ASSIGNMENT # 1

NAME : UMER JAVED KHAN

DEPARTMENT : BS MECHANICAL ENG

BATCH : F21
REG NO # BSME 02213065
SUBMITTED TO : PROF ANAS RASOOL
TOPIC : DETAILED REPORT OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE :
An atom is a complex arrangement of negatively charged electrons
arranged in defined shells about a positively charged nucleus. This nucleus contains most of the
atom's mass and is composed of protons and neutrons. All atoms are roughly the same size. A
convenient unit of length for measuring atomic sizes is the angstrom (Å), which is defined as 1 x
10-10 meters.
DISCOVERY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE :
Atomic theory originated as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece. The
word "atom" comes from the ancient Greek word “atomos,” which means indivisible. According
to atomism, matter consists of discrete particles. However, the theory was one of many
explanations for matter and wasn't based on empirical data. In the fifth century BCE,
Democritus proposed that matter consists of indestructible, indivisible units called atoms.
Some of the discoveries by scientist ae as follows:

DALTON’S THEORY :
John Dalton built upon them to develop the law of multiple proportions, which
states that the ratios of masses of elements in a compound are small whole numbers. Dalton's
law of multiple proportions drew from experimental data. He proposed that each chemical
element consists of a single type of atom that could not be destroyed by any chemical means.
His oral presentation (1803) and publication (1805) marked the beginning of the scientific
atomic theory.
In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro corrected a problem with Dalton's theory when he
proposed that equal volumes of gases at equal temperature and pressure contain the same
number of particles. Avogadro's law made it possible to accurately estimate the atomic masses
of elements and made a clear distinction between atoms and molecules. Today it is known as
avagadros number.
AVAGADRO,S DISCOVERY :
 In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron. He believed atoms could be divided.
Because the electron carried a negative charge, he proposed a plum pudding model of the
atom, in which electrons were embedded in a mass of positive charge to yield an electrically
neutral atom.
Ernest Rutherford, one of Thomson's students, disproved the plum pudding model in 1909.
Rutherford found that the positive charge of an atom and most of its mass were at the center,
or nucleus, of an atom. He described a planetary model in which electrons orbited a small,
positive-charged nucleus.
BOHR’S DICOVERY :
Rutherford was on the right track, but his model couldn't explain the emission and
absorption spectra of atoms, nor why the electrons didn't crash into the nucleus. In 1913, Niels
Bohr proposed the Bohr model, which states that electrons only orbit the nucleus at specific
distances from the nucleus. According to his model, electrons couldn't spiral into the nucleus
but could make quantum leaps between energy levels.
QUANTUM ATOMIC THEORY :
Quantum mechanics led to an atomic theory in which atoms consist of smaller
particles. The electron can potentially be found anywhere in the atom but is found with the
greatest probability in an atomic orbital or energy level. Rather than the circular orbits of
Rutherford's model, modern atomic theory describes orbitals that may be spherical, dumbbell-
shaped, etc. For atoms with a high number of electrons, relativistic effects come into play, since
the particles are moving at a fraction of the speed of light.
Modern scientists have found smaller particles that make up the protons, neutrons, and
electrons, although the atom remains the smallest unit of matter that can't be divided using
chemical means.

ATOMIC BONDING :

Atomic bonding is chemical bonding. Chemical bonding is the physical process that is
responsible for the interactions between atoms and molecules. Bonds vary widely; there are
covalent, ionic, hydrogen, metallic, as well as many other types of bonds, and all have a working
connection in all living things.
PRIMARY BONDING :
There are three primary types of bonding: ionic, covalent, and metallic.

• Ionic bonding.
• Covalent bonding.
• Metallic bonding.

IONIC BONDING :
An ionic bond is formed when valence electrons are transferred from one atom to the
other to complete the outer electron shell.

Example: A typical ionically bonded material is NaCl (Salt):

The sodium (Na) atom gives up its valence electron to complete the outer shell of the chlorine
(Cl) atom. Ionic materials are generally very brittle, and strong forces exist between the two
ions.
COVALENT BONDING :
A covalent bond is formed when the valence electrons from one atom are shared between
two or more particular atoms.
Example: Many compounds have covalent bonding, such as polymers. Nylon rope is an
example of a material that is made up of polymers. Polymer structures typically are long chains
of covalently bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms in various arrangements.

METALIC BONDING :
A metallic bond is formed when the valence electrons are not associated with a particular
atom or ion, but exist as a "cloud" of electrons around the ion centers.
Metallic materials have good electrical and thermal conductivity when compared to materials
with covalent or ionic bonding. A metal such as iron has metallic bonding.
Example: In the real and imperfect world, most materials do not have pure metallic, pure
covalent, or pure ionic bonding; they may have other types of bonding as well. For example,
iron has predominantly metallic bonding, but some covalent bonding also occurs.

SECONDARY BONDING :
VAN DER VAAL’S THEORY :
Secondary bonds are bonds of a different kind to the primary ones. They are weaker in
nature and are broadly classified as Van der Waal's forces and hydrogen bonds. These bonds
are due to atomic or molecular dipoles, both permanent and temporary. Van der Waal's forces
are of two types. The first type is as a result of electrostatic attraction between two permanent
dipoles. Permanent dipoles are formed in asymmetric molecules where there are permanent
positive and negative regions due to difference in electronegativities of the constituent
elements. This partial bond is due to an electric dipole and thus is called a Van der Waal's bond.
The second type of Van der Waal's bond is formed due to temporary dipoles. A temporary
dipole is formed in a symmetric molecule but which has fluctuations of charges giving rise to
partial dipole moments for only a few moments. This can also be seen in atoms of inert gases.
HYDROGEN BONDING :

Hydrogen bonds are relatively stronger than Van der Waal's forces but compared to primary
bonds they are weak. Bonds between hydrogen atom and atoms of the most electronegative
elements (N, O, F) are called hydrogen bonds. It is based on the fact that hydrogen being the
smallest atom provides very little repulsion when interacting with highly electronegative atoms
in other molecules and thus succeeds in forming partial bonds with them. This makes hydrogen
bonds strong but weaker compared to primary bonds since the interactions here are
permanent dipole interactions. Hydrogen bonds are of two types- intermolecular and
intramolecular.