Building on fill: geotechnical aspects

Third edition

Building on fill:
geotechnical aspects
Third edition

Ken Watts and Andrew Charles

Ken Watts and Andrew Charles
IHS BRE Press

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 ii
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FB 75
First published 1993
Second edition 2001
Third edition 2015
ISBN 978-1-84806-389-1
Front cover photographs:
Waverley opencast site, Rotherham, UK
Left, Coal extraction and backfilling
Right top, Large-scale surcharge treatment (courtesy of
Harworth Estates)
Right bottom, Development (foreground) on the
Advanced Manufacturing Park site (courtesy of
Harworth Estates)
Index compiled by Catherine Pritchard.
07/09/2015 11:25:50
 Contents iii

Contents

Preface to the first edition viii

Preface to the second edition ix
Preface to the third edition x
Acknowledgements xi
Notation xii
Abbreviations xv
Glossary xvii

Part I: Fills in context 1

1 Introduction 2
1.1 Historical background 2
1.2 Brownfield sites 4
1.3 Definitions 7
1.4 Engineered and non-engineered fills 8
1.5 Scope 9
1.6 Research at BRE 10

2 Fill formation and deposits 12

2.1 Opencast mining backfill 13
2.2 Colliery spoil 15
2.3 Pulverised fuel ash 16
2.4 Industrial and chemical wastes 18
2.5 Urban fill 19
2.6 Domestic refuse 20
2.7 Infilled docks, pits and quarries 23
2.8 Hydraulic fill 24

Part II: Engineering behaviour of fills 27

3 Properties of fills 29
3.1 Characteristics of fill deposits 30
3.2 Index and classification properties 31
3.3 Compactness 34
3.4 Stiffness and compressibility 36
3.5 Shear strength 43
3.6 Dynamic properties 45
3.7 Permeability 47

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 iv Contents 

4 Volume changes in fills 49

4.1 Self-weight of fill 50
4.2 Weight of buildings 52
4.3 Change in groundwater level 57
4.4 Change in moisture content 57
4.5 Decomposition of biodegradable fill 58
4.6 Chemical reactions 61
4.7 Dynamic loading 63

5 Collapse compression on wetting 66

5.1 Mechanisms of collapse compression 67
5.2 Laboratory investigations 67
5.3 Field investigations 68
5.4 Effect of placement conditions on magnitude of collapse potential 69
5.5 Effect of changes subsequent to placement on magnitude of collapse potential 73
5.6 Time dependency 75
5.7 Identification of collapse potential 75
5.8 Buildings damaged by collapse compression 76

6 Boundaries and variable depth 78

6.1 Influence of fill properties 79
6.2 Influence of fill geometry 79
6.3 Vertical highwall 80
6.4 Buried highwall 81
6.5 Long shallow slope 82
6.6 Exclusion zones 83

7 Investigation and monitoring 84

7.1 Objective 85
7.2 Ground investigation 85
7.3 Historical review 85
7.4 Site reconnaisance 86
7.5 Direct investigation 86
7.6 Laboratory tests 87
7.7 In-situ tests 87
7.8 Load tests 88
7.9 Geophysical tests 90
7.10 Monitoring 91

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 Contents v

Part III: Construction on fills 95

8 Treatment of fills: proprietary compactive techniques 98
8.1 Dynamic compaction 98
8.2 Rapid impact compaction 103
8.3 Impact rolling 107
8.4 Explosive compaction 111

9 Treatment of fills: proprietary penetrative and other techniques 112

9.1 Vibro stone columns 112
9.2 Vibro-compaction 121
9.3 Vibro concrete columns 122
9.4 Chemical stabilisation 123
9.5 Reinforcement 124
9.6 Composite methods 124

10 Treatment of fills: non-proprietary techniques 125

10.1 Preloading with a surcharge of fill 125
10.2 Preloading by lowering the groundwater table 129
10.3 Vacuum preloading 130
10.4 Pre-inundation 131
10.5 Drainage 133
10.6 Remedial strategies for contaminated fill 133

11 Engineered fill 138

11.1 Types of specification 139
11.2 Site investigation 140
11.3 Fill categories 141
11.4 End-product criteria 141
11.5 Site preparation and fill placement 143
11.6 Quality management 145
11.7 Excavation and re-compaction 146

12 Foundations on fills 148

12.1 Differential movement 149
12.2 Distortion and associated damage 152
12.3 Tilt 154
12.4 Classification of potential movement 157
12.5 Shallow foundations 159
12.6 Deep foundations 160
12.7 Implications of ground chemistry 161

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 vi Contents 

Part IV: Performance of fills 165

13 Case histories: opencast mining backfill 167
1 Opencast mining backfill at Corby (A) 167
2 Opencast mining backfill at Corby (B) 168
3 Opencast mining backfill at Corby (C) 172
4 Opencast mining backfill at Horsley, Northumberland 174
5 Opencast mining backfill at Ilkeston 178
6 Opencast mining backfill at Tamworth 179
7 Opencast mining backfill at West Auckland 180
8 Opencast mining backfill near Edinburgh 181
9 Opencast mining backfill at Cannock 182
10 Opencast mining backfill at Rotherham 188
11 Opencast mining backfill at Whitburn, West Lothian 191

14 Case histories: colliery spoil 193

12 Colliery spoil at Coalville (A) 193
13 Colliery spoil at Coalville (B) 195
14 Colliery spoil at Methil 196
15 Colliery spoil at Mansfield 197

15 Case histories: pre-1965 domestic refuse 199

16 Old domestic refuse at Redditch (A) 199
17 Old refuse in the east end of London 201
18 Old domestic refuse at trunk road widening in Hertfordshire 202
19 Old domestic refuse at Redditch (B) 203
20 Old refuse at Liverpool (A) 205

16 Case histories: post-1965 landfill 208

21 Post-1965 landfill at Brogborough 208
22 Post-1965 landfill at Calvert 212
23 Post-1965 landfill at Stewartby 217
24 Post-1965 landfill at Bletchley 219
25 Post-1965 landfill are Arlesey 222

17 Case histories: urban fill 224

26 Urban fill at Greenwich 224
27 Urban fill at Manchester (A) 225
28 Urban fill at Bacup 226
29 Building wastes at Waterbeach 228
30 Infilled dock at Hull 230
31 Infilled dock at Liverpool (B) 231
32 Clay fill in former gravel pit at Abingdon 232
33 Slag bank at Hartlepool 234
34 Lagoon PFA at Peterborough 235
35 Alluvial sand deposit at Manchester (B) 237

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 Contents vii

18 Building development on fills 238

18.1 Building development on shallow and medium-depth treated fill 238
18.2 Building development on deep treated fill 239
18.3 Building development on engineered fill 242

Appendices 245
A Building Research Station Digest 9 246
B Stress distribution below building foundations 251
C Settlement of foundations calculated using elastic theory 252
D Delineation of an exclusion zone over a highwall 254
E Effectiveness of field compaction by impact loading 259
F Analysis of stone columns under widespread load 262
G Model specification for engineered fill 265

References and further reading 269

References 269
Further reading 289
BRE publications 290
British, European and International Standards 292

Index 295

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 viii Preface to the first edition
Preface to the first edition
One result of the scarcity and cost of good building land
is that building development increasingly takes place
on sites where there are deep deposits of waste fills. As
these fills have considerable economic significance for
land values, it may seem surprising that until recently
they received relatively little attention from geotechnical
engineers. This was not because of an absence of
problems; many of the fills are poorly compacted and
variable, and their behaviour as foundation materials may
be unsatisfactory. However, the heterogeneous nature
of many waste fills makes characterisation and analysis
difficult, and it is easy to understand why the attention
of geotechnical engineers has usually been focused on
more promising and better behaved natural soils.
Research at the Building Research Establishment (BRE)
has attempted to redress the neglect by:
• monitoring field performance at a large number of
filled sites with emphasis on long-term observations
of settlement;
• characterising fills on the basis of observed
field performance, to assist in the selection of
appropriate foundation solutions; and
• assessing the effectiveness of various ground-
treatment techniques, by field observations at
selected sites.
Bldg on fill 3E_Prelims.indd 8
This report provides a detailed account of BRE research
findings and their significance for appropriate and
successful building developments on fill. Part A deals
with the engineering behaviour of fills, and Part B
examines construction on fills. Brief case histories of
field performance are presented in Part C; these mostly
describe sites where BRE has made measurements
of fill behaviour, but some additional case histories,
in which monitoring has been carried out by other
parties, are included where necessary to give a more
complete picture. (Parts A and B make extensive use of
these records.) While the report describes experience
with fills in the United Kingdom, it has relevance to
similar materials found in many other parts of the
world.
Field monitoring has shown that in most situations
the fill settlement that damages buildings has causes
other than the weight of the building. This means
that the concept of bearing capacity is not adequate
to define the load-carrying characteristics of many
fills. Settlements caused by other physical factors, and
in some cases by chemical or biological processes,
need to be assessed. A particular hazard for poorly
compacted partially saturated fills is a reduction in
volume which can occur when the fill is first inundated
with water.
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Preface to the second edition
In the eight years since the first edition was published,
the term ‘brownfield’ has come into everyday use and
the importance of locating building developments on
such sites has been widely accepted. A precise definition
of brownfield has yet to find universal agreement, but
the basic concept of land adversely affected by previous
human activity is clear. The sustainability agenda
requires the long-term productive re-use of brownfield
land. The problem is that previous usage may have left a
wide range of physical, chemical and biological hazards.
Three systems which may be at risk in brownfield
developments can be identified: the human population,
the natural environment and the built environment.
Physical problems may include buried foundations and
settlement of filled ground. The range of problems
associated with chemical contamination is vast and can
present an immediate or long-term threat to human
health, to plants, to amenity, to construction operations
and to buildings and services. Biodegradation of organic
matter may lead to the generation of gas.
The objective is to build safe, durable and economic
structures. The site and the building development form
an interactive system and it is important to evaluate the
risk of adverse interactions during the lifetime of the
development. For many years the redevelopment of
Bldg on fill 3E_Prelims.indd 9
Preface to the second edition ix
derelict land and brownfield sites has been dominated
by the hazards associated with contamination and the
risks posed to human health. The physical problems
have received less attention and it is hoped that this
book will help to redress the balance.
Although brownfield land is a world-wide phenomenon,
the issues are particularly acute for Great Britain, a
heavily populated island with a long industrial history.
The scale of the problem was illustrated by the size of
the £1 billion plus package which was announced in
1996 for the regeneration of major coalfields. Some
910 ha of land were to be reclaimed for residential,
commercial and retail uses. Many of these sites will
involve building on colliery spoil. This example illustrates
how the redevelopment of brownfield sites is closely
linked to building on fill, the subject of this book.
This second edition of Building on fill: geotechnical
aspects updates and expands the first edition which
was published in 1993. Three new chapters have been
added covering, respectively, collapse compression on
wetting, problems associated with a variable depth of
fill, and engineered fill. Records of BRE field monitoring
have been brought up to date. The book has been
reorganised into four parts and five appendices have
been added.
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 x Preface to the third edition
Preface to the third edition
The first edition of Building on fill: geotechnical aspects
was published in 1993. The growing importance of the
subject, increasing industry experience and expanding
knowledge of key technical issues led to the publication
of the second edition in 2001.
In the 14 years since the second edition the political
impetus to advance the sustainability agenda,
and commercial incentive to support that agenda,
has continued to grow. A high proportion of new
commercial, industrial and housing developments
are now taking place on ‘brownfield’ land, and a
substantial number of these involve building on a
range of fill materials. In particular, building on restored
opencast sites has increased, with some developments
encompassing complete new communities or townships.
While most potential problems associated with building
on fill remain essentially the same, the scale and
complexity of remediation on many sites has increased,
particularly with very deep opencast backfills where
there is a substantial depth of unsaturated fill and
significant variation in fill depth within the development
area. Commercial imperatives demand maximum use
of available site area and the selection of remedial
Bldg on fill 3E_Prelims.indd 10
techniques and prediction of post-construction
performance of buildings are key issues.
There have been some noteworthy technical innovations
in ground treatment since the first edition was published
and the 22 years that have elapsed since that time have
provided the opportunity to study the behaviour of a
wider range of fills and in one case history to extend
direct observations of behaviour to over 24 years! As a
consequence, this third edition has been expanded to
18 chapters.
The additional chapters on ground treatment recognise
the importance of this subject and the fundamental
difference in approaches adopted and methods applied,
particularly in the use of proprietary and non-proprietary
techniques.
The second major expansion is the increase in case
histories from 28 in the second edition to 35 in this
edition. The case histories are now divided into five
chapters reflecting the type of fill encountered.
An additional chapter reflects the diverse types of
construction located on fill and focuses on recent major
building developments in the UK.
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I Fills in context
‘The industrial revolution and
the creation of parks around the
country houses have taken us
down to the later years of the
nineteenth century. Since that
time, and especially since the
year 1914, every single change in
the English landscape has either
uglified it or destroyed its meaning,
or both. Of all the changes in
the last two generations, only
the great reservoirs of water
for the industrial cities of the
North and Midlands have added
anything to the scene that one can
contemplate without pain.’ remembered that the practice of building on fill
Hoskins, 1981
The long industrial history of Great Britain has
led to this small, heavily populated island having
a large proportion of its land surface affected by
human activity. Many would agree with Professor
Hoskins’ view, expressed so trenchantly in his
The making of the English landscape, that these
human activities have generally had an adverse
effect on the environment, and, it might be
Bldg on fill 3E_Text chs 1 and 2.indd 1
1
added, not only in England, but also in Scotland
and Wales.
Since the early 1970s there has been increasing
concern over this situation. In the preface to his
book, Derelict land, Kenneth Wallwork reports the
Secretary of State for the Environment saying in
1971 that:
‘The scars left behind by industrial development
of the past, the abandoned waste heaps, disused
excavations and derelict installations and buildings
no longer needed by industry, are an affront to our
concept of an acceptable environment in the 1970s.’
The reclamation of derelict land became an
important aspect of government policy. More
recently there has been an emphasis on siting new
building developments on brownfield rather than
greenfield sites and many of these brownfield sites
are covered in substantial depths of fill. The subject
of building on fill has thus acquired considerable
prominence in recent years, although it should be
can be traced back to antiquity.
The geotechnical problems in achieving safe
and economic developments on filled ground
are substantial. Before examining these, the
two chapters in Part I of this book present the
background context of building on fills. The first
chapter provides some historical background and
defines the scope of the book. The engineering
behaviour of a fill is strongly influenced by the
method of deposition and subsequent stress
history; it is pertinent, therefore, in Chapter 2 to
examine the origins of the principal types of fill
encountered in the UK.
09/09/2015 08:36:45
 2 Building on fill: geotechnical aspects
1 Introduction
‘All made ground should be treated as suspect
because of the likelihood of extreme variability.’
BS 8004:1986
Although BS 8004:1986 – Code of practice for
foundations has been superseded and withdrawn, the
warning remains valid!
In this book the terms ‘fill’ or ‘made ground’ are used to
describe ground that has been formed by human activity
in which natural soils or sometimes manmade materials
are deposited, in contrast to natural soil which has its
origin in geological processes. In addition to numerous
technical publications on this subject, a number of
descriptions and definitions can be found in British
Standards. These are presented in section 1.3.
There is a great need for building land at reasonable
cost within and adjacent to built-up areas. Shortage of
land and a long industrial history ensure that much of
the land now being used for building purposes in the UK
has been previously affected by human activities which
may cause serious problems during redevelopment.
Despite the warning from BS 8004:1986 quoted above,
many buildings have been and are being founded on
fill. The problems occasioned by building on fill have to
be evaluated against a background of growing concern
over environmental and sustainability issues, which
means that the beneficial re-use of brownfield sites and
environmental protection to prevent further land being
damaged are of increasing importance.
1.1 Historical background
Throughout history mankind has deliberately adjusted
the topography of the earth for a variety of purposes
by excavating soil and rock and placing the excavated
material in other locations. In urban areas the casual
disposal of waste materials has also changed landforms.
In urban locations where there has been continuous
occupation of the land for centuries, there are likely
to be large areas of filled ground. Fills may have arisen
Bldg on fill 3E_Text chs 1 and 2.indd 2
inadvertently from the rubble of demolished buildings
and the slow accumulation of refuse. Old urban fills of
these types may contain soil, rubble and refuse. They
can be quite extensive in area but usually are relatively
shallow. They may be very old.
Striking examples of the unplanned accumulation of fills
in inhabited areas are provided by many towns in the
Middle East. The most common building material was
mud brick, and walls of mud brick have to be thick. New
construction took place on the ruins of the old, and in
Syria and Iraq villages stand on mounds of their own
making. The ruins of an ancient city may rise 30 m above
the surrounding plain.
This gradual rise of debris has been much less common
in Great Britain, although in some situations deep
fills have accumulated. By the third century AD the
Wallbrook in the City of London was already half buried,
and mosaic pavements of Roman London lie 8 m to
9 m below the streets of the modern city. Some fills
were placed to achieve a particular objective such as
reclaiming low-lying marshy land or providing a suitable
elevation for defence. A new Flavian city was erected at
Chichester, over the remains of the first Roman city, on a
1 m deep platform of rammed gravel (Carver, 1987).
Although fills accumulated in urban locations during
both Roman times and the Middle Ages, it was with the
coming of the Industrial Revolution that man’s capacity
to generate waste materials, and to cover significant
portions of the earth’s surface with them, greatly
increased. Large areas of land have been used for the
deposition of mining, industrial, chemical, building,
dredging, commercial and domestic wastes. In a country
with a long industrial history, much of the land used for
building development will have a history of previous
uses.
In recent years large-scale opencast mining has left great
depths of fills. Many of these sites are close to centres
of population where building developments may be
proposed. This situation is not confined to the UK. Lange
(1986) reported that 1200 residential buildings and
farms have been established on the deep uncompacted
backfills in the Rhenish brown coal area of Germany.
09/09/2015 08:36:45
 1 Introduction 3

In urban redevelopment programmes, old buildings

are demolished and new buildings have to be built over
infilled basements and on the rubble of the demolished
buildings. Although this type of redevelopment has
continued throughout recorded history, in modern
urban redevelopment programmes it is carried out at a
rate and on a scale not seen before.

One practical reason for adjusting the topography

within the confines of a town or city by the deliberate
planned placing of fill has been to increase the area of
land suitable for building. In hill country this has been
achieved by cut and fill earthworks on hillsides. Some
3000 years ago rockfill platform terracing was formed
on the eastern slopes of Jerusalem thereby substantially
increasing the building area. It was King Solomon
who constructed the Millo (I Kings 9:15,24 and 11:27)
Figure 1: Houses built on deep opencast mining backfill
and 300 years later it was repaired by King Hezekiah
(II Chronicles 32:5). The New King James version of the
Bible published in 1982 provides an explanatory note
that ‘the Millo’ is literally ‘the landfill’.
the particular problems at that site and just refer to
Low-lying wet areas have been reclaimed by filling. a ‘filled-in tip’ or ‘rubbish dump’. However, they give
Again, this type of filled ground has been formed an indication of how these situations are popularly
throughout history and is found in many parts of the perceived, as the following examples indicate.
world. Bordering the Baltic Sea, reclamation of the low-
• ‘Based on a sound Victorian foundation’ (Hardware
lying marshes on which St Petersburg is built, began in
Trade Journal, 27.2.75)
1703. Rutledge (1970) commented that it was instructive
• ‘Rubbish tips root of house problem’ (Construction
to note how much of downtown Manhattan Island was
News, 28.10.76)
constructed on filled land created before 1900.
• ‘Firm to buy back faulty homes’ (Daily Telegraph,
11.12.76)
In contrast with waste and demolition fills, large
• ‘NHBC seeks remedy for “blighted” estate’ (New
quantities of fill materials are placed as part of carefully
Civil Engineer, 25.1.79)
controlled civil engineering works. For many years these
• ‘ “Egham experiment” sinks to failure’ (Construction
engineered fills have been placed to form embankment
News, 28.6.79)
dams and highway embankments. With increasing
• ‘Rise and fall of a real Reggie Perrin’ (Manchester
frequency they are now placed specifically as foundation
Evening News, 22.12.79)
material for new buildings.
• ‘Landslip homes forcing out the old’ (Sheffield
Morning Telegraph, 7.1.83)
Serious problems have occurred when building on fill.
• ‘Sinking suburb’ (New Civil Engineer, 31.10.85)
Occasionally prestigious buildings are involved and
• ‘Tortuous tort’ (New Civil Engineer, 2.8.90)
detailed investigations are carried out and described in
• ‘£1m to shore up sinking homes’ (Watford and
the technical press. The settlement of the Royal Scottish
Rickmansworth Review, 28.11.91)
Academy in Edinburgh provides such a case (Masters,
• ‘Woman homeless two years after subsidence’ (BBC
2000). The building was completed in 1826 on the
News Kent, 24.12.2011)
Mound which had been formed in the late 1700s using
clay spoil from the construction of the New Town. The
building was founded on square timber piles which in Although such reports appear from time to time and
the course of time rotted, leaving large voids under the rightly give cause for concern, they should not be
stone footings. Carefully monitored remedial works allowed to obscure the fact that many buildings have
involving compensation grouting were carried out in been successfully built on fill. Figure 1 shows low-rise
2000. housing built on a deep opencast mining backfill.
Problems and failures on filled ground emphasise the
Many of the problems which have been reported in the importance of developing an adequate understanding
technical press and daily newspapers refer to houses of the behaviour of fills, and of identifying potential
and other small buildings. In these cases, the reports hazards so that appropriate types of building
usually have insufficient reliable technical information development can be successfully undertaken on suitable
for a proper judgement to be formed on the cause of fill sites.

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 4 Building on fill: geotechnical aspects

Thus the area of derelict land in England decreased

1.2 Brownfield sites by 8% in the 20 years between 1974 and 1993
(Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 1998).
The use of previously developed land for new building
However, the difficulties in developing an appropriate
developments offers substantial advantages in social,
definition of derelict land were bound to reduce the
economic and environmental terms. The redevelopment
value of such reclamation statistics. Of the 14,000 ha of
of sites in urban areas is not a new phenomenon, but
derelict land reclaimed between 1982 and 1988, 27%
the scale and speed of building developments on such
was for hard end uses, which would include housing,
‘brownfield’ sites has greatly increased in recent years.
industry, roads and car parking, in contrast to green
Maximising the re-use of previously developed land
environmental after-use.
minimises the amount of greenfield land being taken
for development and also promotes regeneration in
The growing concern over environmental issues means
parts of the country where declining industries have left
that reclamation of derelict land for beneficial use and
large areas of dereliction. The term ‘brownfield’ is now
environmental protection to prevent further land being
widely used to describe previously developed land and
damaged are of increasing importance. Some of the
is commonly understood as signifying the opposite of
issues involved in sustainability and acceptability in
greenfield in planning terms. An appropriate definition
infrastructure development have been reviewed by the
of brownfield is considered further in section 1.3, but
Institution of Civil Engineers (1996b).
it can be regarded as any land that has been previously
developed, particularly where it has been occupied by
A national target was set that, by 2008, 60% of
buildings or other types of permanent structure and
additional housing should be on previously developed
associated infrastructure.
land and through conversions of existing buildings.
However, beneficial as this policy is in many respects,
Some, but not all, brownfield sites are derelict, that
it has to be recognised that brownfield sites can
is the land has been so damaged by industry, mining
contain many additional hazards and risks for building
and urban development that it can no longer be put to
development that are not encountered on greenfield
beneficial use without treatment. Industrial and mining
land and it has been questioned whether current
activities can cause particularly serious physical, chemical
approaches to the redevelopment of brownfield
and biological damage to the land. For many years there
sites are always the most appropriate. In some cases
has been concern over dereliction and contamination
hazards may be overlooked or their significance may
left by these activities and the reclamation and re-use of
not be recognised, whereas in other cases solutions
such sites has been an important aspect of government
may be over-engineered. The way that hazards and
policy. In opening the Land Reclamation Conference at
the consequent risks are perceived can be of crucial
Grays, Essex, in October 1976, the Parliamentary Under
importance.
Secretary of State emphasised that the Department
of the Environment had the complementary aims of
While filled ground is often found on brownfield sites,
reclaiming the dereliction inherited from the industrial
fill is not always present on such sites. Conversely
past and ensuring, by planning control and other
fill materials may be present on a site which is not
means, that fresh areas are not created and left without
classified as brownfield, for example opencast mining
effective treatment.
sites restored to agriculture. Nevertheless, there are
many cases where fill is found on brownfield sites
The first official survey of derelict land in England and
and since the problems occasioned by its presence
Wales took place in 1954 and recorded 51,274 ha of
are closely related to other features present on such
dereliction (Ministry of Housing and Local Government,
sites it is appropriate for this study of building on fill
1956). In commenting on this and subsequent surveys,
to begin with a brief survey of the wider issues posed
Wallwork (1974) pointed out that at that time derelict
by building development on brownfield sites. A much
land continued to grow more rapidly than reclamation
fuller introduction to these matters is given in BRE Good
could restore earlier dereliction to beneficial use.
Building Guide 59, and two BRE Reports, Brownfield
Although in the early 1970s an annual reclamation rate
sites: ground-related risks for buildings (BR 447) and
of 2200 ha was reached, Barnett (1976) commented
Brownfield sites: an integrated ground engineering
that this had not been wholly sustained. In successive
strategy (BR 485).
surveys of derelict land in England there were found to
be:
While many of the hazards are related to the previous
• 43,000 ha in 1974 use of the site, there may also be problems associated
• 45,600 ha in 1982 with the original state of the ground, which can include
• 40,500 ha in 1988 various types of ground movement and aggressive
• 39,600 ha in 1993. ground conditions. Problems associated with rising
groundwater levels due to reduced abstraction by

Bldg on fill 3E_Text chs 1 and 2.indd 4 09/09/2015 08:36:45

 Publications
from IHS BRE Press
Fire performance of external thermal insulation for walls
of multistorey buildings. 3rd edn. BR 135
External fire spread. 2nd edn. BR 187
Site layout planning for daylight and sunlight. 2nd edn.
BR 209
Fire safety and security in retail premises. BR 508
Automatic fire detection and alarm systems. BR 510
Handbook for the structural assessment of large panel
system (LPS) dwelling blocks for accidental loading. BR 511
Ventilation for healthy buildings: reducing the impact of
urban pollution. FB 30
Financing UK carbon reduction projects. FB 31
The cost of poor housing in Wales. FB 32
Dynamic comfort criteria for structures: a review of UK
standards, codes and advisory documents. FB 33
Water mist fire protection in offices: experimental testing
and development of a test protocol. FB 34
Airtightness in commercial and public buildings. 3rd edn.
FB 35
Biomass energy. FB 36
Environmental impact of insulation. FB 37
Environmental impact of vertical cladding. FB 38
Environmental impact of floor finishes: incorporating
The Green Guide ratings for floor finishes. FB 39
LED lighting. FB 40
Radon in the workplace. 2nd edn. FB 41
U-value conventions in practice. FB 42
Lessons learned from community-based microgeneration
projects: the impact of renewable energy capital grant
schemes. FB 43
Energy management in the built environment: a review
of best practice. FB 44
The cost of poor housing in Northern Ireland. FB 45
Ninety years of housing, 1921–2011. FB 46
BREEAM and the Code for Sustainable Homes on the
London 2012 Olympic Park. FB 47
Available from www.brebookshop.com
or call +44 (0) 1344 328038
Bldg on fill 3E_Index.indd 309
Saving money, resources and carbon through
SMARTWaste. FB 48
Concrete usage in the London 2012 Olympic Park and
the Olympic and Paralympic Village and its embodied
carbon content. FB 49
A guide to the use of urban timber. FB 50
Low flow water fittings: will people accept them? FB 51
Evacuating vulnerable and dependent people from
buildings in an emergency. FB 52
Refurbishing stairs in dwellings to reduce the risk of falls
and injuries. FB 53
Dealing with difficult demolition wastes: a guide. FB 54
Security glazing: is it all that it’s cracked up to be? FB 55
The essential guide to retail lighting. FB 56
Environmental impact of metals. FB 57
Environmental impact of brick, stone and concrete. FB 58
Design of low-temperature domestic heating systems. FB 59
Performance of photovoltaic systems on non-domestic
buildings. FB 60
Reducing thermal bridging at junctions when designing
and installing solid wall insulation. FB 61
Housing in the UK. FB 62
Delivering sustainable buildings. FB 63
Quantifying the health benefits of the Decent Homes
programme. FB 64
The cost of poor housing in London. FB 65
Environmental impact of windows. FB 66
Environmental impact of biomaterials and biomass. FB 67
DC isolators for PV systems. FB 68
Computational fluid dynamics in building design. FB 69
Design of durable concrete structures. FB 70
The age and construction of English homes. FB 71
A technical guide to district heating. FB 72
Changing energy behaviour in the workplace. FB 73
Lighting and health. FB 74
09/09/2015 08:49:57

ALSO AVAILABLE
Specifying dynamic
compaction
A technical specification for
dynamic compaction, giving
a rationale and method for
treatment. BR 458
Specifying vibro stone
columns
A technical specification for
vibro stone columns, including
elements of design. BR 391
Online
www.brebookshop.com
Call
+44 (0) 1344 328038
Email
brepress@ihs.com
Bldg on fill 3E_Index.indd 310
GROUND ENGINEERING
Build on firm foundations
with IHS BRE Press
Geotechnics for building
professionals
This book draws together BRE published
guidance on various aspects of foundations
for low-rise buildings into a single unified
BR 473
format and approach. It gives an overview of
ground behaviour and geotechnics, focussing
on shallow foundations for low-rise buildings.
Stabilising mine workings with
PFA grouts: Environmental Code
of Practice
The second edition of this code of
practice provides guidance on selecting
environmentally compatible and cost-
effective materials and techniques, with
BR 509
authoritative guidance on good practice, for
filling disused mine workings with PFA.
09/09/2015 08:49:57
 GROUND ENGINEERING

Build on firm foundations ALSO AVAILABLE

with IHS BRE Press Working platforms for

tracked plant
Find out how to avoid
Brownfield sites: an integrated unnecessary or excessive
ground engineering strategy expenditure with this safety
Get authoritative guidance on the guidance on site assessment,
investigation, treatment and foundation design, installation and
design for building development on maintenance of working
brownfield and landfill sites. This integrated platforms. BR 470
BR 485 ground engineering strategy takes a risk-
based approach. It concludes with case
Concrete in
histories covering some common problems.
aggressive ground
Practical guidance on the
Brownfield sites: ground-related
specification of concrete for
risks for buildings installation in natural ground
Understand the hazards for building
and in brownfield locations.
developments on brownfield sites and SD 1
review a methodology for taking risk-based
decisions on the available options for the
development of these sites. This report
BR 447 Online
includes case histories illustrating some
www.brebookshop.com
common problems of building on brownfield
land and the need for appropriate risk Call
management. +44 (0) 1344 328038
Email
brepress@ihs.com

Bldg on fill 3E_Index.indd 311 09/09/2015 08:49:58

 BRE Connect What do you get?
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Bldg on fill 3E_Index.indd 312 09/09/2015 08:49:58


Building on fill: geotechnical aspects
A high proportion of commercial, industrial and
housing developments are now built on fills, that
is ground that has been deposited by human
activity rather than natural geological processes,
and the political and commercial impetus to
build on ‘brownfield’ land continues to grow.
An adequate understanding of the behaviour of
fills and the ways in which they can economically
be rendered suitable for building purposes is a
critical element in the safe development of such
sites.
This third edition encompasses BRE’s unique
experience over a period of more than 40 years
of research and consultancy, and brings the
subject up to date.
Related titles from IHS BRE Press
Stabilising mine workings with PFA grouts:
Environmental Code of Practice
BR 509
Brownfield sites: an integrated ground
engineering strategy
BR 485
Geotechnics for building professionals
BR 473
Working platforms for tracked plant
BR 470
IHS BRE Press, Willoughby Road
Bracknell, Berkshire RG12 8FB
www.brebookshop.com
FB 75
Bldg on fill 3E_Cover (crown 4to_24.5 mm spine).indd 1
This publication has been funded by BRE Trust
Building on fill: geotechnical aspects
New material includes:
• research findings and industry experience
since publication of the second edition
14 years ago
• additional chapters on ground improvement
and treatment using both proprietary and
non-proprietary techniques
• six new case histories and updated cases
Third edition
from the second edition
• studies on the behaviour of fills over both a
longer time period and a wider range of fills.
Ken Watts and Andrew Charles
Specifying dynamic compaction
BR 458
Brownfield sites: ground-related risks for
buildings
BR 447
Specifying vibro stone columns
BR 391
Concrete in aggressive ground
SD 1
ISBN 978-1-84806-389-1
IHS BRE Press
9 781848 063891
07/09/2015 11:20:56