melting time.

64
 Fig 6.5 Stefan vs Fourier No

6.4.2 Nusselt number and Rayleigh number

Natural convection effects can be studied with the help of Nusselt number. Nusselt number is
plotted against Rayleigh number for four different temperatures. It can be seen that with the
increase in temperature and Rayleigh number, Nusselt number is increasing linearly. Nusselt
number is related with Rayleigh number because natural convection induces with buoyancy
driven due to temperature differences

65
 Fig 6.6 Nusselt vs Rayleigh No

6.5 Comparison of numerical results

Fig 6.7 Comparison of numerical results

66
6.6 Shortcomings and Limitation

The difficulty we faced was related to the validation of the designs of our project. We selected
TTHX with external fins for the optimization of the melting rate. But we were unable to
validate our results as we could not find any numerical research related to our optimized
designs. There are few errors between experimental and numerical data obtained through
numerical simulations because of these numerical simulations are 2D without given any mass
flowrate. There are several reasons for shortcomings while transforming a numerically selected
geometry to an experimental setup. Thermo-physical properties of paraffin wax used for
numerical simulations were taken an experimental data of a publication. But, for current
experimental data paraffin wax bought from market was not confirmed with respect to thermo-
physical properties due to unavailability of the equipment. So, some of the contribution in
causing shortcomings is little difference in thermo-physical properties. Second reason of
shortcomings can be some manufacturing problems. For example, for current experimental
setup the fins welded on the annulus of LHSU contains some gap and hence resistance to heat
transfer. While in numerical simulation these losses are not counted. So, some of the
shortcomings are due to manufacturing differences. Thirdly, there are some errors is equipment
used in the setup. There are some errors in thermocouples used to take temporal data for
temperature. So, errors in equipment are also cause of some shortcomings in system.

As numerical and experimental results show that use of PCMs in thermal energy storage system
is very efficient due to high energy storage between lower temperature ranges. But despite
these characteristics there are two main limitations the LHSUs using PCMs. Lower Thermal
Conductivity of the PCMs is a limiting factor for use of PCMs as their thermal conductivity is
very low. But this limitation is curable as this project was also the optimization of LHSU to
overcome the effect of lower thermal conductivity.

6.7 Future Recommendation

1- 3D study of the design configurations should be carried out in order to study the effect
on the PCM melting across the length of the system.

2- Numerical analysis should be done by varying mass flow rate and then results should
be compared with experimental results.

67
 3- TTHX material and PCM material should be changed and studied computationally and
their results should be compared with previous studies For testing highly précised
sensors should be used for more accurate result.

4- Addition of Nano particles may reduce the charging capacity of LTESS due to reduction
in overall heat storage capacity of PCM. Similarly, the change in the geometry of HTF
tube should not be very complex since the manufacturing of the tubes can also become
challenging.

5- The use of eccentricity in PCM based heat storage systems improve natural convection
effects in PCM and therefore enhance their thermal performance. However, eccentricity
may cause some delay in discharging of the heat storage system. Therefore, a thorough
study is required to be carried out in the future that can address these problems.

6.8 Summary

This chapter includes the experimental results of TTHX. The results of different parameters
were discussed and compared with each other. Inlet temperature is constant and mass flow rate
is variable in our experimental setup. There were nine cases run during the testing of our
system. The complete 2-D numerical analysis of TTHX was done and the results of different
cases were compared with each other in the form of contours and graphical representation. This
section shows the melting fraction, temperature contours and graphs and trend that shows the
melting fraction change with time. The contour shows the value of temperature and melting
fraction at different sections. After the complete analysis we concluded that case 3 shows the
best performance as compared to other cases. The melting time of case 1 and 2 is about 31 and
26minutes while the melting time of case 3 was 21 minutes which shows that the melting time
is saved about 40% which is a great enhancement. This chapter also includes the limitations
faced during the project and future recommendations to improve the current work and model
in such a way that it can be represented in an even better way.

This chapter includes all the results and plots for this experimentation. It includes temperature
vs time graphs for all the 9 cases. Moreover, energy rate for all the 9 different cases were tested
and plotted. Total time required for the complete melting of the PCM for all the cases were
plotted and discussed. Temperature variation with respect to three non-dimensional numbers
is studied. At the end different recommendations were provided which can be implemented for
further study of this project.

68
Chapter 7

Conclusions
A small capacity thermal energy storage system has been numerically and experimentally
studied in this project, along with the modification in design, fabrication of the physical model
including all the processes and techniques used, selection of various components, as well as
discussion of all the results and shortcomings of the project.

First in chapter 1 a brief introduction of thermal energy system was provided and how much
types of TES with their working principles. The project plan and application of the project also
describes. This project is related to the fabrication and testing of an energy storage unit using
phase change material (PCM). The main aspect of this project is the sustainability factor. With
the passage of time the fossil fuel reserves are depleting from the world and production of
energy is getting difficult in the coming years if no alternatives are found.

In chapter 2, the literature review was performed and provided, in depth detail of the working
of thermal energy storage system by using phase change material along with the different types
of geometries configuration. TTHX is more efficient as compared to double tube heat
exchanger. This chapter also tells us about the selection of phase change material which one is
suitable for our system.

In chapter 3, detailed design specification for all the individual component was provided along
with CAD models. The design specification was taken for requirement of LHSU to store energy
in it. The physical model of the project was fabricated and important testing parameter were
determined.

In chapter 4 a detailed overview of the physical model of the system was provided along with
on what basis the components included in the physical model were selected as well as a detail
working of the system in schematic diagrams and processes used to manufacture different
components of the physical model.

In chapter 5, detailed about the numerical modeling, In this chapter different design
configurations of the project have been discussed in detail. Important parameters and
considerations for each design and the materials used have been mention which includes
thermo-physical properties of the materials, design specifications of each case, boundary
conditions for the numerical analysis and solution methods.

69
Finally, in chapter 6 all the result of the project is displayed and discussed including the results
from physical model as well as result from the numerical solution for validation and
approximation because our simulation was 2D based without varying mass flowrate. The
results are then compared with the different experimentally cases. The results obtained from
the three different cases were compared after the total melting time saved in case3 was about
40% which suggests that this parameter is significantly optimized than the other two cases.
This optimized inlet parameter was compared with the results from the literature in order to
study the enhancement achieved through this system. As a whole this is a good system but a
further experimental study is still required to check how this system works in real conditions.

70
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[6] T. Kober, H. W. Schiffer, M. Densing, and E. Panos, “Global energy perspectives to 2060
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[8] S. Arunachalam, “Latent Heat Storage: Container Geometry, Enhancement Techniques,

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