Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter RG
Chapter RG
net/publication/257140396
CITATION READS
1 4,360
5 authors, including:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Invitation to submit paper - [Energies] Special Issue "Recent Advances in Diesel Engine Diagnostic Techniques" View project
Special Issue "Alternative Fuels for Marine, Aviation and Vehicle Transportation Sectors: Production, Propulsion and Power Generation Technologies" View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Theodoros C. Zannis on 29 September 2017.
Laboratory of Marine Internal Combustion Engines, Section of Naval Architecture & Marine
Engineering, Hellenic Naval Academy, End of Hatzikiriakou Ave. 18539 Piraeus Greece
Dimitrios T. Hountalas
Roussos G. Papagiannakis
Yiannis A. Levendis
*
Corresponding author: Dr. Theodoros Zannis, tel.: +302104581663, fax: +302104581334, E-mail:
tczannis@gmail.com
1
Abstract: During recent years, the exacerbation of greenhouse effect in conjunction with
the continuous increase of world fleet of vehicles and the crude oil prices stirred interest
towards the improvement of vehicle mileage and the reduction of engine-emitted pollutants.
It is well known that diesel engines indicate the highest fuel economy and thus, the highest
CO2 reduction potential compared to all other thermal engines due to their higher thermal
efficiency. However, diesel engine particulate and NOx emissions are higher compared to
modern spark-ignited engines. For this reason, the reduction of pollutant emissions and
specifically, PM and NOx emissions without increase of specific fuel consumption or without
immediate and drastic measures. A direct mean for the reduction of diesel-emitted pollutants
diesel fuel. One promising path for improving the behavior of diesel oil is the blending with
of the initial conventional fuels affect directly the behavior of the resulting mixtures, it is of
utmost importance the optimization of the chemical composition and properties of the initial
conventional fuel. A vast number of experimental and theoretical studies has been conducted
in the past, which examined the effect of chemical synthesis and physical and chemical
properties of diesel oil on diesel engine exhaust emissions. The most important fuel
characteristics examined in these studies was the aromatic content and structure, the sulphur
content, the hydrocarbon molecular structure, the cetane number, the heating value, the
density, the viscosity and the distillation temperatures. The effects of the aforementioned fuel
(direct and indirect injection) and diesel vehicles under different operating conditions
2
(steady-state and transient). It was shown that the effects of fuel properties on pollutant
emissions depend on the engine type and the operating conditions. In addition, it was
revealed that it is extremely difficult to distinguish the individual effects of each fuel property
on diesel exhaust emissions since many of them are statistically interrelated. Moreover, the
impact of fuel properties such as compressibility factor and surface tension on diesel engine
performance characteristics and pollutant emissions has not been thoroughly examined. For
this reason, the purpose of the present study is the examination of the effects of fuel chemical
composition and properties on diesel engine performance parameters and pollutant emissions.
Towards this aim, theoretical and experimental results from four European research programs
in which our research group has participated during the past years in conjunction with
corresponding results obtained from the literature. During the aforementioned research
programs, it was examined both theoretically and experimentally the influence of fuel
aromatic content and structure as well as of the fuel physical properties on various types of
diesel engines under diverse operating conditions. In contrast to other studies, the present
study focuses on the investigation of the effects of fuel characteristics not only on legislated
diesel-emitted pollutants but also on fuel injection system, on combustion process and on
and the procedure of various statistical approaches, which have been used in the literature to
identify possible correlations between fuel properties and exhaust emissions. The conclusions
of these statistical evaluations will be compared against statistical methods used by our
research group to statistically correlate diesel-emitted pollutants and fuel characteristics. The
ultimate goal of this review study is the consolidation of existing knowledge in this particular
3
field and the identification of the influence of each one of the characteristics of conventional
1. INTRODUCTION
Reduction of engine out emissions and brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) are major
protection and preservation of fossil fuel reserves [1-5]. Nowadays, several techniques such
strategies for emission control are often accompanied by fuel consumption or cost penalties
[1,2]. To be compliant with future stringent exhaust gas regulations, the development of
modern diesel engines requires not only a further improvement of the combustion and
injection process but also adequate reformulation of diesel fuels [3-8]. One promising
technique for the reduction of gaseous and particulate emissions is the optimization of the
chemical composition and the physical properties of conventional diesel fuels [5-7]. Using
this technique, significant improvements can be achieved in the environmental behavior not
only of new diesel engines but also of existing fleet of diesel vehicles [3-92].
Fundamental studies [93-115] have revealed the profound interconnection between fuel
molecular structure and the generating mechanism of soot during diesel combustion.
Specifically, studies of soot formation in laminar diffusion flames have shown that the
sooting tendency of numerous hydrocarbon compounds varies widely and is strongly affected
by the different configurations of carbon atom bonds [94,95,97]. For example, fuels with
4
polycyclic compounds (aromatic rings) and triple-bonded carbon atoms form soot readily,
whereas blends with straight chain hydrocarbons containing single-bonded carbon atoms are
The most widely discussed aspect of a fuel’s molecular structure effects on soot
formation is the general ranking of sooting tendencies. Based on data obtained from flames
on a Bunsen burner, Street and Thomas in a pioneer investigation [101] reported that the
sooting tendencies of hydrocarbons rank; acetylene < alkenes < isoalkanes < n-alkanes <
alkylbenzenes < naphthalenes. Takahashi and Glassman [103] concluded that soot emissions
in premixed flames arise from a competition between fuel pyrolysis and oxidative attack.
They correlated the sooting limits of premixed flames for a wide range of fuels by accounting
for C-C bonds and flame temperatures and found that the structure of the fuel molecule was
not very important, as all fuels break down to the same essential species, such as acetylene,
which build into soot. Thus, fuel pyrolysis controls the sooting tendency. However, in the
case of aromatic fuels, an additional fast and direct route may produce soot through
the formation of small aromatic species, such as benzene, that grow to high molecular mass
aromatics including PAH. However, most flame studies of soot formation chemistry have
used methane, ethylene or acetylene as the fuel. These C1-C2 fuels lack most of the structural
features that are characteristic of liquid fuel hydrocarbons: alkyl carbon-carbon bonds, alkyl
rings, allylic bonds and benzenoid rings. Thus their flames provide an incomplete picture of
fuel decomposition and of the chemistry of the formation of aromatics. A recent, detailed
5
review by McEnally et al., [107] on the combustion chemistry of larger, more complex
decomposition and aromatic formation chemistry. The general, widely accepted, picture of
soot formation in flames has been outlined in another review article by Frenklach [108].
According to Glassman [109], in premixed flames original fuel structures break down to
acetylene and soot is formed in the high-temperature post-flame zone. Such, a mechanism
acetylene addition reactions (HACA mechanism [108]) and formation of intermediates, such
as vinyl, butadienyl, vinyl acetylene and phenyl acetylene radicals. In recent years, in
addition to the HACA mechanism, the importance of resonantly stabilized radicals in soot
formation has also been established. These, relatively un-reactive radicals, such as propargyl
(C3H3-) formed by the combination of vinyl and methyl radicals with subsequent hydrogen
aliphatic fuels [93,110]. In the case of aromatic fuels the aromatic benzene ring is already
present in the oxidation zone and is mainly oxidized to cylcopentadienyl radicals (c-C5H5-)
D’ Anna and Violi [111] cyclopentadienyl self-combination is the dominant route in the
multi-ring aromatic formation process in aromatic fuel flames. McEnally et al. [107] suggest
two more, important reactions that form two ring aromatic hydrocarbons, i.e. acetylene
addition to 2-ethynylphenyl and propargyl addition to benzyl radicals. As the building blocks
for large aromatic species formation are the main products of benzene oxidation, PAH are
formed in the main oxidation zone of the flame [93,111]. The larger PAH compounds
6
coagulate to form the first soot nuclei (soot inception), which are a few nanometers in size.
These particles are initially transparent to visible radiation and exhibit spectroscopic
properties typical of PAH with few condensed aromatic rings. These compounds are formed
at a high rate in fuel-rich flames just downstream of the flame front and their concentration
accounts for the total amount of soot formed in slightly sooting conditions. These nuclei
continue to grow via surface reactions with acetylene, PAH and other hydrocarbons present
in the flame. Coagulation of growing soot particles leads to a decreasing number density
Over the years, a number of studies have concentrated mainly on the effect of fuel
aromatic content on engine exhaust emissions, because commercial diesel fuels contain
around 20-30% aromatic compounds, but no definite overall trend has been found [3-7,9-
performance characteristics and pollutant emissions due to the fact that the variation of fuel
example, a decrease of cetane number and a corresponding increase in density and viscosity
According to the literature [3-92], diesel fuel composition and properties affect in a
different way each one of the gaseous and particulate emissions. For example, it has been
reported that CO and HC emissions depend on cetane number; NOx emissions are mainly
controlled by fuel density; whereas polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and soot are directly
related to the fuel aromatic content. Diesel oil composition in single-, double- and triple-
bonded hydrocarbons as well as in aromatic rings affects directly its physical and chemical
7
properties and thus formulates its tendency to form gaseous and particulate emissions when
burned in diesel engines. In general, there is an interrelation between the molecular structure
(paraffins, olefins, napthenes and aromatic hydrocarbons), the chemical properties (cetane
number, ignition point etc.) and the physical properties (density, viscosity, surface tension
etc) of a diesel fuel. Consequently, it is quite difficult – if not impossible – to ascribe the
variations observed in diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions to the change of a
Several theoretical and experimental investigations have been conducted to examine the
effect of the physical and chemical properties of conventional fuels on diesel pollutants,
which were emitted from various types of diesel engines, in test-cell installation or in
vehicles [3-92]. The examination of these studies derived the following general findings
2. NOx emissions experienced low sensitivity to the variation of diesel fuel properties.
According to the literature [3-92], the effects of diesel fuel effects on engine performance
characteristics and exhaust emissions vary significantly with the type of engine used in the
experiments, with the experimental procedure followed, and with the method used for the
different methods were employed to statistically correlate diesel emitted pollutants and fuel
For this reason, an extensive review of already published theoretical and experimental
data concerning the effects of conventional fuel synthesis and properties on diesel engine
8
performance characteristics and pollutant emissions is conducted herein. The main body of
the present study is comprised of theoretical and experimental results, which were produced
from our research team under three major European research programs during the last fifteen
years. In addition, results obtained from a large research program conducted in Europe, which
aimed to identify the effects of diesel fuel composition and properties on engine performance
and pollutant emissions are also included in this study. During these research projects, the
influence of variable aromatic content and structure and the influence of fuel physical
examined both theoretically and experimentally in various types of diesel engines and diesel-
powered vehicles under diverse operating conditions. Emphasis is given to comprehend the
influence of diesel properties on fuel injection process, combustion characteristics and in-
cylinder pollutant formation. In addition, various statistical methods are presented, which
were employed to correlate the measured emitted pollutants with fuel properties. The main
scope of the present study is to assemble existing knowledge in this field and help clarify the
pollutant emissions.
9
2. DESCRIPTION OF FUEL PROPERTIES
2.1 Fuel Properties of the “EPEFE” Program
The European Program on Emissions, Fuels and Engine Technologies (“EPEFE”), which
EUROPIA (European Petroleum Industry Association) between 1993 and 1995, provides
important information towards the understanding of the effects of diesel fuel properties (i.e.
aromatic content, sulphur content, cetane number, density, distillation temperature etc) on
diesel engines performance and pollutant emissions [13,23,24]. The objective of the program
was to produce a core fuel matrix in which the following fuel parameters were de-correlated;
(in order of priority) i) density and poly-aromatics (i.e. di- + tri-aromatics), ii) cetane number
and iii) back-end distillation. In Table 1 is shown the original fuel matrix requirements of the
“EPEFE” program.
It was agreed that all six fuels would be blended to constant sulphur content (as close as
possible to 500 ppm maximum) and should have the same back-end volatility characteristics
treating Fuel 1 with increasing levels of ignition improver to allow a change in cetane number
without altering any of the other fuel parameters. It was agreed that the densities of the fuels
should satisfy the following criteria; minimum 820 kg/m³ and maximum 860 kg/m³ with a
10
spread (low to high) of at least 30 kg/m³. A poly-aromatics (di- + tri-aromatics) spread of at
study confirmed that Fuels 2 and 3 would be difficult to produce and would limit the
achievable spreads in density and poly-aromatics to ca. 27 kg/m3 and 5.2 %m/m,
respectively.
It was believed that a T95 of 345 – 350°C was feasible across the matrix, with a
candidate Fuel 7 having an increased T95 of ca. 370°C (EN590 specification maximum). An
additional Fuel 8 (decorrelation of di- and tri-aromatics) would be prepared to match Fuel 2
but with the di- to tri-aromatics ratio as high as possible. This fuel proved to be challenging
A base cetane number of 50±1 across the matrix appeared to be feasible though it was
proposed that Fuel 4 rather than Fuel 1 should be treated with ignition improver at two
increasing levels to produce Fuels 5 and 6. This was because of predicted quantity limitations
on producing Fuel 1. Meeting the sulphur target of 500 ppm maximum added an increased
difficulty to formulating the fuels. Initial studies showed that in order to meet the other target
values as closely as possible, the resulting minimum sulphur content achievable across the
matrix was typically ca. 650 ppm. Clearly a majority of candidate blending components had
to be low sulphur (<500 ppm) materials which would in turn restrict the poly-aromatics
spread achievable; low sulphur components generally have low poly-aromatic contents. It
11
was agreed that modifications were required to make this eight fuel matrix acceptable and
Include a low density/low poly-aromatics fuel with a natural cetane number of ca. 58.
Include a fuel with low density/low poly-aromatics/low T95 and ignition improved to
ca. 58 CN.
There were 24 candidate fuel components available at the outset. No individual oil
company could have supplied the full range required to blend all 11 fuels. All of these
components were typical refinery streams found in commercial use. Since the availability of
each of the components varied widely, it was necessary to formulate each fuel not only to
meet the target properties, but also to maintain certain quantity constraints in order to be able
to produce the required quantity of all 11 fuels. It was agreed that the final blends would not
be treated with any additives other than an ignition improver as required in Fuels 8, 9 and 11.
The selected formulations required a total of 16 different components to prepare the 11 fuels.
2 kerosenes
12
3 catalytically cracked gas oils
The subtle differences necessary between the components were achieved via differences
in crudes and individual refining schemes and plant severities. The target requirements of the
diesel fuel matrix were successfully met in the 11 fuels which were produced. The actual
Table 2. Targeted and actual values of main fuel properties of “EPEFE” research program
[13,23,24]
EPD-X-94 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Density Target 828 828 855 855 828 855 828 855 855 828 828
(kg/m3)
Actual 829.2 828.8 857.0 855.1 828.8 855.5 826.9 855.1 855.4 826.6 827.0
Polyaromatics Target 1-2 7-8 1-2 7-8 4-5 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-8 1-2 1-2
(%wt.)
Actual 1.0 7.7 1.1 7.4 7.1* 7.6 1.0 7.3 8.0 1.1 0.9
o
T95 ( C) Target 345 - 345 - 345 - 345 - 345 - 370 320 - 345 - 345 - 345 - 320 -
350 350 350 350 350 325 350 350 350 325
Actual 344 349 348 344 346 371 326 345 344 347 329
CN (± 1) Target 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 54 58 58 58
Actual 51 50.2 50 50.3 50.6 50.2 49.5 54.8 59.1 58 57.1
S (± 50) Target 450 450 450 450 450 450 450 450 450 450 450
(ppm)
Actual 404 416 415 442 402 440 432 420 424 469 447
As mentioned before the main object of that project was to investigate the effects of fuel
properties and vehicle technology on the exhaust emissions from European light-duty and
heavy-duty diesel vehicles. Thus it was conducted in two separate sub-projects which
investigated the effect of diesel fuel properties on exhaust emissions from either light-duty or
For each sub-project, emissions measurements had been taken from a set of vehicles or
engines over a specially blended fuel matrix. During the project a large number of engines of
13
varying technologies were used for each of the two aforementioned sub-projects (i.e. 19 light-
duty diesel vehicles and 5 heavy-duty diesel engines). The diesel matrix (see Table 4) aimed
to test the effects of density, cetane number, T95 and poly-aromatics on emissions. Because
of the many imposed constraints and the interdependencies between these four parameters, it
was impossible to build an overall orthogonal design matrix spanning all of the parameter
ranges of interest in a collective way. Thus, an 11-fuel matrix was constructed as a series of
The 2x2 sub-matrix formed by fuels 1, 2, 3, and 4 allowed the individual and joint effects
of poly-aromatics (1% to 8%) and density (0.828 and 0.855 kg/l) to be estimated at fixed
levels of cetane number (50) and T95 (345oC). Fuel 5 was added so that the effect of
removing tri-aromatics could be tested by comparing its emissions with those from fuel 2.
The 2x2 sub-matrix formed by fuels 1, 7, 10 and 11 allowed the individual and joint effects
of T95 (325 to 345oC) and cetane number (50 to 58) to be estimated at low density (0.828
kg/l) and low poly-aromatics (about 1%). Fuels 4, 8 and 9 form a 3-fuel set which tests the
Fuels 4 and 6 form a 2-fuel set for testing the effect of T95 (345 to 370oC), again in high-
orthogonality properties and allow the subsequent data to be analyzed in a very simple way.
The results can thus be summarized in the form of simple tables, graphs and local models
14
9
5 Triaromatic 8
2 4 T95 6
Polyaromatic
11 10
Cetane
7 1 3
T95 Density
Density
T95
Figure 1. Schematic view of the methodology used to statistically analyze the fuel properties of
“EPEFE” program [13,23,24].(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE
paper 2008-01-00838)
Most fuel effects are estimated by comparing emissions either from a pair of single fuels,
or from the means of two pairs of fuels. Comparisons based on such small subsets of the data
are much less precise than those based on (say) factorial or D-optimal designs, where all the
data is used in each comparison. Moreover, fuel effects estimated from the diesel matrix in
Figure 1 are local estimates valid only at the fixed values chosen for the other parameters. In
view of these difficulties, it was decided to use a number of modeling approaches to ensure
that any conclusions would be robust. Three approaches were used in relating emissions to
fuel properties:
15
1. Fitting a global linear model in density, cetane number, T95 and poly-aromatics to
2. Finding the "best" linear model for each vehicle/engine and for the fleet average using
stepwise regression. The best linear model was found by backwards stepwise
regression. Terms which were not significant at the 5% level, were removed from the
model.
3. Fitting local 2-variable linear models to each of the various sub-matrices (the other 2
Each emission was analyzed separately and, in each case, the mean of each pair of back-
to-back results was taken as the response variable. Again, actual rather than target fuel
properties were used. In the light-duty case separate analysis of ECE, EUDC and composite
results were conducted. For each statistical model, tables with the statistical parameter
estimated according with the standard errors, t- and P-values had been produced.
All the parameters estimated by the aforementioned statistical approaches were generally
in good agreement with one another. The light-duty model also gave predictions in good
agreement with the emissions actually observed from two additional fuels outside the test
matrix. The global heavy-duty diesel emissions models showed significant lack of fit for
some emissions, whilst analysis of the first 2x2 sub-matrix (fuels 1-4) revealed interactions
between density and poly-aromatics in the light-duty diesel data. When constructing the
diesel matrix, the design parameters density, cetane number, T95 and poly-aromatics were
assigned target values and other fuel properties, such as sulphur, were kept constant.
However, in order to blend fuels to these predetermined targets, certain other fuel
parameters had to be varied, many reflecting the composition of the fuel. These included the
16
fractions of napthenes, total aromatics, mono-, di- and tri-aromatics and N-paraffins as well
as T10 and viscosity. Inevitably the values of these parameters are highly intercorrelated
within the fuel matrix by using Partial Least Square (PLS) technique. Furthermore,
exploratory analysis (i.e. a combination of PCA and PLS techniques) was used to investigate
the effects of both fuel properties and vehicle technology on the emissions for the various
combinations of vehicle and fuel types. This allowed an assessment to be made of the relative
The influence of fuel aromatic content, specifically the bi- and tri-cyclic aromatic
components.
Distinction of the influence of fuel physical properties, notably density, from that of
Density.
Mono-aromatics.
Di-aromatics.
Tri-aromatics.
17
Detergent additives.
In order to satisfy the previous constrains it was decided to produce these fuels
synthetically using base components that were mixed at various analogies. The main
components were:
The source of aromatics was a Light Light Cycle Oil (LLCO). This is an aromatic
effluent produced in refineries from catalytic cracking. After distillation this was
divided into two components C1 and C2 the first containing only mono-aromatics and
Non aromatic components C3 and C4 with high cetane numbers from a petrochemical
plant.
Finally other pure components were used to control the other properties of the
synthetic fuels and were used in small quantities, phenanthrene was used to adjust the
adjust the oxygen content. The properties of these components are shown in Table 3.
18
Table 3. Properties of fuel components of “JOULE-II” program [9,10]
C1 Distillation cut from LLCO (<200 oC) high in mono-
aromatic, very low in di-aromatic
C2 Distillation cut from LLCO (>200 oC) containing mono-
and di-aromatic
C3 Petrochemical stream, narrow range in distillation, fully
dearomatised, no sulphur, high in cetane (68)
C4 Same as C3 with lower cetane number (55)
Phenanthrene Pure phenanthrene, tri-aromatic booster
Benzothiopene Pure benzothiopene, sulphur booster
α-methylnaphthalene Pure α-methylnaphtalene, di-aromatic booster
The main properties of the fuels used in the present investigation are given in Table 4. At
this point it should be clarified that the cetane number of the fuels was adjusted using a high
cetane number component which was a Fisher Tropsch solvent having a cetane number up to
90.
Table 4. Description of physical and chemical properties of the fuels, which were prepared and
used in the “JOULE - II” research program [9,10]
Reference Fuel Base N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N7
Monoaromatics (%wt.) 25.3 24.6 21.6 20.9 20.6 17.2 22.1
Diaromatics (%wt.) 0.9 2.9 4.2 3.6 4.6 9.5 4.4
Triaromatics (%wt.) 0.1 0.2 0.1 1.0 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total Aromatics (%wt.) 26.3 27.7 25.9 25.5 25.3 26.8 26.6
Paraffins (%wt.) 41.6 37.6 43.8 40.5 55.3 52.7 41.9
Naphtenics (%wt.) 27 29.5 33.4 34.2 22.8 22.2 33.4
Carbon (%wt.) 86.3 86.2 86.3 85.9 85.8 86.6 86.4
Hydrogen (%wt.) 13.6 13.6 13.6 13.6 13.7 13.4 13.5
C/H mass ratio 6.35 6.35 6.35 6.32 6.26 6.46 6.4
Cetane number 53.0 52.1 51.8 52.7 49.4 51.4 52.4
Density at 15oC (kg/m3) 0.8161 0.8261 0.8287 0.8301 0.8129 0.8292 0.8290
Viscosity at 40oC
2 1.719 2.011 2.148 2.123 1.680 2.110 2.138
(mm /s)
Surface tension at 20oC
27.7 28.4 28.5 28.4 26.6 27.6 28.5
(mN/m)
Net heating value 42.52 42.77 42.77 42.72 43.01 42.87 42.94
(MJ/kg)
IBP (oC) ASTM D86 98 152 196 189 194 205 193
T50 (oC) ASTM D86 252 252 253 251 219 248 251
FBP (oC) ASTM D86 309 304 309 307 305 305 307
19
2.3 Fuel Properties of the “JOULE-III” Program
Thirteen test fuels having different aromatic content were prepared in an oil refinery in
Finland under a EU-funded research program [5,6,11,40]. The objective of this program was
the examination of the effect of fuel aromatic content on diesel emitted pollutants aiming
ultimately to the determination of a low aromatic content (“aromatic threshold”) in the fuel
sooting tendency. A detail description of the test fuels is given in Table 5. Fuel preparation
Fuel D1 is a synthetic fuel, high in paraffins (95%wt.) with an aromatic content near zero
(<1%wt.) whereas ‘reference’ fuel D0 is a low-sulphur European diesel fuel for road vehicles
used as a reference for the engine tests. Various amounts of diesel fuel, toluene (a single-
fuel D1 to derive fuels D2 to D12. Having in mind the salient features of Table 5, test fuels
The test fuels D1, D3, D5, D4, D8, D9, D10 and reference fuel D0 indicate a
According to Table 5, the aromatic content of test fuels increases progressively from
20
Test fuels D1, D3, D5, D6, D8, D9 and D10 comprise a series of increasing
According to Table 5, fuels D4 and D5 have the same aromatic content and almost
monoaromatics in fuel D5. Thus, the effect of the type of aromatic structure on
measured emissions can be examined by comparing the results obtained for test fuels
D4 and D5.
21
Table 5. Chemical composition and properties of conventional diesel fuels of “JOULE-III”
program [5,11,40]
Reference Fuel D0 D1 D3 D4 D5 D6 D8 D9 D10 D12
Blending Road Base Base+ Base+ Base+ Base+ Base+ Base+ Base+ Base+
Information vehicle Fuel diesel napthenics diesel diesel diesel diesel diesel diesel+
diesel napthenics
Monoaromatics 22.2 <1.0 2.3 <1.0 4.4 6.1 7.5 9.4 12.2 10.1
(%wt.)
Diaromatics 4.2 <0.1 0.4 5.4 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.8 4.2
(%wt.)
Triaromatics 0.34 <0.02 0.03 <0.02 0.06 0.09 1.1 0.13 0.14 0.13
(%wt.)
Total aromatics 26.8 <1.0 2.6 5.7 5.0 7.1 8.8 11.0 14.0 14.3
(%wt.)
Paraffinics 47.1 95.0 89.1 89.9 82.9 77.2 71.7 58.9 60.6 58.5
(%wt.)
Naphtenics 24.5 4.5 8.1 5 11.7 14.9 17.9 28.4 24.5 26.4
(%wt.)
Carbon (%wt.) 86.3 84.7 84.7 84.7 84.2 83.6 84.4 85.3 85.6 84.6
Hydrogen 13.8 15.7 15.5 15.2 15.2 14.9 14.9 14.8 14.7 14.5
(%wt.)
C/H mass ratio 6.25 5.39 5.47 5.57 5.54 5.61 5.67 5.76 5.82 5.84
Cetane number 52.5 64.05 64.5 60.8 62.25 62.05 61.1 60.25 59.95 57.95
o
Density, 15 C 833.7 779.6 785.8 789.1 792 798.2 804.4 810.5 816.4 815.2
(kg/m3)
Viscosity, 40 2.72 2.49 2.58 2.44 2.63 2.72 2.81 2.92 2.99 2.85
o
C, (mm2/s)
Specific Energy 42.74 43.88 43.695 43.61 43.565 43.5 44.075 43.405 43.855 43.13
(net) (MJ/kg)
IBP (oC) 176 191.1 190.1 194.4 192.9 190.8 193.8 193.2 194 191.6
o
T50 ( C) 268 254.8 258.6 251.9 262.6 266.2 269.1 272.1 276.3 270.1
o
FBP ( C) 361 354.2 353.7 353.6 355.8 352.7 356.4 354.5 355.3 357
As evidenced, strong interrelations exist between some fuel properties. Hence, it is quite
difficult to ascribe the differences observed in diesel engine performance characteristics and
emitted pollutants to one or more fuel characteristics. This is attributed to the fact that the
variation of one fuel characteristic results in the variation of one or more fuel properties,
22
which are directly or indirectly dependent from it. Hence, a multivariable statistical analysis
characteristics and its physicochemical properties. The results of this multivariable analysis
are presented in Table 6, where the Pearson product moment correlation for each pair of fuel
properties is given. Pearson coefficients, P, reflect the statistical significance of the estimated
correlations whereas correlation coefficients R2 vary between -1 and +1 and they correspond
to the degree of linear correlation between fuel characteristics. Pearson coefficient P values,
which are lower than 5%, indicate statistical significant non zero correlations at 95% degree
of confidence. All the pairs of independent fuel variables (identified as those with P values
higher than 0.05) are given in Table 7. Pearson moment correlation value P is used as
23
Table 6. Correlation coefficients of fuel characteristics of “JOULE III” research program [5]
Triaromatics (%wt.)
Napthenics (%wt.)
Paraffinics (%wt.)
Viscosity (mm2/s)
Net heating value
Density (kg/m3)
Monoaromatics
Total aromatics
Cetane number
Diaromatics
FBP (oC)
T50 (oC)
IBP (oC)
(kJ/kg)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
Cetane number 1
*-0.92
C/H mass ratio 1
**0.00
-0.86 0.99
Density (kg/m3) 1
0.00 0.00
-0.70 0.46 0.32
Diaromatics (%wt.) 1
0.04 0.21 0.39
-0.62 0.85 0.92 -0.07
T50 (oC) 1
0.08 0.01 0.00 0.87
-0.57 0.51 0.54 0.16 0.48
FBP (oC) 1
0.11 0.16 0.13 0.67 0.19
Net heating value 0.62 -0.47 -0.40 -0.49 -0.21 0.14
1
(MJ/kg) 0.07 0.20 0.29 0.18 0.60 0.72
-0.52 0.44 0.39 0.48 0.24 0.33 0.06
IBP (oC) 1
0.15 0.24 0.30 0.19 0.54 0.39 0.88
Monoaromatics -0.75 0.93 0.97 0.12 0.98 0.53 -0.31 0.30
1
(%wt.) 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.76 0.00 0.14 0.42 0.44
-0.77 0.92 0.96 0.16 0.94 0.51 -0.45 0.25 0.96
Napthenics (%wt.) 1
0.02 0.00 0.00 0.69 0.00 0.16 0.22 0.52 0.00
0.83 -0.96 -0.98 -0.24 -0.93 0.53 0.45 0.31 -0.97 -0.99
Paraffinics (%wt.) 1
0.01 0.00 0.00 0.53 0.00 0.14 0.23 0.41 0.00 0.00
Total aromatics -0.92 0.99 0.99 0.45 0.86 0.54 -0.45 0.43 0.94 0.92 -0.96
1
(%wt.) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.00 0.14 0.23 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00
-0.17 0.21 0.29 -0.09 0.34 0.48 0.44 0.36 0.28 0.23 -0.25 0.21
Triaromatics (%wt.) 1
0.67 0.58 0.46 0.81 0.38 0.19 0.24 0.35 0.48 0.56 0.52 0.58
-0.65 0.88 0.94 -0.01 0.99 0.48 -0.22 0.26 0.99 0.96 -0.95 0.88 0.32
Viscosity (mm2/s) 1
0.06 0.00 0.00 0.98 0.00 0.20 0.58 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.40
24
Table 7. Statistically independent fuel property pairs of “JOULE-III” research program [5]
Correlatio P Correlatio P
Property 1 Property 2 n valu Property 1 Property 2 n valu
coefficient e coefficient e
Cetane number T50 -0.62 0.08 >> IBP 0.24 0.54
>> FBP -0.57 0.11 >> Triaromatics 0.34 0.38
Net heating Net heating
>> 0.62 0.07 FBP -0.14 0.71
value value
>> IBP -0.52 0.15 >> IBP 0.33 0.39
>> Triaromatics -0.17 0.67 >> Monoaromatics 0.53 0.14
>> Viscosity -0.65 0.06 >> Napthenics 0.51 0.16
C/H mass ratio Diaromatics 0.46 0.21 >> Paraffinics -0.53 0.14
>> FBP 0.51 0.16 >> Total aromatics 0.54 0.14
Net heating
>> -0.47 0.20 >> Triaromatics 0.48 0.19
value
>> IBP 0.44 0.24 >> Viscosity 0.48 0.19
Net heating
>> Triaromatics 0.22 0.58 IBP 0.06 0.88
value
Density Diaromatics 0.32 0.40 >> Monoaromatics -0.31 0.42
>> FBP 0.54 0.13 >> Napthenics -0.45 0.22
Net heating
>> -0.40 0.29 >> Paraffinics 0.45 0.23
value
>> IBP 0.39 0.30 >> Total aromatics -0.45 0.23
>> Triaromatics 0.29 0.46 >> Triaromatics 0.44 0.24
Diaromatics T50 -0.07 0.87 >> Viscosity -0.21 0.58
>> FBP 0.16 0.67 IBP Monoaromatics 0.30 0.44
Net heating
>> -0.49 0.18 >> Napthenics 0.25 0.52
value
>> IBP 0.48 0.19 >> Paraffinics -0.32 0.41
>> Monoaromatics 0.12 0.76 >> Total aromatics 0.43 0.25
>> Napthenics 0.16 0.69 >> Triaromatics 0.36 0.35
>> Paraffinics -0.24 0.53 >> Viscosity 0.26 0.50
>> Total aromatics 0.45 0.22 Triaromatics Monoaromatics 0.28 0.47
>> Triaromatics -0.09 0.81 >> Napthenics 0.23 0.56
>> Viscosity -0.01 0.98 >> Paraffinics -0.25 0.52
T50 FBP 0.48 0.19 >> Total aromatics 0.21 0.58
Net heating
>> -0.21 0.60 >> Viscosity 0.32 0.40
value
Independent fuel property pairs facilitate the examination of the statistical interrelation
25
2.4 Fuel Properties of the “NEDENEF” Program
The fuels of this program were developed to identify diesel fuel formulations to be used
in future diesel engines. The main objective of this program was to specify the “optimum”
fuel physical properties for further decreasing diesel exhaust emissions without affecting
Hence, seven test fuels with different molecular type were prepared to study the effect of
fuel density, viscosity and compressibility factor on DI diesel engine performance and
pollutant emissions. Initially, the specifications of a reference fuel named as “base” DS1 were
selected. This fuel mixture would be used for the preparation of the other test fuels. The
characteristics of the “base” fuel, which was selected to be a Finnish summer - grade city
Table 8. Design specifications of “base” fuel DI1 from “NEDENEF” research program [7,12]
Density 820 – 840 kg/m3
Viscosity 2 – 4 mm2/s
Cetane number around 55
Total aromatic content around 20%wt
Polyaromatic content less than 5%wt
Sulfur content around 20 ppm
T50 around 265 oC
T95 around 360 oC
Then, a series of six conventional diesel fuels was prepared with values of density
ranging from 800 to 850 kg/m3, viscosity varying between 1.5 and 5 mm2/s and
compressibility factor ranging between 6.6 and 7.05 x 10-5 bar-1. The composition, the
chemical and physical properties of the test fuels are shown in Table 9. At this point it is
26
necessary to address the basic differences in chemical synthesis and physical properties
1. According to the initial planning of the research program, fuels DS2 and DS3 are
called “Density Fuels” because they were prepared in order to have different densities
while all other fuel parameters were to be kept to be constant. However, as evidenced
factor. This is attributed mainly to the partial replacement of fuel paraffinic content of
fuel DS2 by napthenics and secondarily, to the increase of distillation temperature due
2. Fuels DS4 and DS5 were initially named “Viscosity Fuels” because they were
prepared to have different viscosities with all other properties were to be kept
constant. However, in this case also, the drastic increase of viscosity (almost 170%)
compressibility factor. In this case, such changes can be ascribed mainly to the
napthenics.
Hence, both fuel pairs DS2 – DS3 and DS4 – DS5 can be used to examine the combined
effect of fuel density, viscosity and compressibility factor mainly due to the increase of
utilizing pertinent measurements from Lister LV1 engine. According to research program
planning, fuels DS6 and DS7 were prepared to examine the effect of variable compressibility
factor on diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions. For this reason, they were
27
initially named “Compressibility Fuels”. However their compressibility and density values
are almost the same. The transition from fuel DS6 to DS7 is accompanied by reduction of
fuel viscosity due to small decrease of distillation temperatures. Thus, the examination of
experimental findings for fuel pair DS6 – DS7 will assist to the comprehension of the effect
Table 9. Salient features of test fuels DS1 – DS7 of the “NEDENEF” program [7,12]
DS1
Fuel DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6 DS7
“Base”
Recipe Finnish Paraffinics + Napthenics + Base fuel + High Base fuel + Base fuel +
City Low High Low distillation Paraffinic Napthenic
diesel distillation distillation distillation temperature compound compound
summer temperature temperature temperature fuel
grade additive additive additive
Monoaromatics
19.9 15.3 14.6 15.7 14.4 14.8 14.4
(%wt.)
Diaromatics
2.2 1.1 1.3 0.7 1.3 1.7 1.7
(%wt.)
Polyaromatics
2.4 1.2 1.5 0.8 1.7 1.8 1.9
(%wt.)
Total Aromatics
22.3 16.5 16.0 16.5 16.1 16.6 16.3
(%wt.)
Paraffines
40.1 53.0 33.5 40.7 37.5 46.2 40.8
(%wt.)
Naphtenics
40.1 32.2 52.7 45.3 48.6 39.1 44.6
(%wt.)
Aromatics
19.8 14.8 13.8 14.0 13.9 14.7 14.6
(%wt.)
Density, 15oC,
833.7 817.2 839.3 818.8 837.7 827.7 830.0
(kg/m3)
T5 (oC) 208.0 208.7 219.9 194.1 227.2 210.8 210.5
T50 (oC) 270.2 246.0 299.1 223.2 319.4 273.4 261.3
T95 (oC]) 347.9 311.8 347.2 301.1 380.2 340.5 344.1
Cetane
53.3 53.3 56.1 50.9 57.5 54.8 54.7
Number
Viscosity, 40oC,
2.94 2.22 3.88 1.80 4.81 2.97 2.74
(mm2/s)
Surface Tension,
28.0 28.1 29.4 28.1 29.7 28.8 28.9
20oC, (mN/m)
Net Heating
43.03 43.41 43.00 42.92 43.22 43.31 43.22
Value (MJ/kg)
Compressibility,
60 bar, 20oC 6.81 7.04 6.62 7.04 6.60 6.81 6.80
(x10-5 bar-1)
C/H Ratio 6.1 6.0 6.14 6.14 6.14 6.04 6.07
28
2.4.1 Multivariate statistical analysis of fuel characteristics of “NEDENEF” program
As evidenced from Table 9, there is an interrelation between the chemical and physical
properties of a conventional diesel fuel, which becomes very strong between certain
parameters. Hence, when a fuel is replaced with another, it is quite difficult to attribute the
changes observed in diesel engine performance and pollutant emissions to a single property
only. This is ascribed to the fact that the change of one fuel parameter results in the change of
one or more properties. Thus, a statistical analysis is necessary to determine which fuel
specify the correlation coefficients between all possible pairs of fuel parameters. According
to this analysis, fuel property pairs with correlation coefficient higher or equal to 75% are
characterized as statistically related whereas values of correlation coefficient lower than 75%
indicate that the statistical relation between fuel parameters is statistically unimportant.
Results from this multivariable statistical analysis are presented in Table 10 [7,12].
29
Table 10. Multivariable statistical analysis of diesel fuel properties of the “NEDENEF” program
[7,12]
Viscosity (mm2/s)
Aromatics (%wt.)
Compressibility
Mononapthenes
Density (kg/m3)
Monoaromatics
Total aromatics
Surface tension
Tetranapthenes
Cetane number
Heating value
Trinapthenes
Triaromatics
Dinapthenes
Diaromatics
(x10-5 bar-1)
Napthenics
Paraffinics
T50 (oC)
T95 (oC)
(MJ/kg)
(mN/m)
T5 (oC)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
(%wt.)
Monoaromatics
1
(%wt.)
Diaromatics
*0.54 1
(%wt.)
Triaromatics
-0.10 0.29 1
(%wt.)
Polyaromatics
0.49 0.98 0.48 1
(%wt.)
Total aromatics
0.98 0.69 0.02 0.65 1
(%wt.)
Paraffinics
0.00 -0.09 -0.45 -0.20 -0.03 1
(%wt.)
Napthenics
-0.30 -0.15 0.42 -0.03 -0.28 -0.95 1
(%wt.)
Aromatics
0.96 0.75 0.01 0.69 0.99 0.06 -0.37 1
(%wt.)
Mononapthenes
0.04 -0.24 -0.24 -0.26 -0.01 -0.12 0.13 -0.06 1
(%wt.)
Dinapthenes
-0.22 0.23 0.76 0.38 -0.12 -0.87 0.86 -0.16 -0.18 1
(%wt.)
Trinapthenes
-0.27 -0.07 0.22 0.00 -0.25 -0.67 0.71 -0.29 -0.53 0.69 1
(%wt.)
Tetranapthenes
-0.36 -0.18 0.49 -0.05 -0.33 -0.70 0.77 -0.39 -0.49 0.79 0.93 1
(%wt.)
Density (kg/m3) 0.02 0.49 0.73 0.62 0.15 -0.79 0.70 0.12 -0.36 0.94 0.68 0.72 1
o
T5 ( C) -0.34 0.24 0.83 0.39 -0.21 -0.37 0.41 -0.19 -0.66 0.76 0.58 0.73 0.78 1
T50 (oC) -0.21 0.33 0.80 0.48 -0.08 -0.54 0.53 -0.08 -0.57 0.80 0..2 0.75 0.89 0.96 1
T95 (oC) -0.07 0.51 0.93 0.67 0.09 -0.53 0.47 0.09 -0.35 0.85 0.38 0.54 0.89 0.88 0.94 1
Cetane number -0.43 0.26 0.81 0.41 -0.29 -0.40 0.46 -0.27 -0.57 0.80 0.57 0.70 0.79 0.98 0.95 0.89 1
Viscosity
-0.24 0.22 0.90 0.39 -0.12 -0.58 0.59 -0.15 -0.48 0.88 0.60 0.78 0.87 0.95 0.99 0.93 0.94 1
(mm2/s)
Surface tension
-0.64 -0.02 0.72 0.13 -0.53 -0.58 0.71 -0.55 -0.30 0.87 0.64 0.79 0.74 0.86 0.85 0.77 0.91 0.87 1
(mN/m)
Heating value
-0.36 0.12 0.12 0.11 -0.28 0.73 -0.63 -0.17 -0.44 -0.31 -0.34 -0.27 -0.26 0.30 0.10 0.10 0.30 0.05 0.08 1
(MJ/kg)
Compressibility
0.20 -0.38 -0.79 -0.52 0.06 0.73 -0.70 0.08 0.40 -0.96 -0.69 -0.77 -0.97 -0.87 -0.95 -0.92 -0.90 -0.94 -0.87 0.10 1
(x10-5 bar-1)
C/H mass ratio 0.04 -0.19 0.39 -0.07 0.02 -0.91 0.88 -0.11 0.31 0.69 0.49 0.59 0.55 0.18 0.35 0.34 0.18 0.45 0.41 -0.83 -0.49 1
30
3. EXPERIMENTAL INSTALLATIONS
Some from the engine tests of the research programs “JOULE-II”, “JOULE-III” and
“NEDENEF” were conducted in the experimental facilities located at the authors’ NTUA
laboratory [10-12]. During “JOULE - II” program engine tests with diesel oils were carried
out in two single-cylinder diesel engines: A direct injection (Lister LV1) and a indirect
injection (Ricardo E-6). The engine tests of “JOULE-III” program were conducted in the
same set of engines whereas the experimental measurements with the fuels of “NEDENEF”
program were carried out in two single-cylinder DI diesel engines (Lister LV1 and
Ricardo/Cussons ‘Hydra’).
“bowl-in-piston” combustion chamber having a bore of 85.73 mm, a stroke of 82.55 mm and
a connecting rod length of 188.5 mm. The compression ratio is 18:1 and the nominal
operating speed range is 1000-3000 rpm. Fuel is injected inside the cylinder through a three-
hole injector nozzle (hole diameter of 230 μm) located near the centre of the combustion
chamber having an opening pressure of 180 bar. The engine is coupled to a Heenan & Froude
31
Figure 2. Schematic view of the experimental installation of Lister LV1 engine [5-7]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
engine with fully automated test bed, which is coupled to a ‘McClure’ DC dynamometer.
Ricardo ‘Hydra’ engine has the ability to operate on the Otto (spark-ignition) or DI diesel or
IDI diesel, four-stroke principle, by changing various parts of the crank gear mechanism,
cylinder and head. In our experiments was used as a naturally aspirated, DI diesel engine,
which can operate in a rotational speed range of 1000–4500 rpm. The engine cylinder bore is
0.08026 m, the piston stroke 0.08890 m and the compression ratio 19.8:1. It has a re-entrant
bowl-in-piston combustion chamber, with an injector nozzle having four holes, 0.25 mm
diameter each, drilled symmetrically around its tip, forming a spray cone angle of 160o. The
diesel fuel injection pump is fitted with an 11 mm diameter plunger. A ‘Bosch’ injector body
is used, which opens at a pressure of 250 bar. A range of 0 up to 40oCA advance (static) is
32
provided. For fuel consumption measurements, a glass burette of known volume was used
with the time measured for its complete evacuation of the fuel sample feeding the engine. A
in Fig. 3 [8,12]. Details concerning the monitoring devices used to measure fuel consumption
and pollutant emissions as well as to record cylinder and injection pressure signals can be
33
3.3 Description of diesel engines and vehicles used in EPEFE program
During the specific project an extended experimental investigation had been conducted
on light duty and high duty compression ignition engines fuelling with various advanced
diesel fuels. The set of test vehicles/engines were selected in order to reflect the wide range in
equipped with prototype emission technologies presently under development. All light duty
diesel vehicles exceeded the requirements of the 1996 European emission standards while the
heavy duty engines used exceeded the emissions standards of the EURO-2. Thus, most of the
test vehicles used in the specific project were prototypes, despite sometimes using existing
vehicle frame and body shapes. Some of the test vehicles had been selected from individual
company internal development fleets, while others had been specifically built for this project
and incorporate the most advanced emission control systems developed by those car
manufacturers within their own individual emission reduction programs. It must be stated
here that the specific project examined 11 diesel fuels in 19 light duty vehicles and 5 heavy
duty engines, respectively. More than 2000 emission tests were run and over 500000 data
The heavy duty engines tested in the program were chosen such that a wide range of
engine size and technology meeting the 1996 emission standards were represented. This was
emphasized in order to cover the large variation of engine application in commercial vehicles
as well. Most of the test engines were prototypes not being in serial production at the start of
this program. In order to cover the full range of commercial vehicle, the main operating
34
characteristics of the selected heavy duty diesel engines used are between the following
limits:
The selected engines represent advanced and optimized combustion control technologies
in their different classes of engine application. All engines are direct injection, turbocharged
equipped with charge air intercooler. The level of emissions is controlled as engine-out
emissions and therefore by the combustion optimization. No after treatment devices were
used, as the high load factor of the ECE R49 13-mode cycle does not permit the application
of oxidation catalysts with the present sulphur content in diesel fuel. Table 11 presents the
Table 11. Main specifications of the selected heavy duty diesel engines of the “EPEFE” program
[13,23,24]
35
3.3.2 Light – duty diesel engines
The set of light duty test vehicles was selected in order to reflect the wide range in
vehicle sizes/engine displacements available in Europe. These vehicles were equipped with
prototype emission technologies exceeded thus the requirements of the 1996 European
emission standards [13,23,24]. As shown in Table 12 the light duty diesel test fleet covered a
range of vehicle size, engine capacity, power output that was deliberately chosen to reflect
the range of technologies anticipated to meet predicted emission requirements beyond 1996.
Specifically the main technological characteristics of the light duty diesel engines used in the
Passenger car (PC) and light duty truck (LDT) with a reference mass ranging from
36
Table 12. Main specifications of the selected light duty diesel engines [13,23,24]
Vehicle Vehicle Displ. Max. Max. Compre Aspira Combu
Code Type Volume Power Torque ssion tion stion
(cm3) (kW) (Nm) Ratio Type Interco Type
oler
combustion and performance characteristics and on emitted pollutants from the variation of
fuel total aromatic and monoaromatic content as well as from the replacement of diaromatics
37
4.1.1 Effect of fuel aromatics on in-cylinder combustion characteristics and pollutant
formation
variations in diesel fuel composition and properties and then, it was used to examine mainly
the influence of fuel aromatics on DI diesel engine combustion characteristics and in-cylinder
pollutant formation. Simulations were made for Lister LV1 engine at 2500 rpm and at 80% of
full engine load for “JOULE – III” test fuels D1 (<1.0%wt. aromatics) and “reference” fuel
D0 (26.8%wt. aromatics, see Table 5. Figures 4-5 show the distribution of fuel/air
equivalence ratio and temperature inside the fuel jet for test fuels D1 and D0. As shown there
is a wide distribution of fuel inside the jet. Areas close to the jet axis and upstream of the
swirl are richer in fuel, the same stands for areas close to the combustion chamber walls. This
reveals a local lack of oxygen. Also comparing the graphs there is a different distribution
between the two fuels even though the operating conditions of the engine are practically the
same. This difference is caused by the small differences in injection timing, injection rate and
ignition delay. Clearly for fuel D0 we have locally richer composition explaining the higher
soot at the engine exhaust. The higher values of fuel/air equivalence ratio, which are observed
for fuel D0 compared to fuel D1, can be ascribed to its higher C/H mass ratio, which resulted
from its high aromatic content. In Fig. 5 the computed local temperature distribution is
displayed. As expected the higher values are at the jet periphery and downwards of the swirl
In Figs. 6-7 the local concentration of NO and soot concentration inside the fuel jet are
given. As observed, NO initiates at the jet periphery downwards of the swirl motion. The
differences between fuels D1 and D0 are due to the differences in temperature and local
38
equivalence and not to the difference in total aromatic content. From these it is clear that the
local concentration increases with fuel’s total aromatic content. This picture cannot be
observed at the engine exhaust since the final soot value depends strongly on the oxidation
mechanism which is greatly affected by the combustion and mixing mechanism inside the
engine cylinder. Both mechanisms are affected by the injection characteristics, the injection
timing, the ignition delay etc. Hence, we describe below the method followed to distinguish
for the actual effect of the total aromatic content on soot formation using the simulation
model to account for the previously mentioned differences in the combustion mechanism that
4.1.1.1 Determination of the effect of fuel total aromatic content on soot formation
To examine the relation between total aromatic content and soot the following procedure
was followed: A soot model based on the two mechanisms of formation and combustion was
used. Even though this approach is rather simple compared to existing detailed chemical
models it has the benefit of simplicity while it accounts for the basic parameters affecting the
formation and oxidation of soot. The two equations governing the formation and oxidation of
dmsf
Af m f ,ev P 0.5 exp Esf / RmolT (1)
dt
dmsb PO 1.8
Ab ms 2 P exp Esb / RmolT (2)
dt P
Test runs were made for all fuels using the measured values for fuelling rate, engine load,
dynamic injection timing and ignition delay. Using this procedure the variation of the
previous values that affect soot were considered. The effect of fuel composition, in this case
39
the total aromatic content, is accounted for through the value of the proportionality
procedure was followed to estimate Af in order to match the measured soot tailpipe values.
Following this procedure the variation of soot formation coefficient Af with total aromatic
content was obtained and it is shown in Fig. 8 [11]. During this procedure, the soot oxidation
40
Fuel D1 – <1.0%wt. aromatics Fuel D0 – 26.8%wt. aromatics
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Top view of temperature (in K) distributions inside the fuel jet of a diesel fuel with
aromatic content <1.0 by mass (left column) and a diesel fuel, which contains 26.8% by mass
aromatics (right column). Simulations conducted at 2500 rpm and at 80% load (BMEP = 4 bar)
of a DI diesel engine (Lister LV1) (5o ATDC, SOI: -12 oCA ΒTDC). Results are given after wall
impingement [11]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
41
Fuel D1 – <1.0%wt. aromatics Fuel D0 – 26.8%wt. aromatics
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Top view of soot (in mg/l) distributions inside the fuel jet of a diesel fuel with aromatic
content <1.0 by mass (left column) and a diesel fuel, which contains 26.8% by mass aromatics
(right column). Simulations conducted at 2500 rpm and at 80% load (BMEP = 4 bar) of a DI
diesel engine (Lister LV1) (5oATDC, SOI: -12oCA BTDC). Results are given after wall
impingement [11]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
Figure 8. Variation of soot formation coefficient, Af with fuel aromatic content. Calculations
were made for a single-cylinder DI diesel engine (Lister LV1) at 2500 rpm and at 80% of full
load. [11]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
42
As observed, soot emissions are increased with increasing percentage of fuel aromatic
content. It must be highlighted that the effect of total aromatic content on soot emissions is
significant for values up to 14-15 %, from this point on and up to 27% the effect is very
small. Thus, an aromatic content threshold appears to exist around a value of 14-15% [5,11].
In processing the measured engine data, the effect of total aromatic content on engine
performance and emissions is examined. In Fig. 9, the effect of total aromatic content on the
percentage change of measured peak cylinder pressure and ignition delay is given.
As observed, ignition delay increases rapidly for values of total aromatics up to 14%,
whereas, for higher aromatic contents, the variation of ignition delay is insignificant. This is
the result of the decrease of fuel cetane number with total aromatic fraction. On the other
hand, the increase in total aromatic content seems to have no significant impact on peak
cylinder pressure since its value reveals a small increase within the range of 6% with total
aromatics.
43
8
4 R2 = 0.98
100
Ignition delay (% change)
80
R2 = 0.95
60
40
20
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Total aromatic content (%wt.)
Figure 9. Effect of total aromatic content on the percentage change (with respect to the value of
fuel D1) of peak cylinder pressure and ignition delay. Experimental results were obtained from
Lister LV1 engine at 2500 rpm and at 40% of full load using test fuels D1, D3, D5, D4, D8, D9,
D10 from research program “JOULE-III” [5,11]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
In Fig. 10 the variation of relative changes of measured soot opacity and NOx emissions
with total aromatic content is given. Values are presented for 40% load only, since for all
other operating conditions results are similar. As revealed, both gaseous and particulate
emissions correlate well with fuel aromatic content. A non-linear increase in exhaust soot
with total aromatic content is identified that is more abrupt for values of aromatics up to 14-
15%, whereas, for higher values, exhaust smoke increases only slightly. This finding is in
accordance with observations made by the other researchers [3,4]. Exhaust soot increases
despite the increase in the premixed burning fuel. This increase reveals a higher sooting
44
tendency of fuels with high aromatic content. There appears to be a threshold at about 14%,
where a further increase in aromatic content seems to have no significant effect on soot
emissions. As far as NOx emissions are concerned, a slight increase with increasing total
aromatic content is observed. This can be attributed to the more intense premixed combustion
60
Soot opacity (% change)
50
40 R2 = 0.88
30
20
10
0
60
50
2500 rpm - 40% load
NO (% change)
40
30
20 R2 = 0.87
10
-10
-20
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Total aromatic content (%wt.)
Figure 10. Effect of total aromatic content on the percentage change (with respect to the value of
fuel D1) of soot and NO emissions. Experimental results were obtained from Lister LV1 engine
at 2500 rpm and at 40% of full load using test fuels D1, D3, D5, D4, D8, D9, D10 from research
program “JOULE-III” [5,11]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
The variation of the percentage changes of carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons
with total aromatic content at 2500 rpm and at 40% load is presented in Fig. 11. A small
increase of CO emissions with total aromatic content is observed possibly due to the increase
45
in the fuel C/H mass ratio. This results in a higher amount of elemental carbon released in the
flame region, thus favoring the formation of carbon monoxide. Finally, for HC emissions an
increase with total aromatics is observed which is steeper for aromatic contents up to 14-15%
(about 45%) whereas, for higher values the rate of increase is confined significantly. One
reason for the increase in HC emissions with total aromatics could be the retardation of
combustion initiation, which is possibly the result of an over mixing of fuel with air.
20
2500 rpm - 40% load
15
CO (% change)
10
R2 = 0.79
5
-5
-10
60
R2 = 0.95
40
HC (% change)
20
-20
-40
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Total aromatic content (%wt.)
Figure 11. Effect of total aromatic content on the percentage change (with respect to the value of
fuel D1) of CO and HC emissions. Experimental results were obtained from Lister LV1 engine
at 2500 rpm and at 40% of full load using test fuels D1, D3, D5, D4, D8, D9, D10 from research
program “JOULE-III” [5,11]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
46
It was necessary to address the question of applicability of the aforementioned findings to
modern automotive diesel engines, which are usually equipped with high-injection pressure
Earlier studies have shown that the increase in soot in the case the fuel containing
aromatics is attributed to the restriction of pyrolysis, which results to soot formation through
incomplete oxidization due to direct polymerization from the aromatics. On the other hand,
the increase in NOx concentration is ascribed to the higher adiabatic temperatures typically
Consequently, the burning of the test fuels used herein under extremely high injection
pressures in modern diesel engines is expected to result only in an increase in soot and NOx
which showed that the increase in fuel aromatic content in common-rail diesel engines results
in an increase in smoke density and NOx emissions at high loads, whereas it has no effect on
Test fuels D1, D3, D5, D6, D8, D9 and D10 indicate a progressively increasing
monoaromatic content revealing its impact on gaseous and particulate emissions. In Fig. 12,
the effect of monoaromatic content on the percentage change of measured tailpipe soot
opacity and nitrogen oxides at 2500 rpm and at 40% load is illustrated. An increase in soot is
observed with increasing monoaromatic content. In this case, the correlation between
47
measured values and monoaromatics is higher compared with total aromatic content, thus
revealing a more profound interrelation between single-ring fuel content and exhaust soot.
paraffinic fractions and the corresponding increase in the naphthenic fractions. According to
the literature napthenes indicate a higher sooting tendency as compared with saturated
60
Soot opacity (% change)
R2 = 0.96
40
20
-20
-40
-60
60
2500 rpm - 40% load
40
NO (% change)
R 2 = 0.82
20
-20
-40
-60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Monoaromatics (%wt.)
Figure 12. Effect of monoaromatic content on the percentage change (with respect to the value
of fuel D1) of soot and NO emissions. Experimental results were obtained from Lister LV1
engine at 2500 rpm and at 40% of full load using test fuels D1, D3, D5, D6, D8, D9 and D10
from research program “JOULE-III” [5,11]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
48
In Fig. 13, the effect of monoaromatic content on the relative change of carbon monoxide
and total unburnt hydrocarbons is shown at 2500 rpm and at 40% load is presented. The
results are similar to the previous ones. Carbon monoxide increases slightly with
20
10
R 2 = 0.83
5
-5
-10
60
R 2 = 0.96
HC (% change)
40
20
-20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Monoaromatics (%wt.)
Figure 13. Effect of monoaromatic content on the percentage change (with respect to the value
of fuel D1) of CO and HC emissions. Experimental results were obtained from Lister LV1
engine at 2500 rpm and at 40% of full load using test fuels D1, D3, D5, D6, D8, D9 and D10
from research program “JOULE-III” [5,11]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
The effect of the number of aromatic rings inside the fuel molecule on measured gaseous
and particulate emissions is given in Figs. 14-15 considering fuels D4 and D5. The two test
fuels have the same aromatic content but a different percentage of diaromatics. Practically,
49
fuel D4 results from fuel D5 by replacing the monoaromatics by an equivalent amount of
diaromatics. Relative changes of measured CO and HC emissions for test fuels D4 and D5
are presented in Fig. 14 as function of load at 2500 rpm. As revealed, the substitution of
emissions for all operating conditions examined. The increase in carbon monoxide emissions
compound with two aromatic rings, which contributes to the formation of CO. Unburned
20
2500 rpm
16 D4/D5
CO (% change)
0
20 20 40 60 80
16
HC (% change)
12
0
20 40 60 80
Engine load (%)
Figure 14. Influence of the number of aromatic rings on the relative change (with respect to the
values of fuel D1) of CO and HC emissions. Experimental results were obtained from Lister
LV1 engine at 2500 rpm during the “JOULE-III” program [5,11]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
50
The effect of the aromatic ring structure on the fuel consumption, exhaust smokiness and
nitrogen oxides is assessed comparing the bsfc/NOx and soot/NOx trade-offs of fuels D4 and
D5 as shown in Fig. 15. The substitution of monoaromatic content with diaromatics results in
off following the introduction of diaromatics. The bsfc/NO trade-off curve of D4 is actually
shifted towards lower NOx emissions without noticeable reductions in bsfc. The deterioration
of soot/NOx trade-off curve for test fuel D4 is ascribed to the increase in soot caused by the
increase in the percentage of double aromatic rings in the fuel molecule. Consequently,
exhaust smoke increases and nitrogen oxides are slightly reduced with the increase in
diaromatics leading to a slight improvement of the bsfc/NOx trade-off and worsening of the
soot/NOx trade-off.
51
400
375 20% 2500 rpm
350 D4 - 5.4%wt. Diaromatics
bsfc (g/PSh)
325
D5 - 4.4%wt. Monoaromatics
300 Total aromatic content:
275 D4 = 5.7%wt. & D5 = 5%wt.
40%
250
225 60%
80%
200
175
50
40
Soot opacity (%)
80%
30
20
60%
40%
10
20%
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
NO (ppm)
Figure 15. Bsfc/NOx and Soot/NOx trade-off curves for fuels D4 and D5. Experimental results
were obtained from Lister LV1 engine at 2500 rpm during the “JOULE-III” program [5,11]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
engine performance characteristics and pollutant emissions are examined. Specifically, the
influence of fuel characteristics such as cetane number, density, viscosity and compressibility
factor on diesel engine combustion and performance characteristics as well as soot, NO, HC
4.2.1 Effect of fuel physical properties on injection process – Results from “NEDENEF”
program
The combined effect of increasing fuel density and viscosity on measured injection
pressure profile is given in Figures 16(a)-(c), where pertinent results for test fuels DS4 &
52
DS5 are presented at 2500 rpm and at 20%, 60% and 80% load. At 60% and 80% of full load,
the significant increase of viscosity (75%) mainly results in an abrupt injection pressure rise
leading to an increase of peak injection pressure. At low load, the effect of fuel properties on
injection pressure is rather imperceptible. This can be attributed to the fact that the effect of
Figures 17(a)-(c) depict the effect of fuel density on predicted pump chamber pressure,
injection pressure and fuel injection rate. Simulations were made for a BR 500 engine series
heavy-duty diesel engine at 1130 rpm and at full load. As observed, the effect of fuel density
small increase of injection duration. Oppositely, as observed in Figs. 18(a)-(c) the increase of
fuel compressibility factor results in an increase of pump chamber and injection pressure and
53
300 300
Lister LV1 Lister LV1
260 2500 rpm 260 2500 rpm
Injection Pressure (bar)
140 140
100 100
60 60
20 20
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
Crank Angle (deg) Crank Angle (deg)
(a) (b)
300
Lister LV1
260 2500 rpm
Injection Pressure (bar)
80% load
220 DS5
DS4
180
140
100
60
20
150 160 170 180 190 200 210
Crank Angle (deg)
(c)
Figure 16. Combined effect of fuel density, viscosity and compressibility on injection pressure
histories. Experimental results from Lister LV1 engine are given for test fuels DS4 & DS5 at
2500 rpm and (a) at 20%, (b) at 60% and (c) at 80% of full load [7,12]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
54
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 17. Effect of fuel density on (a) pump chamber pressure, (b) injection pressure and (c)
fuel injection rate. Predictions were made for a heavy-duty diesel engine equipped with a high
pressure PLN system (EURO 4 – BR 500 series engine) at 1130 rpm and at full load [7]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
55
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 18. Effect of fuel compressibility on (a) pump chamber pressure, (b) injection pressure
and (c) fuel injection rate. Predictions were made for a heavy-duty diesel engine equipped with
a high pressure PLN system (EURO 4 – BR 500 series engine) at 1130 rpm and at full load [7].
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
56
4.2.2 Effect on fuel properties on bsfc and pollutant emissions – Results from
“NEDENEF” program
In Figures 19 (a)-(e) the percentage changes of bsfc, soot, NO, CO and HC emissions are
shown for fuel pairs DS2 - DS3, DS4 – DS5 and DS6 – DS7. Observing relative changes for
test fuels DS2 - DS3 and DS4 – DS5, it can be remarked that the partial replacement of
paraffines by napthenes and the increase of distillation temperature (increase of density and
Decrease of bsfc.
Increase of NO emissions.
Reduction of HC emissions.
Aforementioned variations of bsfc and pollutant emissions are inversed when the fuel
DS6 is replaced by DS7 due to reduction of viscosity as a result of the decrease of distillation
temperature. As observed from Figure 19 (d), a clear trend between CO emissions and fuel
57
4 160
Lister LV1 - 2500 rpm
3 Fuels DS7/DS6
120
Fuels DS5/DS4
2
Fuels DS3/DS2
80
1
0 40
-1
0
-2
-40
-3
-4 -80
20 60 80 20 60 80
Engine Load (%) Engine Load (%)
(a) (b)
15 15
10 10
NO (% relative change)
CO (% relative change)
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
20 60 80 20 60 80
Engine Load (%) Engine Load (%)
(c) (d)
20
15
HC (% relative change)
10
-5
-10
-15
-20
20 60 80
Engine Load (%)
(e)
Figure 19. Percentage change of (a) bsfc, (b) soot, (c) NO, (d) CO and (e) HC emissions between
fuel pairs DS2 – DS3, DS4 – DS5 and DS6 – DS7. Experimental results are given for Lister LV1
engine at 2500 rpm and at 20%, 60% and 80% of full load [7,12]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
58
4.2.3 Effect of fuel chemical composition and properties on diesel engine performance
and pollutant emissions – Results of “EPEFE” program
The data analysis included both pair wise comparisons between individual fuels, and
regression analyses using the full 11 fuel matrix. A thorough comparison was made between
the different approaches and it was concluded that the regression of the full 11 fuel matrix
provided a reliable means of estimating the fuel behavior within the range of density, poly-
aromatics, cetane number and T95 covered by the specific project’s fuel matrix. In addition,
as a further validation of the regression equations used in the specific study, predictions were
made of the emission performance of the quality check fuel and a Swedish Class 1 fuel. The
regression equations successfully described the performances of fuels of the project. The
prediction was extremely accurate for light duty diesel vehicles. For heavy duty diesel
engines, while the predictions were good for CO and PM, the NOx and HC predictions
showed some statistically significant differences with actual measurements especially for
some individual engines. These predictions were, accurate enough for the set of test engines
[13,23,24].
For the combined ECE/EUDC cycle the effects, on a percentage basis, of the change of
the fuel properties on exhaust emissions are shown in Table 13. In Figure 20 is shown the
effect of changing of fuel properties on the exhaust emissions observed during the operation
of a light duty diesel vehicle running a combined ECE/EUDC cycle. Examining this figure it
is revealed that the decrease of the fuel density (855 - 828 kg/m3) results to a considerable
decrease of the emitted concentrations of the carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons
59
Table 13. The effect of diesel fuel properties on exhaust emissions observed of a light duty diesel
engine [13,23,24]
CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOX (g/km) PM (g/km) CO2 (g/km)
Density -0.082, -0.018, +0.008, -0.012, -1.586,
855 828 kg/m3 -17.1 % -18.9 % +1.4 % -19.4 % -0.9 %
Poly-aromatics +0.018, +0.005, -0.019, -0.003, -1.96,
81% +4.0 % +5.5 % -3.4 % -5.2 % -1.08 %
Cetane Number -0.127, -0.026, -0.001, +0.003, -0.66,
50 58 -25.3 % -26.3 % -0.18 % +5.2 % -0.37 %
T-95 -0.008, +0.0017, +0.026, -0.004, +2.88,
370 325 °C -1.8 % +3.4 % +4.6 % -6.9 % +1.59 %
On the other hand NOx and CO2 emissions seem not to be affected seriously by the
change of fuel density. The reduction of poly-aromatics leads to a slight increase of CO and
HC emissions while it seems to affect positively (i.e. reduction) for the NOx, soot and CO2
emissions. The increase of the cetane number (i.e. 50 58) has a positive effect (i.e.
decrease) on CO, HC, NOx and CO2 while it seems to have a negative effect (slight increase)
on soot emissions. This effect becomes more evident for CO and HC emissions since the
relative reduction- on percentage basis- is about 25%. As far as the reduction of the
distillation temperature it seems to have a negligible effect on both CO and CO2 emissions
while it affects positively (reduction) the emitted soot and simultaneously leads to a slight
increase of HC and NOx emissions. Figure 21 shows the effect of the simultaneously
changing of the four tested fuel properties over the range described as: Density from 855 to
828 kg/m3, Poly-aromatics from 8 to 1% m/m, cetane number from 50 to 58 and T95 from
370 to 325oC. As shown in this figure the simultaneously change of the above mentioned fuel
properties leads to a considerable decrease of CO, HC and soot emissions while it seems to
60
10
HC CO NOx PM
% Change -10
-20
-40
Figure 20. The effect (on percentage basis) of each of the diesel fuel properties on each of
exhaust emissions measured from a light duty diesel engine [13]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
5 HC CO NOx PM
-5
-10
% Change
-15
-20
-25
Light Duty Diesel Engies
-30 Combined Effect of all
Diesel Fuel Parameters
-35
-40
-45
Figure 21. The effect (on percentage basis) of all of the diesel fuel properties examined on each
of exhaust emissions measured from a light duty diesel engine [13]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
61
4.2.3.2 Results from heavy-duty diesel engines
Table 14 shows the change (in absolute and relative values) of CO, HC, NOx, PM and
CO2 emissions, which were the outcome of the corresponding variations of fuel density,
pollutant emissions were measured using the 88/77/EEC13 mode cycle. The percentage
changes of measured pollutant emissions mentioned in Table 14 are presented also in Figure
22. It is revealed that the decrease of the fuel density leads to an increase of the HC and CO
emissions of a HD diesel engine while it results to a slight decrease of NOx and Soot
emissions. The influence seems to be more evident on HC emissions where the recorded
Table 14. The effect of diesel fuel properties on exhaust emissions emitted from heavy duty
diesel engines [13]
CO (g/kWh) HC (g/kWh) NOX (g/kWh) PM (g/kWh) CO2 (g/kWh)
Density kg/m3 +0.0297 +0.0332 -0.245 -0.002 +0.560
855 828 +5.0 % +14.25 % -3.57 % -1.59 % +0.07 %
Poly-aromatics -0.0005 -0.0093 -0.1141 -0.0045 -4.947
81% -0.08 % -4.02 % -1.66 % -3.58 % -0.69 %
Cet. Number -0.061 -0.014 -0.039 0.0 -2.934
50 58 -10.26 % -6.25 % -0.57 % 0.0 % -0.41 %
T95 +0.0392 +0.0306 -0.120 0.0 +3.073
370 325 °C +6.54 % +13.22 % -1.75 % 0.0 % +0.42 %
The reduction of poly-aromatics leads to a slight decrease of HC, NOx and soot
emissions while it seems to have a negligible effect on carbon monoxide. Concerning the
effect of the cetane number, increase on exhaust emissions of a heavy-duty diesel engine it is
revealed that it affects positively (i.e. reduction) only the HC and CO emissions since the
concentrations of NOx and soot emissions do not seem to be changed. A decrease of the
62
more evident in the case of HC, where an increase of 15% is recorded. Furthermore, the
reduction of the distillation temperature doesn’t affect soot emissions while it results to a
slight decrease of NOx. Figure 23 shows the effect of simultaneously changing the four tested
fuel properties on exhaust emissions for a heavy duty diesel engine. As shown the concurrent
change of the above mentioned fuel properties over the range shown in the first column of the
Table 8 leads to a considerable increase of HC and a slight decrease of NOx and soot
15 HC
Heavy Duty Diesel Engines
Density
Poly-arom
10 Cetane Number
Dist. Temperature
CO
5
% Change
NOx PM
-5
-10
-15
Figure 22. The effect (on percentage basis) of each of the diesel fuel properties on each of
exhaust emissions measured from a heavy-duty diesel engine, which was operated using
88/77/EEC13 mode cycle [13]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
63
20
HC
Heavy Duty Diesel Engies
Combined Effect of all
15 Diesel Fuel Parameters
10
% Change
5
CO
NOx PM
0
-5
-10
Figure 23. The effect (on percentage basis) of all of the diesel fuel properties examined on each
of exhaust emissions measured from a heavy duty diesel engine [13]
(Copyright © SAE International. Reprinted with permission SAE paper 2008-01-00838)
Since emissions of the light duty diesel vehicles (LD) have been measured in (g/km)
according to the ECE/EUDC combined cycle and the heavy duty diesel engines (HD) in
(g/kWh) over the 88/77/EEC13 mode cycle, the results cannot be directly compared in
absolute units. Thus, the comparison of light duty and heavy duty effects is therefore based
on percentage effects. Prudence had to be exercised when comparing the percentage changes
for the two types of vehicles, as their absolute emissions may be of different orders of
magnitude. In each case the starting point is a hypothetical fuel of 855 kg/m3 density, 8%
poly-aromatics, 50 cetane number and 370oC T95. The effects are summarized in the Table
15.
64
Table 15. The effect of diesel fuel properties on exhaust emissions observed of both light duty
and heavy duty diesel engines [13]
CO HC NOX Soot
Density LD -7.1% -18.9% +1.4% -19.4%
855 828 kg/m3 HD +5.0% +14.3% -3.6% -1.6%
Poly-aromatics LD +4.0% +5.5% -3.4% -5.2%
8 1% m/m HD -0.1 -4.0% -1.7% -3.6%
Cetane Number LD -25.3% -26.3% -0.2% NS +5.2%
50 58 HD -10.3% -6.3% -0.6% -0.1%
T95 LD -1.8% +3.4% +4.6% -6.9%
370 325 deg C HD +6.6% +13.4% -1.7% 0.0%
5. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
5.1 Statistical analysis between measured emissions and fuel properties -
“EPEFE” program
Regression equations were fitted to describe the effects of density, poly-aromatics, cetane
number and T95 for each vehicle and for the vehicle set average. The regression analysis was
performed using a 'full' model, i.e., no attempt has been made to remove from the equation
those terms which are not statistically significant. Consideration should therefore be given to
the statistical significance of the coefficients as well as their magnitude in interpreting the
data. In the present study the general regression equation used for the combined cycle
where the regression coefficients (A, B, C, D and E) are given in Table 16 [13,23,24].
65
Table 16. Regression coefficients for the linear statistical model used for light duty diesel
engines [13]
A B C D E
CO - 1.32507 0.00304 -0.002564 -0.015856 0.000171
HC - 0.29319 0.00068 -0.000731 -0.003273 -0.000038
NOX 1.003973 -0.00031 0.0027263 -0.000088 -0.00058
PM - 0.38799 0.000468 0.0004488 0.0004098 0.000079
CO2 155.5682 0.058753 0.2803220 -0.082247 -0.064053
Regression equations were produced for each engine individually and for the combined
engine set using the same procedure as used for the light duty vehicles. A full linear statistical
model for the heavy duty diesel engines had been adopted by the specific project. The
regression coefficients for the engine set are given in Table 17.
It must be mentioned here that the emissions for the heavy duty diesel engines had been
measured in (g/kWh) following the 88/77/EEC13 mode cycle. For the specific cycle the
effects, on both absolute values and percentage basis variations, of the change of the fuel
Table 17. Regression coefficients for the linear statistical model used for the heavy duty diesel
engines [13]
A B C D E
NOX -1.75444 0.00906 0.0163 -0.00493 0.00266
PM 0.06959 0.00006 0.00065 -0.00001 0
HC 1.61466 -0.00123 0.00133 -0.00181 -0.00068
CO 2.24407 -0.00110 0.00007 -0.00768 -0.00087
CO2 776.64 -0.020749 0.70672 -0.36675 -0.06828
66
5.2 Sensitivity analysis between measured soot emissions and fuel properties –
“JOULE-III” program
The overall results of the sensitivity analysis are given in Table 18. The results of this
multiple regression analysis suggest the following: the C/H mass ratio has the greatest effect
on soot emissions (sensitivity 13.8 %), followed by FBP (sensitivity 1.9%), cetane number
(sensitivity –1.1%), IBP (sensitivity –0.8%), monoaromatics (sensitivity 0.53%) and total
aromatics (sensitivity 0.49%). The strong effect of C/H mass ratio on soot emissions is in
accordance with the aforementioned experimental results. The important finding is that the
67
5.3 Statistical analysis between measured emissions and fuel properties -
“NEDENEF” program
In a preceding paragraph a multivariable statistical analysis was presented aiming to
determine the fuel property pairs, which are statistically independent. Here a multi-regression
statistical analysis is described, which was conducted to examine whether and in which
degree there is statistical relation between each measured pollutant (soot, NO, CO and HC)
and each one of the statistically independent fuel property pairs. Hence, the following linear
where S corresponds to the measured value of each pollutant and P1 and P2 correspond
to the two parameters of each fuel property pair. The aforementioned mathematical
expression was deliberately selected because coefficients b and c express the degree of
dependence – sensitivity degree – of each pollutant from fuel properties 1 and 2 respectively
S S
b % 100, c % 100 (5)
P1 P2
The regression model was applied for measured values of pollutant emissions obtained
from Lister LV1 engine at 2500 rpm and at 80% of full load.
In each case, the application of the statistical model provided results for:
and c. There is statistical relation (at 95% level of confidence) between one pollutant
68
and one or both fuel properties Pi (i = 1,2) when the P-value of the corresponding
Correlation coefficient R2, which expresses the correlation degree between one fuel
Adjusted correlation coefficient R2, which is more suitable for multiple regression
A characteristic example from the application of the regression model for the fuels of
“NEDENEF” program is given in Table 19. P-values of coefficients b and c of the regression
model must be taken into account to determine whether the statistical model can be simplified
or not. When the P-value of one of the coefficients b and c is higher or equal to 0.1, then the
Table 19. Application example of multiple regression model between two fuel property pairs
and soot emissions for Lister LV1 engine (2500 rpm and 80% of full load) [7,12]
Coefficients P-Value
ln(a) -66.7 0.78
P1 Distillation temperature 50%v/v (T50) b 0.3 0.01
P2 C/H mass ratio c 3.2 0.08
R2 88.0% Adjusted R2 82.0%
ln(a) -611.1 0.33
P1 Distillation temperature 95%v/v (T95) b 0.4 0.02
P2 Heating value c 12.3 0.39
R2 80.9% Adjusted R2 71.4%
69
5.4 Sensitivity analysis between measured pollutants and fuel properties –
“NEDENEF” program
Applying the regression model for all independent fuel property pairs and each one of
four measured pollutants (soot, NO, CO and HC emissions), groups of values were collected
for regression coefficients b and c, which corresponded to fuel parameters indicating high
statistical interconnection with a specific pollutant. For each one of these fuel properties, the
average, the highest and the lowest values of recorded values of pertinent regression
coefficient were calculated providing thus, the average value and the variation range of the
Table 20 lists the average values and the variation range of the sensitivity degree of each
pollutant from the fuel properties, with which it is found to be strongly related. When the
average sensitivity degree has negative sign, then the specific fuel parameter affects
negatively the variation of the pollutant. In other words, the increase of this fuel property
the past to examine potential statistical relation between diesel engine emitted pollutants and
one or more fuel parameters. In most of these investigations, the derived statistical
certain fuel property because these analyses did not take into account the inherent
Hence, the method of statistical analysis presented here, does not only determine the
group of fuel properties, which are statistically related with measured pollutant emissions but
also estimates the sensitivity degree of each pollutant from these fuel parameters. According
70
to the results of the sensitivity analysis, which were presented in Table 10, pollutant
Soot emissions
1. Viscosity.
2. Cetane Number.
ΝΟ emissions
1. Polyaromatics.
2. C/H Ratio.
4. Monoaromatics.
5. Dinapthenics.
6. Tetranapthenics.
CO emissions
1. Monoaromatics.
HC emissions
1. Diaromatics.
2. Polyaromatics.
The results of the statistical analysis for each pollutant are in agreement with the general
observations made above for the effect of fuel properties on diesel emitted pollutants. It must
be clarified that the results of the sensitivity analysis are indicative providing an evaluation of
71
the effect of modern fuel mixtures on diesel engine pollutant emissions more on qualitative
Table 20. Average and variation range of sensitivity degree of measured pollutant emissions
from fuel properties [7,12]
Fuel Property Average Sensitivity Variation Range of Sensitivity
(%) Degree
(%)
Soot (mg/l)
Viscosity (mm2/s) 10.2 9.08 - 12.2
Cetane Number 4.4 4.1 - 4.75
T5 (oC) 0.9 0.88 - 0.98
T50 (oC) 0.4 0.35 - 0.42
T95 (oC) 0.3 0.3 - 0.36
Nitric Oxide (ppm)
Polyaromatics (%wt.) 46.3 35 - 51
C/H Mass Ratio -35.7 30.4 - 38.7
Total Aromatic Content (%wt.) -12.8 12.1 - 13.4
Monoaromatics (%wt.) -11.6 10 - 12.8
Dinapthenics (%wt.) -9.8 8.4 - 10.8
Tetranapthenics (%wt.) -9.6 8 - 10.7
Carbon Monoxide (ppm)
Monoaromatics (%wt.) 20.1 16.4 - 23.15
Total Unburned Hydrocarbons (ppm)
Diaromatics (%wt.) 23.2 17.5 - 31.5
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (%wt.) 21.5 19 - 22.9
6. CONCLUSION
In this study, an attempt was made to present and assess the results from four European
examined the effects of fuel chemical composition and properties on diesel engine
performance and pollutant emissions. The examination of the experimental results from the
72
Reduction of NOx emissions in HD engines and a slight increase of NOx in LD
vehicles.
HD engines.
decrease.
73
As far as the effect of the engine/vehicle technology on exhaust emissions, some of the
1. DI and IDI light duty vehicles showed the same trend concerning the effect of fuel
properties on regulated emissions except for the NOx response to cetane number.
2. The lowest sensitivity to fuel property changes was associated with IDI light duty
3. Vehicles equipped with IDI engines achieved consistently low absolute emission
4. Opposite responses in terms of NOx emissions to change in fuel density and Cetane
Number were seen for different vehicle models, but the majority of the light duty DI
The analysis of the experimental and theoretical results, which were produced and
assessed during the “JOULE-II” research program, lead to the main conclusion that there is
characteristics and pollutant emissions. Some clear differences were observed for some fuels
namely N0, N1, N2 and N4 that are associated with their difference in physical properties
rather than their chemical composition. These differences result to a lower initial heat release
rate caused by the different behavior of the fuel injection system. The difference in physical
properties alters the residual pressure value in the fuel pipeline and consequently the dynamic
An explanation of the observed behavior for all fuels is that under the fuel-rich and non-
uniform conditions existing inside the fuel jet in the diesel engine combustion chamber the
74
fuel aromatic contents are rapidly broken down into simpler components and do not act as
However, at the time, it was concluded that the findings of this research program are
important since they revealed that the effect of fuel composition in terms of fuel aromatic
pollutant emissions. It was suggested that this was an important finding and one point of
interest would be to investigate the effect of the total aromatic content on a percentage basis
on engine emissions and especially soot. Another important finding is that physical properties
of fuel and namely density and viscosity have a significant effect on engine performance and
emissions through their combined effect on the performance of the fuel injection system
mechanism. It was proposed that is to be taken into consideration in future works when
examining the effect of fuel composition on engine behavior and pollutant emissions
On the other hand, the research program “JOULE-III” managed to shed more light on the
influence of fuel aromatic content and structure on diesel engine performance and pollutant
emissions. The evaluation of the theoretical and experimental data obtained during the
“JOULE-III” program, delineating the influence of fuel aromatic content and structure on
diesel emitted pollutants and engine performance, resulted in the formulation of the following
concluding remarks:
1. Ignition delay increases with total aromatic content due to the decrease of cetane
number whereas peak cylinder pressure increases slightly. Overall aromatic content
2. Exhaust smoke increases following an increase in total aromatic fraction. The increase
in soot content is drastic as the value of total aromatics of 15% is approached for
75
higher values; the variation of soot is almost negligible. Similar results are obtained
for the monoaromatic content. Thus, it appears that a low aromatic threshold exists for
0 % and 27%; this can be attributed to the increase of premixed burning fuel as a
4. The increase of C/H mass ratio due to increase of aromatic content is a potential cause
6. The soot values obtained using the test fuels were employed in a linear multiple
investigation. The analysis revealed that soot emissions are affected by C/H mass
ratio, followed by final boiling point, cetane number, initial boiling point,
monoaromatics and total aromatics. The results found herein are in accordance with
other studies and verify the strong dependence of diesel-emitted soot on fuel chemical
composition and distillation temperature. But, most importantly, both the direct
processing of experimental results and the statistical analysis identified not only the
profound effect of aromatic content on soot emissions but also revealed the relative
The assessment of the theoretical and experimental results obtained during the
76
The increase of distillation temperature and the partial replacement of paraffines with
napthenes resulted mainly in the increase of fuel viscosity and cetane number and
The increase of fuel viscosity and density in conjunction with the reduction of
3. Increase of the rate of injection pressure rise and slightly higher peak injection
6. Reduction of HC emissions.
Overall, the effects of fuel physical properties on bsfc, NO and CO emissions were
insignificant.
The sensitivity analysis between measured pollutants and statistically independent fuel
properties revealed that soot emissions depend on fuel viscosity, cetane number and
distillation curve whereas NO, CO and HC emissions are sensitive to the variation of fuel
aromatic composition. The results of the statistical analysis agree on qualitative basis with the
experimental findings. This reveals that statistics can be used as a promising technique to
identify potential causes for observed changes in diesel engine performance parameters and
77
Hence, reduction of soot, NO and HC emissions without significant penalties in bsfc can
be attained in diesel engines with reduction of distillation temperature and increase of the
paraffinic to napthenic ratio in conventional diesel fuels, which as evidenced will result
mainly in reduction of fuel viscosity and secondarily, to the decrease of fuel density and
78
REFERENCES
[1] Hountalas, D.T.; Kouremenos, D.A.; Binder, K.B.; Schwarz, V.; Mavropoulos, G.C.
Effect of injection pressure on the performance and exhaust emissions of a heavy duty
[2] Hountalas, D.T.; Kouremenos, D.A.; Binder, K.B.; Raab, A.; Schnabel, M.H. Using
[3] Lepperhoff, G.; Baecker, H.; Pungs, A.; Petters, K-D. The influence of diesel fuel
composition on the particulate and NOx emission under steady state and transient
engine operation conditions. 9th Int. Scientific Symposium for Transport and Air
[4] Baecker, H.; Pungs, A.; Pischinger, S.; Petters, K-D; Lepperhoff, G. The influence of
fuel composition on the soot formation in diesel engines. 3rd Int. Fuels Colloquium,
[5] Zannis, T.C.; Hountalas, D.T. Effect of fuel aromatic content and structure on direct-
injection diesel engine pollutant emissions. J. Energy Inst. 2004 , vol. 77, issue 511, 16-
25.
[6] Zannis, T.C.; Hountalas, D.T. DI diesel engine performance and emissions from the
oxygen enrichment of fuels with various aromatic content. Energy & Fuels. 2004, vol.
79
[7] Zannis, T.C.; Hountalas, D.T.; Papagiannakis, R.G. Experimental study of diesel fuel
effects on direct injection (DI) diesel engine performance and pollutant emissions.
[8] Rakopoulos, C.D.; Hountalas, D.T.; Zannis, T.C.; Levendis, Y.A. Operational and
the effect of fuel composition on the formation of pollutants in direct injection diesel
[12] NEDENEF. New diesel engines and new diesel fuels. GROWTH Programme, Final
Reports), http://www.walshcarlines.com/conventfuels.html
[14] Nakakita, K.; Ban, H.; Takasu, S.; Hotta, Y.; Inagaki, K.; Weissman, W.; Farrell J.T.
80
[15] Ullman, T.L.; Mason, R.L.; Montalvo, D.A. Effects of fuel aromatics, cetane number
and cetane improver on emissions from a 1991 prototype heavy-duty diesel engine.
[16] Sienicki, E.J.; Jass, R.E.; Slodowske, W.J.; McCarthy, C.I.; Krodel, A.L. Diesel fuel
aromatic and cetane number effects on combustion and emissions from a prototype
[17] Miyamoto, N.; Ogawa, H.; Shibuya, M.; Suda, T. Description of diesel emissions by
[18] Arai, M. Impact of changes in fuel properties and lubrication oil on particulate
[19] Kobayashi, S.; Nakajima, T.; Hori M. Effect of fuel properties on diesel exhaust
[20] Kobayashi, S.; Akiyama, K.; Nakajima, T.; Sasaki, S. Effect of chemical structure on
[21] Tsurutani, K.; Takei, Y.; Fujimoto, Y.; Matsudaira, J.; Kumamoto, M. The effects of
fuel properties and oxygenates on diesel exhaust emissions. SAE Paper No. 952349,
1995.
[22] Ogawa, T.; Araga, T.; Okada, M.; Fujimoto, Y. Fuel effects on particulate emissions
from di engine – chemical analysis and characterization of diesel fuel. SAE Paper No.
952351, 1995.
[23] Hublin, M.; Gadd, P.G.; Hall, D.E.; Schindler K.P. European programmes on
emissions, fuels and engine technologies (EPEFE) – Light duty diesel study. SAE
81
[24] Steinbrink, R.; Cahill, G.F.; Signer, M.; Smith, G. European programmes on emissions,
fuels and engine technologies (EPEFE) - Vehicle/engine technology. SAE Paper No.
961067, 1996.
[25] Kwon, Y.; Mann, N.; Rickeard, D.J.; Haugland, R.; Ulvund, K.A.; Kvinge, F.; Wilson
G. Fuel effects on diesel emissions – A new understanding. SAE Paper No. 2001-01-
3522, 2001.
[26] Nakakita, K.; Takasu, S.; Ban, H.; Ogawa, T.; Naruse, H.; Tsukasaki, Y.; Yeh L.I.
combustion and exhaust emissions among representative diesel fuels. SAE Paper No.
982494, 1998.
[27] Takatori, Y.; Mandokoro, Y.; Akihama, K.; Nakakita, K.; Tsukasaki, Y.; Igushi, S.;
Yeh, L.I.; Dean A.M. Effect of hydrocarbon structure on diesel exhaust emissions Part
2: Effect of branched and ring structures of paraffins on benzene and soot formation.
[28] Miyamoto, N.; Ogawa, H.; Shibuya, M.; Arai, K.; Esmilaire, O. Influence of the
molecular structure of hydrocarbon fuels on diesel exhaust emissions. SAE Paper No.
940676, 1994.
[29] Kidoguchi, Y.; Yang, C.; Miwa, K. Effects of fuel properties on combustion and
1851, 2000.
[30] Kidoguchi, Y.; Yang, C.; Kato, R.; Miwa, K. Effects of fuel cetane number and
82
[31] Ullman, T.L. Investigation of the effects of fuel composition on heavy-duty diesel
[32] Den Ouden, C.J.J.; Lange, W.W.; Maillard, C.; Clark, R.H.; Cowley, L.T.; Strandling,
R.J. Fuel quality effects on particulate matter emissions from light- and heavy-duty
[33] Beatrice, C.; Bertoli, C.; Del Giacomo, N.; na Migliaccio, M.; Guido C. Potentiality of
the modern engines fed by new diesel fuels to approach the future European emission
[34] Neeft, J.P.A.; Makkee, M.; Moulijn, J.A. Diesel particulate emissions control. Fuel
[35] Fukuda, M.; Tree, D.R.; Foster, D.E.; Richard, B.D.; Aufderheide, E. The effect of fuel
aromatic structure and content on DI diesel engine emissions. SAE Paper No. 940676,
1994.
[36] Flanigan, C.T.; Litzinger, T.A.; Graves, R.L. The effect of aromatics and cycloparaffins
[37] Ladommatos, N.; Xiao, Z.; Zhao, H. Effects of fuels with low aromatic content on
diesel engine exhaust emissions. Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. 2000, vol. 214(D), 779-794.
[38] Morley, C.; Price, J.; Tait, N.P.; McDonald, C.R. Understanding how fuels behave in
[39] Karonis, D.; Lois, E.; Stournas, S.; Zannikos F. Correlations of exhaust emissions from
a diesel engine with diesel fuel properties. Energy & Fuels 1998, vol. 12, 230-238.
[40] Kouremenos, D.A.; Hountalas, D.T.; Pariotis, E.G.; Kouremenos A.D.; Papagiannakis
83
gaseous and particulate emissions of IDI diesel engines. SAE paper No. 2000-01-1172,
2000.
[41] Ullman, T.L.; Spreen, K.B.; Mason, R.L. Effects of cetane number, cetane improver,
aromatics, and oxygenates on 1994 heavy-duty diesel engine emissions. SAE Paper No.
941020, 1994.
[42] Martin, B.; Aakko, P.; Beckman, D.; Del Giacomo, N.; Giavazzi, F. Influence of future
fuel formulations on diesel engine emissions – A joint European study. SAE Paper No.
972966, 1997.
[43] Xiao, Z.; Ladommatos, N.; Zhao, H. The effect of aromatic hydrocarbons and
oxygenates on diesel engine emissions. J. Automobile Engng, Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs
[44] Ladommatos, N.; Goacher, J. Equations for predicting the cetane number of diesel fuels
from their physical properties. Fuel 1995, vol. 74(7), 1083 – 1093.
[45] Akasaka, Y.; Sakurai, Y. Effects of fuel properties on exhaust emission from DI diesel
[46] Fujimoto, Y.; Tsukasaki, Y.; Takei, Y.; Nakada, M.; Ogawa, T. Effects of diesel fuel
[47] Inagaki, K.; Miura, S.; Nakakita, K.; Watenabe, S. Quantitative soot concentration
[48] Inagaki, K.; Takasu, S.; Nakakita, K. In-cylinder quantitative soot concentration
84
[49] Watanabe, H.; Tahara, T.; Tamanouchi, M.; Iida, J. Study of the effects on exhaust
emissions in direct injection diesel engines: Effects of fuel injection system, distillation
properties and cetane number. JSAE Review 1998, vol. 19, 21 – 26.
[50] Collier, A.R.; Rhead, M.M.; Trier, C.J.; Bell, M.A. Polycyclic aromatic compound
profiles from a light-duty direct-injection diesel engine. Fuel 1995, vol. 74, issue 3,
362-367.
[51] McCarthy, C.I.; Slodowske, W.J.; Sienicki, E.J.; Jass, R.E. Diesel fuel property effects
on exhaust emissions from a heavy duty diesel engine that meets 1994 emission
[52] Kweon, C-B; Okada, S.; Stetter, J.C.; Christenson, C.G.; Shafer, M.M.; Schauer, J.J.;
[53] Kweon, C-B; Okada, S.; Stetter, J.C.; Christenson, C.G.; Shafer, M.M.; Schauer, J.J.;
Foster D.E. Effect of injection timing on detailed chemical composition and particulate
[54] Bertola, A.; Schubiger, R.; Kasper, A.; Matter, U.; Forss A-M; Mohr, M.; Boulouchos,
engines with common-rail fuel injection - Influence of injection parameters and fuel
[55] Ayoub, N.S.; Reitz, R.D. Multidimensional modeling of fuel composition effects on
combustion and cold-starting in diesel engines. SAE Paper No. 952425, 1995.
[56] Wall, J.C.; Hoekman, S.K. Fuel composition effects on heavy-duty diesel particulate
85
[57] Astarita, M.; Corcione, F.E.; Vaglieco, B.M.; Valentino, G. Fuel composition effects on
[58] Andrews, G.E. The influence of speciated diesel fuel composition on speciated
[59] Tamanouchi, M.; Akasaka, Y. Effect of fuel composition on exhaust gas emissions
from DI and DI impingement diffusion combustion diesel engines. SAE Paper No.
941016, 1994.
[60] Ryan, T.W.; Erwin, J. Diesel fuel composition effects on ignition and emissions. SAE
[61] Rosenthal, M.L.; Bendinsky, T. The effects of fuel properties and chemistry on the
emissions and heat release of low-emission heavy duty diesel engines. SAE Paper No.
932800, 1993.
[62] Leppard, W.R.; Benson, J.D.; Burns, V.R.; Gorse, R.A. Jr.; Hochhauser, A.M.;
Knepper, J.C.; Koehl, W.J.; Rapp, L.A.; Reuter, R.M. How heavy hydrocarbons in the
fuel affect exhaust mass emissions: Correlation of fuel, engine-out, and tailpipe
speciation - The auto/oil air quality improvement research program. SAE Paper No.
932725, 1993.
[63] Stéphane, R.; Forti, L.; Barbusse, S.; Plassat, G.; Pierron, L.; Monier, R.; Momique,
J.C.; Pain, C.; Dionnet, B.; Zervas, E.; Rouveirolles, P.; Dorlhene, P. French program
composition heavy duty diesel study. SAE Paper No. 2005-01-0190, 2005.
86
[64] Tanaka, S.; Takizawa, H.; Shimizu, T.; Sanse, K. Effect of fuel compositions on PAH
in particulate matter from DI diesel engine. SAE Paper No. 982648, 1998.
[65] Hori, S.; Narusawa, K. Fuel composition effects on SOF and PAH exhaust emissions
[66] Bertoli, C.; Del Giacomo, N.; Iorio, B.; Prati, M.V. The influence of fuel composition
[67] Thompson, G.J.; Gibble, J.C.; Clark, N.; Gautam, M. Influences of real-world
conditions on in-use emission from heavy-duty diesel engines. SAE Paper No. 2006-
01-3393, 2006.
[68] Conzalez, M.A.; Leon, A. Estimation of diesel fuel effects benefits on a representative
engine of the urban transport fleet in Venezuela. SAE Paper No. 942409, 1994.
[69] Barry, E.G.; McCabe, L.J.; Gerke, D.H.; Perez, J.M. Heavy-duty diesel engine/fuels
[70] Ryan, T.W.; Erwin, J.; Mason, R.L.; Moulton, D.S. Relationships between fuel
properties and composition and diesel engine combustion performance and emissions.
[71] Barry, E.G.; Axelrod, J.C.; McCabe, L.J.; Inoue, T.; Tsuboi, N. Effects of fuel
properties and engine design features on the performance of a light-duty diesel truck -
[72] Sholes, K.R.; Odaka, M.; Goto, Y.; Ishii, H.; Suzuki, H. Study of the effect of boiling
87
[73] Hunter, J.E. Jr. The effect of emission control systems and fuel composition on the
[74] Shimazaki, N.; Tsuchiya, K.; Morinaga, M.; Shibata, M.; Shibata, Y. Parametric study
cylinder engine and model fuels - JCAP combustion analysis working group report:
[75] Abbass, M.K.; Gordon, E.; Andrews, G.E.; Williams, P.T.; Bartle, K.D. The influence
of diesel fuel composition on particulate PAH emissions. SAE Paper No. 892079, 1989.
[76] Knuth, H.W.; Garthe, H. Future diesel fuel compositions - their influence on
[77] Henein, N.A.; Akasaka, Y. Effect of physical properties and composition of fuels on
[78] Burley, H.A.; Rosebrock, T.L. Automotive diesel engines-fuel composition vs.
[79] Hare, C.T.; Bradow, R.L. Characterization of heavy-duty diesel gaseous and particulate
emissions, and effects of fuel composition. SAE Paper No. 790490, 1979.
[80] Matsudaira, J.-I.; Okada, M.; Naruse, H.; Ogawa, T. Fuel effects on particulate
emissions from DI engine - relationship among diesel fuel, exhaust gas and particulates.
[81] Lim, M.C.H.; Ayoko, G.A.; Morawska, L.; Ristovski, Z.D.; Jayaratne, E.R. The effects
emissions from heavy duty diesel buses. Fuel 2007, vol. 86, issues 12-13, 1831-1839.
88
[82] Lim, M.C.H.; Ayoko, G.A.; Lidia Morawska, L.; Ristovski, Z.D.; Jayaratne, E.R.
http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00002760/01/2760_2.pdf
[83] Conservation of Clean Air and Water in Europe (CONCAWE), Fuels quality and
emissions, http://www.concawe.be
[84] Ghosh, P.; Jaffe, S.B. Detailed composition-based model for predicting the cetane
number of diesel fuels. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2006, vol. 45, 346-351.
[85] Lee, S-W; Tanaka, D.; Kusaka, J.; Daisho, Y. Effects of diesel fuel characteristics on
spray and combustion in a diesel engine. JSAE Review 2002, vol. 23, 407-414.
[86] Hori, S.; Sato, T.; Narusawa, K. Effects of diesel fuel composition on SOF and PAH
[87] Sjogren, M.; Li, H.; Rannug, U.; Westerholm, R. Multivariate analysis of exhaust
emissions from heavy-duty diesel fuels. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1996, vol. 30, 38-49.
[88] Sjogren, M.; Li, H.; Rannug, U.; Westerholm, R. A multivariate statistical analysis of
chemical composition and physical characteristics of ten diesel fuels. Fuel 1995, vol.
[89] Lee, S-W; Park, S.; Daisho, Y. An experimental study of the effects of combustion
systems and fuel properties on the performance of a diesel engine. Proc. Instn Mech.
[90] Beatrice, C.; Bertoli, C.; Del Giacomo, N.; Migliaccio, M. Experimental investigation
on high-quality diesel fuels effects in a light duty CR diesel engine. SAE Paper No.
2000-01-1911, 2000.
89
[91] Lapuerta, M.; Armas, O.; Ballesteros, R.; Carmona, M. Fuel formulation effects on
passenger car diesel engine particulate emissions and composition. SAE Paper No.
2000-01-1850, 2000.
[92] Callahan, T.J.; Ryan III, T.W.; Dodge, L.G.; Schwalb, J.A. Effects of fuel properties on
[93] Richter, H.; Howard, J.B. Formation of polycyclic hydrocarbons and their growth to
soot – a review of chemical reaction pathways. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 200, vol.
26, 565-608.
[94] D’ Anna, A.; D’ Allessio, A.; Kent, J. A computational study of hydrocarbon growth
[95] D’ Anna, A.; D’ Alessio A. Reaction path analysis of the formation of aromatics and
soot in coflowing laminar diffusion flame of ethylene. Comb. Sci. Tech. 2002, vol. 174,
[96] Ladommatos, N.; Rubenstein, P.; Bennett, P. Some effects of molecular structure of
single hydrocarbons on sooting tendency. Fuel 1996, vol. 75, issue 2, 114-124.
[97] Ladommatos, N.; Rubenstein, P.; Harrison, K.; Xiao, Z. The effect of aromatic
[98] Kennedy, I. Models of soot formation and oxidation. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 1997,
[99] Smith, O.I. Fundamentals of soot formation in flames with application to diesel engine
90
[100] Violi, A.; Sarofim, A.F.; Truong, T.N. Mechanistic pathways to explain H/C ratio of
soot precursors. Combust. Sci. Technol. 2002, vol. 174, issues 11 & 12, 205-222.
[101] Street, J.C.; Thomas, A. Carbon formation in pre-mixed flames. Fuel 1995, vol. 34,
issue 1, 4-36.
[102] Olson, D.B.; Pickens, J.C. The effects of molecular structure on soot formation, I. Soot
[103] Takahashi, F.; Glassman, I. Sooting correlations for premixed flames. Combust. Sci.
[104] Graham, S.C.; Homer, J.B.; Rosenfeld J.L.J. The formation and coagulation of soot
aerosols generated in pyrolysis of aromatic hydrocarbons. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. 1975,
A344, 259-285.
[105] Amann, C.A.; Siegla, D.C. Diesel particulates – what they are and why. Aerosol Sci.
[106] Heywood, J.B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. McGraw-Hill, New York,
1988.
[107] McEnally, C.S.; Pfefferle, L.D.; Atakan, B. Studies of aromatic hydrocarbon formation
mechanisms in flames: Progress towards closing the fuel gap. Prog. Energy Comb. Sci.
[108] Frenklach, M. Reaction mechanism of soot formation in flames. Phys. Chem. Chem.
[109] Glassman, I. Soot formation in combustion processes. Proc. Combust. Inst. 1988, vol.
22, 295-311.
91
[110] Miller, J.A.; Melius, C.F. Kinetic and thermodynamic issues in the formation of
aromatic compounds in flames of aliphatic fuels. Combust. Flame 1992, vol. 91, issue
1, 21-39.
[111] D' Anna, A.; Violi, A. Detailed modeling of the molecular growth process in aromatic
and aliphatic premixed flames. Energy & Fuels 2005, vol. 19, 79-86.
[112] D' Anna, A.; Violi, A.; D' Alessio, A.; Sarofim, A.F. A reaction pathway for
nanoparticle formation in rich premixed flames. Combust. Flame 2001, vol. 127, 1995-
2003.
[113] Markatou, P.; Wang, H.; Frenklach, M. A computational study of sooting limits in
laminar premixed flames of ethane, ethylene, and acetylene. Combust. Flame 1993, vol.
93, 467-482.
[114] Sunderland, P.B.; Urban, D.L.; Stocker, D.P.; Chao, B.H.; Axelbaum, R.L. Sooting
[115] Gomez, A.; Littman, M.G.; Glassman, I. Comparative study of soot formation on the
[116] Zannis, T.C.; Hountalas, D.T.; Papagiannakis, R.G.; Levendis, Y.A. Effect of fuel
emissions: Review of the results of four European research programs. SAE Int. J. Fuels
92
NOMENCLATURE
CA crank angle
CO carbon monoxide
DI direct injection
HC unburned hydrocarbons
NO nitric oxide
PM particulate matter
93
rpm rotations per minute
94