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Haldar - Introduction - To - Mineralogy - and Petrology 2014
Haldar - Introduction - To - Mineralogy - and Petrology 2014
MINERALOGY AND
PETROLOGY
S. K. HALDAR
Emeritus Scientist, Dept. of Applied Geology & Environmental System Management,
Presidency University, Kolkata-700 073, and IMX Resources Limited, Australia.
Formerly, Hindustan Zinc Limited, Hindustan Copper Limited,
ESSO INC and BIL Infratech Ltd, India.
JOSIP TISLJAR!
Formerly Professors, Head, Director,
President and Dean, Department of Mining,
Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Croatia.
!
Deceased
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ISBN: 978-0-12-408133-8
Dedicated in the memory of Late Professor Josip Tisljar (1941e2009) who devoted his entire
academic life for the development of the nation as a whole and for the growth of the students in
particular. May his eternal, all-pervading, stable, immovable and primeval soul rests in peace in
the eternity of God.
v
Preface
“Arise! Awake! And Not Stop Till The Goal Is meaningful applications and uses of minerals
Reached.”dSwami Vivekananda and rocks for the development of human society.
The target readers are aimed at undergrad-
It was the summer of 2012 and I was excep- uate and postgraduate students of Geology,
tionally busy finalizing the publication of Mineral Mining, and Civil Engineering, metallic and
Exploration e Principles and Applications. The book nonmetallic minerals, petroleum and gas. This
was primarily addressed and dedicated to my book will serve as a manual for professionals
students from the past, present and future. In in metalenonmetal mining, petroleum engi-
the midst of that busy schedule, I glanced at neering, geotechnical and forestry. Experts in
a request from Elsevier through LinkedIn. They these areas can comfortably understand and
wanted someone to take on the role of the lead- solve complex problems of drilling, develop-
author to finalize an incomplete manuscript on ment and exploitation of oil and gas deposits
Introductory Mineralogy and PetrologydOil and and geothermal energy sources.
Gas Sediment Collectors by Prof Josip Tisljar. Prof This book gives readers basic information
Tisljar, Fellow of the Croatian Academy of about the general mineralogy, petrology,
Sciences and Arts, had drafted the initial seven minerals and rocks that undergo development
chapters, submitted the proposal and passed on and exploitation of deposits of minerals, oil and
in 2009. I commiserated with the loss to the family gas and geothermal energy, helps understanding
and to the world. I heard an inner voice, and of geological structure, ground and processes of
instantly consented to participate and complete soil formationdpedogenesis. It provides an under-
the project in a spirit of homage to the departed standing of the primary formation process of
author and to help accomplish his wishes and igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks
work. in particular, which have a key role in the forming
I was greatly impressed by the rich know- of the Earth’s crust. Special focus is on the sedi-
ledge of Prof Josip and the immense value the mentary rocks as the core subject of interest in
book would provide to the students and profes- oil and gas mining, both in terms of reservoir
sionals. I generalized the title of the book to Intro- and isolator. The study of sedimentary rocks
duction to Mineralogy and Petrology. I expanded and rock-strata provides information about the
five of the first seven chapters and included subsurface that is useful for civil engineering.
tables, colored field photographs and photomi- The knowledge can be used in the construction
crographs of the rocks. I added three new chap- of roads, houses, tunnels, canals or other Earth
ters on metallic and nonmetallic miner deposits, works. Sedimentary rocks are also important
nature of occurrences, genetic model, estimation sources of natural resources like coal, fossil fuels,
and classification of mineral resources including drinking water and ore minerals.
oil and gas. The new chapters also cover The book is divided into 10 chapters in an
economic aspects of mineral deposits, hazards orderly manner such as Rocks and Minerals,
and sustainable development to make it more Basic Mineralogy, Basic Petrology, Igneous rocks,
xiii
xiv PREFACE
Sedimentary rocks, Metamorphic rocks, Precipi- my wife, for her effortless encouragement; Srishti
tation Systems of Major Sedimentary Bodiesd and Srishta; our two little grand children who are
Collector Rocks for Oil and Gas, Mineral the light of my life.
DepositsdHost Rocks and Origin, Resource Traveling is my passion and learning is my
Assessment, Resource Classification System, wisdom. I love traveling in different countries,
and Economic Aspects, and Hazards of Mineral seeing diverse landscapes, awe-inspiring nature
Deposits and Sustainable Development. and meeting people from different cultures. I
We are thankful to many of our colleagues for capture them in my memory and snap their
supporting us during the development of this images in my camera. Those images are
book and each one has been acknowledged at frequently shared in my books. My wife,
appropriate pages inside the book. The valuable Swapna, often takes me out from my routine.
and timely supports of all the reviewers are My daughter, Soumi, and son-in-law, Surat,
appreciated. It was a delight to work with Ms took me to see various parts of USA of geological
Louisa Hutchins, Editorial Project Manager, interest. My grand children continue to teach me
Elsevier Limited and I am thankful for her very various aspects of nature. Thanks to all of them.
positive attitude toward any critical issue and Let my journey continue for eternity.
help in resolving with alternative solutions. I
accomplished truthful happiness while final-
izing the proof with Mr Poulouse Joseph, Project “The woods are lovely, dark and deep,
But I have promises to keep,
Manager-Book Publishing Division, Elsevier and
And miles to go before I sleep,
his able team members who accepted all the And miles to go before I sleep.”
changes repeatedly with great humility. Robert Frost
On behalf of Prof. Josip Tisljar, I extend our
sincere thanks to the families in both Croatia
and India for their support during our profes-
S.K. Haldar
sional journey. I specially mention the names of
Mr Mladen Tisljar, son of Prof Tisljar, for his quick 1st July, 2013
response to my each and every question; Swapna, Presidency University, Kolkata
List of Acronyms used in this Book
General Ca Calcium
Cd Cadmium
CAPEX Capital Expenditure Ce Cerium
EUR Estimated Ultimate Recovery Cl Chlorine
IMX IMX Resources Limited, Perth, Australia Co Cobalt
JORC (Australasian) Joint Ore Reserves Committee Cr Chromium
MVT Mississippi Valley Type Cu Copper
OPEX Operating Expenditure F Fluorine
PVT Pressure-Volume-Temperature Fe Iron
RSM Reservoir Simulation Model Ge Germanium
SEDEX Sedimentary Exhalative H Hydrogen
Sp. Gr Specific Gravity He Helium
UNFC United Nations Framework Classification Hg Mercury
USGS United State Geological survey/ I Iodine
USBM United State Bureau of Mines K Potassium
STB Stock Tank Barrel La Lanthanum
Li Lithium
Minerals Mg Magnesium
Ch Chert Mn Manganese
Cp Chalcopyrite Mo Molybdenum
Cpx Clinopyroxene N Nitrogen
Ga Galena Na Sodium
m Microcline Nd Neodymium
Po Pyrrhotite Ni Nickel
Py Pyrite O Oxygen
Q Quartz P Phosphorus
S Sericite/seritic/sericitization Pb Lead
Sp Sphalerite Pd Palladium
Pm Promethium
Pt Platinum
Metals/Semimetals/Nonmetals Te Tellurium
Rb Rubidium
Ag Silver Rn Radon
Al Aluminium S Sulfur
As Arsenic Sb Antimony
At Astatine Se Selenium`
Au Gold Si Silicon
B boron Sm Samarium
Bi Bismuth Sr Strontium
Br Bromine U Uranium
C Carbon Zn Zinc
xv
About the Author
S. K. Haldar
S. K. Haldar (Swapan Kumar Haldar) has BIL Infratech Ltd, India. His profession has
been a practicing veteran in the field of Mineral often required visits and interaction with experts
Exploration and metal mining for the past 4.5 of zinc, lead, gold, tin, chromium, nickel and
decades. He received his BSc (Hons) and MSc platinum mines and exploration camps of
degree from Calcutta University and Doctorate AustraliadTasmania, Canada, USA, Germany,
from Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. Portugal, France, Italy, The Netherlands,
The major part of his career from 1966 has been Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Bangladesh
focused on base and noble metals exploration/ and Nepal. He is a life fellow of The Mining
mining with short stopover at ESSO Petroleum, Geological and Metallurgical Institutes of India
Hindustan Copper Limited and finally Hindu- and Indian Geological Congress. Dr Haldar is
stan Zinc Limited where he undertook a varied recipient of “Dr J. Coggin Brown Memorial
set of technical roles and managerial responsibil- (Gold Medal) for Geological Sciences” by
ities. Since 2003 he is associated as Emeritus MGMI. He authored “Exploration Modeling of
Scientist with Department of Applied Geology, Base Metal Deposits,” 2007, Elsevier and
Presidency University, Kolkata and teaching “Mineral ExplorationdPrinciples and Applica-
mineral exploration to postgraduate students of tions,” 2013, Elsevier. Dr Haldar has a unique
the department and often at Indian School of professional blend of mineral exploration, evalu-
Mines, Dhanbad. He is consultant with interna- ation and mineral economics with an essence of
tional exploration entities, namely, Goldstream classroom teaching of postgraduate students of
Mining NL/IMX Resources Ltd, Australia and two celebrity Universities over the last 1 decade.
xvii
xviii ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Professor Josip Tisljar, obtained MSc and PhD 1. J. Tisljar, Petrology of sedimentary rocks,
from Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering
Engineering, University of Zagreb, Croatia. Faculty, Zagreb, 1987, p. 242.
Since 1965 Prof. Josip held graduate and post- 2. J. Tisljar, Sedimentary rocks, University of
graduate teaching of mineralogy, petrology Zagreb, 1994, p. 422.
and petroleum engineering at various capacities 3. J. Tisljar, Petrology with the basics of
as Professors, Head, Director, President and mineralogy, University of Zagreb, 1999,
Dean of the parent institute until demise. Acade- p. 211.
mician Professor Josip published +170 research 4. J. Tisljar, Sedimentology of carbonates and
papers focused on Tertiary clastic deposits, evaporates, Institute of Geology, Zagreb,
carbonates and marls of the Croatian part of 2001, p. 375.
the Pannonian Basin, especially glauconitic 5. J. Tisljar, Sedimentology of clastic and
sandstones and their association with volcano- siliceous sediments, Institute of Geology,
clastic deposits. Prof. Tisljar was through and Zagreb, 2004, p. 426.
through an academician engaged in University
The mutual knowledge of Academic Institu-
teaching and research of mineralogy and
tions and rich experience from mineral indus-
petrology including petroleum engineering, He
tries of the two authors are most appropriate to
authored five books:
write this book.
C H A P T E R
1
Rocks and Minerals
O U T L I N E
FIGURE 1.1 The “Sela Pass”, located at Arunachal Pradesh, India, is a high-altitude (13,700 ft or 4,176 m) mountain pass
connecting Guwahati (340 km)/Tezpur (155 km)/Bomdila (42 km) in the south and Tawang (78 km) in the north by main
access road NH 229. The Pass experiences heavy snow in winter and landslides during rains posing tremendous geological
and engineering problem. The road is maintained by the Indian Border Security Force.
of mineralogy, petrology, texture, structure, in The rocks depict the direct evidences and
situ rock quality, and effect of weathering is speak the events that happened in the geologic
essential for planning, execution and optimum past of Earth (both volcanic and tectonic activ-
uses of natural mineral/rock resources. ities, and interactions between land and sea).
FIGURE 1.2 One of the long-tunnel roads in Europe keeps away from extended high-altitude road travel distance. In situ
rock conditions and structures, excessive rains and snow are the main hazards of concern.
1.2. IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS AND ROCKS TO SOCIETY 3
FIGURE 1.3 The “Tower/London Bridge” is a combination of cable suspension and moveable type over river “Thames”
built between 1886 and 1894 using concrete and steel connects. The bridge is 244 m in length, connects main city and
Southwark, and enjoys heritage status. Rock type and structures on either side of the banks, soil condition on river bed, water
flow and nature silting are important in designing the Tower Bridge.
Fossils in Latin (fossus ¼ being dug up) are of rock and minerals with the remains of biologic
the well-preserved remains of animals, plants, organisms. Fossils and their occurrence within
and other organisms from the past. People the sequence of Earth’s rock strata is referred to
have always noticed and gathered fossils, pieces as the fossil record.
FIGURE 1.4 The “Maithon Dam”, 48 km from Dhanbad coal belt town, India, is constructed on “Barakar River”. The dam
is 4,789 m long, 50 m high and over 65 km2 water reservoir. It was specially designed, based on in situ rock competency and
related structural features, for flood control and generate 60,000 kW hydroelectric power since 1957.
4 1. ROCKS AND MINERALS
FIGURE 1.5 (A) “The Great Pyramid” of Giza (Cheops) is the oldest (2,560 Before Christ or BC), the tallest (146.5 m) and
the largest monument made by the Egyptian Pharaoh (Khufu/King) as tomb. This pyramid consists of 2.3 million limestone
blocks from nearby quarry, each varies between 2.5 and 6 t making a total weight of 7.3 million tonnes. It is the oldest of the
“Seven Wonders” of the ancient World and the only one to remain largely intact. (B) One of the entries into the Pyramid where
the king/queen/high priest was buried along with treasures. There are several false-entry doors to misguide the miscreants.
Milk, wine, beer and small piece of bread offered during burial are still preserved in the scientific laboratories in Cairo.
The fossil records are one of the early sources millions of year earlier. According to these indi-
of data relevant to the study to reliably determine cators, it is clear that the boundaries of land
the boundaries of sea and land, and the existence and sea in the past have frequently changed.
of lakes and rivers in different periods of geolog- Many areas that are land now were submerged
ical history. These are the “rock records” that ge- marine areas in the past, and vice versa.
ologists need to learn to “read” the geological The fossils in sedimentary rocks have a
events dated during billions (1,000 million)/ great significance presenting the development
1.3. MINERALS 5
FIGURE 1.6 The “Abu Simbel” temples are twin massive rock structures on the western bank of “Lake Nasser” in Nubia,
southern Egypt. The temples are originally carved out of in situ limestone mountain side during the reign of Pharaoh
Ramesses II in the thirteenth century Before Christ, as a lasting monument to himself (picture above) and his queen Nefertari
positioned few meters in the right. The complex was relocated in its entirety in 1968, on an artificial hill high above the Aswan
High Dam reservoir.
documents for the reconstruction of the Earth their life system had been unearthed along the
and life on it. This primarily assists for the age “Awas River” in Ethiopia following the East
determination of rocks and the time span in African Rift System. “Millennium shift of the
which each fossil communities grow and culture, material goods and spiritual needs of a
develop and thus the entire sequence of variety of people remained recorded in stone
sedimentation. as a memorial to the past for the future”.8 The
The rocks in the Earth’s crust are mostly civilization advanced with the advent of metal-
disturbed because of tectonic movements that working passing through the Copper Age
are not present at the place and in their relations (3500e2300 BC), Bronze Age (w3000 BC) and
as they were at its origin. The study of their age, Iron Age (Vedic Civilization, 2000e500 BC).
location and time of origin and initial relations is The modern society uses hundreds of minerals,
obtained knowledge of the tectonic movements metals and alloys in day-to-day life and impos-
that allow the reconstruction of the process sible to live without it.
of formation mountain chains (orogenyd
Section 3.4.2).
Stone, or broken part of a rock, served the 1.3. MINERALS
man from the Stone Age, ranges between
2,000 BC and 3.4 million years before, as the We draw from minerals and rocks, virtually
opportunities for his existence and creation. all the resources for our construction and hous-
The prehistoric genus “Homo (Great Apes)” ing. We grow plants on the surface soil and
and their predecessors widely used stones tools, draw water for drinking and cultivation from
implements, artifacts with sharp ages, pointed them. But among the average man, unfortu-
and percussion surfaces for haunting food and nately, large number of them know very little
learned to control fire. Ample of evidences of or nothing about the minerals and rocks.
6 1. ROCKS AND MINERALS
FIGURE 1.8 Inscriptions on the limestone walls of ancient temples at Luxor, Egypt portray the offerings of flower, food,
drinks and wealth to the Crowned God/King sitting at the center.
1.3. MINERALS 7
External crystal form is a reflection of its
internal structure. For example, halite crystals
have shape of hexahedron; calcite rhombohedra,
diamond octahedral and quartz have the form
of hexagonal prisms closed by bipyramids
(Fig. 1.11).
In all crystals of the same minerals, at the
same temperature and pressure, the angles be-
tween corresponding sides are equal. This is
the result of proper and regular internal struc-
ture of crystals. For example, the angles between
the surfaces are the same for all the quartz crys-
tals (Fig. 1.11) or all of the plagioclase crystals
(Fig. 2.18). Well-developed crystals that have
the form of regular polyhedra with properly
FIGURE 1.9 Halite, commonly known as rock salt, is the developed crystal forms, surfaces, edges and
mineral form of sodium chloride (NaCl). Halite forms iso- peaks (Fig. 1.11, Figs 2.9, 2.11 and 2.13, and Sec-
metric crystal. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but
may also be with shades of light blue, dark blue, purple,
tion 2.2.5) in nature are not common. On the con-
pink, red, orange, yellow or gray depending on the amount trary, minerals are often found in the form of
and type of impurities. irregular grains. Minerals with a properly devel-
oped external crystal forms occur only where
ions arranged along the edges of the cube there was enough space for their uninterrupted
(Fig. 1.10). growth on all sides, such as crystallization in so-
The distance between the two chlorine ions is lution or crystallization of lava in the volcanic
always 4.12 1010 m or 4.12 Å. The angstrom rocks. In such conditions, the crystals may
(symbol Å) is an international unit of length grow into a regular polyhedron, defined by flat
equal to 1 1010 m. It was named after Anders surfaces, which reflects their arrangement of
Jonas Ångström. atoms within the crystal lattice (Fig. 2.11).
FIGURE 1.10 Halite NaCl crystal structure: (A) schematic representation of the spatial arrangement of sodium and
chlorine ions and (B) halite structure with mutual arrangement and size relationships of Naþ and Cl ions.
8 1. ROCKS AND MINERALS
FIGURE 1.14 Calcite is a carbonate mineral (CaCO3) FIGURE 1.16 Garnet is widely distributed in meta-
with trigonalerhombohedral crystal system. It is colorless morphic terrain such as mica schist. The image presents
and white with occasional gray, yellow and green shades. large crystal of pink almandine fractured garnet (center)
Calcite is the main constituent of limestone, marble and poikilitically enclosed in amphibolites host rock at Khetri
shells of marine species. Source: Ref. 24. copper belt, India Brilliant bright red colors and trans-
parency make attractive semiprecious gemstone (necklace)
and inferior quality as abrasive, steel cutting, leather and
wood polishing and water filtration media.
FIGURE 1.15 Fluorite/Fluorspar is a fluoride (CaF2) FIGURE 1.17 Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral (CaSO4)
mineral with isometric crystal system, colorless, white, pur- with monoclinic-prismatic crystal system, colorless to white
ple, blue, green, yellow, orange, red pink, brown and bluish with various shades of gray, yellow, blue, and brown due to
black. Massive variety is suitable for economic mining and impurities, collected during visit to zincelead polymetallic
industrial uses. Source: Ref. 24. ore deposit, Megan Mine, Germany. Source: Ref. 24.
10 1. ROCKS AND MINERALS
FIGURE 1.20 High-grade chalcopyrite (brassy-golden) and pyrrhotite-rich ore in chloriteeamphibole garnet schist host
rock at Kolihan Section, Khetri Copper Mine, India.
1.3. MINERALS 11
(PbS; Fig. 1.21), cassiterite (SnO2), cerussite skutterudite (CoAs3; Fig. 1.28), sphalerite (ZnS;
(PbCO3; Fig. 1.22), chromite (FeCr2O4; Fig. 1.23), Fig. 1.29), stibnite (Sb2S3; Fig. 1.30), wolframite
cinnabar (HgS; Fig. 1.24), hematite (Fe2O3; ((Fe,Mn)WO4; Fig. 1.31), etc.
Fig. 1.25), pyrite (FeS2; Fig. 1.26), pyrrhotite Natural brilliant colored crystals of pyrite-
(FenSnþ1; Fig. 1.27), rhodochrosite (MnCO3), fluorite (Fig. 1.32), amythist (Fig. 1.33) often
FIGURE 1.22 Cerussite (lead carbonate), also known as FIGURE 1.24 Cinnabar with bright cochineal-red color
“white lead ore”, is the important secondary source of lead and extremely high specific gravity occurs as vein-filling by
metal. Sample collected during a visit to zincelead poly- recent volcanic activity and acid-alkaline hot spring is the
metallic deposit, Megan Mine, Germany. primary source of mercury.
12 1. ROCKS AND MINERALS
1.4. ROCKS
originate by hydrothermal veins, volcanic and
sub-volcanic and sedimentary re crystallization. Rock or stone is a geological body of specific
A list of common nonmetallic and metallic mineral composition, structure and texture, i.e.
minerals with diagnostic characteristics are mineral aggregate of the same or different with
given in Table 1.1. wide variation.
1.4. ROCKS 13
Granite is an igneous rock which contains (magma) and cools deep in the rocky crust of
granular minerals of quartz, microcline and/ the Earth.
or orthoclase, Na-plagioclase feldspar and Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock formed
muscovite (Figs 3.5, 4.6(A), 4.10 and 4.12) through transportation, deposition, compaction
that is crystallized from molten rock masses and cementation of different mineral composition
of sand grains (Figs 5.14 and 5.27).
Limestone is a chemical and biogenic sedi-
mentary rock that is composed mostly of calcite
FIGURE 1.33 Twined crystalline overgrowth of amethyst forms as geode or vug from the cavities in fissures and veins out
of gas bubbles in basaltic lava and rounded cavities in sedimentary formations. The most distinct features of amethyst are
extreme hardness and colorless at the inside surface to brilliantly sparkling purple or violet towards the hollow chamber that
make it suitable for jewellery.
(Figs 5.46e5.48). Calcite was formed from the may not exceed economic cost for obtaining
secretion of the sea or fresh water, with the the valuable minerals. The technological pro-
participation of plants and/or animals cess, the needs of the economy and prices in
(biochemical limestone) or by inorganic chemical the market, depends on whether and when the
processes (chemogenic limestone), as explained rock/mineral becomes raw material. For
in detail in Section 5.7.1. example, for road construction mineral raw ma-
Marble, for example, is a metamorphic rock terial is stone recovered from the quarry, and
composed of mineral calcite (Figs 6.4(A) and the stone blocks broken away from the rock
6.17) formed at high temperature and pressure mass for the construction of stone structures
deep beneath the Earth’s surface by metamor- or processing into polished slab. Rock bauxite
phic transformation of sedimentary limestone is mineral raw material for obtaining
rock (Section 6.5.2). aluminum, hematite for iron, and kaolin for
It is important to distinguish between the porcelain. Less-pure clay is mineral raw mate-
terms “rock” and “stone”. The term “stone” rial for manufacture of ceramics, and impure
means a smaller or larger part of the rock, which clay for production of tiles or bricks. Ore de-
is broken off of some rocks by a natural or tech- posits are formed in the Earth’s crust by
nical process. A list of common rocks and charac- different geological processes and accumulates
teristic features is given in Table 1.2. minerals or ores in such quantities that it is tech-
nologically possible to mine and economically
1.5. MINERAL RESOURCES profitable to gain. In such condition, the mineral
resource becomes mineral or ore reserve. The
Mineral resource is the mineral deposit con- mineral reserves/resources have been dis-
sisting of useful concentration that may or cussed in detail in Chapter 9.
TABLE 1.1 List of Common Nonmetallic and Metallic Minerals, Diagnostic Features and Uses
% Content of
Name Hardness Valuable Origin or
(Formula) Crystal System Color/Streak Luster */Sp. Gr Cleavage/Fracture Component Occurrence Major Uses
Alabaster Alabaster is applied to two distinct minerals with prefix to “calcite” and “hydrous gypsum” representing the individual properties of each. Decorative material
(CaCO3 or and ornamental
CaSO4.2H2O) objects, e.g. vases.
(Fig. 1.12)
Andalusite Orthorhombic White, pink, red, Vitreous 6.5e7.5 Perfect on (110) 36.8 SiO2 Regional Major application
(Al2SiO5) (Fig. 1.13) brown/whitish 3.16e3.20 Uneven 63.2 Al2O3 metamorphism goes into refractory
to conchoidal and contact bricks/monolithic
metamorphic blocks used by iron
zone around and steel industry,
Amphibole Monoclinic, Black, green, white, Vitreous 5.0e6.0 Two at acute e Occurs as Hornblende as
((Mg,Fe,Ca,Na)2e3 blocky crystals, gray/pale gray to dull 2.9e3.4 angle/uneven hornblende, semiprecious gems
(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8 fibrous tremolite of igneous and tremolite as
O22OH2) or metamorphic asbestos.
origin
Apatite (Ca5(PO4)3 Hexagonal prism, White, green, Vitreous 5.0 Imperfect/uneven 41e42 P2O5 Pegmatite and Primarily as fertilizer,
(FClOH)) tabular brown/white 3.17e3.23 to conchoidal metamorphosed occasionally gemstone
limestone and as index mineral
of Mohs hardness
scale of “Five”.
Argentite (Ag2S) Cubic, octahedral Lead-gray/shining Metallic 2.0e2.5 Traces, 87.0 Ag Galena and other Primary source of
7.2e7.4 subconchoidal 13.0 S sulfide association silver, jewelry,
photoprocessing,
currency and
investment bars.
Arsenopyrite Orthorhombic Steel-gray to silver Metallic 5.5e6.0 Faint traces/ 46.0 As Hydrothermal Major source of
(FeAsS) white/grayish black 5.9e6.2 uneven, brittle 34.3 Fe veins, pegmatite, arsenic, minor ore of
19.7 S contact gold as well as
metamorphism, herbicide, alloys,
metasomatism wood preservative,
medicine, insecticide,
rat poison.
15
(Continued)
TABLE 1.1 List of Common Nonmetallic and Metallic Minerals, Diagnostic Features and Uses (cont'd)
16
% Content of
Name Hardness Valuable Origin or
(Formula) Crystal System Color/Streak Luster */Sp. Gr Cleavage/Fracture Component Occurrence Major Uses
Barite (BaSO4) Orthorhombic, Colorless, white, Vitreous, pearly 3.3e5.0 Perfect on (001) 65.7 Ba(OH)2 Hydrothermal, Common applications
tabular light blue, 4.3e5.0 face uneven, 34.3 SO3 biogenic and are drilling fluids in
yellow/white irregular evaporation in oil, gas, mineral
leadezinc veins, exploration, filler,
in limestone paper, rubber
industry, automobiles,
sugar refining and
radiology X-ray.
Bauxite Amorphous, White, grayish, Dull, earthy 1.0e3.0 None 73.9 Al2O3 Leaching of silica Primary source of
(Al2O3$2H2O) massive, oölitic, yellow, red, 2.0e2.5 26.1 H2O and other soluble aluminum,
(Fig. 1.19) pisolitic brown/white in wet tropical or construction,
subtropical climate transport, consumer
durables, packaging,
electrical, machinery
equipment, refractory
Bentonite Massive clay like White, grayish, Feeble Very soft Unctuous 66.7 SiO2 Interbeds in Extraordinary power
((Mg,Ca,Na,K) rose-red, bluish and tender 28.3 Al2O3 marine shale of swelling by 3e10
O$Al2O3$5SiO2$ 2 formed from times when immersed
nH2O alteration of in water. Drilling
with n ¼ 5e7) glassy tuffs mud, geotechnical,
pellets, bricks, tiles,
pottery, metal casting
and medical.
Beryl Hexagonal, Emerald green, Vitreous 7.5e8.0 Imperfect and 67 SiO2 Granitic pegmatite, Primary source of
(Be3Al2Si6O18) prismatic blue, yellow/ to resinous 2.63e2.80 indistinct, 19 Al2O3 mica schist, beryllium, verities of
white conchoidal 14 BeO limestone, color and
to brittle tungsten ore transparency make it
attractive gemstones,
astrology, alloys,
electronics, and
ceramics.
Bismuthinite (Bi2S3) Orthorhombic Lead-gray, tin- Metallic 2e2.5 Perfect on (010) 81.2 Bi Tourmaline bearing Cosmetics, medicine,
white/silver to 6.8e7.2 brittle 18.8 S hydrothermal veins pharmaceutical,
white in granite Cu, Au glazes, soldering.
alloy (MneBi) create
strong permanent
magnet,
thermocouple, acrylic
fiber and carrier for U-
235 or U-233 fuel in
nuclear reactors.
Bornite (Cu5FeS4) Orthorhombic Copper-red, Metallic 3e3.25 Imperfect on (111) 63.3 Cu In zone of secondary Source of rich-grade
bronze-brown, 4.9e5.3 conchoidal 11.1 Fe supergene copper, major
purple/black 25.6 S enrichment, source applications in
of rich copper metal electrical wires, cables,
plumbing, currency,
utensils, machinery,
alloy, architecture,
nutritional
supplements and
fungicides in
agriculture.
Braggite Tetragonal Steel-gray Metallic 1.5 None 64 Pt Layered mafic and Source for platinum,
((Pt5Pd2Ni)S8) 9.38 27 Pd ultramafic intrusion palladium and nickel
10 Ni at high magmatic used in vehicle
temperature emission control, in
jewelry, electrodes,
spark plug, anticancer
drugs, investment,
nickel steel and
electroplating.
Cassiterite (SnO2) Tetragonal Brown or Adamantine, 6e7 Imperfect on (100) 78.6 Sn Hydrothermal veins, The chief tin ore
black/white, metallic, greasy 6.8e7.1 subconchoidal, 21.4 O alluvial and placer throughout ancient
gray, brown brittle as resistant history and remains
weathered grains. primary source of tin
metal as plate, cans,
container, solder and
polishing compounds
and alloys.
(Continued)
17
TABLE 1.1 List of Common Nonmetallic and Metallic Minerals, Diagnostic Features and Uses (cont'd)
% Content of
18
Name Hardness Valuable Origin or
(Formula) Crystal System Color/Streak Luster */Sp. Gr Cleavage/Fracture Component Occurrence Major Uses
Cerussite Orthorhombic, White, gray, black, Adamantine, 3e3.5 Good on (110) and 83.5 PbO Delicate acicular Secondary source of
(PbCO3) (Fig. 1.22) pseudohexagonal, green/white resinous, pearly 6.46 (021) conchoidal, 16.5 CO2 ore at Broken Hill lead metal that
fibrous form brittle mine, Australia, constitutes as key
Friedrichssegen, ingredient in paints,
Germany. plumbing, bullets,
automobile battery,
alloys, sheet/brick as
radiation shield and
cosmetics.
Environmentally
sensitive, health
hazards, slow
poisoning.
Chalcocite Orthorhombic Black lead-gray/ Metallic 2.5e3 Indistinct on (110) 79.8 Cu Zone of secondary Source of rich copper
(Cu2S) shiny black 5.5e5.8 conchoidal 20.2 S supergene with major
enrichment, source applications in
of rich copper electrical wires, cables,
Chalcopyrite Tetragonal Brass-yellow, Metallic 3.5e4 Indistinct on (011) 34.5 Cu Large massive, Primary source of
(CuFeS2) (Fig. 1.20) often tarnished/ 4.1e4.3 uneven, brittle 30.5 Fe irregular veins, copper metal with
greenish black 35.0 S disseminated and major applications in
porphyry deposit electrical wires, cables,
at granitic/dioritic plumbing, currency,
intrusive and utensils, machinery,
SEDEX type alloy, architecture,
nutritional
supplements and
fungicides in
agriculture.
Chromite Isometric, Black, brown/ Submetallic 5.5 None 68.0 Cr2O3 Layered Primary source of
(FeCr2O4) (Fig. 1.23) octahedron, brown 4.1e4.9 Uneven, brittle 32.0 FeO maficeultramafic chromium and
massive intrusion at high applications in hard
magmatic rustles steel, chrome
temperature, plating, anodizing of
differential aluminum,
segregation, and superalloys, refractory
crystallization bricks, pigments and
dyes, synthetic ruby,
wood preservative,
leather tanning and
catalysts for
hydrocarbon
processing.
Cinnabar (HgS) Rhombohedral, Cochineal-red, Adamantine, 2.0e2.5 Perfect, prismatic 86.2 Hg Vein-filling by Primary source of
(Fig. 1.24) trapezohedral brownish-red/ metallic 8.0e8.2 Subconchoidal 13.8 S recent volcanic mercury, industrial
scarlet and dull activity and acid chemicals, electrical,
alkaline hot electronic,
spring thermometers,
medicine, cosmetics,
pigment, fluorescent
lamp.
Environmentally
sensitive due to health
and safety
regulations.
Coal Compact, Black Dull 0.5e2.5 Nil þ91.5 C Gradual change of Significant uses are in
C, O and H, N, S massive to brilliant 1.0e1.8 Conchoidal, 3.75 H vegetation (wood) the form of fuel and
(Anthracite and uneven 2.5 O buried under energy, electricity
bituminous coal) 1 S sediments generation,
7e12 volatile gasification,
metallurgical
purposes like
production of steel,
cement and liquid
fuel.
Corundum (Al2O3) Hexagonal, Colorless, gray, Adamantine 9 Absent 52.9 Al In mica schist, Colorful gemstones,
six-sided prism brown, pink to to vitreous 3.95e4.10 Conchoidal to 47.1 O gneiss, low silica tiny jewelry, abrasive,
pigeon-blood-red/ uneven nepheline syenite, grinding media and as
white lamprophyre dyke index mineral of Mohs
hardness scale of
“Nine”.
Covellite (CuS) Hexagonal Indigo-blue, brass- Submetallic, 1.5e2.0 Perfect on (0001) 66.4 Cu Zone of secondary Natural
yellow, deep-red/ resinous, dull 4.6e4.8 Flexible in thin 33.6 S supergene superconductor chips,
Lead gray lamina enrichment, source electrical wires, cables,
of rich copper plumbing, currency,
metal utensils, machinery,
alloy, architecture,
nutritional
supplements and
fungicides in
19
agriculture,
insecticide.
(Continued)
TABLE 1.1 List of Common Nonmetallic and Metallic Minerals, Diagnostic Features and Uses (cont'd)
20
% Content of
Name Hardness Valuable Origin or
(Formula) Crystal System Color/Streak Luster */Sp. Gr Cleavage/Fracture Component Occurrence Major Uses
Cuprite (Cu2O) Isometric Cochineal-red, Adamantine, 3.5e4.0 Interrupted on (111) 88.8 Cu Zone of oxidation, Applications in
plagiohedral crimson-red, submetallic, 5.85e6.15 Conchoidal, uneven 11.2 O secondary electrical wires, cables,
black/shining earthy black enrichment, source plumbing, currency,
brown, red of rich copper metal utensils, machinery,
alloy, architecture,
nutritional
supplements and
fungicides in
agriculture.
Diamond (C) Isometric, Colorless, yellow, Adamantine to 10 Perfect on (111) Pure carbon Kimberlite, potassic Unique properties of
octahedral, orange, blue, greasy 3.516e3.525 Conchoidal, brittle volcanic pipes, diamond make it
hexoctahedral green/colorless conglomerate and suitable for super
alluvial deposits quality gemstone,
jewelry (Koh-i-Noor,
Epidote Monoclonic Pistachio-green, Vitreous 6e7 Perfect (001). e Product of Perfect transparency
(Mg6Fe6Al10Si4 yellow, brown/ to resinous 3.3e3.6 Imperfect (100) hydrothermal and deep colors
(OH)8O10) grayish white Flat to uneven alteration and suitable for
metamorphic origin semiprecious
in schist and marble gemstone.
Feldspar Monclinic Pink, white, gray, Vitreous 6.0e6.5 Two or three/ 18.4 Al2O3 In most igneous Primary use in
(NaAlSi3O8- or triclinic brown/white 2.55e2.76 along cleavage 16.9 K rocks and felsic ceramics, glass
KAlSi3O8- plane 64.7 SiO2 lavas manufacture, fillers,
CaAl2Si2O8) paints, plastics, rubber
and as index mineral
of Mohs hardness
scale of “Six”.
Fluorite (CaF2) Isometric with White, purple, Vitreous 4 Indistinct 51.1 Ca Vein with metallic Flux in steel
(Fig. 1.15 and 1.32) cubic habit blue, green, 3.01e3.25 Glassy 48.9 F minerals, manufacture,
yellow/white occasionally of opalescent glass,
hydrothermal enamels for cooking
origin utensils, hydrofluoric
acid, high-
performance
telescopes, camera
lens and as index
mineral of Mohs
hardness scale of
“Four”.
Galena (PbS) Isometric, Lead gray and Metallic 2.5e2.75 Perfect cubic 86.6 Pb Individually or Primary source of lead
(Fig. 1.21) granular cubes silvery/lead gray 7.2e7.6 on (001) 13.4 S associated with zinc metal and constitutes
Subconchoidal and copper sulfide as key ingredient in
deposit paint, plumbing,
bullets, automobile
battery, alloys, sheet,
radiation shield,
electrodes, ceramic-
glazes, stained glass
and cosmetics.
Environmentally
sensitive and health
hazards.
Garnet Isometric Pink, red, brown, Vitreous 6.5e7.5 Indistinct/ e Widely distributed Brilliant bright red
(Ca3Al2(SiO4)3) green/white 3.1e4.3 conchoidal to in metamorphic colors and
(Fig. 1.16) uneven rocks, e.g. mica transparency make
schist attractive
semiprecious
gemstone and inferior
quality as abrasive,
Graphite (C) Hexagonal Iron black, dark Metallic, 1.0e2.0 Basal perfect, on 70e85 C Reduction of Steel making,
steel-gray/black dull, earthy 2.09e2.23 (001) Flaky sedimentary carbon crucibles, refractory,
compounds during batteries, break lining,
metamorphism foundry facings,
lubricants, pencil and
electrodes.
Gypsum Monoclinic, Colorless to white, Vitreous, pearly, 1.5e2 Perfect (010) 32.5 CaO As evaporite beds Plaster-board for
(CaSO4$2H2O) prismatic and yellowish/white silky, waxy 2.31e2.33 Conchoidal, 46.6 SO3 deposited in lake, walls and ceilings,
(Fig. 1.17) flattened splintery 20.9 H2O sea, hot spring and surgical splints,
by-product of casting molds,
sulfide oxidation modeling, fertilizer
and soil conditioner,
cement, insulation,
alabaster for
sculpture, wood
substitute and as
index mineral of Mohs
hardness scale of
“Two”.
(Continued)
21
22
TABLE 1.1 List of Common Nonmetallic and Metallic Minerals, Diagnostic Features and Uses (cont'd)
% Content of
Name Hardness Valuable Origin or
(Formula) Crystal System Color/Streak Luster */Sp. Gr Cleavage/Fracture Component Occurrence Major Uses
Halite (NaCl) Isometric, usually Colorless, white, Vitreous 2.5 Cubic perfect on 39.4 Na Vast beds of Extensively used in
(Fig. 1.9) in cubes purple, red, pink, 2.1e2.6 (001) Conchoidal, 60.6 Cl sedimentary cooking as a flavor
yellow/white brittle evaporate, salt enhancer and
domes and pipes preservative to cure a
essentially wide variety of foods
“squeezed up” such as fish, meat and
from underlying pickles, soda ash for
salt beds glass, soap and
bleaching industry.
Salt aids in managing
ice and spreading salt
on walkways and
driveways after snow
Hematite (Fe2O3) Rhombohedral Black or steel- Metallic, 5.5e6.5 Indistinct 70.0 Fe Large volume of Primary source of iron
(Fig. 1.25) gray/cherry-red splendent, dull 4.9e5.3 Subconchoidal to 30.0 O banded hematitee and steel industry,
uneven, brittle quartzite ancient “Crypto-
Minoan script”, red/
black carvings,
casting, ornamental
jewelry, paints and
cosmetics, alloys.
Ilmenite (FeTiO3) Trirhombohedral Iron-black/black Submetallic 5.0e6.0 Absent 31.6 Ti Accessory to Alloy for high tech in
to brown red to metallic 4.5e5.0 Conchoidal 36.8 Fe igneous rock aerospace and
31.6 O especially gabbros medical application,
and diorites deoxidizer in stainless
steel, often alloyed
with copper, iron,
aluminum, vanadium,
molybdenum for
sheet, plate, bar, wire,
forgings, castings and
pigments.
Kaolin (Al4Si4O10 Monoclinic, White, red, blue, Pearly 2.0e2.5 Basal, perfect 46.5 SiO2 Decomposition of Paper, rubber
(OH)8) (Fig. 2.16) rarely as crystal brown/white to dull earthy 2.6e2.63 Flexible, inelastic 39.7 Al2O3 aluminous manufacture, coating
minerals, e.g. clay, linoleum, paints,
feldspar of granites inks, leather,
and gneisses. refractory, pottery,
stoneware, bricks,
insecticide, plastics
and fertilizers.
Kayanite Triclinic, Blue, white, Vitreous 5.0e7.0 Two perfect in (100) 36.8 SiO2 Occurs in gneiss, Heating element,
(3Al2O3, 2SiO2) bladed form green, 3.53e3.65 and (010) plane/ 63.2 Al2O3 schist, pegmatite, electrical insulation,
pink/white splintery quartz veins electronics, ceramic
resulting from high- and refractory
pressure industry, porcelain
metamorphism plumbing fixtures,
gemstone.
Lepidolite (Li-mica Monoclinic, Red-rose, violet, Translucent 2.5e4.0 Basal highly perfect e High-temperature Source of lithium,
(OH,F)2KLiAl2 tabular to lilac/white 2.8e3.3 on (001) quartz veins in battery, flux and
Si3O10) prismatic Uneven greisens (altered) coloring of ceramics
granites and and glass, electrical
pegmatite and electronics,
lubricating greases,
alloys, air purification,
medicine for bipolar
disorder, rocket
propellant and
nuclear fusion.
Magnesite Rhombohedral White, yellow, Vitreous 3.5e4.5 Perfect 47.6 MgO Alteration product Refractory bricks in
(MgCO3) gray, transparent/ 3.0e3.12 Conchoidal, flat 52.4 CO2 of magnesium-rich metallurgical
Magnetite Isometric and Black, gray with Metallic 5.5e6.5 Indistinct 72.4 Fe Common in igneous Source of sulfur, low-
(FeO$Fe2O3) common in brownish 5.17e5.18 Subconchoidal to 27.6 O rocks, placer-type grade iron ore and
octahedrons tint/black uneven, brittle aggregate and beach occasionally
sand ornamental stone.
Commercially less
attractive.
Marcasite (FeS2) Orthorhombic Pale-bronze Metallic 6.0e6.5 Distinct on (110) 46.6 Fe Shale, coal, Iron and steel
yellow/black 4.85e4.99 Uneven, brittle 53.4 S limestone, and industry.
hydrothermal veins
Marmatite Isometric, Dark brown to Metallic, 3.5e4.0 Perfect 46e56 Zn An opaque black Source of zinc metal.
((ZnFe)S) tetrahedral black/brown resinous 3.9e4.05 Conchoidal, brittle <20 Fe iron-rich variety of
Rest S sphalerite.
Mica Monoclinic sheets, Colorless, brown, Pearly 2.0e2.5 Perfect and parallel e Widely occurs in Primary use in
(Aluminosilicate books black, 2.76e3.2 to base igneous, insulator, electrical,
of K/Na, Fe/Mg green/white metamorphic, electronic, heat proof
and rarely Li or Cr) sedimentary rocks windows, optical
filters, thermal
regulators, microwave
ovens, well drilling
23
fluids, and asphalt
roof-shingles.
(Continued)
TABLE 1.1 List of Common Nonmetallic and Metallic Minerals, Diagnostic Features and Uses (cont'd)
24
% Content of
Name Hardness Valuable Origin or
(Formula) Crystal System Color/Streak Luster */Sp. Gr Cleavage/Fracture Component Occurrence Major Uses
Millerite (NiS) Rhombohedral Pale brass or Metallic 3.0e3.5 Perfect, uneven, 64.7 Ni Radiating cluster of High-grade source for
bronze yellow/ 5.3e5.65 brittle 35.3 S acicular needles in Ni, used for stainless
greenish black ultramafic steel, superalloys,
serpentinite bodies electroplating, alnico
magnets, coinage,
rechargeable batteries,
electric guitar strings,
microphone capsules,
and green tint in glass.
Molybdenite Hexagonal Black, lead-silver- Metallic 1.0e1.5 Perfect on (001) 60.0 Mo High-temperature Primary source of
(MoS2) gray/bluish gray 4.7e4.8 Flexible lamellae 40.0 S hydrothermal ore of molybdenum,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, corrosion resistance
molybdenite ferroalloy, Mo metal
and superalloys,
stainless steels,
lubricant, tools and
Monazite Monoclinic Hyacinth-red, Resinous to 5.0e5.5 Distinct on (100) 48 Ce Mainly as placer Important source rare
((CaLaTh)PO4) clove brown, adamantine 4.9e5.3 Poor on (010) 24 La deposit and beach earth metals like
reddish brown/ Conchoidal, 17 Nd sand thorium, lanthanum,
white uneven, brittle cerium, neodymium
etc. used for
radioactive dating and
gaslight mantle.
Olivine Orthorhombic, Yellow, green, blue, Vitreous 6.5e7.0 Poor in e Constituents of Spectacular green
((Mg,Fe)2SiO4) Tabular brown/white 3.27e3.37 one direction basic and ultrabasic colored verities as
intrusive magma gems. Aluminum
foundry industries
utilize olivine sand
mold to cast objects in
aluminum.
Niccolite or Hexagonal Pale copper-red/ Metallic 5.0e5.5 Massive, reniform- 43.9 Ni Layered Rarely used due to
nickeline (NiAs) Pale brownish 7.33e7.67 columnar, 56.1 As maficeultramafic presence of arsenic,
black Uneven, brittle intrusion at high deleterious to
magmatic smelting and milling,
temperature, except blending with
differential “clean” ore, which the
segregation mill and smelter can
handle with
acceptable recovery.
Pentlandite ((Fe, Isometric Pale-bronze yellow/ Metallic 3.5e4.0 Absent, octahedral 22 Ni Layered Primary source of
Ni)9S8) bronze-brown 4.6e5.0 parting 42 Fe maficeultramafic nickel associated with
Uneven 36 S intrusion at high PGE, tarnish-resistant
magmatic stainless steel,
temperature, superalloys,
differential electroplating, alnico
segregation magnets, coinage,
rechargeable batteries,
electric guitar strings,
microphone capsules,
and green tint in glass.
Psilomelane Massive and Iron black, steel- Submetallic, 5.0e7.0 None 50.0 Mn Primarily is Source of manganese,
(MnO2) botryoidally gray/brownish dull 3.3e4.7 Conchoidal, uneven sedimentary and essential to iron and
black less frequently of steel making,
hydrothermal aluminum alloy,
origin additive in unleaded
gasoline to boost
octane rating, dry cell
battery, coinage and
drier in paints.
Pyrolusite Orthorhombic, Iron black, dark Metallic 2.0e2.5 Perfect on (110) 63.0 Mn Primarily is Source of manganese,
(MnO2) usually columnar steel-gray/black 4.73e4.80 sedimentary and essential to iron and
less frequently of steel making,
hydrothermal aluminum alloy,
origin additive in unleaded
gasoline to boost
octane rating, dry cell
batteries, coloring in
bricks, and decoloring
in glass and pottery.
Pyroxene (silicates Monoclinic, Green, brown, Vitreous, pearly, 5.0e6.0 Perfect/irregular, e Occurs as augite, Gems and ornamental
of Fe/Mg, Ca/Al orthorhombic blue/white resinous 3.2e3.6 uneven, conchoidal diopside, stones, ceramics and
rarely with Na/Li) hypersthene glass-ceramics.
25
(Continued)
TABLE 1.1 List of Common Nonmetallic and Metallic Minerals, Diagnostic Features and Uses (cont'd)
26
% Content of
Name Hardness Valuable Origin or
(Formula) Crystal System Color/Streak Luster */Sp. Gr Cleavage/Fracture Component Occurrence Major Uses
Pyrrhotite Hexagonal Bronze-yellow to Metallic 3.5e4.5 Absent 60.4 Fe Common in mafic No specific
(FenSnþ1) (Fig. 1.27) copper-red/black 4.58e4.64 Uneven 39.6 S and layered application other than
intrusive and source of sulfur for
sulfide deposits making sulfuric acid,
rarely for recovering
iron due to complex
metallurgy and often
nickel bearing.
Quartz (SiO2) Hexagonal Colorless to black Vitreous, waxy 7.0 Indistinct 46.7 Si Occurs universally Source of silicon
(Fig. 1.11) through various to dull when 2.65 Conchoidal 53.3 O in all rocks except compounds,
shades/white massive pure limestone, polymers. Due to
marble, gabbro, thermal-chemical
basalt, and stability and
peridotite abundance widely
used as building
Rhodochrosite Trigonal, Brilliant pink, Vitreous 3.5e4.0 Perfect 61.7 MnO Hydrothermal An ore of manganese,
(MnCO3) hexagonal cherry red, and pearly 3.7 Uneven, conchoidal 38.3 CO2 veins with other aluminum alloys,
yellow/white and brittle low-temperature brilliant transparent
manganese verities as decorative
minerals stone and jewelry.
Rhodonite Triclinic Rose-pink, red, Vitreous 5.5e6.5 Perfect/conchoidal 54.1 MnO Associated in Used mainly as
((Mn2þ Fe2þ yellow/white to pearly 3.57e3.76 to uneven 45.9 SiO2 manganese and iron ornamental and
Mg,Ca) SiO3) ore deposits decorative stones.
Rutile (TiO2) Tetragonal, acicular Wine-red, Metallic, 6.0e6.5 Perfect on (110) 60.0 Ti Heavy mineral in Source of titanium.
to prismatic reddish brown/ adamantine 4.18e4.25 Twining common, 40.0 O beach sand Rutile used as
pale brown subconchoidal, refractory, ceramic,
uneven welding electrode
cover, sunscreen to
protect UV-induced
skin damage and
brilliant white
pigment in paint,
plastics and paper.
Scheelite (CaWO4) Tetragonale White, yellow, Vitreous, 4.5e5.0 Perfect on (111) 80.6 WO3 Contact Source of strategically
pyramidal brown, green, adamantine 5.9e6.1 Uneven, brittle 19.4 CaO metamorphic skarn, important tungsten
red/white in high-temperature metal, filaments for
hydrothermal veins light bulbs-electronic
and greisens, less tubes and furnace,
commonly in granite abrasives, super
and pegmatite heavy alloyed with
nickel, cobalt and iron
as kinetic energy
penetrators (small
arms bullets designed
to penetrate), armor,
cannon shells,
grenades and missiles
to create supersonic
shrapnel.
Sillimanite Orthorhombic Off-white, gray, Vitreous 6e7 Perfect in (010) 36.8 SiO2 Gneiss, schist, Glass industry, high-
(Al2O(SiO4)) brown/white 3.23e3.24 Splintery 63.2 Al2O3 pegmatite, quartz alumina refractory,
veins resulting from quality porcelain.
high-pressure
Skutterudite Isometric- Tin-white, Metallic 5.5e6.0 Distinct on (100) e Hydrothermal ore Strategically and
(CoAs3) (Fig. 1.28) octahedral- lead-gray/black 6.5e6.9 Conchoidal, uneven found in moderate- industrially useful,
pyritohedral to high-temperature high-temperature
veins with other superalloy, steel tools,
NieCo minerals lithium cobalt oxide
battery, pigments and
coloring, radioisotope
and electroplating
owing to its attractive
appearance, hardness
and resistance to
oxidation.
Smithsonite Rhombohedral White, green, Vitreous, pearly 4.5e5.5 Perfect 64.8 ZnO A secondary mineral Secondary source of
(ZnCO3) brown, pink, 4.3e4.4 Uneven, 35.2 CO2 in weathering/ zinc, main
yellow, white subconchoidal oxidation zone of applications in
zinc-bearing ore galvanizing, alloys,
deposits cosmetics,
pharmaceutical,
micronutrient for
human, animals and
plants.
Sperrylite Cubic-pyritohedral Tin-white/black Metallic 6.0e7.0 Indistinct 57.0 Pt Layered igneous Primary source of
(PtAs2) 10.58 conchoidal complex platinum, automobile
emission controls
devices, jewelry,
catalyst, electrode,
anticancer drug,
27
oxygen sensors, spark
plug and turbine
engine.
(Continued)
TABLE 1.1 List of Common Nonmetallic and Metallic Minerals, Diagnostic Features and Uses (cont'd)
28
% Content of
Name Hardness Valuable Origin or
(Formula) Crystal System Color/Streak Luster */Sp. Gr Cleavage/Fracture Component Occurrence Major Uses
Sphalerite (ZnS) Isometric- Brown, black, Adamantine, 3.5e4 Perfect on (110) 67.0 Zn Majority as large Primary source of
(Fig. 1.29) tetrahedral honey yellow/ resinous, 3.9e4.1 Uneven 33.0 S SEDEX-type zinc, main
brownish, pale greasy to conchoidal deposits associated applications in
yellow with galena, galvanizing, alloys,
chalcopyrite cosmetics,
and silver pharmaceutical,
micronutrient for
human, animals and
plants.
Stannite Tetragonal Steel-gray to iron- Metallic 3.5e4.0 Cubic, indistinct 27.5 Sn Hydrothermal vein Primary source of tin
(Cu2S$FeS$SnS2) black/black 4.3e4.52 Uneven 29.5 Cu deposit containing and copper.
13.1 Fe Sn, Cu, Zn, W, Fe,
29.9 S Ag, and As
Staurolite Orthorhombic, Brown with tinge Vitreous 7.0e7.5 Poor cleavage High-grade regional Index mineral to
Stibnite (Sb2S3) Orthorhombic Lead-gray, Metallic, 2 Highly perfect 71.7 Sb Hydrothermal Primary source of
(Fig. 1.30) tarnishing black/ splendent 4.52e4.62 on (010) 28.3 S deposits associated antimony, flame
lead-gray Subconchoidal with other sulfide retardant, textiles and
minerals coatings, fiber, alloy
with lead for batteries,
plain bearings and
solders.
Sulfur native (S) Orthorhombic Yellow, straw, Resinous 1.5e2.5 Imperfect 100.0 S Natural elemental Sulfuric acid, fertilizer
greenish, reddish/ 2.05e2.09 Conchoidal form, sulfide and chemicals, fungicide
white to uneven sulfate minerals and pesticide,
bactericide in wine
making and food
preservation.
Sylvite (KCl) Isometric Colorless, white, Vitreous 2.0 Perfect on (100) 52.4 K Evaporite mineral Source of potash and
blue, yellow/white 1.97e1.99 (010) (001) 47.6 Cl precipitates out of principal use as
Uneven solution in very dry fertilizers.
saline areas
Sylvanite Monoclinic Steel-graysilver- Metallic 1.5e2.0 Perfect on (010) 24.5 Au Most commonly in Sylvanite represents a
((AuAg)Te2) white, yellow/ brilliant 7.9e8.3 Uneven 13.4 Ag low-temperature minor source of silver,
steel-gray 62.1 Te hydrothermal veins gold and tellurium.
Talc Orthorhombic, White with gray, Wax like 1 Perfect on (001) 31.7 MgO Metamorphism of Cosmetics, paint and
(3MgO, monoclinic green and brown or pearly 2.7e2.8 basal cleavage 63.5 SiO2 magnesium coating, plastic, paper
4SiO2H2O) Granular tinge/white, pearl Uneven pattern 4.8 H2O minerals, e.g. making, rubber,
and fibrous green serpentine, ceramics,
pyroxene, olivine pharmaceutical,
from ultramafic electric cable,
rocks detergents, food
additive and as index
mineral of Mohs
hardness scale of
“One”.
Tourmaline Rhombohedral, Black, brown, Vitreous 7e7.5 Indistinct e Product of Transparent verities
(complex hexagonal green, violet/ to resinous 3e3.2 Glassy, pneumatolytic as semiprecious gems,
borosilicate white conchoidal, process of igneous piezeoelectricity,
of Al, Mg, Fe, brittle rock formation therapeutic
Mn, Cr, Li) application as
(Fig. 1.18) relaxation of body and
mind, hair care
products.
Uraninite (UO3) Isometric Steel-velvet-brown Submetallic, 5.0e6.0 Indistinct 88.0 U Hydrothermal Fuel for nuclear
black/black, green greasy 10.63e Conchoidal colloform veins in reactor to generate
10.95 to uneven granitic and syenitic sustainable electricity
pegmatite and for civilian purposes,
quartz-pebble for propulsion of
conglomerates naval warships for
military and nuclear
powered icebreaking.
Wolframite Monoclinic, Dark grayish or Submetallic, 5.0e5.5 Perfect on (010) 76.0 W Granite and Main source of
((Fe,Mn)WO4) tabular, brownish black/ resinous 7.0e7.5 Uneven, rough pegmatite veins tungsten, strong and
(Fig. 1.31) prismatic reddish brown formed under dense metal with high
pneumatolytic melting temperature
condition used for electric
filaments, bulb, alloy,
cutting material,
armor piercing
ammunitions like shot
and shell in defense.
29
(Continued)
30
TABLE 1.1 List of Common Nonmetallic and Metallic Minerals, Diagnostic Features and Uses (cont'd)
% Content of
Name Hardness Valuable Origin or
(Formula) Crystal System Color/Streak Luster */Sp. Gr Cleavage/Fracture Component Occurrence Major Uses
Wollastonite Triclinic, White, gray, colorless/ Vitreous, dull, 4.5e5.0 Perfect in two 48.3 CaO Thermally Principal ingredient in
(CaSiO3) monoclinic, white pearly 2.86e3.09 directions at 90 51.7 SiO2 metamorphosed ceramics industry,
impure limestone paint, paper,
polymers and
metallurgical
Zincite (ZnO) Hexagonal- Deep-red, orange- Submetallic 4.0e4.5 Perfect, prismatic 80.3 Zn Both natural and Rich ore of zinc.
hemimorphic yellow/orange- 5.43e7.7 Conchoidal 19.7 O synthetic Zincite crystals are
yellow significant as
semiconductor in
early development of
crystal radios before
the advent of vacuum
tubes.
Zircon (ZrSiO4) Tetragonal Red, brown, yellow, Vitreous, 7.5 Indistinct on (110) 67.2 ZrO2 Common trace Alloy in nuclear
green/white adamantine, 4.6e4.7 and (111) 32.8 SiO2 mineral in granite reactors, as a pacifier
greasy Conchoidal, and felsic igneous in the decorative
uneven rocks ceramics, refractory
and foundry
industries, gemstone
and radiometric age
dating.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Granite (Figs 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, White, gray, black, pink Quartz, feldspar biotite Massive plutonic Building and decorative
4.12, 4.14 and 4.15) to red mica amphibole intrusive, granular and stones, tiles, kitchen counter,
crystalline formed as ancient and modern
batholiths sculptures, engineering,
curling and rock climbing.
Pegmatite Mix of red, white, gray, Same as granite tourmaline, Exceptionally large Source of rare earth and
cream, silvery and dark topaz, beryl crystals intrusive dyke, gemstone viz. aquamarine,
veins in and near granite tourmaline, topaz, beryl,
fluorite, apatite, corundum,
mica-books, lithium, tin and
tungsten.
(Continued)
31
TABLE 1.2 Lists of Common Rocks and Diagnostic Features under Overall Classification (cont'd)
32
Name Color Composition Texture Major Uses
Gabbro (Fig. 4.17) Dark gray, black, Chiefly ferromagnesian Coarse-grained intrusive Often contains Cr, Ni, Co, Cu
greenish and rarely Fe-rich clinopyroxene mafic igneous rock Au, Ag, Pt and Pd. Common
reddish (augite) at greater than usages are ornamental facing,
equal to plagioclase paving, graveyard headstone
at funerary rites and kitchen
countertops.
Norite (Figs 4.22 Light to dark gray, Ca-rich plagioclase Mafic intrusive igneous Occurs in association with
and 4.23) brownish (labradorite), Mg-rich rock, indistinguishable mafic (gabbro)/ultramafic
orthopyroxene from gabbro, other than layered intrusion e.g.
(enstatite) and olivine type of pyroxene under Bushveld (South Africa) and
microscope Stillwater (Montana, USA)
with large platinum group of
deposits. Usages are
ornamental facing, paving,
(Continued)
33
TABLE 1.2 Lists of Common Rocks and Diagnostic Features under Overall Classification (cont'd)
34
Name Color Composition Texture Major Uses
Dolerite or diabase Dark gray, black Elongated lath-shaped Fine- to medium-grained Used as crushed stone in road
(equivalent to plutonic gabbro and greenish euhedral plagioclase subvolcanic rock occurs making, concrete mixture in
or (w60%) in fine matrix of as dyke and sill easily rough masonry, block paving
volcanic basalt) pyroxene (w30% augite), recognized by style of and ornamental stone in
(Figs 4.19 and 4.20) olivine (w10%), occurrence in the field monumental purposes.
magnetite and ilmenite
Komatiite Light shades of gray, Extremely high Rare and area restricted Massive nickel, copper sulfide
brown, green, yellow magnesium-rich mafic subvolcanic and gold deposits are hosted
forsteritic olivine, calcic intrusive rock by Komatiite in S. Africa,
and chromian pyroxene Australia and Canada.
and chromite
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Mudstones/Claystone Grey, black, Extremely minute clay Fine-grained sedimentary Brick and ceramics, fillers,
Shale White, gray with shades Argillaceous sediments Minutely fine-grained, Used as filler in paint, plastic,
of red, brown, yellow- of aluminosilicates and soft, homogeneous, roofing cement, bricks;
ocher, blue and black clay minerals (kaoline, thinly laminated dimensional stone for
montmorillonite, illete landscaping, paving,
and chlorite) driveway material, and
reservoir for oil and gas.
Graywacke Dark gray, black, yellow, Angular grains of quartz, Poorly sorted immature Widely used as aggregate,
(Fig. 5.31) brown feldspar and rock sedimentary rock with fill in construction, road
fragments set in compact clay- fine clay to assorted industries, armor rock for sea
matrix fragments walls and sculpture by power
tools.
Sandstone Yellow, brown, white, Quartz and/or feldspar Fine to coarse sand size Building material for
(Figs 5.27 and 5.30) red, gray, pink, tan and and other durable grains cemented by very domestic houses, palaces,
black minerals interspace fine matrix temples, cathedrals, ancient
cemented forts, ornamental fountains,
statues, roof tops, grindstone,
blades and other equipments.
Significant collector rocks for
water, oil and gas.
Limestone (Figs 5.46, White, gray, black, buff, Mainly calcite and Chemogenic sedimentary Architecture and sculpture
5.47, 5.48 and 5.63) yellow and shades of aragonite, skeletal rock with soft, fine to (pyramid, monuments,
brown, purple, orange, fragments of marine organism coarse crystalline shelly historical buildings, artifacts,
cream and scarlet (coral and foraminifera), and open and chalky texture statues), aggregates,
silica (chert and flint) manufacture of quick-lime,
cement, mortar, soil and
water conditioner, petroleum
reservoir, flux in blast furnace,
medicine, cosmetics,
toothpaste, paper, plastics,
Dolostone Gray, white, buff Predominantly dolomite Chemogenic sediments, Source of magnesium metal
(dolomite rock) and brown color (calciumemagnesium soft, fine to coarse and magnesia (MgO),
(Fig. 5.64) carbonate) silica grained with sugary refractory bricks, aggregate
and greasy texture for cement and bitumen
mixes, flux in blast furnaces of
iron and steel industry,
important host rock for
zinceleadesilver deposits.
Conglomerate Various colors Clasts of preexisting Predominantly coarse Dimension stone for
(Fig. 5.22) depending on rocks and minerals (pebbles, cobbles and decoration of walls,
preexisting source within fine-grained boulders) in fine aggregate, fill in the
material matrix cementing material construction and road
industries and significant
source for placer diamond,
gold, and uranium.
Laterite (Fig. 5.41) Brick-red Rich in iron and Featureless massive Regular-sized blocks as
aluminum residual product of building and road
weathering construction, aquifer for
water supply in rural areas,
waste water treatment plant
and source of low-grade
35
aluminum, iron and nickel.
(Continued)
TABLE 1.2 Lists of Common Rocks and Diagnostic Features under Overall Classification (cont'd)
36
Name Color Composition Texture Major Uses
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Slate Blue-black shade Clay or volcanic ash, Fine-grained, Building materials, roof-
product of low-grade regional homogeneous and shingles, tiles, gravestone,
metamorphism foliated electric insulator, fireproof,
switchboard, laboratory
bench and billiard table top
and blackboards.
Phyllite Gray, shades of brown, Quartz, sericite, mica Phyllitic texture with silky Decorative objects such as
red, blue, green and chlorite glossy appearance pendants and beads.
Schist (Figs 6.2, 6.3 Silvery gray, brown, Micas, chlorite, talc, Medium-grade Dimension and decorative
and 6.10) green quartz, feldspar, garnet, metamorphic rock with stone as building material,
kyanite, staurolite well-developed schistocity walls, garden, road industries
and paving.
Serpentinite Dark to light green Serpentine group, e.g. Hydrated and regional Decorative and curving stone
antigorite, chrysolite metamorphic in architecture and sculptures.
and lizardite chromite transformation of Rich in elements toxic to
ultramafic rocks plants such as chromium and
nickel.
Quartzite Gray, off-white, Monomineralic and Massive, extremely hard, Extreme hardness and
(Figs 6.15 and 6.16) yellow, light brown, dominantly of quartz nonfoliated metamorphic angular shape is suitable for
red rock railway ballast, roads, walls,
roofing/flooring, stair steps,
high-purity ferrosilicon,
industrial silica sand and
silicon carbide.
Marble (Fig. 6.17) White, pink, and green Monomineralic and Nonfoliated metamorphic Sculpture, ancient and
dominantly of calcite equivalent of limestone present-day monuments,
statues, dimensional and
decorative stone, construction
material, tiles, and flooring.
FURTHER READING 37
FURTHER READING the foundation study material to understand
the definition of minerals, rocks and ore, funda-
Reading of text books authored Dana,9 mentals to start any branch of Geology. Tisljar49
Vrkljan,60 Vrkljan et al.61 will be a smart will be helpful in reading for Croatian readers.
approach to step into the theme of Mineralogy The fundamental concepts of mineralogy and
and Petrology. Haldar23 and Haldar24 can be petrology are explained by Cornelis Klein.27
C H A P T E R
2
Basic Mineralogy
O U T L I N E
2.1. INTRODUCTION
1. Crystallography studies crystal forms, i.e.
Mineralogy is the systematic study that deals forms in which the minerals crystallize, as
with the characteristics of minerals. The miner- well as their internal structure, relations and
alogy has more scientific branches such as the distribution of atoms, ions or ionic groups in
following: the crystal lattice.
2. Physical mineralogy is the study of physical (Fig. 1.14 and Fig. 2.5) or garnet (Fig. 1.16 and
properties of minerals, such as cohesion Fig. 2.9).
(hardness, cleavage, elasticity, and density; Crystallized minerals have specific and con-
refer Table 1.1), optical, thermal and magnetic stant physical properties. Same minerals always
properties, electrical conductivity, and have a constant melting point or crystallization
radioactivity, and so on. point. If we increase the temperature of crystal-
3. Chemical mineralogy is the study of chemical lized mineral, when it reaches melting point, it
formula (Table 1.1) and chemical properties of will stop to heat as long as the mineral does
the minerals. not convert to mineral melt. It is because that
4. Environmental mineralogy studies complex all the heat energy is spent on the decomposition
and very different conditions of the origin of of the crystal lattice, or melting of minerals. It is
minerals, understand element behavior in called melting point or crystallization point in
echo-systems, natural and industrial effects of reverse process.
minerals, and mitigates potential Melting point or crystallization point is al-
contamination problems. ways constant for a mineral in same pressure.
5. Descriptive mineralogy deals with the Physical properties of crystallized minerals
classification of minerals into groups based on are always exactly equal in a particular direction:
their common properties, mostly chemical for example, all minerals which are not part of
and structural properties. the cubic system are double refracting, where or-
dinary light passing through them is broken up
into two plane polarized rays that travel at
2.2. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF different velocities and refracted at different an-
CRYSTALS AND THEIR gles. They are anisotropic. Minerals which are
PROPERTIES part of the cubic system and amorphous
solid are isotropic which means that light
2.2.1. Crystallized and Amorphous behaves the same way no matter which direction
it is traveling in the crystal. The isotropy
Solid Minerals
and anisotropy of crystallized minerals will
The constancy of chemical composition and be discussed in more detail in Sections 2.2.3
physical properties of minerals are the outcome and 2.3.2.
of their internal crystal structure. The exact and Amorphous minerals from Greek amor-
unique arrangement of atoms, ions or ionic phous “shapeless” (from a “without” þ morphe
groups is the characteristic feature of each crys- “form”) in which there is no long-range order
tallized mineral. The minerals are mostly found of the positions of the atoms and in fact are not
as crystallized substance and less frequently as minerals, but mineraloids. Therefore, never as-
amorphous solid in Earth’s crust (Fig. 3.2). sume a regular polyhedral shape. Mineraloids
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid mate- possess chemical compositions that vary beyond
rial, whose constituent atoms, molecules, or the generally accepted ranges for specific min-
ions are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern erals. Mineraloids unlike the crystallized min-
extending in all three spatial dimensions. During erals do not have a specific melting point and
crystallization, where there was enough space crystallization point. With the gradual increase
for their uninterrupted growth in all directions, in temperature of mineraloids, for example,
the crystals can have a regular polyhedral shape. glass, gradually becoming softer and softer until
That is, for example, often the case with minerals it finally softens enough to become liquid.
halite (Fig. 1.9), quartz (Fig. 1.11), calcite All mineraloids are optically isotropic. Agate is
2.2. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 41
2. Crystallization from gases and vapors,
“pneumatolysis” processes, such as
tourmaline.
3. Crystallization from the hot solution,
“hydrothermal” processes, such as fluorite
and galena (Section 4.1).
4. Crystallization and deposition of
minerals from aqueous solutions,
“hydatogenesis” processes, such as secretion
of aragonite and calcite from seawater
(Section 5.7.1.1).
5. “Vaporization” of highly concentrated
aqueous solutions due to the strong
evaporation, evaporation processes, such as
gypsum, anhydrite and halite (Section 5.8.1).
6. “Dynamic metamorphism” is associated with
FIGURE 2.1 Agate-noduledconcentric secretion of light
and dark zones of amorphous silicon hydroxide from edges zones of high to moderate strain such as fault
toward center. Agate is a variety of chalcedony formed from zones. Cataclasis, crushing and grinding of
layers of quartz showing multicolor bands. Most agates rocks into angular fragments, occurs in
occur as rounded nodules or veins in volcanic rocks or dynamic metamorphic zones, giving
ancient lavas.
cataclastic texture (Section 6.5).
7. “Contact metamorphism” occurs typically
considered a “Mineraloids” because of its lack of
around intrusive igneous rocks as a result of
crystallization (Fig. 2.1).
the temperature increase caused by the
Mineraloids are not so common in the Earth’s
intrusion of magma into cooler country rock.
crust as crystallized minerals and usually occur
The area surrounding the intrusion (called
during spending of minerals on Earth surface
aureoles) where the contact metamorphism
or secretion from lava. A good example of a min-
effects are present is called the metamorphic
eraloid is opal, semiprecious stone. It usually oc-
aureole. Contact metamorphic rocks are
curs by excretion of minerals substances from the
usually known as hornfels. Rocks formed by
edge to the center of fissures of almost any kind
contact metamorphism may not present signs
of rock, being most commonly found with basalt,
of strong deformation and are often fine
rhyolite, limonite, sandstone and marl. It is basi-
grained (Section 6.4).
cally hydrated silica with variable amounts
8. The action of aqueous solutions and the
(1e21%) of water (Section 2.5.3).
atmospheric conditions on solid minerals can
create “authigenic” minerals. Chemical wear
2.2.2. Formation of Minerals can create new minerals under the influence
of water and CO2 occurs mild carbon acid
Minerals, as integral part of the rocks, are
[H]þ þ [HCO3] under whose effects of
forming in different ways by complex processes
spending feldspars can create kaolinite
such as the following:
(Section 5.2.1.2).
1. Crystallization of magma (silicate 9. Life processes of organisms, or “biochemical”
composition), “pyrogenesis” processes, processes, are biogenic minerals such as
such as olivine, pyroxenes and plagioclase secretion of calcite or aragonite for building
(Section 4.1.2). shells or coral skeletons (Section 5.7.1.1).
42 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
Surface of Surface of
first-order c first-order Surface of
prism prism base
(011) (011) pinacoid
(001)
c
Surface of Surface of
b side side
a pinacoid pinacoid
(010) (010)
b
a
c
Surface of
pyramid
(001)
(111)
Surface of
base
pinacoid
b
a
FIGURE 2.3 Location of the crystal planes and their Miller indices in relation to the crystallographic axes a, b, and c.
a3
–a2 –a1 –a2 –a1 –a2 –a1
a1 a2 a1 a2 a1 a2
–a3
1 2 3
–a3 –c –c
C C C
–b β
–a –a
–b –a –b β
α
b b
a
a a γ b
β > 90º
β > 90º
α > 90º
4 5 6
γ ≠ 90º
–c –c –c
FIGURE 2.4 The relationship between the position of the crystallographic axes: 1, cubic; 2, tetragonal; 3, hexagonal and
trigonal; 4, orthorhombic; 5, monoclinic; 6, triclinic.
In a complete 360 rotation, the grain will gridsdhexagonal and trigonal, but the same
repeat itself in appearance two times, once every common pointdhexagonal (Fig. 2.4). All known
180 , it is called twofold rotational symmetry; crystals have only 32 possible combinations of
three times, once every 120 , it is called threefold planes of symmetry, which due to the mutual re-
rotational symmetry; four times, once every 90 , lations of crystallographic axis, their lengths and
it is called fourfold rotational symmetry; and six angles between them can be grouped into six or
times, once every 60 , it is called sixfold rota- seven lattice point groups (Fig. 2.4).
tional symmetry. Cubic crystal lattices have three mutually
perpendicular crystallographic axes of equal
2.2.5. Crystal Systems, Crystal Forms, length (axis a1:a2:a3) from which the first hori-
zontal axis (front axis) is directed toward the
Single Crystals and Crystal Twinning
observer, the second horizontal axis extending
Based on the size of the crystallographic axes, from left to right (lateral axis) and the third
there are different six or seven lattice point axis is vertical (vertical axis). Contains five crys-
groups. In fact, there are two different tal classes.
46 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
Tetragonal results from stretching a cubic lat- symmetry) has crystals that crystallized in the
tice along one of its lattice vectors, so that the cubic system, for example, crystals having the
cube becomes a rectangular prism with a square shape of a cube or hexahedron (see halite
base (a by a) and height (c, which is different Fig. 1.10). Of the 32 crystal classes, those as
from a). Contains seven crystal classes. many planes as required for complete symmetry
Hexagonal has four crystallographic axes of in a given crystal system are called holohedral.
which three were of equal length and they are The crystal form is a set of uniform surfaces,
in horizontal plane (axes a1:a2:a3), each at angle which as a whole has certain symmetry. For
120 . Fourth (c axis or vertical axis) is longer or example, six planes of square form, each of
shorter than the rest of three and perpendicular which intersects only one axis (100), (010),
to them. This system contains 12 crystal classes. (001), make a crystal form that geometrically cor-
Orthorhombic results from stretching a cubic responds to the cube, and in crystallography
lattice along two of its orthogonal pairs by two called hexahedra (hex ¼ six and hédra ¼ flat).
different factors, resulting in a rectangular prism Eight planes in shape of equilateral triangle,
with a rectangular base (a by b) and height (c), which each plane cuts across all three axes
such that a, b, and c are distinct. All three bases (111), form octahedron (octa ¼ eight), and the
intersect at 90 angles. The three lattice vectors 12 surface in shape of rhombus forms rhombic
remain mutually orthogonal. Contains three dodecahedron (Fig. 2.9).
crystal classes.
1. If surfaces are deployed to close some space
Monoclinic crystal system is described by three
or geometric body, as is the case in a
vectors. In the monoclinic system, the crystal is
hexahedron, octahedron or orthorhombic
described by vectors of unequal length, as in
dodecahedron, then they are closed forms.
the orthorhombic system. They form a rectan-
2. If the surface does not obstruct the space, such
gular prism with a parallelogram as its base.
as prism surfaces that intersect two axes and
Hence two pairs of vectors are perpendicular,
with third are parallel (011), (110) or (101),
while the third pair makes an angle other than
then they are open forms.
90 . Contains three crystal classes.
3. Prism is an open form, and may have a
Triclinic crystal system is described by the
different number of planes.
three basis vectors. In the triclinic system, the
4. Pyramid is an open form. Pyramid has a
crystal is described by vectors of unequal length,
different number of planes and is usually
as in the orthorhombic system. In addition, all
combined with another symmetric side of
three vectors are not mutually orthogonal
the pyramid, creating a so-closed formd
(a s b s c and a s b s g). Contains three crystal
bipyramid, or is combined with a prism,
classes.
as for example the case of quartz
The triclinic lattice is the least symmetric. It
(Fig. 1.11).
has (itself) the minimum symmetry all lattices
have: points of inversion at each lattice point Separate crystals can be completely free
and at seven more points for each lattice point: (Fig. 2.9) or they grow on some base (Fig. 2.5).
at the midpoints of the edges and the faces, When two separate crystals share some of the
and at the center points. It is the only lattice same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical
type that itself has no mirror planes although manner, the result is an intergrowth of two sepa-
they are characterized by proper internal rate crystals in a variety of specific configura-
structure. tions. A twin boundary or composition surface
Combination of the largest number of symme- separates the two crystals. It is called crystal twin-
try elements (9 planes of symmetry, 13 axis of ning (Fig. 2.18(B), (C), (D) and (E)).
2.3. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS 47
2. Crystalline water or adsorption water in the
form of H2O molecules.
Crystal water have certain points in the crys-
tal lattice (for example, gypsum CaSO4$2H2O).
By heating, a portion of such water is lost
(¼ process of dehydration), but the crystal lattice
is not destroyed and may again receive such wa-
ter (¼ hydration).
Adsorption water has not got strict location in
the crystal lattice. In some clay minerals can cause
plasticity or swelling which can make landslides.
In minerals with a layered grid, for example,
smectite, it is the interlayer water located between
the layers. In zeolite group of minerals, the water
is in holes and channel grids, and it is called zeolite
water. By heating those kind of minerals, they lose
water, but their lattice will not break apart, but
the unit cell is reduced. By receiving that water
again their unit cell is increased, for example,
montmorillonite will increase in size by 2.5 times
FIGURE 2.5 Crystal of calcite composed of planes that compared to the dry mineral.
form the rhombohedral shape.
Content of constitutional, crystal and adsorp-
tion water is expressed in chemical formula of
2.3. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL mineral, for example, kaolinite Al2Si2O5 (OH)4
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS or gypsum CaSO4$2H2O.
Minerals can also contain hygroscopic water
2.3.1. Chemical Properties of Minerals and mechanically incorporated into the water.
Minerals have a defined chemical composition Hygroscopic water is actually the humidity
which can be determined by various methods of that is located on the surface of minerals or
analytical chemistry and determine their chemical which fills cracks and gaps in it, so that it is
formula. The results of quantitative chemical anal- not related to the crystal lattice. It can be
ysis of minerals, usually expressed in two ways: removed by heating to 110 C.
Mechanically blended water is located in the
1. Ratio of chemical elements (for example, minerals in the form of inclusion, drops of water
quartz, 46.73% silicon and 53.27% oxygen). embedded in mineral during its growth in fluid
2. Ratio of oxides (for example, forsterite 57.11% environments (fluid inclusions).
MgO and 42.89% SiO2 or fayalite 70.57% FeO
and 29.43% and SiO2).
2.3.2. Physical Properties of Minerals
Minerals may include water as the following:
Classifying minerals can range from simple to
1. Constitutional water in form of hydroxide ions
very difficult. A mineral can be identified by
(OH) which are an integral part of the crystal
several physical properties such as:
lattice and have a steady position in the grid.
By the loss of water, crystal will fall apart and 1. category (oxide, sulfide, silicate, carbonate,
the water cannot get back into the grid. etc.);
48 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
FIGURE 2.6 Crystal lattice of polymorphic modifications in carbon minerals: (A) diamonds; (B) graphite.
2. crystal system (cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal, hardness still has the mineral that can rip
etc.); another, i.e. a softer mineral. The relative hard-
3. cohesion properties (hardness in Mohs scale ness of minerals is determined by using and
1e10, cleavage, tenacity, and fracture); comparing Mohs' scale of hardness, which in-
4. density/specific gravity; cludes 10 lined-up minerals from softest to the
5. macroscopic optical properties (color, hardest mineral (Table 2.1).
brightness, luster, and streak); and
6. microscopic optical properties (refractive
index, birefringencea, and pleochroism).
TABLE 2.1 Mohs’ Scale of Mineral Hardness
The minerals can be analyzed for chemical
composition and broadly grouped under oxide, Mineral Hardness
sulfide, silicate, etc.
Talc 1
Crystal system/family represents an identical
mathematical and geometrical three-dimensional Gypsum 2
space for a group of minerals. Calcite 3
Hardness of minerals can be seen in the
Fluorite 4
resistance of minerals to the encroachment of
a solid object in its surface and interior. Hard- Apatite 5
ness of minerals is dependent on the structure, Orthoclase feldspar 6
i.e. the distribution and density of packing of
Quartz 7
atoms, ions and ionic groups in the crystal lat-
tice, as it can be seen in structure of graphite Topaz 8
and diamond (Fig. 2.6). The mineralogy defines Corundum 9
and determines the hardness of minerals and
Diamond 10
applied as relative hardness. Higher relative
2.3. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS 49
For example, corundum (9) is twice as hard as 3. Dust of mineral is put inside the pycnometer and
topaz (8), but diamond (10) is almost four times check the temperature which must be þ4 C.
as hard as corundum. 4. Measure the weight of pycnometer with
Cleavage is the tendency of minerals to split mineral dust and water (v).
along crystallographic planes as a result of struc- 5. Calculate density (g) of mineral with formula:
tural locations of atoms and ions in the crystal,
Density ¼ (Weight in air)/(Weight in air
creating planes of relative weakness. Mineral
Weight in water)
graphite, for example, has an excellent cleavage
or
with basal pinacoid plane (0001) because its
structure consists of planes of carbon atoms ar- mðgrÞ
g¼
ranged in parallel with the basic pinacoid. p þ m vðgrÞ
Diamond which crystallizes cubic and has signif-
icantly denser packing of carbon atoms has no Color indicates the appearance of the mineral
cleavage (Fig. 2.6). Cleavage is an important in reflected light or transmitted light for translu-
property for determination of minerals even cent minerals.
when the minerals are found as irregular grains Color of petrogenic silicate minerals are usu-
(Fig. 2.12). ally derived from isomorphic mixed Fe ions.
Minerals with a large difference in cohesion in The minerals with a small proportion of isomor-
different directions have great cleavage (e.g. phic admixtures of iron are bright green, while
micas, calcite, gypsum, feldspar, pyroxenes, those with more isomorphic admixtures are
and amphiboles), and minerals with small differ- dark green and black color (Section 2.5.8.4.2).
ence in cohesion have poor or no cleavage (e.g. The color of minerals is decisive for colors of
quartz, apatite, and olivine). rocks. The proportion of mineral aggregate is
Mineral density is defined as mass of unit vol- accountable for different interrelated rock color.
ume, i.e. the mass of 1 cm3 expressed in grams The colorless or white petrogenic or leucocratic
(g/cm3) and at a certain temperature and pres- minerals give rise to white to light gray color
sure is constant for all the minerals of the same rocks (such as most granite). The dark green
mineral species. As a unit of measure is usually and black or melanocratic minerals give rise to
taken the density of water at þ4 C which is rocks of dark gray, dark green or black color
1 g/cm3 so for mineral is used relative density (e.g. gabbro and peridotite).
which indicate how much is mineral denser Idiochromatic minerals have constant character-
than water at þ4 C, for example, the relative istic color and that characteristic color does not
density of quartz is 2.65. The most common pet- change even with small amount of various addi-
rogenic minerals (minerals that are the main con- tives or impurities, as for instance the case of
stituents of rocks) have a density between 2.0 golden-yellow pyrite, green malachite or blue
and 4.5 g/cm3. The densities of minerals are azurite.
easily determined by pycnometer, small glass Allochromatic minerals, that occurs most
vials and a thermometer following the steps frequently, show colors of their impurities,
given below: such as quartz, which otherwise should be clear,
colorless and often translucent like glass. It can
1. The pycnometer is filled with water of þ4 C, be milky white, purple, yellow or black when it
seals and measures the weight of pycnometer contains impurities.
with water (p). Shine of minerals depends on the ability of
2. Measure the weight of mineral crushed to refraction, i.e. the size of refraction. Minerals
dust (m). that are characterized by excellent cleavage and
50 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
smooth cleavage planes (e.g. micas) and min- birefringence show only white, gray and black
erals that are characterized by high index of interference colors.
refraction (e.g. sphalerite, galena and diamond)
have high glossy shine.
Optical properties of minerals, perceived with 2.4. POLYMORPHISM AND
polarization microscope, are the most significant ISOMORPHISM
characteristics for identification of minerals, both
in mineralogy and petrology. This is specifically Although the crystal structure of each min-
significant if the rocks are composed mostly of eral is constant and characteristic, it is a com-
fine grains or microcrystalline mineral aggre- mon phenomenon that chemically the same
gates and the mineral ingredients are mixed substance is found in two or more crystalline
together. The identification of the mineral forms. It crystallizes in two or more crystal
composition is not easy with the naked eye or systems with small or very large differences
a magnifying glass, but can only be possible in crystallographic and physical properties.
through a microscope. This phenomenon is called polymorphism
Polarizing microscope is used to examine the (from the Greek. “Poly” ¼ “more” and
optical properties of minerals, determines the “morph” ¼ “form”).
type and quantity of certain mineral compo- The good examples of polymorphs are
nents in the rock as well as structural and ge- graphite and diamond (Fig. 2.6). The chemical
netic features of rocks in the linearly polarized composition of both the minerals consists of the
light that passes through the mineral or rock. same elemental carbon with the formula of
The optical properties of minerals are the result “C”. While diamond is the hardest mineral
of propagation and behavior of light as an elec- (Mohs hardness of 10), translucent, high glossy
tromagnetic wave in the mineral. The propaga- shine, density 3.52 g/cm3, an excellent electrical
tion of light in a mineral depends on the insulator, and known as the precious gem,
structure of minerals, i.e. about its internal graphite is very soft (Mohs hardness of 1), black
structure. Therefore, it is unique for every and completely opaque, density 2.1 g/cm3 and a
mineral. good conductor of electricity. Diamond crystal-
Isotropic minerals have the same properties in lizes in cubic form, usually in the form of an oc-
all directions. This means that light passes tahedron and graphite crystallizes in hexagonal
through the minerals in the same way, no matter structure. These differences are caused by a
in what direction the light is traveling. very different way of stacking carbon atoms in
Anisotropic minerals have different proper- the crystal lattice. The carbon atoms of diamond
ties, i.e. light travels through them in different have very dense and compact arrangement,
ways and with different velocities, depending while graphite atoms are not. The most common
on the direction of travel through a grain. examples of polymorphs in nature are given in
Anisotropic minerals cause polarized light to Table 2.2.
be split into two rays as it travels through a Isomorphism (from the Greek. “Izos” ¼ “same”
grain. The rays may not travel at the same ve- and “morph” ¼ “form”) is a phenomenon that
locity or follow exactly the same path. Birefrin- represents the minerals of different, but analo-
gence is a value that describes the difference in gous chemical composition in the same crystal
velocity of the two rays. When the rays emerge system and shapes. The minerals can blend in
from the grain, they combine to produce crystalline state, and form isomorphic com-
interference colors. The colors repeat as the pounds or mixed crystals. One of the basic condi-
birefringence increases. Minerals with low tions for this is that the cations are replaced in the
2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 51
TABLE 2.2 Examples of Polymorphic Minerals that are Most Often Seen as Essential Ingredients of Rock
crystal lattice, for example, Mg2þ can be example, olivine mixture of 80% forsterite and
substituted with Fe2þ, Ca2þ with Mg2þ. Simi- 20% fayalite (Table 2.12). The numerous exam-
larly, Si4þ can be replaced with Al3þ at simulta- ples of isomorphic mixtures, with olivine, are
neous installation of one cation (Kþ or Naþ). certainly most important isomorphic mixture
Two Si4þ ions can be replaced with two Al3þ of plagioclase.
ions with installation of Ca2þ to fulfill difference
in valence (Section 2.5.8.6.1.1).
There are many examples of mixed crystals,
especially among petrogenic silicate minerals. 2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN
A simple example of isomorphism and forma- ROCK FORMING MINERALS
tion of mixed crystals is olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4.
The olivine is essentially a mixture of isomor- Mineralogy today accounts for more than
phous minerals, forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and faya- 4000 different minerals, but only small numbers
lite (Fe2SiO4). It is evident from the formula of are essential ingredients in the composition of
olivine, forsterite and fayalite that Fe2þ and rocks. The scientific researches indicate that the
Mg2þ ions mix and form mixed crystal in which crust materials are representing by primarily
exact ratio of Fe2þ and Mg2þ cannot be deter- feldspars, quartz, pyroxenes, amphibole and
mined. Therefore, the chemical composition of olivine, as shown in Table 2.3.
such compounds cannot be accurately The classification of minerals is based on their
expressed by the formula or the stoichiometric chemical composition and structure. Certain
ratio, but ratio must always be 2 (Mg þ Fe):1- number of chemical elements in nature is found
Si:4O. The crystal formula of mixed crystals in elemental form. Those elements which are in
are written as cations and isomorphic replaced crystallized state constitute a special group of
elements are separated by commas and placed minerals or elements. The majority of minerals
in parentheses, for example, olivine (Mg,Fe)2- are in the form of chemical compounds: oxides,
SiO4. However, the contribution of different hydroxides, sulfides, sulfates, chlorides, fluo-
end-members that make up the crystal half- rides, carbonates, phosphates and silicates in
breed, we indicate their proportion, for particular (Table 2.4).
52 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
TABLE 2.3 Percents of Main Rock Forming Minerals Graphite (C) is a stable hexagonal polymorphic
modification of carbon with a layered lattice
Minerals %
(Fig. 2.6(B)). Graphite is a layered compound
Minerals from feldspars group 57.9 and in each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged
Pyroxenes, amphiboles and 16.4 in a hexagonal lattice. It is soft, black in color and
olivine leaves a black mark on fingers. It can be found in
pegmatites and granites, and particularly in the
Quartz 12.6
crystalline schists, and it is an essential ingredient
Fe oxides (magnetite and 3.7 of graphite schist (Table 6.1). It is an important
hematite)
raw material due to high electrical conductivity.
Mica 3.3 Diamond (C) is a stable cubic polymorphic
Calcite 5.0 modification of carbon in the form of octahedra
(Fig. 2.6(A)). The properties include hardness of
Clay minerals 1.0
10, relative density of 3.52, transparent, colorless,
All other minerals 3.6 with impurities can be white, gray, yellowish,
bluish and rarely black. The impure varieties of
diamond are used as abrasive due to the extreme
TABLE 2.4 The Most Important Group of Minerals by hardness and cutting material, making the
Their Chemistries crown for rock drilling. The clean and pure vari-
eties are treated as a high-value gemstone. The
Elements Graphite, diamond, gold and sulfur
diamonds crystallizes as the primary ingredient
Sulfides Pyrite, marcasite, and pyrrhotite in the olivine-rich ultramafic rock kimberlite,
Oxides and Quartz, opal, chalcedony, corundum, and it can be usually found in sandegravel river
hydroxides gibbsite, boehmite, diaspore, magnetite, deposits due to the exceptional resistance to
hematite, goethite, chromite, limenite, physical and chemical weathering.
rutile, pyrolusite, psilomelane, and spinel Gold (Au) is found as autochthonous cubic
Carbonates Aragonite, calcite, magnesite, siderite, mineral in hydrothermal ore veins or strings,
and dolomite and as resistant mineral in the debris. Color is
Halogenides Halite, silvite, and carnallite golden yellow, metallic shine, the relative den-
sity of 15.5e19.3.
Sulfates Gypsum, anhydrite, and barite
Sulfur (S) is often found in nature as autoch-
Phosphates Apatite and phosphorite thonous mineral that crystallizes in the ortho-
Silicates Nesosilicates rhombic system. The most common form of
Sorosilicates occurrences is aggregates of granular, fibrous or
Cyclosilicates kidney-shaped structure. Sulfur often forms
Inosilicates around volcanic craters and on the outbreaks of
Phyllosilicates
Tectosilicates
sulfur and water vapor around the volcanoes
and hot springs. It can also occur through organic
processes of bacteria that reduce sulfate. It is an
important raw material in chemical industry.
2.5.1. Autochthonous Elements
The minerals that can be found in crystallized
2.5.2. Sulfides
state as autochthonous elements are graphite,
diamond, gold and sulfur. They are the most Sulfides are compounds of transition metals
economic and important members. with sulfur. Sulfides are very frequent and
2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 53
widely distributed as ore and petrogenic min- TABLE 2.5 Overview of Main Rock Forming Minerals
erals with most significant are pyrite, marcasite from the Group of Oxides and Hydroxides
and pyrrhotite. Oxides Hydroxides
Pyrite (FeS2) is a widespread mineral in many
rocks (Figs 1.26 and 1.32) and belongs to the Silicon Quartz SiO2
Chalcedony ¼ fibrous
most widespread sulfide minerals in the litho-
quartz
sphere. Pyrite crystallizes in the cubic system,
and has a brass-yellow color. It is found as Aluminum Corundum Al2O3 Gibbsite g-Al(OH)3
Boehmite g-AlOOH
rock-forming mineral in regular cubic grains,
Diaspore a-AlOOH
clusters of fine-grained aggregates. Pyrite can
turn into limonite and hematite by processes of Iron Hematite Fe2O3 Goethite a-FeOOH
Magnetite FeO$Fe2O3 Limonite
oxidation (Section 5.2.1.2). It occurs from crystal-
lization of magma, from hydrothermal solutions, Iron and Chromite FeO$Cr2O3
sediments in reducing conditions and metamor- chrome
phic processes. Iron and Limenite FeO$TiO2
Marcasite (FeS2) is an orthorhombic modifica- titanium
tion of the substance FeS2 and is generally asso- Titanium Rutile TiO2
ciated with sedimentary rocks in the form of
Manganate Pyrolusite MnO2 Psilomelane
spherical aggregates. Marcasite crystallizes at
MnO$MnO2$nH2O
low temperatures from solutions containing
ferrous sulfate, and is never found as a primary Magnesium Spinel MgO$Al2O3
and
mineral in igneous rocks.
aluminum
Pyrrhotite (FeS) (Fig. 1.27) is usually found in
basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks in the form
of dense aggregates. Pyrrhotite is often mag-
netic, has metal shine, opaque, and brownish Ice (H2O) is the solid phase of water at a tem-
bronze in color. The mineral frequently contains perature of 0 C and crystallizes as a hexagonal
a small amount of nickel in basic and ultrabasic mineral with density of 0.9175 g/cm3, and floats
rocks. Pyrrhotite is an important component of on water. The snowflakes are formed by subli-
some nickel bearing meteorites. mation (from water vapor and not from water)
and crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal in the
form of six-sided stars.
2.5.3. Oxides and Hydroxides
Quartz (SiO2) (Figs 1.11 and 8.1) is the most
An oxide is a chemical compound containing common polymorphic modifications of silicon
at least one oxygen atom as well as at least one dioxide in rocks. The crystalline silicon dioxide
other element. The oxides result when elements occurs in several polymorphic alpha modifica-
are oxidized by oxygen in air. Hydroxides tions in rocks: tridymite and cristobalite, each
are compounds in which the anion OHe with another unstable beta-modification. The
groups contain OHe ion as the OOHe different crystallized SiO2 occurs in as many as
group. Some minerals from the group of 12 polymorphic modifications depending on
oxide and hydroxide minerals, particularly, temperature. Transformation of one modifica-
silica, iron and aluminum, are very important tion into another is an extremely slow process.
and widespread mineral components of rocks. Sometimes higher temperature and lower tem-
The most abundant among the group are listed perature polymorphic modification can be both
in Table 2.5. stable during a certain time. Quartz crystallizes
54 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
in the hexagonal system and is often found in na- laminae is known as onyx. Dense and opaque
ture in crystal form as shown in Fig. 1.11. Quartz types of chalcedony with admixtures of iron
is very common and abundantly present in the brownish red color are called Jasper and used
sediments of silicon rocks, acidic intrusive and for making jewelry.
vein rocks, as well as most metamorphic rocks Corundum (Al2O3) is a crystalline form of
(mylonite, quartzite, phyllite, mica, and green aluminum oxide and have traces of iron, tita-
schists, gneiss and granulite). nium and chromium. It is a rock-forming min-
Opal (SiO2$nH2O) is a mineraloid (amorphous eral, and clear transparent natural material. It
mineral) of irregular shapes and white in color. can have different colors in the presence of impu-
The color changes to yellow, gray, brown or rities. The transparent red color varieties are
red in the presence of impurities. A special known as ruby and are used as high-value
type of opal becomes precious, which is charac- gems. Corundum with all other colors is called
terized by awesome flows of bluish gray and sapphire. It can scratch almost every other min-
white colors. Opal is excreted from hot springs eral due to extreme hardness (pure corundum
and geysers. In sedimentary rocks, particularly has harness of 9 in Mohs hardness scale). It is
limestone, opal is formed by carbonate and commonly used as an abrasive, on everything
excreted from solutions containing silicon. Opal from sandpaper to large machines, machining
may occur as secondary mineral during the metals, plastics and wood. Corundum occurs
weathering process of primary silicate minerals, as a mineral in mica schist, gneiss, and some
basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks. The skeletons marbles in metamorphic terranes. It also occurs
of algae, diatoms, silicon sponges and radiolar- in low-silica igneous syenite and nepheline sye-
ians are consisting of opal, and with their depo- nite intrusives. Other occurrences are as masses
sition and diagenesis occurring siliceous adjacent to ultramafic intrusives, associated
sedimentary rocks. with lamprophyre dikes and as large crystals in
Chalcedony is a fibrous type of cryptocrystal- pegmatites.
line quartz, which forms very dense kidney- Gibbsite (Al(OH)3) is an aluminum hydroxide,
shape clusters. It is composed of thin parallelly sometimes known as hydrargillite and crystal-
and linearly arranged aggregates of fibrous crys- lizes in monoclinic system. It is rarely found in
tals that usually show X-ray structural features a pure state and often blended with boehmite,
of b-quartz. It has waxy and glossy appearance, kaolinite, hematite and limonite in bauxites and
and can be white, gray, pink, yellowish, dark laterites, i.e. sedimentary rocks that serve as the
brown to black color. The yellowish and red co- ore to obtain aluminum (Section 5.5.6).
lor chalcedony is considered as semiprecious Boehmite g-AlO(OH) or Böehmite is an
stones. Chalcedony is a frequent ingredient in aluminum oxide hydroxide mineral and alumo-
silicon sediment, i.e. chert (Table 5.7) and radio- gel is an amorphous gel Al(OH)3. It occurs
larite (Section 5.9.1). Chalcedony usually occurs with gibbsite as main mineral constituents of
by extraction from aqueous solutions containing bauxite and laterite (Section 5.5.6).
silicon acid and from opal in processes of recrys- Hematite (Fe2O3) (Fig. 1.25) and magnetite
tallization. It occurs in the form of irregular (FeO$Fe2O3) are very common, but usually mi-
masses, concretions, lenses and nodules in lime- nor constituents of many rocks. However,
stone as filling voids in the rock appears in the magmatic and hydrothermal processes may
basic volcanic or extrusive rocks. form large deposits of these minerals suitable
Agate is a variety of chalcedony with modified for iron ore mining.
thin lamina or layers of different colors (Fig. 2.1). Goethite (FeO(OH)) is the iron hydroxide,
Agate with the changes of black and white formed as amorphous clusters and known as
2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 55
limonite (brown iron ores formed due to wearing igneous rocks as secondary mineral (Section
of iron minerals). Limonite includes amorphous 4.3.1.1).
Fe-hydroxides with variable amounts of water. Pyrolusite (MnO2) is manganese oxide and
Limonite is often found in many rocks that crystallizes in tetragonal system. It is usually
give the brown, yellow or tan color. It usually de- located in strip and needle aggregates with
velops as a product of chemical weathering of dark gray to black in color. It is formed by hydro-
many minerals containing Fe2þ, or ferrous iron. thermal and sedimentary origin. The pyrolusite
In the oxidation process oxidizes in the trivalent is very widespread and the main ore of
iron Fe3þ, which is known as a process of limoni- manganese.
tization. Limonitization processes are well visible Psilomelane (MnO$MnO2$nH2O) is a colloidal
in yellow-brown color in freshly broken-off modification of manganese oxide with water. It
greenish-gray rocks along and around cracks. occurs as kidney-like clusters. It is often found
The brown, yellow or reddish-brown color of in the form of thin crusts, coatings, and dendrites
clays and many other rocks is derived from limo- in layer surfaces or crevices of different rocks,
nite. Finely dispersed limonite in the rock is a especially limestone. The mineral colors are
natural pigment that causes a yellow-brown co- iron-black or blue-black and the rocks which
lor of rocks. Dense clusters of limonite are contain psilomelane are dark gray or black. Psi-
known as limonite ocher and pigment. Limonite lomelane is originated from aqueous solutions
above the hematite and siderite deposits often enriched with manganese as a product of the
forms a crust of weathering and is known as surface weathering of various minerals contain-
the “iron hat”. Limonite and goethite are ing manganese.
important as a source of low-grade iron and Spinel (MgO$Al2O3) is a member of isomor-
nickel ore. phic mixtures of different Al3þ, Fe3þ and Cr3þ
Chromite (FeO$Cr2O4) (Fig. 1.23), is an iron spinel. The mineral is a typical product of contact
chromium oxide, and ilmenite (FeO$TiO2) is a metamorphism. It is formed from clay sediments
titaniumeiron oxide minerals. These minerals in contact with the magma, and is located in
are important ores of chromium and titanium, skarns and hornfels (Table 6.1).
and are often the ingredients of rock in minor
quantities. Chromite and ilmenite crystallize at
high temperatures of intrusive magma in the
2.5.4. Carbonates
initial stage of crystallization, and present as Carbonates are salts of carbonic acid, charac-
the regular ingredients of ultrabasic and ultra- terized by the presence of the carbonate ion,
mafic rocks (Section 4.3.1.4). CO23 . The minerals from the group of carbon-
Rutile (TiO2) crystallizes in tetragonal system ates form isomorphic series of CaeMgeFee
and is commonly found in the form of rod or MneZn trigonal carbonate and CaeSreBaePb
needle crystals. The color varies between dark rhombic carbonate (calcite and aragonite group).
red and black. It occurs usually in regional meta- The carbonates also include the dolomite group
morphism, and associates with crystalline schists (Table 2.6).
(gneiss, mica schists, phyllites and amphibolites, The most important petrogenic minerals from
Table 6.1). It is a common mineral in clastic sed- carbonate group are calcium, magnesium and
iments and sedimentary rocks (sand/sand- iron carbonates or aragonite, calcite and dolomite,
stones), with high resistance to weathering. less frequent siderite and very rare magnesite.
Rutile is often occurring in the river and offshore Aragonite (CaCO3) is a carbonate mineral, one
deposits along with the gold concentrate in sig- of the two common, naturally occurring crystal
nificant quantities. Rutile is common in acid forms of calcium carbonate (the other form is
56 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
TABLE 2.6 Minerals of Calcite and Aragonite Groups 5.5.4.2 and 5.5.5.1 and Section 6.5.2). The various
types of occurrences are the following:
Calcite Group Aragonite Group
Low-magnesium calcite is very common in
Calcite CaCO3 Aragonite CaCO3 biogenic origin. It builds skeletons of planktonic
Magnesite MgCO3 Strontianite SrCO3 organisms and regularly as a very stable mineral
Siderite FeCO3 Witherite BaCO3
in limestone preserves during all diagenetic
Rhodochrosite MnCO3 Cerussite PbCO3
Smithsonite ZnCO3 changes.
High-magnesium calcite, together with the
DOLOMITE GROUP metastable aragonite, is an essential ingredient
of the carbonate mineral deposits of shallow ma-
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
rine limestone. The transformation into calcite is
usually not found in limestone due to low stabil-
ity. High-magnesium calcite is most commonly
the mineral calcite.) It is formed by biological found in many recent carbonate skeletons, espe-
and physical processes, including precipitation cially coralline algae, calcareous sponges, bryo-
from marine and freshwater environments. It is zoans and serpulite, as in many cement and
essential, and with high-magnesium calcite, ooids (Section 5.7.1.1). It is often found in some
practically the only carbonate mineral compo- freshwater sediment and their cements, such as
nent of shallow marine limestone deposits of travertine limestone.
warm and tropical seas. Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) (Fig. 5.64) with calcite
Calcite (CaCO3) (Fig. 1.14) forms isomorphic is the most common mineral in carbonate rocks.
series with magnesite (Table 2.6) and can contain The mineral dolomite crystallizes in the trigo-
up to 28 mol% MgCO3 and there are also low- nalerhombohedral system. It develops white,
magnesium calcite (<4 mol% MgCO3) and gray to pink, commonly curved crystals, usually
high-magnesium calcite (4e28 mol% MgCO3). in the massive forms. It has physical properties
In the lattice of calcite, Ca2þ can be replaced similar to those of the mineral calcite. Small
with Fe2þ, Mn2þ and Zn2þ, thus resulting mag- amounts of iron in the structure give the crystals
nesium carbonate (MnCO3) and zinc carbonate a yellow to brown tint. Unlike calcite, Mg calcite,
(ZnCO3) (Table 2.6). Petrogenic significance aragonite and dolomite are not formed by
have only calcite and magnesium calcite and in biochemical processes or by direct precipitation
some limestone, especially in the form of cement from seawater, but they are generally secondary
or iron calcite (calcite, in which part of the Ca2þ mineral formed by process of dolomitization.
isomorphic is replaced by Fe2þ). Replacement of Ca2þ ions with Mg2þ ions with
Calcite crystallizes in the trigonal crystal sys- suppression of calcite and aragonite in the lime-
tem, excretes in the deeper and/or colder sea stone sludges or in the already-tough limestone
and freshwater. It often occurs with contact with dolomite (Section 5.7.2.1).
and regional metamorphism of limestone and Siderite (FeCO3) is relatively poorly repre-
shale. Large crystal grains are distinctly visible sented petrogenic minerals, but occasionally
from, the color and transparency like quartz. It can be accumulated in large quantities to consti-
is very significant and extensive petrogenic min- tute a reservoir of iron ore. The crystals belong to
eral or the main mineral component of lime- the hexagonal system, and are rhombohedral in
stone, marl and marble. It is also an important shape, typically with curved and striated faces.
ingredient, especially as cement, to virtually all The color ranges between yellow and dark
clastic sedimentary rocks (Sections 5.7.1.1, brown or black.
2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 57
Magnesite (MgCO3) usually occurs in the form 2.5.6. Sulfates
of dense or granular masses, such as porcelain
white. The mineral possesses hardness of four Sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The
and relative density of three. Smaller amounts minerals gypsum and anhydrite, and rarely ba-
of magnesia can occur by deposition from ryte, kieserite and polyhalite from the group of
seawater, and in larger quantities that have eco- sulfate have petrogenic importance and occur
nomic importance (magnesite ore deposits), as the main ingredients of evaporites sediments.
mainly caused by the effect of Gypsum (CaSO4$2H2O) (Fig. 1.17) crystallizes
in monoclinic system and is usually located in
1. hot Mg bicarbonate solution to limestone to dense aggregates of fine or coarse granulated
form calcite and dolomite in the first stage and transparent aggregates called alabaster. It is very
followed by magnesite; soft (hardness 2), white in color or monochrome,
2. hot solutions containing CO2 to ultramafic and from the admixture of organic matter and
igneous rocks rich in olivine from which the clay may be gray or brown gray. The mineral loses
serpentine group of minerals occur (Section 75% water at a temperature of 120e130 C and be-
2.5.8.5.6) and magnesite. comes so-called burnt gypsum. This feature is
Magnesite is the raw material for production widely applied in construction. Gypsum is a
of refractory matter and special types of cement much abundant mineral that can independently
(sorel cement). form a rock, because it is secreted in large masses
of seawater in evaporation conditions. It can also
be secreted from pore water in the desert. Gypsum
2.5.5. Halides is an essential ingredient of evaporite sediments
Halides are the salts of sodium fluoride and (Section 5.8.1). It occurs as secondary mineral in
hydrochloric acid. The minerals halite, sylvite many rocks by the oxidation of iron sulfide.
and carnallite from this group only contain chlo- Anhydrite (CaSO4) is an anhydrous calcium
ride and have petrogenic significance. sulfate. It is in the orthorhombic crystal system,
Halite (NaCl) is the mineral form of sodium with three directions of perfect cleavages parallel
chloride, and commonly known as rock salt. to the three planes of symmetry. Anhydrite crys-
Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is tallizes from seawater with its strong evapora-
typically colorless or white, but may also be light tion, and in large quantities is the evaporite
blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow sediment, usually in association with early dia-
or gray depending on the amount and type of genetical dolomites (Section 5.8.1).
impurities (Fig. 1.9). It is an essential mineral Baryte, or barite (BaSO4), crystallizes ortho-
component of evaporite sediments (deposits of rhombic system, commonly found in tabular crys-
rock salt, see Section 5.8.1). tals or granulated, fibrous and radial clusters of
Sylvite (KCl) unlike halite, has a bitter taste white or bluish-white color. It has a high relative
that makes these two minerals distinct. Sylvanite density (from 4.3 to 4.7) and excellent cleavage of
occurs with halite as essential mineral ingredient plane basal pinacoid (001). It can be found,
of evaporite sediments (salt deposits). almost always, together with sulfide ores formed
Carnallite (KMgCl3$6(H2O)) crystallizes ortho- in hydrothermal processes, and also forms in
rhombic, has no cleavage, and is colorless or crystallization from seawater in reductive terms.
white to pale reddish. Carnallite occurs together Baryte is widely used in paper-making, paint,
with halite and sylvite and is the essential min- insulation material for protection against radia-
eral ingredient evaporite sediments and salt tion and in addition to drilling mud to increase
deposits. their density.
58 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
FIGURE 2.8 Representation of free and in separate groups linked SiO4 tetrahedra in the structures of (A) nesosilicates, (B)
sorosilicates, and (C) cyclosilicates.
FIGURE 2.9 Crystal forms of garnet: (A) rhombic dodecahedron; (B) deltoid icosahedron.
2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 61
occurrences are by regional, contact and plutonic igneous and metamorphic rocks, and is a regular
metamorphism, and are essential ingredients of ingredient in clastic sediments.
a high-degree metamorphic schist (gneiss and Titanite (CaTiSiO5) crystallizes in monoclinic
mica schist), skarn, hornfels and eclogite (Table system. It is found as individual crystal. Cleav-
6.1). Garnets are resistant to weathering and age is clear at (110), hardness is 5.0e5.5, and rela-
regularly found as minor components in the tive density of 3.5. It often occurs as secondary or
clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks (sand- accessory mineral in neutral and acidic magma-
stones). Garnets are used as abrasive material. tites (alkali syenite and pegmatites, Table 4.1),
Kyanite, Andalusite and Sillimanite (Al2SiO5) some crystalline schists, and gneisses in partic-
are polymorphic modifications of aluminum sil- ular. It is usually located associated with the
icates with the same formula (Table 2.7). Kyanite bauxite.
crystallizes in triclinic system. Andalusite and
sillimanite crystallize in orthorhombic system. 2.5.8.2. Sorosilicatesd[Si2O7]6
Sillimanite has the structural features of inosili- Sorosilicates have isolated double tetrahedra
cates. The crystals are usually elongated. Kyanite groups with (Si2O7)6 or a ratio of 2:7. There
hardness is 4.5e5.0 parallel to one axis 6.5e7.0 are no significant petrogenic minerals among
perpendicular to that axis. The hardness of silli- sorosilicates, except epidote, zoisite and vesuvi-
manite and andalusite is 6e7. Kyanite is a min- anite (Fig. 2.8).
eral typical of regional metamorphosis under Epidote (Ca2Al2(Fe3þ;Al)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH))
high pressure. Andalusite is a typical mineral is a calcium aluminum-silicate mineral, in which
for contact metamorphism and sillimanite repre- part of the aluminum is substituted with triva-
sents regional and contact metamorphism at lent iron. If the iron is replaced by only 10%,
high temperatures. All three minerals occur in then the aluminum is white and is known as cli-
the metamorphic environment from clay sedi- nozoisite. If it is replaced by 10e40% aluminum,
ments. These are common and essential mineral it is called pistacite which has a typical green co-
components of hornfels (Table 6.1). lor with yellow and dark-gray shades. Epidote
Staurolite crystallizes in orthorhombic system crystallizes in the monoclinic system. The crys-
and occurs mainly as twinned and cruciform pat- tals are prismatic, the direction of elongation be-
terns in metamorphic rocks. It has complex chem- ing perpendicular to the single plane of
ical formula of (Fe,Mg,Zn)3e4Al18Si8O48H2e4. symmetry. It occurs in the presence of water va-
The hardness is 7.0e7.5 in Mohs scale. Staurolite por at low and high temperatures (100e450 C)
is formed by regional metamorphism of rocks in hydrothermal conditions, and can occur, in
such as mica schists, slates, and gneisses, and dynamic and contact metamorphism (Section
generally associated with other minerals like 6.2). Epidote is a constituent of igneous rocks
kyanite, garnet, and tourmaline. that have undergone hydrothermal changes
Zircon (ZrSiO4) regularly contains a small and metamorphic rocks from the schist group.
amount of hafnium, thorium, yttrium, iron or Zoisite (Ca2Al3 (OH) Si3O12) is a calcium
uranium, and generally weakly radioactive. aluminum-silicate without iron. It crystallizes
Zircon crystallizes in tetragonal crystal system. in orthorhombic system. The most common
It has hardness of 7e8, incomplete cleavage, occurrence is in the form of fine-grained aggre-
and relative density of 4.7. It is highly resistant gates of light to blue-gray color, usually associ-
to weathering. The natural color varies between ated with epidote and albite, in hydrothermal
colorless, yellow-golden, red, brown, blue, and metamorphism of basic plagioclase, in pegma-
green. It is a widespread mineral, but usually titic phase crystallization of magma, and
in very small quantities. It is a component of regional metamorphism of calcium-rich rocks.
62 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
FIGURE 2.10 Inosilicatesd(A) single chain pyroxenes; (B) double chain amphibole.
64 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
TABLE 2.9 The Most Important Petrogenic Minerals from Pyroxene Group
Wollastonite Ca3Si3O9
components (Table 2.9). These minerals are regularly have a very complex chemical
pyrogenic origin and regular mineral ingredients composition (Table 2.9). The most petrogenic
of basic and ultrabasic rocks (gabbro, norite, important minerals among the group are the
peridotite, and lercololite), and hypersthenes is following:
often found in trachyte and andesite (Table 4.1).
1. Diopside-hedenbergite series
Hypersthene may occur in metamorphic
2. Augite group
process of contact and regional metamorphism
3. Pyroxenes (aegirineeaugite and
as an ingredient of skarns and crystalline schist
jadeiteeaugite)
(especially biotite gneiss pyroxene granulite
4. Pigeonite
(Table 6.1)).
Pyroxenes from the group of diopsidee
2.5.8.4.1.2. CLINOPYROXENES Monoclinic hedenbergite have typical pyroxene short pillar
pyroxene or clinopyroxene are isomorphic crystals with an octagonal cross-sections perpen-
blends of several different end-members, and dicular to the c-axis (Figs 2.11 and 2.12). Their
FIGURE 2.11 Typical crystal forms of pyroxene. The diagnostic feature of any pyroxene is two sets of cleavages that
intersect at 89 or 91 . Pyroxene show mediocre cleavages that are hard to separate, unlike the feldspars or hornblende.
2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 65
FIGURE 2.12 Typical pyroxene cleavage. The pyroxene (hornblende) always forms oblique cleavages and intersect (A) at
87 in case of octagonal crystals, and (B) between 120 and 124 for hexagonal crystals.
color depends on the amount of iron, magne- Augite rich in iron is called black augite. It is
sium and aluminum. The color of diopside is particularly common in neutral and basic volca-
pale green and hedenbergite of dark green. nic rocks (diabase, basalts and andesites). Tita-
Diopside may arise from the crystallization of nium augite (augite rich in titanium, because it
magma and are common ingredients of neutral, is part of the Si replaced by Ti) exists in dolerite,
basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks (Table 4.1). olivine basalt and alkali gabbro.
Diopside occurs in contact and regional meta- Jadeite (NaAlSi2O6) has hardness between 6.5
morphism and is often found in marble, hornfels, and 7.0 depending on the composition. The min-
green schists and schists of high degree of meta- eral is dense, with a specific gravity of about 3.4.
morphism, especially in the mica schists. The common colors of Jadeite ranges from white
Diallage is yellowish brown, greenish mineral in through pale apple green to deep jade green-
the diopsideehedenbergite series containing blue-green, pink, lavender, and a multitude of
pieces of magnetite or ilmenite. Diallage is a regular other rare colors. Jadeite is formed in metamor-
component of basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks phic rocks under high pressure and relatively
from the group of gabbro and lercolite (Table 4.1). low temperature.
Augite groups have lattice analogous to diop- Aegirine (NaFeSi2O6) occurs as dark green
side, but with the difference that are part of the monoclinic prismatic crystals. It has a glassy
SiO4 tetrahedra Si4þ is replaced by Al3þ ions. luster and perfect cleavage. The Mohs hardness
These minerals have a complex chemical compo- varies from 5 to 6 and the specific gravity is be-
sition, and involve a very wide range of isomor- tween 3.2 and 3.4. It is located only in igneous
phic replacement of Ca, Na, Mg, Fe2þ, Fe3þ, Ti rocks rich in alkalis, mainly syenite and trachyte,
and Al. Most of the augite is dark green to black and some alkali granites (Table 4.1). Aegirinee
color. Augite is widely abundant rock-forming augite (isomorphous mixtures of aegirine and
minerals in igneous and metamorphic rocks augite components) is characterized by a clear
(Tables 4.1 and 6.1). They are the typical ingredi- green color. It is a typical magmatic mineral
ents of gabbro, basalt and dolerite. and, in association of leucite forms an important
66 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
component of igneous rocks rich in alkalis, espe- been in contact with the magma, especially
cially leucite syenite and clinkstone (Table 4.1). wollastonite marble, skarns and kornites (Table
Spodumene (LiAlSi2O6), is consisting of 6.1). It is the raw material for refractory materials.
lithiumealuminum inosilicate. It is a source of
lithium. It occurs as colorless to yellowish, pur- 2.5.8.4.2. DOUBLE-CHAIN INOSILICATEd
plish or lilac, yellowish-green or emerald-green AMPHIBOLE GROUP
hiddenite, prismatic crystals, often of great size. Amphibole is an important group of generally
It crystallizes in the pegmatite and the final dark-colored inosilicate minerals. It is composed
magma containing Li and is often secondary of double-chain SiO4 tetrahedra, linked at the
ingredient of pegmatite and alkali granite. vertices and generally containing ions of iron
Omphacite ((Ca, Na)(Mg,Fe2þ,Al)Si2O6) is a and/or magnesium in their structures. Amphi-
deep to pale green or nearly colorless variety of boles crystallize in monoclinic and orthorhombic
pyroxene. The compositions of omphacite are in- system (Fig. 2.13). In chemical composition, am-
termediate between calcium-rich augite and phiboles are similar to the pyroxenes. The differ-
sodium-rich jadeite. It crystallizes in the mono- ences from pyroxenes are that amphiboles
clinic system with prismatic, typically twinned contain essential hydroxyl (OH) or halogen (F,
forms. The hardness is between 5 and 6. It is a Cl) and the basic structure is a double chain of
major mineral component of eclogite, i.e. meta- tetrahedra. Amphiboles are the primary constit-
morphic rocks formed under conditions of high uent of amphibolites.
pressure and temperature (Table 6.1). It is a com- Amphiboles along with pyroxenes and feld-
mon ingredient in peridotites, in particular spars are the most abundant rock-forming min-
kimberlite (ultramafic igneous rocks formed at erals (Table 2.3).
high temperatures where there are diamondsd
Section 2.5.1 and Section 4.3.1.4). 2.5.8.4.2.1. ORTHORHOMBIC AMPHIBOLES
Wollastonite (Ca3Si3O9) is in chemical composi- Anthophyllites are isomorphic mixture of mag-
tion calcium silicate which in structure belongs to nesium anthophyllite (Mg7(OH)2Si8O22) and
inosilicates, and the chemistry is similar to cyclo- ferroanthophyllite (Fe7(OH)2Si8O22). Antho-
silicates. It is a typical contact-metamorphic min- phyllite is the product of metamorphism of
eral and therefore a regular ingredient of magnesium-rich rocks especially ultrabasic
changed clayey limestone rocks which have igneous rocks and impure dolomitic shales.
FIGURE 2.13 Typical prismatic crystals of amphiboles elongated direction of crystallographic axis c.
2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 67
2.5.8.4.2.2. MONOCLINIC AMPHIBOLES process of formation of actinolite in that way
Monoclinic amphiboles typically constitute com- is known by name uralite.
plex isomorphic compounds with a wide possi- 2. A low degree of regional metamorphosis
bility to replace a number of different ions, forming regular components of low degree of
resulting in a very complex chemical composi- metamorphic schist, especially green schist.
tion. Specifically, Ca2þ ion can be isomorphic 3. Contact metamorphism, and are found in
replacement with Naþ, Kþ and Fe2þ. Mg2þ ion calcite and dolomite marble (Table 6.1).
with Fe2þ, Al3þ and Ti4þ, and Si4þ ion with
Minerals actinoliteetremolite series are not
Al3þ. Table 2.10 lists the general formula for
stable, and can easily alter in the chlorites, trem-
some of the most important members of the
olite and talc on the Earth’s surface.
isomorphic series of monoclinic amphiboles
The group hornblende includes amphibole
(for groups tremolite, actinolite, hornblende
rich in trivalent iron and aluminum. A substan-
and alkali amphibole).
tial portion of Si4þ is replaced with Al3þ, which
The color of amphiboles depends on their
requires the entry of Naþ in the structure. Their
chemistry, particularly of iron. Tremolite,
chemical composition is very complex and can
Ca2(Mg)5(OH)2Si8O22, does not contain iron or
only show with general formulas of ferrohorn-
it has only a very small portion, usually white.
blende and magnesiohornblende. There are fer-
Actinolite, Ca2(Mg, Fe)5(OH)2Si8O22, in which
rohornblende (common hornblende) and
part of the magnesium is replaced with iron
magnesium (basaltic) hornblende with specific
and the color is green. Basaltic hornblende,
reference to composition of divalent and triva-
Ca2Na(Mg,Fe)4(Al,Fe)(OH)2(Si,Al)8O22, which
lent iron and magnesium. Hornblendes, unlike
contains many isomorphic mixed trivalent iron
most other amphiboles, are well-formed crystals
and aluminum is black in color.
with well-developed prism surfaces of the third
Tremolite and actinolite are calcium amphi-
and second positions (110, 101). In nature, there
boles forming a series of isomorphic mixed crys-
are only hornblendes in which the ratio of
tals. The minerals are in the form of long
Mg:Fe is always greater than 4:6.
prismatic, radial needle and fibrous aggregates
Ferrohornblende (common hornblende) is
and known as actinolite asbestos. It occurs at
richer in ferrous iron, which is isomorphic
relatively low temperatures in different ways:
replacement with Mg. Magnesiohornblende
1. Hydrothermal alteration of pyroxenes under does not contain Fe2þ, but Fe3þ which is isomor-
the influence of steam and hot solution. This phic is replaced with Al3þ (Table 2.10).
KaolineSerpentine Group
Kaolinite Lizardite
Al2(OH)4Si2O5 Mg3(OH)4Si2O5
Dickite Chrysotile
Al2(OH)4Si2O5 Mg3(OH)4Si2O5
Nacrite Antigorite
Al2(OH)4Si2O5 (Mg,Fe)3(OH)4Si2O5
TalcePyrophyllite Group Vermiculite Group Belongs to Clay Minerals
Talc (Mg,Al,Fe2þ)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2$4H20
Mg3(OH)2Si4O10
Pyrophyllite
Al2(OH)2Si4O10
Chlorite Group Smectite Group Belongs to Clay Minerals
Includes hydrosilicates which make mixed crystals Includes dioctaedric aluminum mica series
of complex chemical composition whose general montmorilloniteebeidellite and iron mica nontronite
formula is:
M4e6 T4 O10(OH,O)8 Montmorilloniteebeidellite
Na0.5Al2(Si3.5,Al0.5)O10(OH)2$nH2O
MICA GROUP
Muscovite Celadonite
KAl2(OH)2AlSi3O10 KFE3þ(Mg,Fe2þ)(OH)2Si4O10
Celadonite Paragonite
KFe3þ(Mg,Fe2þ)(OH)2Si4O10 NaAl2(OH)2AlSi3O10
BIOTITE PHOLOPITE GROUP
Biotite Phologopite
K(Mg,Fe)3(OH)2AlSi3O10 KMg3(OH)2AlSi3O10
Illite Glauconite is the name of series with mixed layer rich in iron
K0.65Al2(OH)2Al0.65Si3.35O10 mica
minerals such as serpentine, pyroxene, amphi- and compact dense masses, and occasionally a
bole, olivine, in the presence of carbon dioxide fan aggregates of greenish, yellowish or light
and water. The main uses of talc are in the manu- bluish color. It is a frequent mineral ingredient
facture of powder, the production of soap and of crystalline schists that are rich in aluminum
paper, and as a refractory material. and some of bauxite. It occurs in regional meta-
Pyrophyllite (Al2(OH)2Si4O10) crystallizes in morphism, and by the action of acidic hydrother-
monoclinic system and occurs as crystalline folia mal solutions on the rocks rich in aluminum.
70 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
construction-technological standpoint, smectite and can have pale green color depending on
minerals have unfavorable characteristics by the content of iron. Certain types of chlorite,
increasing the volume of the rock mass causing and their chemistry, can safely be determined
collapse, cracking or even complete collapse of only using X-ray diffraction combined with
construction. chemical analysis. Chlorites are formed by
Montmorillonite (per site montmorillonite) is regional metamorphic processes at lower tem-
the main representative of montmorillonitee peratures, and are regular components of low-
beidellite group with variable Mg content, and grade metamorphic schist, particularly chlorite
beidellite (per site Beidell in Colorado), member and green schist (Table 6.1). Chlorites are regular
of the series with little or no Mg. Clay minerals secondary ingredients of igneous rocks, resulting
montmorilloniteebeidellite groups are impor- from hydrothermal modifications at tempera-
tant mineral constituents of soils, especially in tures ranging between 50 and 400 C from pri-
tropical areas. It is created by the surface weath- mary FeeMg minerals, mainly mica, pyroxene,
ering of rocks, particularly acid tuffs, with the amphibole, garnet and olivine. These minerals
presence of solutions containing Na, Ca, Mg are common in sedimentary rocks, but usually
and ferrous iron. in small amount. It can quickly turn into vermic-
The acidic volcanic glass is altered to smectite ulite, smectite mixed layered minerals with
phyllosilicates, mainly montmorillonitee disordered layers of chloriteevermiculite and
beidellite series under the conditions of low chloriteesmectite by process of weathering.
pH, which is characteristic of fresh and seawater.
The alteration may be associated with an opal, 2.5.8.5.6. KAOLINeSERPENTINE GROUP
cristobalite and zeolite. Bentonite clay is the A group of kaolineserpentine phyllosilicates
product of weathering of acid vitreous volcanic includes two subgroups: group of dioctahedral
tuffs and ash most often in the presence of water kaolin minerals and group trioctahedral serpen-
(Section 5.6.3). tine minerals (Table 2.11).
Nontronite or Fe smectite is an authigenic Kaolin group implies real clay group of min-
ingredient of clay and mud, usually above the erals. These are pure aluminum silicate with hy-
basalt on the seafloor, and also can be created by droxyl groups that includes kaolinite, dickite
hydrothermal processes of weathering basalt and nacrite. All these three minerals have the
and ultramafic rocks (Sections 4.3.1.3 and 4.3.1.4). same chemical composition of {Al2(OH)4Si2O5},
and are mostly located in very small particles
2.5.8.5.5. CHLORITE GROUP (<2 mm), and rarely visible as macroscopical crys-
Chlorite group includes hydrated magnesium tals. Kaolinite has the only petrogenic signifi-
and iron hydrosilicates which make mixed crys- cance and is the most abundant mineral in this
tals of complex chemistry, whose general for- group. Dickite is much less prevalent, and nacrite
mula is given in Table 2.11. Chlorite group is very rare. Kaolinite crystallizes in triclinic, and
mostly contains Mg2þ, Al3þ, Fe2þ, Fe3þ, and dickite and nacritein monoclinic system.
some more chlorites Mn2þ, Cr3þ, Ni2þ, V3þ, Kaolinite forms small sheet like crystals or
Zn2þ and Liþ. Part of Al3þ can be replaced by clusters of white earth (clay particles with a
Fe3þ and/or Cr3þ, and part of Mg2þ and Fe2þ diameter <2 mm). Plate kaolinite minerals are
with Mn2þ and Ni2þ. Part of Si4þ sometimes visible only by electron microscopy. It becomes
can be replaced by Fe3þ, B3þ or Be2þ. Magnesium plastic in contact with water. It is produced by
chlorites are known under the name of ortho- the chemical weathering of aluminum silicate
chlorites and iron chlorite as leptochlorites. minerals like feldspar in igneous and metamor-
Chlorite is commonly found in small sheets, phic rock under the influence of CO2. Kaolinite
2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 73
is an important mineral constituent of many Serpentine forms as a large rock mass mainly
clastic sediments, especially, clay, sand and pel- by pneumatolytic-hydrothermal and hydrother-
ite sediments, marl and clay (Sections 5.5.3 and mal processes of silicate minerals that contain
5.5.4). The complete pure white kaolinite clay is aluminum, especially, olivine and orthopyrox-
known as kaolin and is highly valued mineral re- enes. Special type of such rocks that contain
sources for getting porcelain (Fig. 2.16). Kaolin only serpentine is called serpentinite. Its origin
minerals are important raw material for produc- belongs to the metamorphic rocks formed in hy-
tion of refractory materials, cement, paints, rub- drothermal metamorphism.
ber, plastics, as a filler in paper production and Antigorite forms by metamorphism of amphi-
less pure clay for making pottery and bricks. boles, and are often found as constituents of
The serpentine groups, Mg3 (OH)4 Si2O5, are amphibolite and amphibolite schist.
usually known under the common name of three Serpentinite rocks are used for making orna-
serpentine minerals: lizardite, chrysotile and ments and as a valued dimension stone (espe-
antigorite (Table 2.11). The minerals are typically cially churches) due to the beautiful green
found in microcrystalline sheet and fibrous ag- color, relatively low hardness and homogeneity.
gregates. Sheet aggregates are called antigorite, The other economic importance of serpentine is
and fibrous type as chrysotile. The characteristic for obtaining asbestos that serves as thermal
color of antigorite ranges between pale, gray or insulation and electromaterial resistant to wear.
gray-green, but it changes to dark green to However, its use is reduced to a minimum today
almost black, if part of magnesium isomorphic due to the carcinogenic action.
is replaced with iron.
Lizardite is the most abundant and most 2.5.8.6. Tectosilicates
important petrogenic serpentine mineral, color Tectosilicates ([AlxSiyO2(xþy)]x) structure is
of green as apples, and commonly found in asso- composed of interconnected tetrahedrons going
ciation with chrysotile. outward in all directions forming an intricate
framework (Fig. 2.17). All the oxygens are shared
with other tetrahedrons in this subclass. In the tetrahedron is nearly the same with an
near-pure state of only silicon and oxygen, the aluminum at its center, the charge is now a nega-
prime mineral is quartz (SiO2). Aluminum ion tive five (5) instead of the normal negative four
can easily substitute for the silicon ion in the tet- (4). Since the charge in a crystal must be
rahedrons. In other subclasses, this occurs to a balanced, additional cations are needed in the
limited extent but in the tectosilicates it is a major structure and this is the main reason for the great
basis of the varying structures. While the variations within this subclass (Table 2.12).
TABLE 2.12 The Most Important Petrogenic Minerals from the Group Tectosilicates
FELDSPAR GROUP
ALKALINE FELDSPARS
BASE OR CAePLAGIOCLASE
Labrador Bytownite
50e70% an component 70e90% an component
Anorthite CaAl2Si2O8
90e100% an component
FELDSPATHOIDES GROUP
Nepheline KNa3Al4Si4O16 Leucite KAlSi2O6
ZEOLITE GROUP
Fibrous zeolite Cubic zeolites
Natrolite Na2Al2Si3O10$2H2O Analcime NaAlSi2O6$2H2O
Phillipsite contains isomorphic admixtures K, Na, Ca, and 6H2O
SLIP ZEOLITES
Laumonitite CaAl2Si4O12$4.5H2O Heulandite contains isomorphic admixtures K, Ba, Na, Sr, Ca and
12H2O
Clinoptilolite contains isomorphic admixtures K, Ba,
Na, Sr, Ca, Mg, Fe2þ and 12H2O
2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 75
2.5.8.6.1. FELDSPAR GROUP (orthoclase and sanidine) and triclinic feldspars
Feldspar group is petrogenic most important (microcline and anorthoclase). At high tempera-
assemblage of silicate minerals, as it covers tures, it is possible to form mixed crystals of
almost 58% of the Earth’s crust (Table 2.3). The isomorphic replacement of Or-component and
proportion of feldspar is extremely high in Ab-component. Slow cooling at lower tempera-
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. tures leads to separation and mutual inter-
The chemical compositions of feldspar group growths characteristic modes of these two
represent the aluminosilicates of potassium components. Kefeldspar albite intergrowths
(Or-component), sodium (Ab-component) and known as pertite and albite intergrowths
calcium (An-component). It often forms isomor- Kefeldspar as antipertite. The hardness is from
phic mixture of sodium and calcium compo- 6 to 6.5 and the relative density of 2.55e2.63.
nents, i.e. plagioclase (Table 2.12). Potassium The color is usually white, and sometimes
and sodium component form isomorphic changes from pale pink to reddish due to admix-
mixture only in igneous rocks that crystallize at tures of iron (especially microcline). In micro-
high temperatures and the product is known as cline, K can be in small quantities of
alkali feldspar. This compound is unstable at low isomorphic replacement with Pb2þ and changes
temperatures and divides on orthoclase and to green color and is known as amazonite.
sanidine (Sa). There is only a small part of the Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) is the monoclinic
K replacement by Na in orthoclase. The share medium-temperature Kefeldspar. It occurs in
of NaAlSi3O8 component usually is about 30% different ways, usually, by crystallization of
and can reach up to 65% in sanidine at high magma. It is an important ingredient of all acidic
temperature. The isomorphic compounds of (granite, granodiorite) to neutral (syenite)
Naefeldspar (Ab) and KeNa feldspar sanidine igneous rocks (Table 4.1). It often occurs in the
(Sa), is known as anorthoclase. pegmatite-stage crystallization of magma and
The crystallographic characteristics of feld- is the essential ingredient of pegmatite. It can
spar are divided into monoclinic and triclinic also occur by hydrothermal process and contains
system. little natrium components and is known as adu-
Monoclinic feldspars that crystallize in the lar. Orthoclase feldspar may arise from regional
monoclinic system (orthoclase and sanidine) metamorphic processes, and is a common ingre-
have a cleavage on plane side (010) and base dient in various crystalline schists (Table 6.1).
(001) pinacoid and cleavage cracks intersect at Orthoclase changes to kaolinite (Section 5.2.1.2)
right angles and are called orthoclase feldspar and sericite with the process of kaolinization
(from the Greek. “Ortho” means “vertically and sericitization, respectively.
and klasis” cleavage). Sanidine ((K,Na)AlSi3O8) is the monoclinic
Triclinic feldspars that crystallize in the high-temperature alkaline KeNa feldspar,
triclinic system (microcline, anorthoclase and which usually contains about 30%, but some-
plagioclase) also have a lateral cleavage planes times up to 62% sodium (Ab) component. It
(010) and base (001) pinacoid but their cleavage is found only in young volcanic discharges or
cracks intersect at a sharp angle of 85e86 (volcanic) rocks (rhyolite, trachyte and dacite).
(Fig. 2.18). Therefore, the Na/Ca isomorphic se- It forms by the crystallization of lava at high
ries albiteeanortite named plagioclase (from Gk. temperatures and its rapid cooling. Sanidine
Plagiosdslope and klasisdcleavage). crystallizes orthoclase during slow cooling of
lava. Sanidine, as a high-temperature alkali
2.5.8.6.1.1. ALKALI FELDSPARS The alkali feldspar, is not stable in rocks on the surface
feldspars include monoclinic feldspars or shallow under the surface of the Earth,
76 2. BASIC MINERALOGY
FIGURE 2.18 Characteristic crystal forms of feldspar: (A) cross-section through the crystal of triclinic feldspars; (B) ortho-
clase crystal twinningdCarlsbad law; (C) plagioclase crystal twinningdCarlsbad law; (D) plagioclase crystal twinningdAlbite
law; (E) orthoclase crystal twinningdBraveno law; and (F) cross-section of triclinic feldspars with polysynthetic twins.
and gradually recrystallize in orthoclase over recrystallization from feldspar, and sometimes
time. by direct crystallization from magma and hydro-
Microcline (KAlSi3O8) is the triclinic low- thermal processes. Microcline typically displays
temperature Kefeldspar stable at temperatures albite and pericline twining. This combination
lower than 500 C. It is usually formed by leads to a grid pattern (Fig. 2.19).
2.5. OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN ROCK FORMING MINERALS 77
of SiO2, Naeplagioclase with three Si4þ ions have
more silicon than Caeplagioclase with two Si4þ
ions. Naeplagioclases belong to acid plagioclase
and Caeplagioclases belong to basic plagioclase
(Table 2.12). In fact, pure albite contains 68.7%
SiO2, and a pure anortite only 43.2% SiO2.
Plagioclase is usually found in the form of
granular aggregates in kaolinite, while well-
formed crystals are rare. Special features of
plagioclase crystallization occur from the
magma and lava. It has a tendency to format pol-
ysynthetic twinning (Fig. 2.18(F)) and zonal
FIGURE 2.19 Photograph of thin section microcline
showing the grid structure of twining under cross-polarized structure due to the crystallization sequence
light. from more basic to the acidic crystals twinning.
Plagioclase zone formation, especially those in
Microcline is an essential component of many the volcanic rocks is reflected in the fact that
rocks, especially granite, syenite, pegmatite (Ta- from the center to the edge of the crystals formed
ble 4.1) and gneisses (Table 6.1). In granite, sye- plagioclase are of acid composition, i.e. with less
nite and pegmatites, i.e. acidic, neutral and core An-component. It can be clearly observed as a
igneous rocks, microcline is commonly found zonal darkening of the grain due to changes in
together with feldspar. If the rocks are geologi- the optical properties of this phenomenon.
cally very old, microcline cannot be found with Plagioclase occurs at high and low tempera-
feldspar because eventually orthoclase is recrys- tures, where high temperature creates disordered
tallized in microcline. Microcline is a regular and and low-temperature forms ordered crystal
essential ingredient of sandstone, especially feld- lattice. Plagioclase forms at high temperatures
spar arenaceous rocks and feldspar graywacke are significantly less stable than plagioclase
(Sections 5.5.3.2 and 5.5.3.3). forms at lower temperatures. Plagioclase,
Anorthoclase ((Na,K)AlSi3O8) is a crystalline particularly high-temperature type, is relatively
solid solution in the alkali feldspar series, in which
the sodiumealuminum silicate member exists in
larger proportion. It typically consists of 10e36%
of KAlSi3O8 and 64e90% of NaAlSi3O8. TABLE 2.13 Plagioclase Minerals and Their
Compositions
easily influenced by water and weathering. It Leucite (KAlSi2O6) crystallizes in cubic system,
generates kaolinite and sericite, and under certain and usually has well-developed free, colorless,
conditions metamorphosed in clusters of zoisite, white or pale-gray crystals in the form of cubic
epidote, albite, quartz and actinolite known as icositetrahedra. It is a high-temperature mineral
sosirite. High-temperature basic plagioclases of which crystallizes in alkalis lava rich and poor
volcanics (basalts and diabase) are replaced in hy- in silicon. It is never found together with quartz.
drothermal processes with low-temperature acid It is often associated with nepheline and alkali
plagioclasedalbite (albitization). Such rocks are feldspar, alkali pyroxene and analcime. It can
known as spilites (Table 4.1). be found in young volcanic rocks rich in K and
Plagioclase minerals are extremely wide- poor in SiO2, and in intrusive rocks only located
spread and abundant. It is an essential or impor- in alkali syenite. It is a regular ingredient of
tant constituent of many igneous, metamorphic younger alkaline effusive rocks, for example, in
and sedimentary rocks (acidic, neutral and basic, lava of Vezuves, clinkstones, trachyte and tuff
pegmatite igneous rocks, amphibolite schist and (Table 4.1). It is an unstable mineral that quickly
gneiss, feldspar sandstone, siltstone and shale destroys into the clay minerals on Earth’s
(Tables 4.1 and 6.1)). surface.
3
Basic Petrology
O U T L I N E
3.1. INTRODUCTION
Petrology (from Greek: “Petra”d“rock” and
“logos”d“knowledge”) is the study of rocks,
their occurrences, composition, origin and evolu-
tion. This research also focuses on the study of
minerals and meteorites (Fig. 3.1) as model to
unravel the interiors of planetary bodies. Petrog-
raphy deals with the detailed description and
classification of rocks, whereas petrology focuses
primarily on the rock formation, or petrogenesis.
A petrological description includes definition of FIGURE 3.1 Iron meteorite of 179 kg by weight: fragment
of a huge massive object that crashed into the Arizona desert
the unit in which the rock occurs, its attitude about 50,000 years ago and created the Barringer lunar
and structure, its mineralogy and chemical meteor impact circular crater of 1280 m diameter.
composition, and conclusions regarding its Photo source and courtesy: Griffith Observatory, Los Angeles, CA.
origin. The task of petrologists is to carry out Petrology is essentially a fundamental part of
research and study rocks, independent of geology. Rocks, as mineral aggregates, are
geological bodies, which are integral parts of composed of certain minerals, so petrology is
the lithosphere and are clearly different from closely associated with the mineralogy.
their surroundings. Determination of mineral constituents and
chemical composition of rocks is necessary to
know and distinguish minerals, and also for
Meteorite, small to extremely large size, is a resolving the origin of rocks. It is also necessary
natural object originating in the outer space that to have a good knowledge of the origin of min-
falls on Earth creating great surface impact. Most erals (mineral genesis). The researchers in this
meteorites are derived from small celestial bodies area conduct field- and laboratory-based experi-
as well as produced by impacts of asteroids from mental modeling supported by advanced
the solar system. Meteorites are composed of sil- computational tools to read the records and un-
icate minerals and/or metallic ironenickel. The derstand the potential of high-temperature and
structure of Igneous Complex at Sudbury Mining high-pressure processes.
District, Canada is formed as the result of a Petrology is closely associated with chemis-
meteorite (1850 Ma age) impact that produced a try, especially mineral chemistry and geochem-
150e280 km multiring crater, containing 2e5-km- istry, for the purposes of studying the complex
thick sheet of andesite melt. The immiscible sul- chemical reactions and processes that lead to
fide liquid differentiated into NiePlatinum Group crystallization, or conversion of minerals and
of Element dominated contact deposits by crys- rocks, as well as studying the share of chemical
tallization. There are 100þ deposits/mines having elements in minerals, rocks, lithosphere, hydro-
a total resource, including past production, of sphere and atmosphere.
1648 million tonnes at 1% Ni, 1% Cu, and 1 g/t Petrology experiments and draws conclusive
Pd þ Pt. records about evolution and constitution of the
Earth beneath its rocky crust. It is primarily
based on volcanic eruptions, shape and composi-
The primary and most significant processes to
tion of igneous bodies that have reached Earth’s
be focused are the following:
surface by tectonic processes and erosion. The
1. Tectonic movements of rock masses. fundamental research of meteorites in solar sys-
2. Volcanic eruptions and injection of magma tem provides additional support to these studies.
into the lithosphere. The geophysical responses of contrast in seismic
3. Physical, chemical and biological weathering velocity propagating through certain parts of the
and deposition in the surface areas of rocky crust and underneath have also been
rocky crust and in the hydrosphere and acclaimed significant importance. It has been un-
atmosphere. derstood that the Earth has different laminate
4. Mutual chemical reactions and biological structures distinguished by either chemical or
processes in aqueous solutions. their rheological properties. This is based on
5. Metamorphic changes due to increasing remarkable geophysical response of primary
pressure and temperature at greater depths of seismic wave, particularly establishing the exis-
covering. tence of two major and a number of less pro-
6. Melting, migration, recrystallization, nounced discontinuity obtained. The two major
degassing and similar events on rocks. planes of discontinuity are established between
3.2. STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 83
FIGURE 3.2 (A) Schematic diagram of the Earth’s structure representing a three-dimensional perspective and (B) a
sectional view portraying from central core to outer surface.
2. The core is approximately 7000 km in increasing temperature and pressure. The litho-
diameter (3500 km in radius) and is located at sphere is also the favorable zone of earthquakes,
the Earth’s center. mountain building, volcanoes, and continental
3. The mantle surrounds the core and has a drift.
thickness of 2900 km. The topmost part of the lithosphere consists of
4. The crust floats on top of the mantle. It is crust. This material is cool, rigid, and brittle. Two
composed of basalt-rich oceanic crust and types of crust can be identified: oceanic crust and
granitic-rich continental crust. continental crust (Fig. 3.2). Both these types of
crust are less dense than the rock found in the
The core is a layer rich in iron and nickel that is underlying upper layer of the mantle. Ocean
composed of two layers: the inner and the outer crust is thin and the thickness varies between 4
cores. The inner core is theorized to be solid with and 12 km. It is also composed of basalt and
a density of about 10.3 g/cm3 in comparison to has a density of about 3 g/cm3.
Earth’s average density of 5.52 g/cm3 and a The thickness of the continental crust varies
radius of about 1220 km. The outer core is liquid between 40 and 70 km and composed mainly
and has a density of about 6 g/cm3. It surrounds of lighter granites, pegmatites and gneisses
the inner core and has an average thickness of (Fig. 3.2). The density of continental crust is
about 2250 km. about 2.8 g/cm3. Both these crust types are
The mantle is almost 2900 km thick and com- composed of numerous tectonic plates that float
prises about 83% of the Earth’s volume. It is on top of the mantle. These plates move slowly
composed of several different layers. The upper across the asthenosphere caused by the convec-
mantle exists from the base of the crust down- tion currents within the mantle.
ward to a depth of about 400 km. This region The continental and oceanic crusts have one
of the Earth’s interior is thought to be composed common property. These tectonic plates have
of peridotite, an ultramafic rock made up of the the ability to rise and sink. This phenomenon,
minerals olivine and pyroxene. known as isostasy, occurs because the crust floats
The middle layer of the mantle, 400e1000 km on top of the mantle-like ice cubes in water.
below surface, is called the asthenosphere. Scienti- These tectonic plates deform and sink deeper
fic studies suggest that this layer has physical into the mantle as and when the Earth’s crust
properties that are different from the rest of the gains weight due to mountain building or glaci-
upper mantle. The rocks in this upper portion ations. The crust becomes more buoyant and
of the mantle are more rigid and brittle because floats higher in the mantle if the weight is
of cooler temperatures and lower pressures. removed.
The lower mantle stands below the upper mantle The Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho) is the line
and extends from 1000 to 2900 km below the between the Earth’s crust and the mantle. It sepa-
Earth’s surface. This layer is hot and plastic. rates oceanic crust and continental crust from the
The higher pressure in this layer causes the for- mantle. The Mohorovicic discontinuity named af-
mation of minerals that are different from those ter Andrija Mohorovicic, a Croatian geophysicist,
of the upper mantle. who has established it. The Mohorovicic disconti-
The lithosphere is a layer that includes the crust nuity is 5e10 km (3e6 miles) below the ocean
and the upper portion of the mantle (Fig. 3.2). floor and 20e90 km (10e60 miles) beneath the
This layer is about 400 km thick and has the abil- continents.
ity to glide over the rest of the upper mantle. The The Gutenberg discontinuity, named after
deeper portions of the lithosphere are capable of German scientist Bruno Gutenberg, is located
plastic flow over geologic time because of at 2900 km depth beneath the Earth’s surface.
3.3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 85
The boundary is observed by the applications of
seismic waves. This discontinuity is due to the
differences between the acoustic impedances of
the solid mantle and the molten outer core.
FAN
VS
S
VS
MIS MS S
S
MIS
FIGURE 3.4 Conceptual diagram depicting the mode of formation and three fundamental genetic types of rocks that make
up the Earth’s crust: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic.
as a planet of this system. The most famous and passed, the cloud shrank under the pull of its
accepted among them are the following: own gravitation or was made to collapse by the
explosion of a passing star. Most of the cloud’s
3.4.1.1. The Protoplanet Hypothesis material gathered around its own center. Its
The protoplanet hypothesis suggests that a shrinking made it rotate faster, like a spinning
great cloud of gas and dust of at least 10,000 whirlpool. The compression of its material
million kilometers in diameter rotated slowly in made its interior so hot that a powerful reaction,
space about 5,000 million years ago. As time hydrogen fusion, began and the core of the cloud
blazed into a newborn Sun. About 10% of the protoplanetary disk is a rotating circumstellar
material in the cloud formed a great plate-like disk of dense gas surrounding a young newly
disk surrounding the Sun far into space. Friction formed star, i.e. a TTS. If the disk is massive
within the disk caused most of its mass to collect enough, the runaway accretions begin resulting
in a number of huge whirlpools or eddies. These in the rapidd100,000e300,000 yearsdformation
eddies shrank into more compact masses called of Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos. The
protoplanets and later formed planets and planetary embryos undergo through a stage of
moons. Some uncollected material remains violent mergers, producing a few terrestrial
even today as comets, meteoroids, and planets near the star. The last stage takes around
asteroids’. 100 millione1,000 million years.
growth of the oceanic crust represent in the underscores (subduction) under a continent
form of effusive volcanic rocks. In this way, or island arc (Fig. 3.8). Subduction zone is
for example, Middle-Atlantic ridge at the slope surface tilted in the direction of
bottom of the Atlantic Ocean was originated. subduction, along which the main focus of
In the lithosphere, this growth of oceanic earthquake takes place and along which
crust, however, compensates with convergent remelting of rocks occur.
plate movement (subduction) or underscores
one plate under another, which leads to Plate movement, mobility of mountain
narrowing of areas of the ocean or even ranges and oceanic ridges are recognized under
disappearance of the ocean. the common names such as plate tectonics or
3. Subduction zone is a place where the Earth’s global tectonics. Plate tectonics and global tec-
crust is broken down and consumes part of tonics explain almost all the geological phenom-
the oceanic crust or oceanic plate, which ena on large scale, particularly closely
FIGURE 3.8 Illustrations of the three types of plate boundaries such as transform (top), convergent (middle) and divergent
(bottom) associated with the relative process of plate tectonics.
FURTHER READING 91
associated with earthquakes, faults, volcanic the resulting overthrust structures are the
areas, the origin of mountain chains (orogeny), consequence of pulling in both directions. The
oceanic arcs, oceanic ridges and the deep ocean uplift causes deposition of clastic flysch
trenches or furrows. sediments on both sides of the mountain
Orogenetic movements, i.e. orogeny or pro- areas.
cesses of forming mountain chains in the Earth’s
crust, are a direct consequence of plate tectonics
and subduction. There are two basic types of
Ophiolite is the thrust sheets of ancient oceanic
orogeny: “collisional” and “noncollisional”.
crust and upper part of mantle rocks that has been
1. Collisional orogeny includes long-term uplifted and exposed above sea level and often
underscore or subduction zone where it has emplaced on top of the continental lithosphere.
consumed and melted much of the oceanic Ophiolite is composed of green colored altered
crust and oceanic plates. This leads to a spilite (fine-grained oceanic basalt), pillow lava,
mutual approach of two continents, or even serpentinites, gabbros and chert. It occurs close to
up to their clash or the clash of the continent the oceanic ridges, orogenic belt, within mountain
and the island arc. In this type of orogeny, belts of Alps and Himalayas, documenting the
clastic flysch sediments do not occur, and existence of former ocean basins that have now
overthrust structures have only one direction. been absorbed by thrusts, subduction zone and
Subduction zone reaches deep into the plate tectonics.
lithosphere and along with it the magma
inject from very deep source (from the
asthenosphere), forming ophiolite igneous
rocks. The ophiolite groups and assemblages The main volcanoes on Earth are located in
are the community of basic, ultrabasic/ areas of divergent and convergent plate move-
ultramafic intrusives (gabbro, peridotite, and ment, and the most significant places of forma-
pyroxenite) and effusive igneous rocks that tion of igneous (volcanic) rocks are now
originate from oceanic crust (Sections 4.3.1.3, divergent plate margins, especially middle
4.3.1.4 and 4.3.2.3). oceanic ridges, which makes annually over
2. Noncollisional orogeny is associated with the 20 km3 of basalt rocks.
converging trends by pinch of the plates and
subduction. The orogeny takes place over part
of the oceanic crust and the oceanic plate is FURTHER READING
subducted under the island arc, as, for
example, the case in the present oceanic The Principles of Petrology-An Introduction to the
trenches in the western Pacific. The andesite Science of Rocks by G.W. Tyrrell56 is worth
volcanism is strong above the subduction reading for the beginners in this subject. Blatt
zone and the basaltic volcanism is most active et al.2 will be a good reference for overall
on the ocean bottom. Metamorphic zones petrology. The interior of the Earth by Bott5 is
exist on both sides of the subduction zone and informative.
C H A P T E R
4
Igneous Rocks
O U T L I N E
4.1. Origin of Igneous Rocks 94 4.3. Main Group of Igneous Rocks and
4.1.1. Properties of Magma and Lava 94 Their Composition 104
4.1.2. Bowen’s Reaction Series 95 4.3.1. Mineral Composition of Intrusive
4.1.3. Cooling of Magma after Igneous Rocks 104
Crystallization 96 4.3.1.1. Felsic Intrusive Igneous
Rocks 105
4.2. Classification of Igneous Rocks 98
4.3.1.2. Intermediate Intrusive
4.2.1. Forms of Appearance and
Igneous Rocks 108
Structure of the Intrusive
4.3.1.3. Mafic Intrusive Igneous
(Plutonic) Igneous Rocks 100
Rocks 109
4.2.1.1. Forms of Intrusive
4.3.1.4. Ultrabasic and Ultramafic
(Plutonic) Igneous Rocks 100
Intrusive Igneous Rocks 113
4.2.1.2. Textures of Intrusive
4.3.2. Mineral Composition of Extrusive
(Plutonic) Igneous Rocks 101
Igneous Rocks 116
4.2.1.3. Shapes and Structures of
4.3.2.1. Felsic Extrusive Igneous
Veins Igneous Rocks 102
Rocks 116
4.2.2. Forms of Appearance and
4.3.2.2. Intermediate Extrusive
Structure of the Extrusive
Igneous Rocks 117
(Volcanic) Igneous Rocks 102
4.3.2.3. Mafic Extrusive Igneous
4.2.2.1. Forms of Extrusive
Rocks 118
Igneous Rocks 102
4.3.3. Veins Igneous Rocks 120
4.2.2.2. Textures of Extrusive
Igneous Rocks 103 Further Reading 120
4.1. ORIGIN OF IGNEOUS ROCKS The mid-oceanic ridges (basalt) are example of
submarine volcanic activity.
The origin of the solar system and particularly The igneous rocks include exceptionally large
the planet Earth including its internal structure verities depending on the source, composition
(crust, mantle and core) is discussed in the previ- and types of parent magma, nature of emplace-
ous chapter. Igneous rocks and its sedimentary ment, cooling, crystallization and finally solidifica-
and metamorphic complements constitute the tion. The essential characteristic features of igneous
entire Earth’s crust. Therefore, systematic study rocks, in comparison to sedimentary and meta-
of the igneous rocks, i.e. igneous petrology, is a morphic counter parts, are the complete absence
fundamental necessity to understand the geolog- of fossils and distinctive internal texture and struc-
ical science. ture of the same. The first character is due to the
Igneous rocks are the natural products of cool- amazing source material of extremely hot molten
ing, crystallization and solidification of extremely magma from deep inside the Earth. The second
hot mobile molten material (magma) originated feature is the result of slow or fast cooling, crystal-
from the deepest parts of the Earth. This process lization and solidification of the magma.
of formation of igneous rocks is the earliest mech-
anism of rock formation and accountable for the
4.1.1. Properties of Magma and Lava
growth and evolution of the present day solid
Earth. The mode of formation can be either intru- Igneous rocks are formed in cooling, crystalli-
sive (plutonic) or extrusive (volcanic). zation and solidification of minerals from
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed by cooling, magma inside the Earth or crystallization of
crystallization and solidification of magma lava ejected from volcanoes on Earth’s surface
within the Earth’s crust surrounded by preexist- or on the seafloor (Fig. 3.2).
ing country rocks. These rocks are generally Magma (Greek: magma means hot, molten
medium to coarse grained. The rocks may be mass) is the name for the molten mass in the
extremely coarse (pegmatite) and easily identifi- Earth’s interior that penetrates the lithosphere.
able. The rocks are designated, according to the If one visits inside the Earth’s surface or on the
shape, size and relationship with the existing seabed, he will come across a molten shiny
formation, as abyssal (deep seated), hypabyssal mass, having temperature between 700 and
(near surface), batholiths (large felsic/intermedi- 1200 C, and the same is called the lava (Latin:
ate massive plutonic), stocks (massive plutons), lavare means flow).
laccoliths (concordant plutonic sheets between Igneous rocks, those are formed by slow and
sedimentary layers), sills (concordant tabular gradual cooling and crystallization of minerals
plutonic sheets within volcanic/sedimentary/ from magma inside the Earth, i.e. deeper below
metamorphic rocks) and dykes (plutonic sheets the surface, are called intrusive (plutonic) igneous
cut discordantly across existing rocks) (Fig. 4.5). rocks (from the Latin “intrudere” meaning to
Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the “break” or “Pluto” representing “God of the un-
crust’s surface as a result of the partial melting derworld”). The igneous rocks exist on the sur-
of rocks within the mantle and crust. The molten face of the Earth today due to tectonic
rocks, with or without suspended crystals and movements to rise near or at the very surface
gas bubbles, erupt outside the crust due to lower of the Earth or with strong erosion of the existing
density and spread as lava. Volcanic eruptions rocks that covered the surface.
into air and ocean are termed as subaerial and Igneous rocks, those are formed by relatively
submarine, respectively. The rocks cool and solid- rapid cooling, crystallization of lava from vol-
ify very quickly and are fine grained in general. canoes on Earth’s surface or on the seafloor,
4.1. ORIGIN OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 95
and are called effusive (volcanic) igneous rocks the stone. The gases and vapors have a decisive
(from the Latin “effusio” means “discharge”). role in the formation of ore deposits of magmatic
There are transitional types between these type. The origin of many of these ore deposits re-
two main groups and are formed by cooling lates to the last stage of crystallization of magma,
and crystallization of magma, lava and hot solu- i.e. pneumatolytic and hydrothermal stage.
tion (hydrothermal), gases and vapors (pneuma) The viscosity of magma depends primarily on
introduced into the cracks and cavities of rocks. its chemical composition and temperature. The
The rocks formed in accumulation and lithi- felsic magmas are rich in silica and are more
faction of clasts and volcanic ash that originated viscous than basic magma, which is poor in sil-
from explosive volcanic eruptions is called pyro- ica. This cause changes the speed of lava flow
clastics or pyroclastic rocks (from Greek “pyros” and form of occurrences of volcanic rocks. The
meaning “fire” and “klastos” meaning “broken basic lava with poor viscosity flows much faster
off”). The most of volcano-clastic fragments than the acid magmas and spills in the form of
deposited after the transfer of pyroclastic flows, volcanic plates. The acid lava with high viscosity
air and water, while in the sea, lakes or rivers has almost no flow, but resembles as thick
mixes with nonvolcanic sediment material. The malleable paste from volcanic craters.
pyroclastic rocks resemble characteristics of
clastic sedimentary rocks. These rocks are usu-
4.1.2. Bowen’s Reaction Series
ally included into the study along with the clastic
sedimentary rocks (Chapter 5.6). Bowen’s reaction series (Fig. 4.1) is the work
Each of these major genetic groups of igneous of Norman L. Bowen, a researcher of petrologist
rocks is characterized by a particular shape, at Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution
appearance and characteristic structures and tex- of Washington. He explained through his
tures by which geologists, especially petrologists, revolutionized experimental petrology the un-
can recognize and identify their mode of origin. derstanding of discriminating mineral crystalli-
The chemical composition of magma and lava zation. He could illuminate the reason for
is very complex and the magma or lava from certain types of minerals tend to be found
different places can be very different. However, together, while others never associate jointly.
the most important chemical elements in any He crushed and grinded original igneous rocks
magma and lava are oxygen, silicon, aluminum, along with mixtures of chemicals that could
iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium make up igneous rocks and experimented with
and titanium. The magma and lava also contain their melting. He would heat the powered mate-
many other elements, as well as different amounts rial at 1600 C or more until it completely melt.
of water vapor mixed with easily volatile compo- The melt is cooled to a target temperature, for
nents, i.e. gases and vapors, such as hydrogen sul- example 1400 C. He would hold it at that tem-
fide (HS), hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen perature for long enough (minutes, hours or
chloride (HCl), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur diox- days) to allow crystal formation and there after
ide (SO2), hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur. quick cooling the material by throwing into a
The chemical composition of the magma or bucket of water. The resulting crystallized min-
lava, and particularly gases and steam, with erals that formed in the process of melting and
both cooling and crystallization play a significant cooling are examined. Nonmineralized left-over
role as it defines mineral communities together material would be glass. He further observed
and crystallize to form different kinds of rocks, that there are two sequences of minerals: the
determine the viscosity of magma and facilitate discontinuous reaction series and the continuous
its penetration through the rocks and cracks in reaction series.
96 4. IGNEOUS ROCKS
FIGURE 4.1 Bowen’s reaction series depicting the sequence of crystallization of minerals in descending order of tem-
perature due to cooling of the magma.
The discontinuous reaction series includes a lava (the foundation of intrusive and extrusive
group of mafic or ironemagnesium bearing igneous rock). The rock mass and its mineral
minerals: olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and bio- components, like most other substances in na-
tite. These minerals react discontinuously to ture, reduce its volume and cracks (Figs 4.2
form the next mineral in the series. This means and 4.3) when cooled to ambient temperature.
that in the igneous magmas, each mineral will Such originally compact rock mass over time
change to the next mineral lower in the series breaks and separates into pieces of various sizes
as the temperature drops if there is enough silica and shapes such as plates, three-sided, four-
in the melt. The silica content increases in min- sided, five-sided or six-sided prisms, cube,
eral composition down the Bowen’s reaction sphere, or completely irregular bodies. This
series. joining of a cooling mass, both intrusive and
The continuous reaction series, on the right side extrusive, manifests remarkably distinguished
of the Bowen’s reaction series, represents the “columnar structure” in igneous rocks. It is
enrichment of calcium / sodium / potassium most commonly displayed in basalt (Fig. 4.4).
in plagioclases feldspar with decreasing temper- This cracking and separation must strictly be
ature. In the highest temperature, plagioclase has distinguished from cracks and crushing of rocks
only calcium (Ca) and in the lowest temperature, caused by tectonic movements. This breaking of
only sodium (Na). In between, these ions mix in rocks is especially significant feature of igneous
a continuous series from 100% Ca and 0% Na to rocks. It is characteristic only for such rocks,
0% Ca and 100% Na at the lowest temperature. and plays a decisive role in breaking and pro-
cessing stone.
4.1.3. Cooling of Magma after In equal intensity of cooling of large areas
(which takes place faster in shallow than in the
Crystallization
deeper parts of the igneous rock mass), rocks
The rock mass is still relatively high in tem- are separated in thinner or thicker plates due to
perature after the crystallization of magma or differential shrinkage. Rock mass cracks for
4.1. ORIGIN OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 97
FIGURE 4.2 Conceptual development of six-sided prismatic cracks and joints (left) during cooling and crystallization of
magma and over time breaks and separates into distinct hexagonal prism (right).
every regular flat surfaces that enclose the The cracks can also be formed more or less
proper three-, four-, five- and six-sided prisms. regular cube or parallelepiped during slow cool-
As a result, the prismatic polygonal bodies ing and slow crystallization of igneous magma.
appear with diameter of several centimeters to The rocks can be separated into spherical shapes
several decimeters, and the length of few deci- in irregular cooling. It can be separated in
meters to 10 m (Fig. 4.2). sharply angular bodies of irregular shapes if
98 4. IGNEOUS ROCKS
the rock mass (magma) is cooled from different the processes of change and weathering of
directions at different speeds. biotite, pyroxene and amphibole), sericite
(created by the processes of change and weath-
ering of feldspar), serpentine (created by the
4.2. CLASSIFICATION OF processes of hydrothermal modification of
IGNEOUS ROCKS olivine), etc.
An important feature of the mineral constitu-
Igneous rocks are classified according to ents of igneous rocks is their color as a result of
mode of formation and mineralogy (chemical the content, usually isomorphic inserted iron.
composition). Mineral composition plays a key The different colors are described as leucocratic
role in the distribution of igneous rocks. The (light color due to low content of ferromagnesian
mineral ingredients of igneous rocks are desig- minerals) and melanocratic (dark color contain-
nated as major, important, minor (accessory) ing 60e100% ferromagnesian minerals).
and secondary, according to their proportional Leucocratic minerals are colorless or white,
significance in the composition of the rocks. such as feldspar, quartz, muscovite and feldspa-
Major mineral ingredients are those by which thoids. The rocks consist mainly of them and are
the rocks are classified. These are essential min- characterized by bright and light shades of gray,
erals for the rock, and which makes them such as the granites and granodiorites.
different from others. For example, quartz, pot- Melanocratic or ferromagnesian minerals are
ash feldspar and biotite are essential compo- green, dark green or completely black color
nents of granite and without any of those due to greater or lesser amounts of isomorphic
minerals, the rocks would no longer be desig- iron (especially Fe2þ) (Sections 2.5.8.1 and
nated as granite. 2.5.8.4.1). This group of minerals includes
Important mineral constituents of a rock are olivine, pyroxenes, amphibole, biotite, etc. The
those by which a special name is assigned to rocks are mostly composed of ferromagnesian
the rock, as for instance, the olivine in gabbro, minerals showing dark green to black colors,
nepheline in syenite, etc. Gabbro contains plagio- such as gabbro, dunite, peridotite and pyroxe-
clase and pyroxene, and with them may, but nites (Table 4.1).
need not contain olivine. If gabbro contains Chemical composition of rocks is determined
olivine, then it is olivine gabbro and olivine is and expressed with oxide content of main
its important ingredient. chemical elements, i.e. the content of SiO2,
Minor (accessory) mineral ingredients are not FeO, Fe2O3, Al2O3, CaO, MgO, K2O, Na2O,
important or relevant to the rock in which they MnO, P2O5 and TiO2. The content of silicon di-
are associated. The amount is small, typically oxide (SiO2) in the rock is one of the most signif-
<1% and it may but need not be the essential in- icant chemical characteristics of igneous rocks.
gredients of the rocks. For example, zircon and The amount of SiO2, which varies from 35% to
rutile are minor minerals in granite. 80%, defines the rock as “acid”. The terms
Secondary minerals do not occur during the “acid” and “basic” do not apply on the
formation of the parent rock, rather later hydrogen ion concentration (pHdused by
introduced or substituted during the weath- chemists), but only on the chemistry of rocks
ering process or changes in the primary or orig- and the proportion of SiO2 with respect to the
inal mineral constituents of the rock. The most total oxide content of the above-mentioned
common secondary minerals are kaolinite chemical elements.
(created by the processes of change and chemi- “Acid” igneous rocks, i.e. the amount of sili-
cal weathering of feldspar), chlorite (created by con dioxide (SiO2) in their chemical composition,
4.2. CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 99
TABLE 4.1 Mineral Composition of Major Igneous Rocks
Felsic Granite Rhyolite Quartz 20e40% Kefeldspar > Naeplagioclase and mica
Adamellite Dellenite Quartz, Kefeldspar ¼ Naeplagioclase
Grandiorite Dacite Quartz 10e30%, Naeplagioclase þ NaeCa
plagioclase > Kefeldspar, biotite and hornblende
Tonalite and Dacite Quartz, Naeplagioclase þ NaeCaeplagioclase >
quartz diorite Kefeldspar, biotite and hornflende
Intermediate Monzite Latite Quartz, Kefeldspar ¼ Naeplagioclase biotite, hornblende
and pyroxene
Diorite Andesite Naeplagioclase and NaeCaeplagioclase 60e80%,
amphibole and pyroxene
Syenite Trachyte Kefeldspar 60e80%, NaeCa plagioclase, hornblende,
biotite, pyroxene and riebeckite
Nephelene Phonolite Nepheline, leucite, aegirine, Kefeldspar, riebeckite, biotite,
syenite pyroxene and arfvedsonite
Mafic Gabbro Basalt diabase Caeplagioclase (40e70%) pyroxene (augite, hypersthene),
spilite small quantities of hornblende and biotite, with or without
olivine
Norite Basalt Caeplagioclase, pyroxene (hypersthene) with or without
olivine
Anorthosite Caeplagioclase (90e100%) with pyroxene, ilmenite,
magnetite (0e10%) olivine
Ultramafic Peridotite Olivine, one or more pyroxene
Dunite Mostly Mgeolivine with little pyroxene
Lherzolite Olivine, bronchite, and dialage
are a direct consequence of their mineral compo- the rock that does not contain quartz or NaeCa
sition. It is higher as the rock contains more free and Ca plagioclase.
quartz and/or more silicate minerals rich in sil- The best example of “acidity” is minerals from
ica. The igneous rock that contains more free isomorphic series of plagioclase: in pure acid
quartz, more K-feldspar and Na-plagioclase; plagioclase, i.e. albite (NaAlSi3O8), in each SiO4
within the SiO4-tetrahedra isomorphic, one Si4þ tetrahedron, only one Si3þ ion is replaced with
ion is replaced with Al3þ ion. Such rock has in an Al3þ ion and in pure basic plagioclase, i.e.
its chemical composition higher content of anortite (CaAl2Si2O8) in all the SiO4 tetrahedra
SiO2, and a higher degree of “acidity” unlike is replaced by two Si4þ ions with two Al3þ
100 4. IGNEOUS ROCKS
ions. The chemical composition of albite contains 4.2.1. Forms of Appearance and
68.68% SiO2, and anortite only 43.16% SiO2. Structure of the Intrusive (Plutonic)
The igneous rocks are divided into four types Igneous Rocks
according to the content of SiO2 in the chemical
composition: 4.2.1.1. Forms of Intrusive (Plutonic)
Igneous Rocks
1. Acid igneous rocks in general contain >63% It is established that most of the intrusive
SiO2. Acid igneous rocks, with K feldspar, igneous rocks are formed by cooling and crystal-
also contain acid plagioclase and mineral lization of magma at depths of 1.5e20 km.
quartz. Slow cooling of magma, deep in the litho-
2. Neutral igneous rocks usually contain sphere, under the surface of the Earth, created
w52e63% SiO2. Neutral igneous rocks a huge body of igneous intrusive rocks of irreg-
contain neutral plagioclase and do not contain ular shape, whose propagation is several thou-
quartz. sand kilometers with an unknown base in
3. Basic or Mafic igneous rocks, by and large, depth. Such massive intrusive bodies are called
contain 45e52% SiO2. Basic igneous rocks batholiths (Fig. 4.5). There are often smaller or
contain basic plagioclase and ferromagnesian larger enclaves, xenoliths of surrounding rocks
minerals (pyroxene, amphibole and olivine), at the edges of batholith, which are incorpo-
which are poor in silica. rated in the magma and partially altered or
4. Ultrabasic or Ultramafic igneous rocks completely metamorphosed under the influ-
normally contain <45% SiO2. Ultramafic ence of high-temperature fluids from the
igneous rocks do not contain plagioclase, but magma.
contain only ferromagnesian minerals, i.e. Stocks are smaller irregular bodies with 10 km
minerals rich in iron and magnesium, and low in maximum dimension, and are associated with
in silica. the batholiths.
FIGURE 4.5 Conceptual diagram showing the major forms of igneous rocks such as batholiths, lopolith, xenolith, laccolith,
sill, dyke, stock, volcano, volcanic neck and lava flow.
4.2. CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 101
Round and irregular intrusive body of larger of rock, and it depends on the speed and degree
size is known as massive. The batholith, stock of crystallization of magma, lava, pneuma (gases
and massive, occurs by crystallization in the and vapors) and the hot solution.
depths of lithosphere, can reach on the Earth’s A large intrusive body (batholite) takes many
surface by variety of tectonic movements, hundreds of thousands or even millions of years
erosion and denudation processes. The batho- due to slow cooling and slow crystallization. As
liths, stocks and massive of granodiorite, diorite, a consequence, the large intrusive rocks are char-
peridotite, gabbro and granite are often found on acterized by a high degree of crystallinity. Most
the Earth’s surface or at shallow depth. mineral ingredients in slow cooling of magma
Magma, at movement and penetration and complete crystallization take the form of mi-
through the lithosphere, can be injected into the nor or major crystalline grains (Fig. 4.6). This is
surrounding sedimentary rock layers, and unlike to amorphous mass often formed under
thereby raising the layers above it, so that creates rapid cooling of lava at the surface.
a smaller igneous body. The newly created body The intrusive rocks contain smaller or larger
has shape like dome or mushroom and is well mineral grains, i.e. the mineral ingredients are
known as laccolith. The length of laccolith usually all fully crystallized. Therefore, the intrusive
does not exceed a few hundred meters to several rocks are principally holocrystalline. The rocks
kilometers, similar to the lopolith, which is show a granular texture (Fig. 4.6). The character-
smaller, lenticular in shape with a depressed cen- istic texture of the individual grains, all or most
tral region (Fig. 4.5). mineral constituent, has equal size of crystalline
grains (Fig. 4.6(A)). The grain size and degree of
4.2.1.2. Textures of Intrusive (Plutonic) crystallinity of mineral grains are a direct conse-
Igneous Rocks quence of the cooling rate, size, viscosity and
chemistry of magma and magmatic body.
The intrusive (plutonic) and extrusive (volca-
The rock can be designated, according to the
nic) igneous rocks have mutually and clearly
size of crystals and grains as the following:
different structure. The texture of the igneous
rocks involves the size, relationship, arrange- 1. Macrocrystalline (crystals visible to the
ment and shape of certain mineral constituents naked eye)
FIGURE 4.6 Typical textures of intrusive igneous rocks: (A) granite with hypidiomorphic (greater proportion of subhedral
crystal forms) and characteristic granular texture, and (B) gabbro texture showing large plagioclase embedded in fine matrix
of ferromagnesian minerals.
102 4. IGNEOUS ROCKS
2. Microcrystalline (crystals visible to the Aphanite or aphanitic grain sizes are essen-
microscope) tially so fine that their component mineral crys-
3. Cryptocrystalline (crystals visible only in tals are not detectable by the unaided eye. This
large microscopic increments). texture results from rapid cooling of igneous vol-
Given the form of minerals, crystal in rocks canic or extrusive surface and shallow-surface
can develop in its following forms: environment. Aphanites are often porphyritic
having large crystals embedded in fine-grained
1. Ideal, i.e. idiomorphic or euhedral crystalline groundmass such as andesite, basalt, dacite,
forms. and rhyolite.
2. Only partially proper, i.e. hipidiomorphic or
subhedral forms. 4.2.1.3. Shapes and Structures of Veins
3. Completely improper, i.e. alotriomorphic or Igneous Rocks
xenomorphic forms. At the end of magmatic crystallization, i.e.
A special type of macrocrystalline grain is pegmatite and pneumatolytic stage of crystalliza-
porphyritic texture that is characterized by tion, often magma penetrates into cracks in sur-
extremely coarse-grained K-feldspar (pheno- rounding rocks of stony crust and crystallize in
crysts) in relation to other macrocrystalline in- the form of thin plates (dykes or sills) (Fig. 4.5).
gredients (Figs 4.18, 4.25 and 4.40). These are igneous rocks known as the veins rocks
The degree of crystallinity is higher as the (Table 4.1). If the magma in pegmatite or pneu-
cooling of magma is slower, and forms of crys- matolytic phase of crystallization is pushed par-
tals indicate the environment in which the crys- allel in-between layers, it forms igneous body
tals are formed. with the shape of saucer. It is known by the
Idiomorphic crystals form under conditions of name sill or concordant intrusive sheet (Fig. 4.5).
slow cooling of slightly viscous magma with An important textural feature of the veins
enough space for the growth of each mineral. rock (aplite, pegmatites and lamprophyre, Table
Alotriomorphic crystals form when their 4.1) is holocrystalline and microcrystalline in
growth has lack of space, because at the same aplite and lamprophyre, macrocrystalline in peg-
time in a small space crystallizes a number of matites and often with some giant crystal of
mineral ingredients. diameter up to several meters (Section 4.3.3).
All these features allow the recognition of
igneous rocks conditions, in which the rocks 4.2.2. Forms of Appearance and
occurred with regard to the place of origin, cool- Structure of the Extrusive (Volcanic)
ing rate, viscosity of magma as well as other con- Igneous Rocks
ditions of crystallization.
The shapes of crystals in intrusive rocks are of 4.2.2.1. Forms of Extrusive Igneous Rocks
different varieties and different textures: hipidio- The magma gradually, but relatively fast,
morphic, idiomorphic and alotriomorphic. cools with increasing viscosity due to loss of
Phaneritic grain sizes are large enough to be steam and gases in its movement toward the
visible and distinguished with the unaided eye. Earth’s surface. This process particularly acceler-
This texture forms by slow cooling of magma ates in sudden outbursts of lava and in explosive
deep underground from Earth surface in the eruptions at the volcano, causing a sudden solid-
intrusive or plutonic environment. The texture ification of lava in the form of volcanic glass.
may also be applied to metamorphic rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks usually occur in the
Examples of phaneritic igneous rocks are diorite, form of cup, plate and basin of volcanic lava
gabbro and granite. (Fig. 4.5).
4.2. CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 103
Volcanic necks are product of an old volcanic groundmass resulting from a sudden solidifica-
rim composed of several layers (outflow) of so- tion of rest of the magma after eruption. This is
lidified lava. This occurs when the acidic, highly the basic texture feature of the porphyritic igneous
viscous and therefore poorly mobile lava solid- rocks (Fig. 4.7).
ifies around volcanic crater forming a conical The characteristic textural feature of the intru-
hill or dome. Volcanic plate or lava cover pre- sive rocks is essentially holocrystalline which
sents body of large propagation and relatively means that all the mineral ingredients are crys-
small thickness, formed in spout or outbursts tallized with the most equal size crystals. In
of low viscous voluble lava on a large area contrast, the extrusive rocks are characterized
around the volcano. Basin (flow) of lava is by two generations of mineral: initial crystalliza-
formed by cooling lava flows like a fiery river tion of phenocrysts and later fine-grained or
poured down the slopes of the volcano (Fig. 4.5). glassy matrix. Both the groups of minerals differ
Volcanic rock also forms by outpourings of in size.
lava on the seabed typically within the volcanic Porphyritic texture is characterized by single
mass. The pulsating pouring of lava and mixing large crystals or phenocrysts and fine-grained
with seawater create spherical or cushion matrix, which is partly glassy containing tiny
shape-structure and known as “pillow lavas”. crystals (Fig. 4.7).
Glassy or vitreous texture is created by sud-
4.2.2.2. Textures of Extrusive den cooling and solidification of lava on Earth’s
Igneous Rocks surface in the form of amorphous volcanic glass
The effusive lava cools rapidly after the erup- with or without a few tiny crystals or crystallites
tion on the surface or ocean floor. The initial of different embryos, sometimes dendritic forms.
high-temperature crystallization of some minerals The examples of glassy or vitreous volcanic
includes olivine, pyroxene, Ca/Na plagioclase, rocks are obsidian and pumice.
sanidine, leucite, nepheline and cristobalite. Special types of textures are diabase or ophite
These minerals in volcanic rocks are represented and intersertal (similar to intergranular) texture.
by properly developed crystals of phenocrysts Diabase or ophite texture is typical of the basic
embedded in vitreous, microcrystalline veins rocks. Diabase and ophite (altered diabase)
FIGURE 4.7 Typical textures of extrusive igneous rocks: (A) porphyritic texture distinguished by single large crystals
(phenocrysts) embedded in partly glassy fine-grained matrix as in granite, (B) intersertal texture having stick-like plagioclase
floating in fine-grained matrix as in spilite (oceanic basalt).
104 4. IGNEOUS ROCKS
FIGURE 4.8 View of granite monolith “Half-Dome”, 2693 m elevation, from Glassier Point, Yosemite National Park, East
California and is a part of Sierra Nevada Mountain Range. The impression from the valley floor implies that this is a round
dome which has lost its northwest half in an illusion. Source: Soumi.
106 4. IGNEOUS ROCKS
FIGURE 4.9 Smooth irregular granite boulders (top), product of typical weathering, present a scenic landscape near
ancient city of Aswan, southeastern Egypt rising through the blue water of River Nile.
FIGURE 4.10 Fine-grained granite composed of quartz, FIGURE 4.11 Photomicrograph of thin section of sub-
potassium/plagioclase feldspar and biotite amphibole hedral fine-grained aplitic variety of granite composed of
from Aswan granite quarry, south-central Egypt. feldspar (white), quartz (sky blue) and ilmenite (opaque).
Source: Prof. Arijit Ray.
of albite or oligoclase with a microcline/ortho- pale gray or pink, depending on the color of feld-
clase host. The granite may even contain small spars, for example, presence of pink microcline
amounts of hornblende and augite with the granite looks pink. It occurs mostly in the form
main ingredients and as accessory ingredients of huge batholiths, stock, but rarely laccolith
of apatite, ilmenite, hematite, rutile, zircon, and (Fig. 4.5).
tourmaline. Granites contain little ferromagne- Feldspar dominates the granite composition
sian minerals (biotite, hornblende, and augite). and is easily recognized by its appearance, co-
Granites are largely leucocratic rocks, usually lor and cleavages. Quartz is typically anhedral
4.3. MAIN GROUP OF IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR COMPOSITION 107
FIGURE 4.12 Coarse-grained porphyritic granite FIGURE 4.14 Large lensoidal enclave (phenocryst) of
composed of quartz, potassium/plagioclase feldspar and older rocks embedded in fine-grained granitic groundmass.
biotite amphibole from Aswan granite quarry, south- The phenocryst, in turn, is partially ganitized with mineral
central Egypt. The coarse feldspar grains are in the initial aggregates of potassium feldspar, quartz, biotite and am-
stage of linear alignment as in gneissic texture. phiboles, Aswan quarry, south-central Egypt.
FIGURE 4.24 Anorthosites is typically coarse-grained dark-color rock and composed primarily of plagioclase (labradorite)
with minor amount of pyroxene, magnetite and ilmenite olivine. Source: Prof. Arijit Ray.
4.3. MAIN GROUP OF IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR COMPOSITION 113
FIGURE 4.32 Photomicrograph of thin section of coarse- very porous volcanic glass and full of unrelated
grained pyroxenite composed entirely by clinopyroxene.
Source: Prof. Arijit Ray.
gas bubbles are light and floats on the water,
known under the name of pumice, as shown in
Section 5.6.1.
4.3.2. Mineral Composition of Extrusive Rhyolite occurs in the form of volcanic plate
Igneous Rocks and lava basin (Fig. 4.33) with relatively large
thickness and small propagation due to the
The most common extrusive igneous rocks high viscosity and low capacity of lava flow.
are rhyolite and dacite (felsic), andesite and Rhyolite is suitable as aggregate, fill-in construc-
trachyte (intermediate), basalt and diabase tion, building material and road industries,
(mafic) and spilite (plagioclase-rich rocks occur decorative rock in landscaping, cutting tool,
in changes and albitization of basalt). abrasive and jewelry.
4.3.2.1. Felsic Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Rhyolite is extrusive equivalent of granite
magma. It is composed predominantly of quartz, Sanidine is the high-temperature form of po-
Kefeldspar and biotite. It may have any texture tassium feldspar (K,Na) (Si,Al)4Os with mono-
from glassy, aphanitic, porphyritic, and by the clinic crystal system and vitreous-pearly luster.
orientation of small crystals reflecting the lava Sanidine occurs most typically in felsic volcanic
flow. There is distinct porphyritic texture charac- rocks such as rhyolite, trachyte and obsidian.
terized by sanidine and rare quartz, plagioclase
and biotite.
The various types of rhyolites are of gray,
bluish gray or pink color with vitreous texture Dacite is an extrusive equivalent of grano-
and individual spherical aggregates of feldspar diorite magma, along with quartz, more
and a number of concentrically arranged and Naeplagioclase than Kefeldspar and more
spiral cracks, known under the name of perlite. ferromagnesian minerals (biotite, amphibole,
The gray, black or pink, porous volcanic glass and augite) than rhyolite. Dacite is gray to dark
without phenocrysts are called obsidian, and gray color. It has a distinct porphyritic texture
4.3. MAIN GROUP OF IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR COMPOSITION 117
5
Sedimentary Rocks
O U T L I N E
[H]þ and [HCO3]þ ions, representing a mild car- Kaolinitization process is an example of
bonic acid (CO2 þ H2O ¼ H2CO3). The content of chemical weathering, hydration and the leaching
free [H]þ ion determines its chemical activity of mineral constituents of parent rock and gener-
and the share of water acts neutrally (pH ¼ 7), ates new or authigenic minerals. The formation
acidic (pH ¼ 1e7) and alkaline (pH ¼ 7e14). of new minerals is called “autigenesis”. The
The process of formation of new mineral most common authigenic minerals formed dur-
directly depends on the pH of the water. ing the chemical weathering are clay minerals
Kaolinite is the most important mineral in the and the aluminum hydroxides. The minerals
zone of weathering and occurs in acidic pH
w5. Montmorillonite occurs in the weak alka-
line solution at pH >7. The water in the chemi-
cal weathering has a significant role in
transferring large amounts of easily soluble an-
ions and cations. The large amounts of silicic
acid (H4SiO4) or Si ions that are released during
the weathering of silicate minerals are equally
significant.
If the pressure of CO2 increases in the atmo-
sphere, it will increase its solubility in the water
creating an increase in acidity of water, i.e. its
conversion into weak carbonic acid. Such water
is chemically very aggressive toward many pet-
rogenic minerals intensively destroying carbon-
ates, feldspars and amphiboles.
FIGURE 5.3 Chemical weathering of limestone in asso-
The effect of water containing dissolved car- ciation of rain and seawater with erosion of surface leaving
bon dioxide on calcite is very fast and powerful large open cavities, Mediterranean Sea at west bank of
process (Fig. 5.3). The soluble calcium hydrogen Alexandria, Egypt.
128 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
from kaolinite group generate during weath- mixed with debris material due to the difference
ering of rocks with large precipitation. It forms in the speeds and whirling motion. The detritus
weak acidic solution in the soil at pH of 5 and can be carried by dragging, suspension, sedi-
contains enough dissolved silicon in water in ment flow, underwater sliding and gravity
the form of silicic acid (H4SiO4). flow. This is similar to rock transfer in air by
landslides and avalanches.
5.2.1.3. Biological Weathering The particles and grains will slide or roll on
Biological weathering takes place under the the bottom during the material transfer. The
influence of life activities of organisms. The grains moves in short jumps during transmis-
organic processes involve biological dissolution sion, i.e. hitting in the bottom and bounce off
of rocks from bacterial activity, humic acids the bottom back in the fluid. The detritus finally
and bioerosion or destruction. The changes occur settle when the energy of water (or wind) is so
by the growth of roots, and drilling of organisms much limited that it can no longer move. The
(shells, lichens, cyanobacteria, algae and the transfer with the suspension is possible only if
fungi) in the rock on which they cultivate. The the intensity of turbulent water movement is
bioerosion of carbonate rocks (limestone and greater than the speed of deposition of material
dolomite) caused by cyanobacteria, lichens and by the action of gravity. The fine grain of
fungi has particularly significant role. The large clay-dusty (mud) or clay-sandy-dusty detritus
areas where these organisms live, and their pro- transmits mainly in suspension. The flow of sed-
longed activities during the geological period iments is the movement of a mixture of unbound
destroy significant amount of rock with the for- sediment and water. The underwater sliding in-
mation of massive quantity of very fine-grained cludes sliding of poorly bound sediment down
carbonate detritus of limestone sludge (Section the slope on the bottom of the nearly flat or a lit-
5.7.1.2). tle wavy surface. The sedimentary body origi-
nated by sliding (Section 5.3.1.5) in the lower
and upper parts shows a strong deformation of
5.2.2. Sediment Transport
primary inner and outer stratification or slump
The transfer of detritus, i.e. solid materials or structure. The deformation in central part of
clasts remaining after the physical and chemical such body can be weak and strong in the lower
weathering, primarily takes place by water, and and upper part. There is always a clear angular
lesser part by wind and glaciers. discordance toward the basement and roof
(Fig. 5.17).
5.2.2.1. Fluvial Processes Blurry or turbidity currents are flow of mate-
The transfer of detritus by flowing water is the rial mixed with water under the influence of
most natural way of transport and deposition of gravity moving down the slightly inclined
sedimentary rock. The flow of water can be (1e3 ), but long underwater slopes. The blurry
orderly, laminar or turbulent. Laminar move- or turbidity current of material forms due to
ment of water is gentle with certain parts of the the increase mixing of solid particles with water
fluid move in the parallel layers. The movement and differences in effects of gravity on large
of detritus is also parallel to the flow of water grains and small particles. The large grains
without mixing. In turbulent or vortex move- (gravel) move forward with greater acceleration
ment, the main flow of water changes the speed and accumulate in the bottom. The smaller
and also the direction of flow. The turbulence grains (sand) lag increasingly behind in stream,
movement of water carries large masses of fluid and the smallest particles (dust, silt and clay)
5.2. SEDIMENTARY ROCK FORMATION 129
left behind suspended in the tail of currents. The to fine-grained muddy matrix in such a mutual
suspension raises high above the bottom due to ratio that the clasts have matrix support (clasts
the turbulence of water. The coarse grains move “floating” in fine matrix). Coarse blocks in
faster up to 60 km/h compared to the smaller debrite and debrite breccias are known under
particles. The larger grains are increasingly the name “olistolith” (Fig. 7.8; Section 7.2.5).
separated from the small grains and accumulate The clasts that originate from the strong phys-
in the frontal part of the flow and in its bottom. ical weathering or erosion of rocks outside
The finer materials that are lagging behind in participation area belong to extraclasts, and
the suspension are lifted above the bottom. In which originate from erosion of older sedimen-
this way, the current or flow separates coarse tary rocks inside the participation area called
material on the forehead, medium material in intraclasts.
the middle and fine material in the tail end.
The granulometric differentiation takes place 5.2.2.2. Aeolian Processes
horizontally and vertically (large grains in bot- The wind can carry substantial amounts of ma-
tom, small in suspension above the bottom). terial of small dimensions to long distances, espe-
The sediments of special structure, “turbidites,” cially in areas of bulk material with a dry arid
are common in flysch facies and are created climate or in deserts. The area is characterized
from such distributed material within the turbi- by lack of moisture and vegetation. The main ac-
dite current. These structures are deposited as tivity of the wind in the desert consists in puffing
sedimentary fan-shaped bodies (Figs 3.8 and away, blowing up and transfer of sand and dust
7.9) as shown in more detail in Section 7.2.5. grains of a certain size depending on the intensity
The detrite flows or debris flows are defined and wind speed. On the other hand, the grains are
as more or less cohesive laminar flows of rela- sorted from coarse to smallest particles in weak-
tively dense sedimentefluid mixture of plastic ening of power and speed of wind. The regular
types or clasts containing at least 4% clay wind usually does not carry sand-size grains far
component. The stability of the sediments is away and only the strongest winds can move
disturbed by extruding of fluids and clay, and larger sand grains by jumping on the ground
thus initiates its movement down the slope. and thereby transport sand in the direction of
The debrite flows can be initiated by seismic the wind and settles in the form of sand dune.
shocks or can develop as a result of rapid accu- In contrast, the strong wind or air vortex cur-
mulation of debris or formation of gases in sed- rents can lift fine sand and dusts high off the
iments that cause local increase of pressures. ground and transfer to very long distances. The
When the gravity force is no longer stronger wind can pick up the smallest dust thousands
than the internal friction of sedimentary masses, of feet high in the air and carry it hundreds of
or when there is no exceeded pore pressure, the miles far away from where it was raised. The
flow suddenly stops or “freezes”. The detrite wind, except in deserts, puffs sand and dust
flows can move down the slope angle >1 from river flood plains, upper delta plains and
with the speed of up to 20 cm/s. low coastal sea areas, especially low coastal
The sediments formed by precipitation of areas above high tide level. All this material is
detrite flows are called “debrites”. The typical redeposited closer or further from the original
debrites are mainly composed of clasts of place in the form of special sediments and sedi-
different sizes: coarse granular debris, with a mentary bodies, which are known as aeolianite,
diameter of several millimeters up to tens or aeolian dunes and mega-dunes or loess (Section
even hundreds of meters, and medium granular 5.5.4.1.4).
130 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
5.2.2.3. Glacial Processes becomes too weak to continue moving all the
The glaciers carry and transport large amount materials. The glacier moves down on lower re-
of materials by erosion and scraping of the sides gion and starts melting. The deposition pro-
and bedrock on which it descend in lower areas. cesses are very complex and form different
Material transported by glaciers is not sorted types of layer and shapes of sedimentary bodies
because of its incorporation in an ice mass. There (Section 5.3 and Chapter 7). There are three main
is no possibility of selection of detritus on grain ways of settling of material and sedimentary
size. Therefore, sediments deposited from gla- filling of space namely aggradation, prograda-
cier’s transportation are extremely poorly sorted tion and retrogradation (Fig. 5.4).
and contain smallest particles and up to several Aggradation is the deposition process in which
decimeter-diameter blocks, and even feet, as it depositional area fills with vertical stacking of
is the case with diamictite (Section 5.5.2). The sediment from the thick layer of water, as for
coarse and fine-grain detritus can be transported example the case of deposition in the deep water
in the form of iceberg that floats on rivers, lakes far away from shore. The new sediment settles
or seas. Such material is deposited on the river, just above the previously deposited material
lake or sea bottom, after the gradual melting of (Fig. 5.4(A)). Aggradation is simply the increase
icebergs and more often in their grain size. The in land elevation step by step due to the deposi-
mineralogical composition differs significantly tion of new sediment in areas in which the
from the usual lake or marine sediments.
The role of the glaciers in the transfer of mate-
rial is limited only to areas with permanent ice
and snow cover, particularly on high mountains
with glaciers and moraines. A part of ice and
snow melts during the summer and the rock
debris accumulates in the form of moraines.
Moraines are composed of materials of
different sizes and different types of sediments
and sedimentary rocks (till, tillite, and diamic-
tite). The sliding speed of glaciers is very
different, depending on the angle of slopes, ice
thickness, the width of the surface over which
it moves, roughness and climate changes, partic-
ularly of temperature. In general, the speed of
glaciers can be of only a few millimeters and
up to several meters per day. The accumulated
material can still carry with the water that origi-
nates from melting of ice in the forehead. These
are fluvioglacial flows that have high energy
and can strongly erode the surface.
5.2.3. Deposition
FIGURE 5.4 Three chief processes of debris settling
The deposition of material transferred by wa- from the moving of solideliquid-mix materials and sedi-
ter, wind or ice begins to cease at a time and mentary feeling such as (A) Aggradation, (B) Progradation,
place when the power of water or wind or ice and (C) Retrogradation.
5.2. SEDIMENTARY ROCK FORMATION 131
supply of sediment is greater than the amount of precipitate sediments of deeper and deeper wa-
material that the system is able to transport, ters. In other words, the process is the landward
often resulting subsidence. It typically includes change in position of the front of river delta with
lowland alluvial rivers, deltas and fans. time and occurs when the volume of the
Progradation is the deposition process in which incoming sediment is less than the volume of
the depositional area fills most of its edges toward the delta that is lost through subsidence, sea
the center. The material deposits from the coast level rise and/or resulting erosion.
and moves progressively further toward the cen- The gradual decline in the power of water
ter of the depositional area (Fig. 5.4(B)). Prograda- precipitates the largest or larger particles first,
tion is the growth of river delta farther out into and then all the finer particles. The major part
the sea over time, such that the volume of of coarse river sediments deposit in alluvial
incoming sediments is greater than the volume fans (Section 7.2.2; Figs 7.1 and 7.2), deltas (Sec-
of the delta that is lost through subsidence, sea tion 7.2.2; Figs 7.3 and 7.4), and the fine-
level rise and/or erosion. The youngest sedimen- grained sediments on the flood plains in floods,
tary depositional units are usually not in its entire i.e. discharge from the river bed. A huge amount
propagation deposited on the previously depos- of sand and muddy sediments accumulates on
ited units. The younger units settle on sediments the tidal plains and the sand deposits on the
deposited by aggradation rather than prograda- shallow sandbanks and sandy beaches (Section
tion, providing that portions of deposition by 7.2.3) and in the turbidity range (Section 7.2.5).
aggradation are significantly smaller than those The turbidity current carries huge amounts of
formed in progradation. The consequence of pro- assorted sedimentary material down the slope
gradation deposition is depositional sequence and arrives on the flat bottom first. It, fairly
in which it does not always match the prograda- and quickly, deposits majority of the large grains
tion sediment units. Progradation is the most at that area from the head of turbidite flow
prominent process of deposition in river deltas, within minutes or hours. All the sands and
turbidity fans, the deposition of fragments of even finer grains are deposited in next few
skeletal organisms in coral and other reefs. days and weeks, and the remaining tiny particles
The progress of coral reefs and other similar of clay from the tail of turbidite flow settle only a
sediments deposits on the slope of the ridge. few hundred or even thousands of years dura-
Progradation is very common in the tertiary de- tion. In such deposition of turbidite flow crop-
posits of Pannonian Basin, and has an impor- up fan-shape sedimentary body or “turbidity
tant role in mutual relations between collector fan” with proper vertical and lateral sorting of
and isolator rocks in the oil and gas fields grains and particles, specific layered shapes
(Fig. 5.24). and texturalestructural features (Section 7.2.5).
Retrogradation is a process of deposition in These sediments are known as “turbidites”.
which sedimentation area expands due to rela- Large quantities of coarse granular debris depo-
tive or global lifting of sea level, i.e. sinking of sit by gravitational flows at the foot of steep cliffs
depositional area or rising of global sea level. or mountain ranges in the form of talus on land
Retrogradation is generally characteristic for or debrites under the sea (Fig. 5.24; Section 7.2.4).
the transgressive cycle during which the The alluvial fan, lake and marine deltas, tidal
shallow-sea sediments precipitate farther and plains, shallow-sea sandbank, as well as
farther toward the mainland along with the turbidity fans and debrites are the most impor-
influx of sea and coastline moving increasingly tant sedimentary bodies with characteristics of
into the mainland (Fig. 5.4(C)). In this way over oil and gas collectors. Large amounts of calcium
the initially deposited shallow marine sediments carbonate can be deposited on the bottom of
132 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The layer is the geological body generally of layer created as a result of sedimentation in uni-
uniform composition and internal layer forms form physical, chemical and/or biological condi-
throughout the thickness of sedimentary package. tions under constant and continued deposition.
The sediments deposited below and above are If any of these parameters changes, then there
separated by some discontinuity, change in parti- is a change of sedimentation, thus forming a
cle size or mineral composition. The thickness of new layer. The layers differ with regard to thick-
layer is not always the same size, but varies in ness by bedding (>1 cm) and laminae or lamina-
wide limits, depending on the morphology of tion (<1 cm). The vertical layers are classified
sediments below, mechanism, method and condi- into two categories, (1) irregular and (2) regular,
tions of deposition and texturalestructural considering the grain size sorting with different
shapes. The layer can be considered as lenticular or same lithological or texturalestructural
body of different thickness and propagation, characteristics.
and in certain circumstances and environment
1. Irregular bedding includes a completely
of deposition and wedge-shaped body, e.g. the
uneven and asymmetrical vertical sorting of
case for foreset of deltas and underwater dunes
layers of different types of petrographic or
(Sections 7.2.2 and 7.2.3).
texturalestructural forms (e.g. ACBADC), as
The separation of individual layers can be me-
a result of a completely irregular changes in
chanically represented by the open layer or layer
sediment area.
plane. In the absence of such mechanical separa-
2. Regular, cyclical or rhythmic bedding with
tion, the bedding can be clearly identified by
the vertical sequence of alternate petrological
changes of smaller and larger components, the
and/or texturalestructural different layers at
distribution of fossils, organic matter, change of
uniform vertical periodic repetition of such
color, porosity and methods of cementing or
changes (Fig. 5.6). The group of layers in one
changes in forms, the types of rock and mineral
cycle of repetition is called a sequence, cycle,
components, changes in internal features (chang-
parasequence, cyclothem, megacycles or
ing layers with oblique bedding and lamination).
megasequence, according to periodic
The layers can be separated from each other with
repetition with respect to the dimensions
thinner, usually soft, interlayers, like clay, silt,
duration and manner of deposition origin.
marl or sand, deposited between solid layers of
limestone, sandstone, conglomerate and chert.
The sedimentary rocks sometimes do not 5.3.1.2. Internal Bedding
include any bedding and are massive or nonbed- Internal bedding includes texturalestructural
ding rocks, which is often the case in late- forms within a single or multiple layers. Most
diagenetic dolomites and breccias. The massive often, and for the interpretation of conditions
rocks are often without internal organization or and environment of deposition, the major types
internal forms and not just on the rocks with of internal beddings are horizontal bedding,
no open bedding. The distinctness of two main convolute bedding, planar cross-bedding,
beddings is (1) external or irregular, rhythmic trough cross-bedding, hummocky cross-
or cyclical bedding, and, (2) internal bedding. bedding, flaser bedding, wavy bedding, lentic-
ular bedding and graded bedding.
5.3.1.1. External Bedding Horizontal bedding is a type of internal bedding
External bedding with the presence of separa- in which each layer consists of many thin
tion of individual layer is the most significant (0.1e10 mm) parallel laminae. Each individual
structural characteristics of sedimentary rocks. lamina is characterized by unique granulometric
The basic unit of the external beddings is the and petrographic composition (Fig. 5.7). This
5.3. TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 135
FIGURE 5.6 Regular bedding with vertical sequence of rhythmic, cycles and parasequence style of sedimentary deposition
and lithification.
FIGURE 5.8 Conceptual diagram showing (A) planar cross-bedding and (B) trough cross-bedding.
FIGURE 5.13 Conceptual diagram presenting the wave formed by ripple marks, in lateral cross-section showing the
planar cross-bedding, and in longitudinal section trough cross-bedding.
5.3. TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 139
sandy beaches. Large current ripple marks, are often rare in the upper bedding plane. These
known as mega-ripples, sand-waves marks can be preserved only in special condi-
underwater (subaqueous) dunes, occur in tions, where the reptile left footprint on the soft
higher energy of water in river environments, sediment in tidal shallows with low water sup-
tidal channels and backwaters. These are ply. The high-quality and authentic prints are ex-
frequent on the tidal plains, sandy beaches pected in the peritidal sediments formed under
and coastal shallows where the difference in conditions of low water energy, especially those
the level of low tide and high tide is >1 m or containing cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria
shallow water exposed to strong tidal and blue-green algae) meadows with mud stick-
currents with waves. The current ripples are ing property. Thereafter, gentle tidal currents
excellent indicators of energy and water bring new sediment that fills and covers the total
depth, and if they are asymmetric also can footprints, and gradually the entire surface layer.
indicate deposits transport directions The footprints are preserved in such environ-
(Fig. 5.14). ments excelled by rapid cementation of deposits.
• Wave-formed ripple marks generally forms These footprints of prehistoric era are particu-
in weak currents because of relocating larly significant from the sedimentary and pale-
sand in oscillation motion of water with ontological point (Fig. 5.15).
waves, i.e. in continuous circular motion of Raindrop imprints formed during collision of
water. These types of ripples are large drops of rain on the soft clay, sand, and
distinguished by long, mutually parallel rarely on carbonate mud, which is located above
with arched crests. They are typically the water level. The rain drops can be preserved,
symmetrical. The most common ripples are only if, new sediment starts to deposit quickly,
on the tidal plains, beach front or tidal while there has been no erosion or destruction
zone and lake beaches and are common in of the impression. Prints of the rain drops are
lagoons, sandy beaches below low-tide, excellent indicators of environmental conditions
supratidal zone and lakes. and precipitation since they appear only in con-
tinental environments or muddy supratidal
Footprints of reptiles, particularly large
zone.
Jurassic and Cretaceous reptiles, the dinosaurs,
All these print impressions are authentic indi- erosion of strong vortex currents or turbulent
cators of the youngling direction of stratigraphic flows. The vortex casts are good forms for deter-
column. mining the paleotransport directions and for
reconstruction of hydrodynamic conditions in
5.3.1.4. Lower Bedding Plane Structures the environment of deposition.
There will be many types of inorganic forms Erosional channels are erosional forms created
on the lower face of the plane surface. These with the removal of sediment further into the
will play significant role in determining the depositional area from the portion of one or
sequence of layers. These forms are found most more layers. The channels have width ranging
commonly in turbidite deposits. They are between few decimeters and tens of meters and
divided into two genetic groups: length between few decimeters and hundreds
of meters. The most common occurrences are
1. Traces of erosion resulting from the action of
by erosion of clay or marl bottom.
turbidity currents or vortex flow.
The most common traces of moving object on
2. Traces of erosion resulting from the action of
bottom are signs of cutting, rolling and pulling.
various items that are carried by water currents.
Groove marks are created when sharp object is
The most common signs of flow, among the dragged across the surface of muddy substrate.
traces of erosion, are flute casts, vortex casts The length varies between few decimeters and
and erosional channels, and are described. few meters, width between one-tenth millimeter
Flute casts are triangular or spindle-shaped and several centimeters, and height between
protrusions on the lower surface of sandstone several millimeters. The groove marks usually
bed. The flow of input vortex currents is more appear in groups with parallel arranged linear
protruding on a narrow front than on the wider prominence. In some places, it gradually trans-
part of the back, which gradually disappears on forms into traces of pulling. The marks occur as
the flat surface. The flutes are narrow, elongated, objects scours out a groove along the top of the
straight, parallel ridges generally consisting of bed, which is later filled by coarser sediment.
till, sand and clay. The length of the flute casts The groove marks are good indicators for deter-
generally ranges between 2 and 10 cm, and mining direction of paleotransport.
sometimes to 1 m. The casts occur in filling of de- Impact casts are short, narrow, asymmetrical
pressions on the muddy bottom at the beginning shapes embossed on the lower surface. The input
of movement. The depressions are filled by end is thin and gradual, and the output end is
sandy sediment and lithifaction on the lower sur- wide with the sharp end. The lower surface looks
face of sandstone on muddy bottom. It will like small wedges. The casts appear in groups,
remain as protrusion which has greater convex- often with a different mutual orientation. The
ity on the input than on the output of the result- impact casts are formed by filling cavities in
ing erosion and sand sediment-filled valleys. The the muddy bottom, which has left with current
flute casts can easily determine the direction of carried object into the bottom (Fig. 5.16).
the paleotransport. Bounce marks appear on the lower surface as a
Vortex casts are spiral protrusions on the lower straight series of small bumps arranged of
surface of sandstone. The casts have shapes approximately equal, millimeter to centimeter
similar to the spiral end of snail home. The di- intervals. The bounce marks occur in filling of
mensions and shapes are various. The height of depressions or mold, formed on the clay bottom
protrusions generally varies from 1 to 3 cm, when object is carried by vortex current. It makes
and their diameter between 6 and 20 cm. The contact with clay bottom and then bounces back
casts are sand-filled depressions formed by up in the turbidity flow.
5.3. TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 141
FIGURE 5.16 Conceptual diagram showing the formation of impact casts in soft sediments.
phase of consolidation of deposits. The extremely 2. Grains or clasts with grain-support cemented
soft organisms still possess plenty of water and into solid rock, after elimination of mineral
oxygen. The bioturbation causes destruction or cements in intergranular pores.
transformation of primary bedding formed in 3. Matrix-support or mud-support is
sediment with inorganic material. Many of the characterized by the matrix in which the
primary internal textural and structural features grains of clasts are not touching each other
may disappear by bioturbation process, e.g. hor- (“swim” in the matrix). Lithification of
izontal, oblique or sinuous lamination, slope, matrix is resulting in solid rock of matrix-
flaser and wavy bedding. support.
Bioturbation is very common incidence under 4. A general example of the structural
slow deposition and helps in the interpretation components of a sedimentary rock with grain-
of conditions and environment of deposition. support is consisting of grains and matrix.
There is no possibility of inhabiting sediments
In the mineralogical and petrological terms,
with organisms, especially mud eaters, in rapid
the grain that built sediments and/or sedimen-
accumulation of deposits. The bioturbation sedi-
tary rocks can be of different composition so
ments are indicators of slow sedimentation with
that the grains are the following:
small amounts of input and sedimentation of
detritus in oxidative conditions. 1. Individual mineral
2. Fragments of rock
5.3.2. Packing of Grains 3. The whole skeleton or shell
The sedimentary rocks, especially clastic and 4. Fragments of skeletons or shells (bioclast)
many biochemical and chemical carbonate rocks, 5. Accumulations of carbonate minerals formed
have grains, matrix, cement and pores. The by chemical, biochemical and organic
grains in clastic sediments are clasts, i.e. solid processes of abstraction from the seawater
substances remaining after the physical and or freshwater.
chemical weathering of older rocks. The clasts
The mineral grains and rock fragments of sil-
are deposited after the transfer by water, ice or
icate composition consisting of quartz and other
wind, as clastic sediments on land, in freshwater
silicate minerals are usually covered by the com-
or sea. The grains (particles) in the biochemical
mon name, siliciclastic grains or siliciclastic
and chemical carbonate rocks are the primary
detritus. The rock fragments of carbonate compo-
structural components formed by deposition of
sition, i.e. fragments of older limestone and dolo-
skeletal and nonskeletal carbonate materials
mites, unlike to the siliciclastic detritus, are
within the depositional area. The grains in clastic
commonly referred to as carbonate lithic clasts or
and biochemical carbonate sediments are the
carbonate lithic detritus.
basic structure of rocks or “float” within the
The whole skeletons or shells may not be lith-
dense mass, known as the matrix. If the grains
ified on its habitat or in the location of growth.
or clasts are touching each other and support
Their debris (bioclasts) are often matured as fos-
one another, it is called grain-support (Fig. 5.18).
sil detritus, or specify a skeletal detritus (for the
The various matrix-support systems are the
whole skeletons or shell), and as bioclastic
following:
detritus (for fossil debris). However, the whole
1. Clast-support of unlithified deposit is skeletons, shells and their debris, as the primary
characterized by grains (and clasts) in mutual carbonate structural components in petrology
contact. There is no matrix or cement in the and sedimentology of carbonate rocks, have
intergranular pores. often a common name “carbonate detritus”.
5.3. TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 143
FIGURE 5.18 Conceptual models showing the packing of grains, cementation, matrix formation and lithification of clastic
sediment. The various matrix-support systems are: (A) clast-support of unlithified deposit without matrix or cement in the
intergranular pores, (B) grains or clasts with grain-support cemented into solid rock, (C) matrix- or mud-support with the
grains “swim” in the matrix, and (D) finally, common example of sedimentary rock with grain-support of grains and matrix.
These grains usually undergo transport and Cement is the mineral substance secreted in
deposition under the influence of ocean currents, pores between grains after their deposition. It is
waves or tides. postsedimentation component originated from
Matrix is the fine detritus, transported and secretion of mineral substances from pore solu-
deposited together with the grains tions. The pores are free spaces between the
(Fig. 5.18(C)). The matrix of sandstones is typi- grains in which there is no matrix or cement
cally silt or clay. The same in conglomerates (Fig. 5.18(A) and (D)). The free spaces are usually
and breccias are fine sand, silt and clay. In lime- filled with gases (carbon dioxide, methane,
stone sediments the matrix is lime mud which is hydrogen sulfide, and nitrogen dioxide) and/
limestone lithified in micrite. The detritus with or water or oil.
dimensions of <0.030 mm is marked as matrix. The distribution and orientation of grains in
The matrix is placed in the sediment or in the in- the sediment depend on the conditions during
terstices of grain or grains “swim” in it. In the in- transportation, deposition and mechanical
terstices grains, the matrix is usually found with diagenesis, especially compaction or compaction
grain support. The grains or large clasts often due to pressure overlays. The effect of compac-
swim in mud or muddy support (Fig. 5.18(C)). tion is strongest in the clay sediments, and very
144 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
weak in large clastic and carbonate sediments. 3. Cryptocrystalline texture with crystals
The sediments can be distinguished into three <0.01 mm and is characteristic of early
main types with regard to the manner of pack- diagenetic dolomite (Fig. 5.66), cherts,
ing, sorting and proportions of different grain radiolarite and diatoms and, also certain
sizes: types evaporite rocks (Fig. 5.69).
1. Clast-support: grains or clasts have mutual
support, i.e. between the coarse grains or
clasts are well sorted by finer (Fig. 5.21) or 5.4. CLASSIFICATION OF
matrix (sediment consisting of pebbles and SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY
sand). ROCKS
2. Clast-support: grains or clasts have mutual
support, and between large grains are poorly The size of the ingredients plays an extremely
sorted small grains or matrix (sediment has important role for classification of sediments and
polimodal composition). sedimentary rocks, except sediments that are
3. Matrix-support: grains or clasts are not in pure chemical secretions. A common terminol-
mutual support but they “swim” in the matrix ogy, based on grain size of sediments, is qualita-
(Fig. 5.18(C)), i.e. not to have contact matrix in tively indicated for sedimentary rocks in
which they “swim” has polimodal sedimentology and petrology (Table 5.1).
composition (with mud, silt and clay and The grain sizes are widely used after Atter-
contains a grain of sand). berg and Wentworth scale. The Atterberg scale
covers geometric, decimal and cyclical. The
The most important texturalestructural fea-
Wentworth scale encompasses logarithmic and
tures of sedimentary rocks are reflected by the
geometric based on number 2. The Wentworth
ways of packaging, and relations between the
and Atterberg scales are shown in Fig. 5.19.
grains, matrix and cement. The key principles
The Wentworth scale is used in sedimentology
of classification of sedimentary rocks are based
and petrology. The Atterberg scale is usually
on these features. The chemical sedimentary
used in geotechnical, civil engineering, hydroge-
rocks, i.e. recrystallized limestone, dolomite,
ology and engineering geology.
evaporites and some siliceous sediment, are
There are two major genetic groups of sedi-
composed of crystals of chemical origin and
ments and sedimentary rocks and there are
not detrite grain. These rocks have crystalline
several mixed sediments between these two
texture according to the size of the crystal and
main groups:
divided into the following three types:
1. Clastic sediments
1. Macrocrystalline texture with crystals 2. Chemical and biochemical sediments.
>0.1 mm and is especially common in
late-diagenetic dolomite (Fig. 5.67) and TABLE 5.1 Size of Grains in International Language
recrystallized limestone, and is a common
in some types of anhydrite. Greek Latin English
2. Microcrystalline texture with crystal in
Psefit (psephos ¼ gravel) Rudite (rutus ¼ gravel) Gravel
diameter between 0.01 and 0.1 mm and is
common in late-diagenetic dolomite, Psamit (psamos ¼ sand) Arenite (arena ¼ sand) Sand
recrystallized limestone, anhydrite, gypsum Alevrit (alevros ¼ silt) Lutite (lutum ¼ silt) Silt
and some types of chert (Fig. 5.70), radiolarite
Pelite (pelos ¼ clay) Clay
and diatomite.
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 145
Wentworth scale Atterberg scale
Size (mm) Name Size (mm) Name
1/∞–1 µm Colloid
FIGURE 5.19 Comparison between Wentworth and Atterberg scale: the former is used in sedimentology and petrology,
and the later for geochemical, civil engineering, hydrogeology and engineering geology.
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND formed after shorter or longer transfer by depo-
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS sition on land, in freshwater or sea are called
“clastic sediments” or “clastic sedimentary
5.5.1. Genesis and Classification rocks”.
of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks The four basic groups of clastic sediments are
(Table 5.2) the following:
Clastic (detrite or mechanical) sediments and
sedimentary rocks are composed of particles, 1. Cataclastic sediments that have been wholly
grains and fragments that resulted from physical or partly formed by the progressive fracturing
and chemical weathering. The physical breakage and comminution of existing rock by a
and destruction of older rocks are exogenous in process known as cataclasis.
origin and especially effective. These are solid 2. Rinsed residues, divided into coarse (rudite),
particles, grains and fragments, i.e. individual medium (arenite) and fine (argillaceous)
particles composed of detrite or mineral grains clastic rocks.
or fragments of rocks, covered by a group 3. Residues are the remains of rocks that could
name “clasts”. Sediments and sedimentary rocks not melt at the weathering and usually consist
146 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Clastic sediments
Cataclastic sediments
Rinsed residues
Residues
Pyroclastic sediments
Chemical and biochemical sediments
CONGLOMERATES
Paraconglomerates <15% matrix Orthoconglomerates >15% matrix
Laminated matrix Unlaminated matrix Oligomict Petromict
Laminated conglomeratic Tillite Tllioid Oligomict orthoconglomerate Petromict orthoconglomerate
mudrock <10% unstable >10% unstable
of deposition (Table 5.3). These rocks are mostly of tidal channels and deposit along with other
located within the pelitic sediments and marls, carbonate, clay and sometimes, detritus, forming
often within a very shallow marine limestones black-pebble breccia. The rocks are well isolated
and early diagenetic dolomite of carbonate plat- from the oxidation process due to the rapid
form. These rocks are excellent indicators for covering of new sediments, so as to preserve
identifying changes in the conditions of deposi- their black color.
tion, frequent association with short emergence Stormy breccias and conglomerates or storm-
of deposits above the medium tide level or in tide deposits are a special kind of intraforma-
tidal and supratidal environments exposed to tional breccia or conglomerate. The storm
high water energy, where they are usually breccias form in flooding and accumulation of
deposited in stormy waves.50,51 deposits and fragments of the tidal plain and
Black-pebble breccias (and conglomerates) with the shallowest parts of the lagoon edge or flat
black fragments resulting in resedimentation of low coastline at storm waves and storm tides.
erosion residues reductive black limestone de- Edgewise breccia with flat fragments is a spe-
posits of coastal wetlands, marshes rich in cial type of intraformational breccia, whose
organic matter and pyrite. It typically is located origin is associated with resedimentation of
in the activity of bacteria that reduces sulfates. flat muddy or carbonate-rich sediments. Such
The rock forms by resediments depressions in fragments occur in the superficial parts of the
tidal channels at peritidal, particularly tidal clayey and muddy sediments in their fractured
and shallow subtidal environments. The black desiccation cracks as a consequence of sudden
marshes and ponds gradually change to brackish drying up of deposits on river banks, flood
or freshwater ponds. It may result in sags and plains and edges of lakes or ponds during low
depressions on subtidal zone in areas with hu- water levels. This is particularly common in
mid climates and reductive conditions. The car- the tidal and peritidal zone, and the muddy
bonate sediments at the edges and bottom of and carbonate tidal plains. The desiccation
the ponds and marshes are mostly all-black cracks can easily break down into flat fragments
due to the abundance of organic matters. The in high tides or storm waves that accumulate,
storm or high tidal waves erode and break off usually far from the foundation of the deposi-
pieces. The black pebbles wash into depression tional area.
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 149
Mudstone intraformational conglomerates are
composed of spherical, ellipsoidal mud pebbles
of mudstone or muddy limestone. Some pebbles
may show clear traces of plastic deformation,
generally within squeezing initially stronger peb-
bles in softer ones or kneading pebbles in the
compaction. Muddy pebbles form by the destruc-
tion of incomplete lithificated muddy sediments
with increasing water energy (strong tidal cur-
rents and waves, especially storm tides and storm
waves) in the shallowest parts of the depositional
area, i.e. the shallowest of the shallow subtidal
and lower tidal zones. Their relatively frequent
occurrence within the peritidal carbonate sedi-
ments is usually in connection with swallowing FIGURE 5.23 Matrix support breccia composed of rock
and/or sea-level fluctuations. A residue within debris in the form of large angular fragments of limestone
and dolomite in the fine-grained matrix.
the flood plain is related to the erosion action of
the rivers in the rising of the water.
Land-slide and slump breccia results by accu- on the mode of their origin and is divided into
mulation of rock material with translational or the following:
rotational sliding destroying the mass of larger
1. Cataclastic breccias
or smaller fragments in the form of olistostrome
2. Collapse and emersion breccias
and slumps accumulated on land or underwa-
3. Postsedimentary diagenetic breccias
ter at the bottom of the slope. The slump brec-
4. Pyroclastic breccias.
cias occur at the bottom of the submarine
slopes of the accumulation of large amounts
of sediment. It rotates during sliding down 5.5.2.2.1. EXTRAFORMATIONAL BRECCIAS
the slope and in its base accumulates in the Extraformational breccias are coarse-grained
form of deformed layers. If the deformed sedi- clastic sediments containing clasts resulting in
ments have large dimensions, they are called destruction and resedimentation of older rocks
“mega-slumps”. Some parts of stronger lithified deposited in some other older geological forma-
layers slide down the slope, break and fit into tion. Thus, clasts originate from weathering of
the homogenized plastic deposits making older rocks located outside of formation in
slump breccia. which they are deposited. A good example for
extraformational breccias is “Jelar breccias”
5.5.2.2. Extraformational Breccias whose clasts are deposited during the Oligocene
Breccia is a general term for more or less (w33e23 million years ago) and are formed in
tightly bound clastic rocks composed of angular destruction of limestones and/or dolomites
to semirounded rock debris and cement or deposited during the Jurassic (w200e
matrix (Fig. 5.23). 145 million years ago), Cretaceous (w145e65
Breccias, in geological terminology, are often million years ago) and the PaleoceneeEocene
called by prevailing petrographic type of frag- (w65e32 million years ago). Extraformational
ments. They can be dolomite breccia, limestonee cataclastic breccias contain clasts whose origin
dolomite breccia, etc. The sedimentological and is related to the processes of breaking and crush-
petrological classification of breccias is based ing rocks with the movement of the rock mass
150 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
over each other or along with each other, as well and lithified. The clasts constitute special kind
as the landslides and the collapse of the rock of cataclastic breccias.
mass. Rockfall breccias are resulted by cementation of
Tectonic is the most important factor of cata- rock debris which pour down the steep slopes
clastic, because in the tectonic movements, the and accumulate at the base of such slopes in
largest range of rock mass moves along with the form of large rockfall fans. Rockfalls are typi-
enormous energy. Breaking and crushing rocks cally located at the foot of steep cliffs or ravines
in the tectonic movements is strongest on the in between the steep rock and cliffs (Fig. 5.24).
border between two masses that are moving, These breccias are commonly associated along
i.e. along the fault, and in the wrinkling. Small with subaerial spending and strong erosion of
and large pieces of cataclastic rock masses break rocks on a steep relief, along with more or less
and crush during tectonic movements like land- continuous tectonic uplift. The debris may
slides and rock-slip along steep cliffs. These move down the slope and reach in the lake, sea
broken rock pieces are transferred by different or river environments and/or switch to debrite
mechanisms, accumulated in the breccias zone flow.
FIGURE 5.24 Idealized model of depositional facies distribution of Miocene sediments in to oil and gas field at Ladislavci,
Croatia (not to scale).
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 151
Debrite breccias are formed by debrites cemen- wrinkling and pulling. These natural and me-
tation, i.e. the rock debris that has been trans- chanical phenomena crush crustal rocks into
ferred down the slope in debrite flows or in fragments and debris; dissolve the minerals later
flow of the rock debris. The debrite breccias by the circulation of pore waters and finally able
contain more matrix, usually silty material with to be cemented in the solid rock as breccias. The
a bit of sandy detritus, unlike rockfall. These solid lithified breccias is formed due precrystalli-
are mainly located at the foot of submarine zations of finely disintegrated calcareous
slopes and submarine canyons (Fig. 5.24). detritus material that has emerged as a product
The debrite breccias often include large clasts of intense tectonic crushing, cataclastic and
of olistolith (Fig. 5.24). An olistolith or olistos- mylonitization. Tectonic breccias or clasts are
trome is a sedimentary deposit composed of a frequently separated by only a system of tectonic
chaotic mass of heterogeneous material, such as cracks and not significantly moved. The tectonic
blocks and mud. It forms by mutual enclosure breccias are characterized by clast support, and
relation of clasts and the abundance of finely dis- the matrix support arises in case of stronger
integrated material or matrix of the same litho- crushing or grinding of rocks into “stone dust”.
logical composition. It may show similar It only happens in the strongest zones of tec-
shapes of bodies and the environment of deposi- tonic crushing or shearing during diagenesis,
tion. The debrite and rockfall breccias are clearly recrystallization and cementation of such small
distinguished from tectonic breccias. Rockfall “stone flour”.
and debrite breccias belong to dolomite and
limestoneedolomite breccias, reservoir rocks 5.5.2.2.2. EMERSION AND COLLAPSE BRECCIAS
from many oil and gas reservoirs. With the clasts Emersion breccias (karst breccia) are a special
of smaller or larger dimensions, such breccias oc- genetic type of carbonate breccia form in com-
casionally contain larger blocks, even large olis- plex processes of physical and chemical weath-
tolith (Fig. 5.24). The outline of sedimentary ering of limestone in subaerial conditions in the
body of such breccias is wedge-shaped, fan or Earth’s surface or in aerated zone. The emersion
completely irregular, depending on the breccias are located in present-day karst environ-
morphology of the slope or terrain at the bottom ment in irregular shape as inserts or inlays, e.g.
of the cliff. If debrite and/or rockfall debris within the Mesozoic limestones of the Adriatic
plunges into a river or sea, it will be partly or carbonate platform (AdCP). The AdCP is one
completely processed into the gravel and in of the largest Mesozoic carbonate platforms of
turn change to breccia conglomerate or conglom- the Perimediterranean region. The deposits
erate. It contains a different proportion of clasts, comprised a major part of the entire carbonate
already in the river flow or shallow sea, as well succession of the Croatian Karst Dinarides
as marine debris. The breccia conglomerate, con- Mountain chain with thickness up to 8 km and
glomerates of coastal shallows and front beaches age between Middle Permian and Eocene.
are formed by mixing the debrite and/or rockfall Collapse breccias (breccias of dissolution and
material with river sediments, coastal pebbles, collapse) contain cemented clasts created by
shallow-sea carbonate, and fossil detritus. The breaking of layers and rock masses during subsi-
coastal breccia conglomerates are suitable loci dence of layers after partial dissolution of frac-
for oil field, e.g. Ladislavci oil and gas-fields, tured rock mass in the basement (melt breccia),
Drava depression in the south of the Pannonian collapse (collapse breccias) or cracking and
basin, eastern Croatia (Fig. 5.24). crushing of quickly lithified surface part of sedi-
Fault and tectonic breccias are related to the ment in mechanical diagenesis (evaporite
tectonic zone of breaking, faulting, folding, collapse breccias). The collapse breccias are
152 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The primary material, grains of sand, are derived Fossil components or fossil detritus include
from weathering component of any rock. The the fossil remains of flora and fauna in the
mineral composition of sands and sandstone form of whole shells and/or skeletons or their
can be very different and complex depending fragments known as bioclasts. The fossil detritus
on the parent rocks, manner of weathering, in sandy sediments may originate from resedi-
transfer and deposition. The clasts that make mentation from older rocks or carbonate
up sand residue or sandstone include mineral detritus. It may be intrabasinal belong to
grains and rock fragments of siliciclastic and car- planktonic and benthic organisms residing
bonate composition, as well as fossil remains of within the depositional area. The redeposited
the skeleton and shells of organisms, i.e. fossil fossil detritus from older Baden corallinacea-
detritus. Siliciclastic components include all bryozoa ridge rocks are often found in
grains of quartz, silicate minerals and rock frag- Sarmatian and Pannonian sandstones and
ments containing quartz and silicate minerals intrabasinal fossil components (bioclasts of cor-
(all clasts, muddy and clay matrix), and ingredi- allinacea, bryozoa, echinoderms, and molluscs)
ents left after the physical and chemical weath- in Baden biocalcarenites sandstones of Panno-
ering of silicate minerals and rocks, which are nian basin.
transferred to precipitation area from land The essential ingredients of sands and sand-
(terrigenous components). Carbonate compo- stones are quartz, feldspar and rocks frag-
nents or carbonate detritus are carbonated ments micas, carbonate and clay minerals,
grains: mostly fragments of limestone, dolomite and heavy minerals (density >2.85 g/cm3).
and fragments of calcite and dolomite minerals Certain types of sandstone can contain a sub-
remaining from wear of carbonate rocks and stantial proportion of muddy matrix, fossil
minerals, primarily calcite, dolomite and siderite detritus or glauconite.
veins. Carbonate detritus in its origin may be The salient features of sands and sandstones
either of the following: are the following:
1. Extrabasinal arises from the physical and 1. Quartz is the most abundant element on the
chemical weathering of older limestone and sands and sandstone derives from the wear of
dolomite on the mainland (terrigenous acid igneous rocks, crystalline schist and older
components). sandstone.
2. Intrabasinal belongs to ooids, oncoids and 2. Feldspars are particularly abundant
pellets formed in the surrounding shallows or ingredients of some sands and sandstone,
even intraclasts that originate from the especially molasse type, whose detritus
destruction of carbonate rocks within the derived from severe physical wear and rapid
depositional area and are nearly as old as deposition at the foot of mountain massifs
the sand in which deposited. It is often the built from neutral and acidic igneous rocks
case in Badenian sediments in Pannonian and gneisses.
basin, east-central Europe, in which 3. Excerpts of quartz and feldspars originate
siliciclastic material derived from weathering from wear of mafic intrusive and
of older crystalline and lower Miocene rocks intermediate extrusive (volcanic) igneous
on mainland. The intrabasinal carbonate rocks, numerous sedimentary rocks (in
detritus from the destruction of reef Badenian particular, siltstone, sandstone, chert,
limestone from coastal shallows and limestone and dolomite), as well as
underwater reefs. These are calcarenaceous many metamorphic rocks (especially
sandstones (Section 5.5.3.4). quartzite, phyllite, mica schist and gneiss)
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 155
are primary ingredients of many sands and 5.5.3.2. Arenite Sandstones
sandstone. or Arenaceous Rocks
4. Micas, especially muscovite, are regular Pure sandstones or arenites are classified in to
ingredients of nearly all sands and five types according to the proportion of the ma-
sandstones, usually with a small share. jor components of quartz, feldspar and rock
5. Clay minerals and chlorite in some types of fragments:
sandstone (graywacke) are present in large
amounts and in some types (arenaceous
1. Quartz arenites containing >95% quartz.
rocks) in minor amounts or even completely
2. Lithic arenites contain <75% quartz and rock
absent.
fragments has more than feldspar.
Sandstones are divided in two main groups 3. Arkosic arenites contain <75% quartz and
according to relative content of grain sizes of feldspar has more than fragments of rock.
sand and mud matrix: pure sandstone or are- 4. Sublithic arenites contain quartz between 75%
nites and impure sandstones or graywacke and 95% and rock fragments have more than
(Fig. 5.26). feldspar.
(A) (B)
Arenite Graywacke
Cement Matrix
Quartz Quartz
Quartz Quartz
arenite 95 95
75 graywacke
Subarkose Sublithic arenites
FIGURE 5.26 Conceptual diagrams showing the basic classification of sandy sandstones as (A) arenites, and (B) gray-
wacke with further subdivisions.
156 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
5. Subarkoses contain between 75% and 95% distinct type of sandstone attains the highest de-
quartz and feldspar has more than fragments gree of purity and sedimentological maturity,
of rock. considering the unique mineralogical composi-
tion, and the ingredients belong to the most
Quartz arenites contain a high proportion
stable grains. Sand grains are remaining after
(>95%) of well-sorted and rounded detrite
an intense chemical weathering and the long
quartz grains in association with stable accessory
transfer from the source rocks to the place of
minerals and rock fragments as well as quartz,
deposition. The final products go by strong and
opal or calcite cement (Figs 5.27 and 5.28). This
long-term chemical and physical weathering,
abrasion and sorting of debris, often after several
cycles of resedimentation. The most resistant
detrite grains, mainly of quartz and rarely frag-
ments of quartzite, remain stable even after pass-
ing more cycles of wear, transfer and deposition
of sediments.
Lithic arenites are the frequent and most wide-
spread type of sandstone in the lithosphere. It
contains up to 75% quartz and more rock frag-
ments than feldspars (Fig. 5.26(A)). These are
immature sandstones, which include many
chemically and physically unstable rock frag-
ments. In the lithic and sublithic arenites rock
FIGURE 5.27 Laminated quartz arenite (sandstone), fragments, quartz and feldspars grains are
composed of þ90% detrital quartz from Srisailam Forma- generally angular or only a little rounded, and
tion, Chitrial, Andhra Pradesh, India. Source: Prof. Joydip never well-rounded. The constituent minerals
Mukhopadhyay.
also contain a smaller amount of slips detrite
mica, mainly muscovite and biotite. These min-
erals are usually cemented with calcite cement,
and sometimes quartz or opal. Lithic arenites
as well as lithic graywacke contain rock frag-
ments, mostly of limestone and dolomite, and
known by a special name “calclithite”. They are
the common type of sandstone in the tertiary.
Sublithic arenites are a transitional sandstone
type between lithic arenites and quartz arenites.
It is comprised 5e25% of rock fragments and
75e95% of quartz. The feldspars fraction is lower
than the percentage of rock fragments
(Fig. 5.26(A)).
Arkosic arenites are matrix poor sandstones
mostly composed of quartz (75%), and feldspar
which is more than rock fragments
FIGURE 5.28 Photomicrograph of thin section of quartz (Fig. 5.26(A)) and is usually cemented by fines
arenite comprising of þ90% quartz (q), chert (Ch) and minor of quartz, calcite and feldspars (Fig. 5.29). Feld-
accessory minerals in layered form. Source: Prof. Sukanta De. spars can be completely fresh, and usually
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 157
The arenites are comparatively of low cost
depending on grain size, color, size of blocks
and quality, and widely used for constructional
purposes. The common uses are as building ma-
terial for domestic houses, palaces, temples, ca-
thedrals, mosque, ancient forts, monuments
and minarets (Fig. 5.30), ornamental fountains,
statues, roof tops, grindstone, blades and other
equipments.
TABLE 5.4 Classification of Pelitic Sediments on the Basis of Mutual Interest of Silt and Clay
Silt 100e66% 66e33% 33e0%
Clay 0e33% 33e66% 66e100%
Unrelated Silt Mud Clay
according to the proportion of silt and clay, the derived from the diagenesis of kaolinite by
degree of lithifaction and the features, as given chemical weathering of feldspar. Smectite (mont-
in Table 5.4. Pelite sediments containing more morillonite) group of clay minerals contain up to
than two-third silt components are divided ac- 20% water and absorb Ca and Mg. Clay and
cording to the degree of lithifaction on the pow- claystone mainly composed of this group of
der or as a loose silt and siltstone as related to clay minerals and are called bentonites, and
sediments. If related or lithified rocks show lami- form as a result of alteration of acidic tuffs and
nation, therefore are not homogeneous, it is volcanic glass (Section 5.6.3). Kaolinite group of
termed as leafy siltstone. Similarly, pelite sedi- clays is typical for kaolinite rich or pure kaolinite
ments that contain more than two-third clay clay known as kaolin (Fig. 2.16). Clays containing
component, given on the degree of lithifaction, kaolinite group of clay minerals are character-
known under the name of the clay, as an un- ized by a light or milky white color and in con-
bound, and claystone as bound rocks. If their lith- tact with water become remarkably plastic.
ified version features laminated structure, it is These minerals are used as a highly valued raw
called clay shale. Pelite sediments, which contain material in ceramic production and with a higher
between one-third and two-third silt and clay proportion of powder in the manufacture of
components, are divided into the “mud” as the bricks and tiles. Clay and claystone rich in
loose sediment and “mudstone” as a solid rock kaolinite group minerals precipitate in fresh-
and in the case of lamination is called mud shale. water and not in marine environments because
Loess is a special kind of siltstone of Aeolian kaolinite quickly transforms into complex clay
origin and the marls are mixed or hybrid rocks minerals in seawater. The basic characteristic of
consisting of clay and carbonate, mainly calcite, the clay with water is to become plastic, can
component with variable share of powder. knead and shape, after drying and firing to
retain shape. This makes them perfect for pot-
5.5.4.1.1. CLAY AND CLAYSTONE tery, porcelain, ceramic products, sculptures,
Clay and claystone generally contain predom- tile and brick.
inantly one of the following three groups of min-
erals: illite, smectite (montmorillonite) and 5.5.4.1.2. SILT AND SILTSTONE
kaolinite group and a smaller or larger propor- Silt is loose pelite sediment and siltstone is pelite
tion of chlorite and rare glauconite. Chlorites rocks, containing >66% silt grain size (particle size
and glauconite in claystones occur during diage- 0.004e0.063 mm). Siltstones are rocks, according
netic processes. to granulometric measurements, chemical compo-
Illite mineral group is typical of the marine sition and texturalestructural features, that make
clay deposits. Illite, in the claystones, is mainly the transition from fine-grained sandstone in the
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 161
mud and clay rocks. The dominant component of of detritus particles and the chemical diagenetic
siltstone is angular grains of quartz, significantly processes. The essential ingredients are clay min-
associated with the tiny grains of feldspar and erals and illite, quartz, significant amount of
mica flakes, and up to 33% clay. Some types of silt- feldspars, chlorite and sometimes carbonates.
stone containing a substantial amount of carbon- The share of clay minerals, quartz, feldspars,
ate, mainly calcite cement or fine-grained chlorite, muscovite and carbonate is an impor-
carbonate detritus (carbonate mud deposited tant factor in the degree of lithifaction and shale
along with grains of silt size), and such a rock is laminations. The young (Tertiary) shales prevail
called calcareous siltstone. The calcite cement can illite, kaolinite and smectite (montmorillonite).
be paved with authigenic quartz, opal or chalced- The older shales typically contain 20e30%
ony, or sometimes mineral binder which origi- quartz, 5e30% detrite feldspars and 15e35%
nated from the diagenetic processes of clay minerals of a complex group of illiteesmectitee
minerals, i.e. sericite, chlorite and illite (Section muscovite, kaolinite, chlorites, carbonates,
5.5.5.2). Siltstones are generally massive, thickly oxides, hydroxides of iron, organic matter and
layered, strongly lithified, homogeneous, some- sulfides. In shales of the Paleozoic age or in those
times horizontally or obliquely laminated rocks. at depths >3e4 km, the proportion of typical
Siltstones are often represented and deposited clay minerals (kaolinite and montmorillonite
together with the sludges, mainly in lacustrine group) is insignificant because of their transition
and marine basins. processes in the diagenetic chlorates and sericite
or muscovite (Section 5.5.5.2).
5.5.4.1.3. SHALE AND MUDSTONE The shales can have different colors due to the
Shales are thinly laminated fine-grained pelite content of organic matter and oxides of some
clastic rock composed predominantly of silici- metals Black shales usually contain organic mat-
clastic materials by granulometric composition ter (carbon) and/or pyrite and are formed in
of mixtures of clays and particles size of powder, reducing conditions. Red color of shale is the
or silt. Shales can be grouped as clay and mud result of high content of ferric oxide, mainly he-
shale based on the mutual shares of particles matite, and refers to the oxidative conditions
(clay and particles of powder). Shale laminations during wear and sedimentation, which predom-
are not always just a consequence of the way of inates in continental depositional environments.
deposition. The deposition is not exclusively Green shales contain glauconites and chlorine
related to synsedimentary processes. The thin and come from moderate reducing environ-
laminations of most of the shales originated dur- mental conditions.
ing earlier geological periods are the result of Oil shales (Fig. 5.33) contain a high proportion
mechanical diagenetic compaction processes of kerogen (mixture of organic chemical com-
occurring due to high pressure at greater depths pounds) and other naphthenes, and are carriers
of covering, which leads to the destruction of of potential reservoirs of raw materials or are pe-
loose packed structure of particles “house of troleum source rocks. The term oil shales is used
cards” in plan-parallel order (Section 5.5.5.2, for all laminated pelite sediments, and also for
Fig. 5.38). laminated marls and dolomitic limestone, from
Shales are the most common sedimentary which oil can be extracted by heating. Oil shales
rocks in the Earth’s crust. It occurs in lithifaction are dark gray to black color due to the high con-
and complex diagenesis of water-rich mud and tent of naphthenes and other kerogen.
powder-clay sediments (Fig. 5.38). Mineral Oil shales generally belong to the lake and
composition of shale is diverse and variable. marine sediments and occur in protected anaer-
Shales form by combination of the composition obic low-energy lake, river, delta and marine
162 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
common organic solvents. It contains 80e85% diverse intensity and importance of turning the
carbon, 9e10% hydrogen, 2e8% sulfur, and sludge to solid lithified rock. The most signifi-
negligible amount of oxygen and nitrogen. In cant mechanical diagenetic processes are
the sediments is typically found in the pores, tec- compaction and pressure dissolution of grains,
tonic cracks and crushed zones. and most important chemical diagenetic pro-
Crude oil or fossil fuel is the name of the hydro- cesses are cementation of pores and recrystalliza-
carbons that are flammable liquid at the normal tion of unstable in stable mineral components.
pressure and temperature. It occurs in the sedi- Diagenetic process for the different sediments
ments and rocks as fills in primary and second- can be very different and in certain types of de-
ary pores. It contains 82e87% carbon, 12e15% posits has a very uneven intensity with respect
hydrogen and traces of sulfur, nitrogen and oxy- to their mineralogical and granulometric compo-
gen in the form of four types of very complex sition as well as environment and conditions of
molecules of each variable: paraffin, aromatic deposition.
hydrocarbons, naphthenes and asphalt. It is
recovered from the parent rocks at the tempera- 5.5.5.1. Diagenetic Processes in Sandy
tures between 60 and 120 C. Sediments
Natural gas is the name of naturally occurring Early diagenetic processes in sandstones
hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of include all reactions between the mineral grains
methane with other hydrocarbons, carbon diox- of sand and pore-water contained in the sand
ide, nitrogen and hydrogen sulfide. The gaseous from the time of deposition to the moderate
hydrocarbons contained in pores of sediments depth of the overlay. There are other reactions
and sedimentary rocks. It is recovered from related to the life activity of bacteria. Early diage-
rocks at the temperatures of about 120e220 C netic processes in the sands are significant for the
because at these temperatures, kerogen is not further course of diagenesis because porosity of
as inert with respect to the generation of carbon. sediment may change due to early diagenetic
cementation (porosity reduction) and/or disso-
lution of certain mineral grains (increasing
5.5.5. Diagenesis of Clastic Sediments
porosity). Such processes also affect significantly
Diagenetic processes convert loose, unbound, the late-diagenetic processes that occur when
water-saturated packages of sediments to the sand sediment reaches a greater depth of
firmly lithified sedimentary rocks by either of overlay.
the system: The processes of compaction of sand begin
almost immediately after deposition, and ending
1. Early diagenetic processes that occur in a
at deep covering after pressure dissolution of
completely unrelated, pore-water-saturated
grain and almost complete cementation (Figs
sediments at shallow depths overlap, i.e. a
5.36 and 5.37). The compaction processes or me-
small thickness of overlays.
chanical diagenesis of clean sandstone have
2. Late-diagenetic processes at greater depths
significantly minor role than the chemical diage-
overlap, i.e. below the thick layers of overlays
netic process, unlike pelitic sediments, and
in already partially lithified rock.
clayey sandstone.
In both cases, the sediment is subjected to me- Comparatively loose and loosely packed sedi-
chanical and chemical processes arising from the ment emerges with high porosity during the
depth of the overlay, composition of deposits deposition of sand in the water or air. Well-
and pore-water. This is also influenced by other sorted sand grains with high degree of sphericity
physicalechemical and geological conditions of have intergranular porosity of about 40% after
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 165
FIGURE 5.35 The main types of grain contacts in the sediment and relative packaging porosity due to compaction.
deposition. The same sands without cementing reactions of pore water and sand grains. These
in the deeper parts of sediments possess about are reactions of dissolution of mineral grains as
15% porosity. Therefore, increasing the depth well as reactions that cause the secretion of
of the overlay due to compaction reduces the new authigenic minerals, in the form of cement
porosity of the sands. and pushing one mineral with other such as feld-
Reduction of porosity due to compaction of spar with kaolinite. Chemistry of the initial pore
the sand at the very beginning is substantially water in sand is similar to that in water where
different for the fine-grained and coarse sand sand is deposited. Marine pore water can circu-
(Fig. 5.35). However, after the sands have been late a few inches below the layer of sand and
deposited for 1000e1500 m of thickness of new there in the pores of the sand cause early diage-
sediment, the porosity of the coarse-grained netic cementing with carbonate or phosphate
sands reduces in relation to fine-grained sands excretion. The aragonite or Mg-calcite cement
in the absence of significant amounts of clay or (known as beach rock cements type) is usually
carbonate. Specifically, well-sorted coarse grains secreted during early diagenesis in sea sands (sil-
slide more easily during pressure, and deploy iciclastic and carbonate).
loose cubic form in denser rhombohedral pack- Pore water associated with deeper currents
ing. Compaction of fine-grain sands containing extrudes by compaction of clay deposits and
clay matrix is higher. moves into younger sediments at higher level.
Chemical diagenetic processes can also start It can cause the release of mineral cement near
immediately after the deposition of sand, with the border of the sediment and water. In this
166 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
and chlorite. Similarly, kaolinite becomes unsta- with cementation and pressure dissolution
ble at the temperatures between 120 and 150 C, (Fig. 5.37(B)) comes with a significant reduction
which correspond to the depth of the overlay be- in porosity and to significantly reduction in the to-
tween 3 and 4 km, and it is transformed to illite. tal volume, and thus the thickness of sandstone.
Illite gradually transforms to muscovite if the The diagenetic processes in sandstones and
pore solution containing enough K and Al. The sandy sediments are due to changes in porosity,
kaolinite and illite are common ingredients of and they play an important role in the sandstone
graywacke sandstone. This process typically properties, i.e. the possibility of oil and gas reser-
causes sericitization of matrix, i.e. the conversion voirs, aquifers of drinking and thermal water.
of clay minerals in fine-grained cluster of illite
and muscovite, and is commonly called sericite 5.5.5.2. Diagenetic Processes in Clayey
matrix. Sericite is the name for the small mica Sediments
flakes that are not specifically identifiable Mechanical diagenetic processes or compac-
microscopically. tion in the clay sediments have a much greater
Cementation is the most important diagenetic role than in sandy sediments, as freshly depos-
process by which loose, scattered sand converts ited clay sediments and sludges signify loose
into tightly bound rock sandstone. This process packing components. The accumulations of
occurs during the early and late diagenesis un- clay minerals form honeycomb or “house of
der conditions of greater depth overlay. Cement cards” structure (Fig. 5.38(B)) and have very
can be the authigenic mineral that has caused the high porosity, typicallybetween 70% and 85%.
reduction of intergranular porosity, therefore The pores between honeycombs aggregated
the mineral that separates the solution from the clay particles are completely filled with water.
pores between the grains (intergranular pores) Strong compaction due to pressure overlays
or in the pores inside the grains (intragranular starts with the gradual deposition of increasing
pores). Sands can be cemented and transformed amounts of new sediment. The loose packing
into sandstone in two fundamentally different of particles in the honeycomb, or “house of
ways: cards” is not stable and particles began to
restructure in parallel with each other schedule
1. Only by the secretion of cement in the
and significantly reducing the porosity. Primary
intergranular pores of sand: this is going on
porosity of clayey sediment and sludge is appre-
with bringing of cations and anions in the
ciably higher than the porosity of newly depos-
melted state by circulation of pore water or
ited sand. A honeycomb packed clusters of clay
diffusion of ions (Fig. 5.37(A)).
particles restructure or “crash” in parallel posi-
2. Pressure melting of mineral grains in the
tion (between 100 and 200 m, Fig. 5.38(B)). Clus-
pressure points and reexcretion of minerals,
ters are in such a destruction of the structure
usually quartz, in the form of cement.
oriented perpendicular to the largest surface
In the first case, i.e. in excretion of mineral bearing pressure, causing laminated sediment
cement in intergranular pores of sands from the (mudstone becomes mud shale). Simultaneously
solution requires a large amount and flow of with the restructuring of particles, the other
pore water to allow the extraction of sufficient important diagenetic process takes place by
quantities of mineral cement for filling the pore displacement of pore water or another fluid
spaces between sand grains. The volume of sand (e.g. oil) that filled pores in the mud. The first
before and after cementing in fact remains con- process causes compaction of sediment and
stant with decrease only in porosity reducing porosity. The second process causes a
(Fig. 5.37(A)). In the second case, i.e. compaction strong flow of water or pore fluids.
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 169
FIGURE 5.38 Schematic diagram showing honeycomb structure of the clay deposits related to increasing depth of
deposition and reduction in porosity: (A) changes in porosity of clayey sediment depending on the increasing depth of the
overlay as a consequence of compaction and restructuring of particles and (B) honeycomb structure.
Experimental studies show the clay compac- porosity of clayey sediment with increasing
tion process to be highly compacted clay at a depth of the overlay (Fig. 5.38(A)) shows that
pressure of 50 MN/cm2 (MN ¼ MegaNewton) in the beginning of the clay sediments overlay
as in nature, covering equivalent of about with new sediments, the porosity decreases
250 m. The curve of the general reduction in very rapidly to a depth of 100e200 m at a small
170 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
increase in depth of overlay. This is due to demo- precipitated sludge is reduced by about three-
lition of honeycomb or “house of cards” struc- fourth. For example, thick mud of 100 m changes
ture. Porosity decreases linearly with increasing to only 25e30-m-thick layer of clay shale. The
depth of the overlay (Fig. 5.38(A)) from about geometry and shape of sedimentary bodies in
300 to 3000 m. the clay, shale and pelitic sediments can be
In this way, the initial porosity of about visualized in this way. If turbidity or submarine
80e85% of just precipitated sludge reduces to fan sand or sand body occurs within such deep-
about 43% at a depth of 100 m covering. The seated sediments or sedimentary package, the
porosity continues to reduce to 30% at 300 m, deposits will assume a convex or lenticular shape
13% at 1600 m, and finally 3e4% at the depth of (Fig. 5.39).
3000 m (Fig. 5.38(A)). Thus, the compaction of The clay deposits are compacted until the par-
clay sediments significantly reduces the porosity, ticles of clay mixed with grains of quartz, feld-
causes severe compaction flow of displaced spar and other minerals come to closest contact
pore water (and other fluids, e.g. oil) and signifi- with loss of water or other fluids lead to loss of
cantly reduces the thickness of the sediments. plasticity. Clay is imprinted in the interspaces
In-depth coverage of about 3000-m-thick primary of quartz, feldspar and other mineral grains sizes
FIGURE 5.39 Experimental diagram showing the shape and thickness of (A) primary precipitated sediment and sand
body and (B) changes due to the different effects of compaction on the clay and sand deposits with increasing depth of the
overlay.
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 171
of silt and fine sand at high pressure. The grains muscovite and chlorite at higher temperatures
are embossed on the clay and the sediment (Fig. 5.40).
hardens mechanically. If the process of compac- A good example of changes in clay minerals
tion by the high-pressure overlays continues, with increasing depth of the overlay is Miocene
there would be deformation of certain compo- marls and marlite from deep wells and oil fields
nents, pressure dissolution, and at even higher in eastern Slavonia, Croatia. Marlites (altered
pressures resulting cracking of mineral grains. marl), illite and chlorite are reported as clay min-
Mechanical compaction of clay sediments has erals by derivation of diagenetic processes at
large role in their diagenesis. It is not the only depth of 1300e1500 m. Chlorite occurs most
important diagenetic process as it is regularly fol- intensely in the late stage of diagenesis at greater
lowed by chemical diagenesis. These processes depths covering with transformation of
are caused by changes in the chemistry of pore kaolinite, montmorillonite and clay minerals.
water when sediment comes under compaction Part of the chlorite may occur in the marine
currents. In the early stage of diagenesis, the spending in the early stage of diagenesis. Early
clay sediments have high porosity with possible diagenetic chlorites are usually rich in magne-
compaction flow of pore solution, and intense sium, and late diagenetic in iron. Chlorite is
ion-exchange. The sediment is increasingly easily transformed into vermiculite and smectite,
dominated by reducing conditions, and negative and in clay sediments often occur in disordered
Eh-potential with increasing the depth of the interstratified mixed layer minerals from a group
overlay, oxygen deficiency. In the late stages of of chloriteevermiculite and chloriteesmectite.
diagenesis, the porosity of clay sediments re- Shale, formed from mud at greater depths
duces and pore flow intensity. The pressure and overlay, contains with the stable quartz, the
temperature grow, and thus the speed of chemi- new stable minerals illite, muscovite and chlorite
cal reactions. In the final reduction of the porosity (Fig. 5.40).
of only 0.5% at the depth of 6000e9000 m and at
temperature of 220 C, diagenetic process gradu- 5.5.6. Residual Sediments: Laterite,
ally disappears and metamorphic processes
begin.
Kaolin, Bauxite and Terra Rossa
Chemical diagenetic processes in clayey sedi- Chemical weathering of some rocks (as is
ments, due to the instability of clay minerals at more fully explained in Section 5.2.1.2) creates
high temperature and pressure, kaolinite that oc- three groups of products of weathering:
curs in large quantities during the weathering
1. Ions in the dissolved state: mainly released
process and immediately after deposition at
from rocks and hydrated alkali and alkaline
greater depths overlay is no longer stable. The
earth elements (Na, K, Li, Ca, Mg, and Sr) and
clayey sediments at greater depth covering typi-
silicon in the form of silicic acid (H4SiO4).
cally do not contain kaolinite. The kaolinite
2. Authigenic minerals: particularly clay
completely disappears and is transformed into
minerals (kaolinite and seladonite or
chlorite and illite at depths >3000e5000 m
montmorillonite) and aluminum hydroxides.
(Fig. 5.40).
3. Residues or waste of the rocks that in the
Geologically old clay sediments (Paleozoic
spending did not dissolve (usually those
and Mesozoic) that have undergone intense
containing quartz and resistant silicate
diagenetic changes (mudstone and shale) usu-
minerals, especially mica).
ally have simpler mineral composition such as
illite, muscovite and chlorite. Smectite, kaolinite The second and third groups are residual
and muscovite transform into more stable illite, sediments or residues.
172 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Changes Increase
Depths
of Stage Mineral Pressure
overlay Deposit-rock Porosity °C
composition kg/cm2
Before %
Illite
Montmoril.
Clorite
Kaolinite
Vul. glass
Feldspar
Organ matter
Sludge 0 0
overlay 70–90
0m
Early Soft 40–80
Clay
diagenesis compact 25–40
500 m 30 15 70
Mudstone
1000 m 35 150
Shale
Deep overlay-late diagenesis
4 150 1200
5000 m
10,000 m
Metamor
phosis Slate <3
FIGURE 5.40 Diagenetic changes in mineral composition, porosity and rock types, depending on the depth of cover of
clayey sediments. Source: Revised by Füchtbauer and Müller.18
In the initial stage of chemical weathering of the clay is partially washed out in the form of
mafic, neutral and ultramafic igneous rocks colloidal particles, and also remains in the form
rich in olivine, pyroxene and amphibole, form of residual deposits. All magnesium and calcium
authigenic minerals from group of chlorite and minerals are leached out if the process continues
clay rich in iron and magnesium. Kaolinite, uninterrupted. Quartz is the only left over or the
smectite and illite-clay are weathered products final product or residue from primary mineral
of acid igneous rocks and feldspar-rich granite- composition of rocks and newly formed authi-
gneisses. In the advance stages of weathering, genic minerals of the kaolinite group, boehmite,
5.5. CLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 173
Al2Si2O5(OH)4, as a residual product of chemical
weathering of feldspar, mainly from granite
rocks. Kaolin deposits are usually formed by
deposition of kaolinite after its shorter transfer
by water from the point of spending or granite
gneiss, mostly in lacustrine environments.
Kaolin layers are typically located along the
lake sands, sludges and coal or peat. Kaolin is
a valuable mineral raw material for the manufac-
ture of ceramics, especially porcelain, and the
raw material in paper production.
Red Mediterranean soil, also known as terra
rossa (Italian for “red soil”), is a soil classification
FIGURE 5.41 Laterite soil (deep red brown color), that has been formally superseded by the formal
chemical residual product from layered ultramafic complex, classifications of systems such as the FAO soil
contains rich nickel resource from upper levels of Sukinda classification, but that is still in common use.
chromite deposits/mines, Orissa, India. Source: Ref. 25. FAO stands for “Food and Agriculture Organi-
zation” of the United Nations.
gibbsite, limonite and hematite. Strong chemical Red soil (terra rossa) is, in geological terms, fine-
weathering, hot and humid air, and little or prac- grain sediment reddish brown and yellowish-red
tically no erosion or removal of products of wear color, which is as clay-dusty cultivable soil
is necessary for the origin of such residue. This located on calcareous, karst terrain of the Medi-
procedure generates residual sediments of terranean area. Terra rossa is the chemical weath-
laterite type, which are often economically sig- ering product of limestone under oxidizing
nificant mineral resources. The most important conditions excelled by Mediterranean climate.
residual sediments petrologically include The distinctiveness of red soil is its red color
laterite, residual clay or kaolin, terra rossa (or due to soil processes peptization of amorphous
“red soil”, weathering of limestone) and bauxite. iron hydroxide and the formation of tiny crystals
Laterite soils are reddish-brown color of hematite and goethite in tiny, dense ground
(Fig. 5.41), which are products of strong chemical mass of soil. With respect to granulation of red
weathering of mafic and ultramafic rocks rich in soils belongs to the fine-grained pelite sedi-
olivine, pyroxene and hornblende. Laterite is ments, because they consist of particle size
rich in iron hydroxides, nickel, copper, chro- <63 mm and very small, often insignificant share
mium, platinumepalladium and aluminum, to of the fine sand. Mineral composition of terra
which also contains small amounts of humus, rossa is usually as follows: dominant are mica
quartz, calcite, clay and other minerals. Laterites minerals (mica and illite), quartz and clay min-
are widely distributed and best developed on erals (kaolinite and disordered kaolinite), and
large plains made of basalt and basic intrusive the much smaller proportion of hematite and
ultramafic rocks in areas with humid tropical goethite as well as amorphous substances,
climate and low relief (India, Africa, and South plagioclase and K-feldspar.
America) with weak erosion. Laterite can be a Red polygenetic soils mainly derived from
potential source of high-value metallic minerals. powder materials that cover on the limestone
Kaolin or China clay is residual sediment con- and dolomite surface applied by wind, and by
sisting of pure kaolinite (Fig. 2.16), i.e. clay min- precipitation in cavities during heavy rains. It is
erals from a group of hydrated aluminosilicates often mixed with a small amount of indigenous
174 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
soil generated from weathering of carbonate sub- Previously, it was thought that the karst baux-
strates. It also results in prolonged and repeated ites occur by hydration process of clay material
process of resedimentation. The origin (pedogen- that is exclusively insoluble left over of karst
esis or soil evolution) is essential Mediterranean and exposed to emersion limestone and dolo-
climate, good permeability carbonate base for a mite. In recent times, there is more evidence
strong drainage, pH around 7 (roughly neutral) that the parent material for the origin of karst
of pore solution, strong carbonate leaching, bauxite may largely derive from small material
long-term (>10,000 years) suitable conditions for Aeolian origin, therefore, of fine-grained
the formation of hematite and goethite as well materials or powders were either terrigenic or
as long (>10,000 years) suitable conditions for volcanic origin issued by wind, and only part
the genesis of kaolinite and generally accumula- of the insoluble residue of limestone and
tion of clay minerals. dolomite.
Bauxites are rocks that contain minerals
mostly from the group of aluminum hydroxide,
mainly gibbsite (Al(OH)3) or aluminum oxide
hydrate boehmite (AlOOH) and rarely amor- 5.6. VOLCANICLASTIC ROCK
phous gel (Al(OH)3). In addition to aluminum
and bauxite minerals regularly contain variable 5.6.1. Definition and Origin of
amounts of kaolinite and halloysite, quartz, Volcaniclastic Sediments and Rocks
aluminum chlorite, hematite and goethite, and
Volcaniclastics contain more than 25% of the
as the minor ingredients rutile and anatase.
ingredients of volcanic origin (fragments of vol-
Bauxites are used for obtaining aluminum ore
canic rock, volcanic glass, and volcanic ash); a
and also as refractory bricks. Bauxites arise in
material was ejected by volcanic eruptions, and
two mutually substantially different geological
transported by air, water or pyroclastic flows
conditions:
to the place where it was deposited (on land or
1. the intensive chemical consumed silicate at sea). In some places, such material can be
rocks of igneous and metamorphic origin to mixed and resedimented along with greater or
transform so-called laterite bauxites or silicate lesser amounts of sedimentary material
bauxites, and detrite or biochemical in origin. In volcaniclastic
2. karst on carbonate rocks, and are known as ingredients, pyroclastic in origin are the
karst bauxites or carbonate bauxites. following:
Laterite bauxites are typical of tropical regions 1. Lithoclasts, i.e. fragments of volcanic rocks
of South America, West Africa, India and ejected during volcanic eruptions.
Australia, and the massifs of Arkansas (USA). 2. Crystal clasts or crystals that are crystallized
Karst bauxites are very abundant in the Mediter- in the lava before eruption. In the pyroclastic
ranean region, the Urals, West-Indian islands sediments came in more or less intact, or
and in East Asia. perished condition. Most often these are
The process of formation of aluminum hy- sharp-edged, angular fragments of quartz
droxide in bauxite is associated with the hydro- crystals, feldspar, amphibole, biotite,
lysis of clay minerals, mainly kaolinite. For pyroxene and olivine.
such a process requires underlying material, 3. Vitroclasts or fragments of volcanic glass,
mainly clay minerals and large amounts of wa- which are generally smaller than lithoclasts
ter to remove the silicon in the form of silicic and crystal clast, usually sized between 0.1
acid, which requires a long geological time. and 0.4 mm. They are angular, irregular or
5.6. VOLCANICLASTIC ROCK 175
angular wedge-plate sections of acid, neutral respect to the origin and the primary mode of
and basic volcanic glass. transportation and deposition of pyroclastic
materials:
Tephra is a synonym for pyroclastic materials
and pyroclastic sediments and in general for res- 1. Volcaniclastic sediments originated from
ervoirs of pyroclastic material regardless of the pyroclastic flows.
size of the fragments and particles. Volcaniclastic 2. Volcaniclastic sediments formed by
sediments contain fragments and particles of deposition of pyroclastic material from
volcanic origin (volcaniclasts) that termed as the air.
pyroclasts or hydroclasts considering the place 3. Volcaniclastic sediments resulting from
and mode of origin. The pyroclasts are products the turbulent flow of low density and high
of volcanic eruptions on land and hydroclast speed.
fragments and particles occur in volcanic explo-
Volcaniclastic sediments originate from pyro-
sions on the contact of lava and water (subma-
clastic flows resulting from volcanoes hot, gas-
rine volcanism). The rapid cooling and
rich pyroclastic flows and ash fragments flowing
mechanical granulation of lava occur in the con-
or rolling and crashing down the slope of volca-
tact with water.
nic eruption or by a similar mechanism of grav-
Scoria is the name for a dark gray and black
ity flows. The main components of these flows
pyroclastic accumulation takes place at erup-
are volcanic gases and primary volcanic material
tions of neutral and basic lava.
predominantly acidic composition. The dimen-
Pumice stones are extremely porous, vesicular
sions vary from small grains to large blocks.
and light volcaniclastic material of bright color
Such flows occur from subaerial or submarine
that floats on water (Fig. 5.42). It is composed
environments (Fig. 5.43). The sediments of volca-
of pyroclasts of different sizes and shapes, and
niclastic material deposited by mechanisms of
arises from the stronger viscous acid, silica-
one, several or more pyroclastic flows or ash
rich, and neutral lavas.
flows and pumice-rich are called ignimbrites.
Volcaniclastic sediments or tephra are
Volcaniclastic sediments formed by deposi-
broadly divided into three genetic groups with
tion of material falling from the air are the
result of accumulation of pyroclastic material
ejected by volcanic eruption high into the at-
mosphere. It is a fine-grain volcanic ash which
after the eruption makes cloud of lapilli and
volcanic ash into the atmosphere and is trans-
ferred over long distances of several hundred
to several thousand kilometers away from the
eruption site. The farthest reaching are the
tiny particles of ash from which arise fine-
grain tuff in the vicinity of the eruption precip-
itated by lapilli, or lapilli tuffs (Table 5.5). In
this way, fine-grain tuffs usually form thin
bands within the land, lake and marine sedi-
ments in connection with each eruption. The
FIGURE 5.42 Pumice stone, highly porous, vesicular and tuff settles on very large areas as the mark
light volcaniclastic pyroclasts with low density (<1), and layers, i.e. layers formed by deposition from
float on the water. the same stage of volcanic eruptions, and
176 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
FIGURE 5.43 Deposition of volcaniclastic sediments in undersea volcanic eruptions: (A) ejection and suspension of vol-
caniclastic material with seawater, and (B) pyroclastic flows occurred in the first and second phases of the eruption and
volcaniclastic turbidites occur in the thirddlow explosivedthe phase of the eruption.
TABLE 5.5 Classification of Volcanoclastic Granulometry Sediment (Tephra) and Volcanoclastic Sedimentary Rocks
Ocean in temperate latitudes is located at depths aragonite cements, which are commonly named
of 1700e1800 m (Fig. 5.45). as sparite.
The positions of CCD and ACD boundary Micrite is nowadays generally understood as
lines in the seas varied throughout Earth’s a very small matrix limestone or lithified lime
geological history in rather wide limits. In the mud, which consists of carbonate crystals or par-
geologic past, the position of CCD has varied be- ticles of diameter <30 mm (Figs 5.46 and 5.56). It
tween 3000 and 5000 m. CCD and ACD bound- is dense, in the transient light of microscope
ary lines determine the stability fields of calcite slightly transparent, calcite mass composed of
or aragonite, in the sea from which it is clear allotriomorphic to hipidiomorphic calcite crys-
that at deep sea (below CCD border line), there tals with each other straight or bent contacts.
is no carbonate sedimentation (Fig. 5.45). Before lithifaction, it was fine-grain lime
sludgeda mixture of tiny particles of aragonite
5.7.1.2. The Structural Components and/or magnesium calcite or calcite. After lithi-
of Limestone faction in limestone, micrite contains only cryp-
Limestones are composed of carbonate grains, tocrystalline or microcrystalline calcite and
limestone mud, and of subsequently extracted low-magnesium calcite as the primary unstable
authigenic carbonate minerals. Carbonate grains aragonite and high-magnesium calcite during
or particles and very fine lime mud, or matrix, diagenesis transformed into the stable calcite or
generally in the limestone is called “micrite” low-magnesium calcite.
(Fig. 5.46), belonging to genetic group of primary The origin of primary structural components
carbonate structural components. Micrites are of limestone and Ca-minerals can be organic
incurred and precipitated after a longer or (biogenic), inorganic and mixed inorganice
shorter transfer of water in the same depositional organic. Complete sharp division of the organic
area. These are all aragonite, calcite, magnesium and inorganic compounds is not possible because
calcite grains. The authigenic carbonate lime- of tight intertwining ways of their foundation so
stone components are subsequently, after depo- that they cannot always be distinguished. Car-
sition, during diagenesis extracted calcite and bonate mud, which is, for example, formed by
excretion of carbonates in inorganic processes,
and carbonate mud originated biomineralization,
i.e. secretion of aragonite and calcite in the photo-
synthetic processes of algae and seaweed,
together are impossible to differentiate. More-
over, none of these two sludges can be distin-
guished with petrographic microscope, even the
sludge occurs by bioerosion. Therefore, the pri-
mary carbonate structural components of lime-
stone are divided usually into skeletal and
nonskeletal.
Nonskeletal components of limestone are the
primary structural components, i.e. those are of
inorganic origin, often laminated (Fig. 5.47) and
that clearly do not originate from skeletal mate-
FIGURE 5.46 Micrite is a compact fine-grained limestone rial of microorganisms, animals or shells of
constituent consist of calcareous particles ranging in diam- calcareous skeletons of plants. The group
eter up to 4 mm formed by the recrystallization of lime mud. of nonskeletal components that are in the form
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 183
Genesis of carbonate mud, or matrix, or in
the solid limestone micrite is very different.
Micrite may arise by mechanical fragmentation
of the skeleton, direct biogenic accumulation of
small fragments of skeletal calcareous algae and
coccoliths, chemical secretion of aragonite in the
warm seas, excretion of small calcium carbonate
crystals in the photosynthetic processes of
plants, secretion of Ca-carbonate in the activity
of bacteria, the accumulation of very fine
detritus formed in processes of bioerosion of
limestones caused by fungi, sponges, algae
and other organisms that drill and destroy the
FIGURE 5.47 Inorganic well laminated crystalline lime- foundation on which grow (bioerosion). Cocco-
stone composed of white calcite (CaCO3) and reddish liths are composed of thin calcite rings and discs
ankerite [Ca(Fe,Mg,Mn)(CO3)2]. of diameter 20e20 mm, gathered in a cluster of
organisms Cocolithophridae, which are of great
of beads or particles belong intraclasts, pellets, importance as components of many of the
peloids, grapestone grain and coated beads sea (pelagic) limestones. Carbonate mud also
(ooids, pisoids, and oncoids). occurs in abrasion and mechanical crushing of
The skeletal-limestone ingredients are those limestones.
which consist of one or more of carbonate skel- Intraclasts are carbonate grains formed
etal debris or small shells or skeletons within the depositional area by resedimentation
(Fig. 5.48). The skeletal components are common lithified fragments of carbonate sediment,
named as fossil, fossil debris, biodetritus and which occurred immediately after the destruc-
bioclast. A special type of primary structure is tion of sediment deposition. It can be very
the stromatolites, and the primary structural different in size, shape and internal structure
component can be both skeletal and nonskeletal depending on the composition, structure and
origin in the matrix or micrite. texture of carbonate sediment destroyed, trans-
ferred and resedimented and deposited
(Fig. 5.49). The composition, structure and lith-
ofacies type of intraclasts are typically corre-
sponds to the layer with activity of waves and
ocean currents.
Pellets and peloids are spherical, ellipsoidal,
and cylindrical or spindle-carbonate grain diam-
eter mainly from 0.1 to 0.5 mm, rarely up to
2 mm, which is characterized by micrite internal
structure. It consists of densely packed crypto-
crystalline to microcrystalline carbonate contain-
ing an increased proportion of organic matter.
FIGURE 5.48 Skeletal-limestone, apparently laminated, Pellets are important and frequent primary
with debris of small shells and skeleton, represents Devonian
reef complex along the northern margin of the intracratonic structural carbonate components of shallow ma-
Canning Basin at Lennard Shelf hosting rich zincelead rine limestones and early diagenetic dolomites
mineralization, Australia. and recent carbonate sediments.
184 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Type C
Type R Type I
oncoid is elongated (type C in Fig. 5.52). If Coated bioclasts are grains composed of frag-
oncoids have more irregular shape with a semi- ments of skeleton, i.e. bioclast, and thinner or
circular laminar structure, the environment was thicker micrite membrane at its surface. Mem-
calm with only occasional tumbling of oncoid brane occurs in processes of micritization by ac-
with stronger currents or storm waves (type R tivity of cyanobacteria, fungi that drill ground
and I in Fig. 5.52). where grows. The life activity of
Similar to ooids, oncoids are good indicators organisms that inhabit the surface of bioclast,
of environmental conditions and precipitation, resulting small bore in diameter 2e30 mm of
and as a rule they occur in very shallow water, tubular shape. The holes are filled with dense
mainly in the lagoons with a low supply of water fine micrite, probably the product of the secre-
and sediment accumulation at low speed. Specif- tion of carbonate through the mediation of bacte-
ically, at the rapid sedimentation, backfilling oc- ria after death of organisms. The newly formed
curs before finishing the growth of oncoids, and bioclasts occur in calm, protected shallows and
rapid sedimentation prevents the growth of or- lagoons with depth not exceeding 15e20 m.
ganisms involved in the accumulation of carbon- The algae, cyanobacteria and fungi that drill
ate and growth of oncoids. the surface cannot settle on grains due to
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 187
constant wear, abrasion and grind against each
other in water with high energy. The coated bio-
clasts are often found in limestone (greystone
and rudstone) deposited on tidal sandbanks
and shallow water with high energy and con-
stant activity of the waves. They arrive after
the flooding and throwing with severe tidal cur-
rents and storm waves from nearby protected
shallows or the lagoons environment.
Stromatolites are organic sedimentary struc-
tures (Fig. 8.17) formed by trapping, binding
and/or secretion of sediment by activity of mi-
croorganisms, primarily cyanobacteria. The
FIGURE 5.53 Stromatolites with changes of dark micrite
firmly lithified stromatolite fossils are lami- lamina and light sparite lamina. Light laminae presents
nated wavy, thick laminated or dome thick fenestrations emerged in decay of “cyanobacterial mats” that
laminated carbonate rocks formed by binding are later filled with cement and sparite represents individual
and trapping of carbonate mud and other tiny fecal pellets.
carbonate deposits on the cyanobacterial mats.
Recent stromatolites are composed of organic
secretion of calcite, aragonite or magnesium-
and inorganic laminae frequently exchanging
calcite cement in the pores by evaporation of
with each other vertically. Organic laminae
seawater. Stromatolites also preserve in subtidal
contain numerous genera of cyanobacteria.
zone due to the excretion of such mineral
The inorganic laminae include carbonate mud,
cement from hot calcium hydrogen carbonate
pellets, tiny skeletons or skeletal fragments of
supersaturated seawater. The secretion of car-
green algae, gastropods, ostracodes, benthic
bonate has essential role in the process of assim-
foraminifera of sediments flooded to “cyano-
ilation of cyanobacteria. The “cyanobacterial
bacterial mat” where the fibers are caught on
mats” are not preserved in the fossil stromato-
the mucus of cyanobacteria.
lites due to quick decay after being covered
Flooding of cyanobacterial mats during high
with sediment. The decay forms cavities or fen-
tide and drying during low tide emerge organic
estrations and subsequently filled with calcite
(algal and inorganic) limestone lamina
cement. Stromatolites with high fenestral
(Fig. 5.53). The carbonate sediment (mud, pellets,
porosity are characterized by high content of
skeletons and fragments of skeletons) accumu-
cement, various fenestra and modification of
lates on the mat during floods. There will be no
laminae composed of carbonate deposits
sedimentation during ebb. The moist muddy
(micrite, pellets, and fossils) with laminae
soil enables exuberant growth of blue-green
mostly made up only of cement. Stromatolites
algae, cyanobacteria overgrowing all the tide
are extremely important indicators of environ-
passed sediment. If the tide deposits large sedi-
ment of deposition.
ment on the mat (thick layer), cyanobacteria
Fossils, or skeletons and shells of organisms
cannot outgrow, wipe out and generate fenestra-
or their larger and smaller fragments in most of
tions (pores of special forms) creating high fenes-
the limestones are important primary structural
tral porosity in limestone.
components. They are located as follows:
In the tidal and supratidal zone, stromatolites
can easily be preserved, since the lithifaction im- 1. Skeleton or shells lithified on their habitat in a
proves with dehydration of residues and position of growth.
188 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
2. The whole skeleton and shell before skeletons, are called skeletal-limestone
sedimentation transferred by water currents, (Fig. 5.57(B)). The limestone, which largely con-
tides and waves. tains well-sorted bioclasts and/or skeletons in
3. Bioclasts, i.e. larger or smaller fragments of diameter between 0.063 and 2 mm, is called “bio-
skeletons and shells. calcarenites”, where “biocal” indicates biogenic
calcareous components, and “arenite” for the
The limestones of strict textural/structural
sand size. Accordingly, in connection with the
features are direct result of ecological, sedimen-
dimensions of bioclasts and the skeleton, lime-
tological and hydrodynamic conditions of depo-
stones which mostly contain fossil remains of
sition environment with each of these above
dimension >2 mm are called “biocalcrudite”,
modes of occurrence of fossils forms. Therefore,
and <0.063 mm as “biocalclutite” (Table 5.1).
limestones are predominantly composed of fos-
Siliciclastic terrigenic components of lime-
sils, one of the three groups, and have special
stone are detrite grains that are transferred to
sedimentologicalepetrological names (such as
the depositional area by water or air. The mate-
rudist limestone and foraminiferal limestones).
rial includes mainly quartz, clay minerals, rock
Sedimentological and petrographic labeling of
fragments, particles of volcanic material and
limestone is based on their textural/structural
heavy minerals. Most limestones contain little
and genetic features, depending on whether
terrigenic detritus, and fine size clay, silt and
consists of a skeleton and of organisms lithified
volcanic ash. The mineralogical and petro-
at the place and position of growth, of entire
graphic properties of these fine detritus grains
transported skeleton, or their fragments
can be investigated by X-ray only in the insol-
(bioclasts).
uble remains of limestone after dissolution in
The well-preserved skeletons or shells of or-
acetic, monochloracetic or diluted hydrochloric
ganisms lithified in position and place of growth
acid.
form organogenic ridge (Fig. 7.14), mostly built
Noncarbonate authigenic minerals in the
of limestone (Fig. 5.55). Such sedimentary bodies
limestones include anhydrite, gypsum, quartz,
are different according to morphological
chalcedony, opal, pyrite, glauconite, tourma-
features:
line, albite, K-feldspar, muscovite and zircon.
1. Biostrome, which takes the form of layers or a Authigenic pyrite in the form of small grains
large lens with more or less concordant or aggregates is usually a product of life activ-
relationship with the rocks (Fig. 5.54(A)). ity of bacteria by sulfates reduction. Quartz,
2. Bioherma, irregular bulging sedimentary chalcedony and opal typically occur in pro-
body shape caused by lithifaction organisms cesses of silicification or suppression of lime-
in the position and location of growth stone mud or already hardened limestones.
(Fig. 5.54(B)). This is due to circulatory pore solutions con-
taining silica acid, dissolve carbonate and
Reef-building organisms grow following one secrete opal, chalcedony and quartz. Anhydrite
type of generation over another form of organo- and gypsum in the limestones may occur in the
genic reefs. These carbonate sedimentary bodies early diagenetic stage in the sabkha conditions.
can be significant reservoir rocks for oil and gas This happens by the secretion of calcium sulfate
(Section 7.3.1.4), often due to high porosity and from highly concentrated solutions in the evap-
permeability over large sizes. orite conditions, or during late diagenesis by
Limestones, which contain mostly bioclasts, suppressing of carbonates with sulfates with
are generally called bioclasts-limestone. The participation of pore solutions that contain sul-
limestones, that contain the whole of transported fate ions.
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 189
FIGURE 5.54 Morphological deposition of sediments with skeletal/shell organisms (A) regular growth layer Biostrome
and (B) irregular growth discordant relation Bioherm.
FIGURE 5.55 Limestone classification after Dunham12 with updates of Embry and Klovan.14
Dunham classification of limestones (Fig. 5.55) 2. Wackestone limestone that contains lime
is based on structural features, the presence or sludge and 10e50% of grain, which “swim” in
absence of carbonate mud, the relative propor- the mud, or a muddy, not grain support (Figs
tion of grains and mud, signs organogenic 5.46 and 5.56).
bonding skeletal over their development, lithifi- 3. Packstone limestone containing grains, which
cation on the place, and the position of growth. have granular support, touching each other
The system is simple and easy to apply, in the and support, and lime mud in intergranular
field description using limestone magnifier. pores (Fig. 5.55).
Limestone in which the primary structural 4. Grainstone does not contain lime sludge, but
components or nonskeletal and the skeletal only grains that have the mutual support, and
grains/carbonate mud are recrystallized, calcite cement secretes in intergranular pores
changed and converted into calcite crystalline (Figs 5.49e5.51 and 5.57(A)).
mass is called the crystalline limestone. 5. Boundstone limestone that contains
Besides the already mentioned crystalline, primary skeletal components (fossils) tied
Dunham12 distinguishes five more basic types together with sedimentation, lithificated on
of limestone: its habitat in the position of growth or the
individual components related to organisms,
1. Mudstone limestone which contain carbonate with the sedimentation and formation of
mud and <10% of the grain diameters biostrome, bioherm (Figs 5.54 and 5.55) or
between 0.03 and 2 mm (Fig. 5.55). stromatolite (Fig. 5.53).
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 191
(A) (B)
FIGURE 5.56 Micrite limestone wackestone type: (A) Pellet-wackestone is characterized by silty or matrix support of
pellets, and (B) skeletal-wackestone containing lime sludgedmicritedin which there are individual skeletons and bioclasts of
green algae.
(A) (B)
FIGURE 5.57 Greystone types of limestones are characterized by grain support and calcite cement in intergranular pores:
(A) greystone-ooid composed of ooids and calcite cement excreted in the intergranular pores, and (B) Bioclastics rudstone
contains fragments (bioclasts) >2 mm and cemented with calcite cement.
Dunham classification was updated by into three new types: bafflestone, bindstone
the Klovan and Embry (1972) by introducing and framestone, depending on the structure
two new types of rocks: floatstone and rud- and the manner in which organisms are
stone, containing more than 10% of grain involved in the formation of these rocks
diameter >2 mm. Baundstones are divided (Fig. 5.55).
192 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Floatstone contains more than 10% of compo- of biogenous origin belongs to the freshwater
nents larger than 2 mm without grain mutual stromatolites formed by capturing and binding
support. Floatstone is analogous to wackestone, of carbonate sediments on the fibers and mucus
but contains grains >2 mm by texturalestruc- of cyanobacteria and mosses. Lacustrine lime-
tural features (Fig. 5.55). stone often enriched by oncoid and belongs to
Rudstone and floatstone differs in that the oncoids group arising by cyanobacteria wrap-
components are >2 mm with grain mutual sup- ping of bioclastics or shells of gastropods and
port and between them calcite cement is rock fragments.
extracted making rudstone analogous to grey- Thin lamination or microlamination of lake
stone that contain more than 10% of grains limestone manifests as frequent changes of two
>2 mm (Figs 5.55 and 5.57(B)). or three lithological types of very thin lamina.
Bafflestone, bindstone and framestone are spe- Most common is the two-type rhythmic changes
cial types of baundstone (Fig. 5.55) occur of lamina: carbonate and fine-grained siliciclastic
through organisms that catch sediment (baffle- (silt, silt clay, clay or marl). Rhythmic change of
stone) organisms to bind themselves to carbon- three lamina types is often found in the lacustrine
ate mud and fine-ground sediment (bindstone limestone: carbonate, siliciclastic and diatoma-
or stromatolites), or organisms whose skeletons ceous. Such lamination can be identified
form the skeletal lattice, such as coral reefs (fra- analyzing the process of formation of “varve”
mestone), as shown in Figs 5.54 and 5.55. (annual layer of sedimentation/sedimentary
Dunham classification is necessary to use the rocks). The rhythmic layers are the result of sea-
adjective that defines the dominant type of grain sonal changes in lake water related depositional
which contains limestone, for example pellet- processes or periodic changes in the amount of
wackestone (Fig. 5.56(A)), greystone-pellet input of finely granulate sediment into the lake
(Fig. 5.50), skeletal-wackestone (Fig. 5.56(B)) during the change of seasons. The amount of
greystone-ooid (Figs 5.51 and 5.57(A)) or excrete carbonate in lake water is directly related
bioclastic-rudstone (Fig. 5.57(B)). to the seasonal changes of water temperature.
The water surface of the lake is more heated dur-
5.7.1.3.2. TERRESTRIAL AND FRESHWATER ing the warm seasons (late spring, summer and
LIMESTONE early autumn). Therefore, the phytoplankton
Freshwater limestone forms from freshwater bacteria secrete low-magnesium calcite by the
and limestone that occurs on land, outside the photosynthetic process in the form of tiny crys-
lakes and rivers, are called terrestrial limestone. tals (deposition of thin light calcite micrite lam-
Lacustrine precipitated in lake environment is ina). The chilly water of the cold seasons (late
among the most important petrogenic fresh- fall, winter and early spring) is not suitable to
water limestone. In the lake and river environ- excrete carbonates other than small deposition
ments, inorganic limestone extraction is a of finely granulate siliciclastic detritus (dust, silt
consequence of changes in pressure and/or tem- and clay). The lake water provides more luxu-
perature, and removal of CO2 from the water riant development of phytoplankton with the in-
due to assimilation processes of plants and/or crease in the temperature. This causes increased
phytoplankton (such as in Plitvice Lakes, consumption of CO2 and thus enhances the secre-
Croatia), evaporation in arid climate areas, or tion of CaCO3. The rapid development of diato-
mixing water with different pH, common in maceous flourishing algae and rich diatoms
rivers and lakes. General texturalestructural fea- during the spring and early summer can cause
tures of lake limestone are thin lamination and increased amounts of deposition of opal skeleton
wrapped grain. Large amount of lake limestone and formation of thin diatomite lamina.
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 193
A good example would be that thinly lami- pressure/temperature conditions in the spray-
nated freshwater lake limestone deposits are ing of water or its warming. The famous traver-
located in the Sarmatian Pannonian Basin lead- tine barriers on waterfalls were formed in this
ing to well drilling in many oil fields of eastern way. The other example is the case of the Plitvice
Slavonia, Croatia. These rocks record changes lakes and waterfalls and river Krka and Una,
in carbonate and clayey lamina bands of thick- Croatia. These barriers consist of calcite or
ness between 0.2 and 1.5 mm. Among the grains low-magnesium calcite in the form of irregular
of biogenous foundation in lake limestone are masses of limestone mud, micrite cover or shell,
the most important oncoids incurred through secreted on the remains of aquatic plants (moss,
cyanobacteria and green algae in the shallow grass, fibers of cyanobacteria and branches of
waves and weak lake water. trees), as well as in form of sparite crystals that
Terrestrial limestone includes limestone fill the pores of different origin. It also contains
cover (sinter), travertine, crust limestone and small amount of detrite material, mostly quartz
cave limestone or speleothems. Limestone sin- grains in size of powder, fine sand, muscovite
ters are highly porous, typically soft and form and clay minerals. It is very common events
on the waterfalls of rivers and lake by secretion that thin films or fine carbonate mud (micrite)
of calcite on moss, cyanobacteria and aquatic quickly envelop water plants growing in the
plants (Fig. 5.58). This process is particularly river or lake, trees in the water or its branches,
intense in the splash of waterfalls. The extraction fragments of limestone and dolomite, and frag-
of CaCO3 due to release of CO2 from water con- ments of destroyed travertine barriers. Micrite
taining Ca-hydrogen as photosynthetic pro- shell and irregular masses make irregularly built
cesses of plants and due to changes in skeleton or grid barriers, and rapid incrustation
occur more or less solid mass from which
“grow” travertine barriers.
Large porosity of travertine is partly a result of
rotting organic tissues of water plants and/or cya-
nobacteria, and partly they are dissolution cavity
or cavities in which there was CO2 and/or other
gases formed by oxidation of organic matter. It
is known that limestone barriers on the waterfalls
of rivers and lakes occur mainly at temperatures
between 10 and 30 C with the annual accumula-
tion of carbonates by 1e3 cm “growth” of traver-
tine barriers, thus increasing the level of the
lake. However, most of the secretion occurs in
hot water during the summer months.
Travertine is lithified firm, spongy, cell built,
irregularly laminated or layered limestone
formed mainly by inorganic calcite secretion
from the warm water around thermal springs,
geysers, mineral water rich in carbonate and
CO2 or from hot sulfate springs. With high
FIGURE 5.58 The limestone travertine: calcite clusters porosity and relatively high hardness, travertine
with numerous small and large holes (molds) of now rotten is characterized by different texturalestructural
plant remains, Plitvice Lakes, Croatia. features: a thin and irregular lamination, and
194 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
cell-like material (Fig. 5.59). Travertine deposi- calcite crust with thickness up to several centi-
tion is a consequence of secretion of CaCO3 meters. It also forms pisoids, partially formed
due to inorganic and organic release of CO2 at biogenic cryptocrystalline lumps and bacterial
raised temperature in relation to the environ- pisoids composed of calcite crystals in diameter
ment at the time of its outbreak to the surface of 0.5e20 mm.
of the Earth in hot springs. Travertine may be Crusty limestone includes terrestrial limestone
of origin in participation of both inorganic also rocks known as “caliche” or “calcrete” which
organic processes related to the activity of bacte- occur in semiarid and arid areas with dry climate
ria that live in a “meadow” and/or bacterial and annual rainfall between 200 and 600 mm.
coating on surfaces repeatedly or continuously The evaporation of water from soil is greater
covered by hot water. Temperatures of thermal than the total annual rainfall. The pore water is
water sources from which travertine arises are saturated in Ca hydrogen, rises to the surface
ranging between 20 and 95 C. The annual accu- due to strong evaporation and forms calcite in
mulation (portion of “growth” of travertine in the form of secreted crust clusters, caliche or cal-
hot spring) is quite uneven and varies from a crete. Crusty limestones usually have small thick-
few millimeters to 20 cm. In many cases there is ness of the crust. This is an important indicator of
a connection between the deposition of traver- paleoclimatic conditions, interpretation of envi-
tine from hot water and volcanic activity, as ronment and carbonate deposition and indicator
testified by the frequent association of travertine of fine marine sedimentation, or vadose diagen-
and volcanites. esis or subaerial spending of limestone.
Carbonate components occur by inorganic Cave limestone or dripstone is “stalactites”
processes are consist of large rhombohedral formed around water dripping, saturated in
calcite crystals in the form of sparite cement or Ca-bicarbonate in the limestone caves and
cavern. Cave limestones that grow from the floor
upward are called stalagmites. Stalactites often
join stalagmites to create “stalagmate” (Fig.
5.60). Stalactites grow due to the secretion of
the dissolution of aragonite above CCD bound- conditions, i.e. the pores are either filled with
ary line. There is no secretion or calcite cement air in the summer and with freshwater in the
below this line with the dissolution of calcite in- rainy period. All meteoric (rain) water flow to
gredients. Kohout convection is the circulation of the sea through the vadose region play key role
saline groundwater deep within carbonate plat- in the diagenetic process in met-stable carbonate
forms. In the deep-sea diagenetic zone, very sediments. In areas with heavy rainfall and
slow process of dolomitization occurs due to porous deposit, meteoric water is quickly mov-
thermal convection and saturation of seawater ing through the surface of the sediment and
with respect to dolomite (Section 5.7.2.3). thereby powerfully dissolves limestone sedi-
Diagenetic processes occur in evaporation ments. This process leads to increased concentra-
zone when strong evaporation of seawater tions of Ca-hydrogen carbonate, so that
from the saline or sabkha, and the pores of lime- evaporation of rainwater in dry periods during
stone deposits around in areas with dry, arid the porous carbonate deposits, leads to secretion
climate. In addition to the secretion of aragonite, of calcite in the form of microstalactite calcite, or
there is early diagenetic dolomitization (Section mosaic cement as well as secretion of vadose
5.7.2.2) and secretions of evaporites minerals ooids.
say gypsum, anhydrite and halite (Section 5.8.1).
Diagenetic processes in condition of mixed 5.7.1.4.2. DIAGENETIC PROCESSES
meteoric and marine (brackish) water occur in AT GREATER DEPTHS OF COVERING
underground mixed zone where mixing mete- Diagenetic processes in deposit located at
oric (rain) sweet and salty seawater. This zone greater depth are covered with new thicker sed-
is very variable in shape, spread and geometry iments (Fig. 5.61) and no longer operate diage-
in depth and laterally. Depending on the oscilla- netic processes appropriate for surface and
tion of sea level, underground mixed zone subsurface conditions. The depth of the overlay
moves farther from the sea towards the land is not yet enough to act metamorphic processes
(relative upper sea level), or from the mainland, (depth >5500e6600 m). This diagenetic area is
extending from the coast towards the sea (rela- interrupted by free exchange of fluid and chem-
tively lower sea level), which is especially impor- ically active atmospheric gases, particularly ox-
tant for dolomitization processes (Section 5.7.2.2 ygen and CO2, and progressively increasing
and Fig. 5.67). the temperature and pressure. The porosity de-
Diagenetic processes in meteoric zone (sweet creases drastically by compaction processes
water pore) taking place or in meteoric zone or and significantly reduces the ability to change
vadose zone (Fig. 5.61). fluids. Pore fluids have already suffered changes
Meteoric zone is the region below the basal in the composition because of the interaction
levels of freshwater, in which deposits are and mixing of ions contained in the original
continuously soaked with fresh basic water pore water and fluids originating from the sur-
(Fig. 5.61). There is sweet pore water poor in rounding sediments, particularly those related
Mg2þ and Naþ ions, and generally oversaturated to compaction flow. The water squeezes in the
with Ca2þ ions, and so is excreted calcite mosaic compaction of deposit. Porosity reducing of
and “blocky” cements. limestone deposits is the most significant result
Vadose zone is the area above the permanent of diagenesis at greater depths of covering,
level of basic freshwater in which the pores in the and as a result of mechanical and chemical
rock filled with water occasionally during the compaction (pressure melting) and cementiza-
rainfall and the residual rainwater (Fig. 5.61). tion as a result of drainage sparite Druze calcite
Most of the time sediments are in subair cement.
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 197
Compaction includes processes of mechanical began breaking the grain, and at depths
compaction, squeezing water and chemical >300 m pressure melting processes. The
compaction related to pressure dissolution and porosity of pelagic mud gradually further re-
formation of “stilolite” (serrated surface). Me- duces (Fig. 5.62).
chanical compaction and squeezing of water Shelf carbonate mud (Fig. 5.62) has signifi-
have a significant impact only in the mud, cantly different compaction in pelagic mud. It
deep water carbonate deposit, especially pelagic mainly consists of elongated particles and
mud and chalky deposit (Fig. 5.62). needle-like, not isometric, shape, whereby the
Pelagic mud and chalky deposit i.e. deposits needles of aragonite act bipolar bind water mol-
which contain scaffolding of the sea or plank- ecules. The structure of carbonate mud looks like
tonic organisms, have high primary total “honeycomb” or “structure of the house of
porosity (w80%) of which intergranular cards” clay deposits. The effects of squeezing
porosity accounts for w35% after deposition. the water reduce considerably higher than those
The porosity is reduced to w65% and less, due at pelagic mud. The primary total porosity of
to the rapid redeployment of squeezing water, w70% reduces to w40% after restructuring of
reduction of isometric keletal grain size, me- needle particles in the horizontal position at a
chanical reorganization of grains and change depth of 100 m and then do not change until
of the structure of deposits, at a depth 50 m of the beginning of the process of pressure melting
covering. At depths between 50 and 200 m at w300 m depth (Fig. 5.62).
Porosity (%)
0 20 40 60 80
0 r
Mechanical te
f wa
restructuring no
50
es sio
ns
xpr Mechanical
grai ated
grai
E
100 restructuring
g
ns
g of
Elon
Depth of overlay (m)
shin
Cru
200
grain
Ball
dissolu ssion
dissolu ssion
dissolu ssion
300 Pelagic
tion
tion
tion
mud
re
re
re
Comp
Comp
Comp
Shelf
carbonate
400 mud
Carbonate
sand
600
0 20 40 60 80
FIGURE 5.62 Diagrams of changes in porosity with increasing depth of the overlay with schematic representation of the
main processes that lead to changes in the pelagic chalky mud and deposit, shelf carbonate mud and ooid, peloid and
bioclastics limestone sands. Source: Modified after Scholle40; Enoch and Sawatsky.16
198 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Carbonate sands have grain support. After Sections 5.7.1.4.1 and 5.7.1.4.2), bioerosion,
cementization greystone types of limestone, micritization of carbonate grains and activity or-
characterized by significantly different effects ganisms (endolithic) that drill foundation on
of mechanical compaction and squeezing of wa- which they grow and recrystallization of lime-
ter from pelagic mud and shelf carbonate mud stone sludge (micrite) and microcrystalline
(Fig. 5.62). Primary intergranular porosity of calcite in microcrystalline and/or macrocrystal-
ooid or peloid sands is less than previously line calcite or conversion of limestone type
stated mud and chalky sludge due to sphere mudstone, wackestone and floatstone in crystal-
grain shape. There will be stronger decrease of line limestone (Section 5.7.1.3; Fig. 5.55).
porosity in the first 50 m depth of the overlay. Allochemical diagenetic processes in limestone
The original 40% will reduce to 30% (Fig. 5.62) lead to changes in chemical composition of lime-
due to redeployment of spherical grains of un- stone and limestone deposits by circulation of
stable rhombohedral, more porous in stable, pores solutions that bring into some other chem-
less porous cubic grain packing. The pressure ical compounds and anions (such as Mg2þ and
melting starts at the grain contacts to about Si4þ cations and SO2 4 anion, and borrowing
300 m depth (Fig. 5.62). Ca2þ and CO2 3 ). Most significant allochemical
Chemical compaction includes processes of diagenetic processes in limestone are silicifica-
pressure melting on contact with the formation tion, anhydratization and dolomitization.
of stilolite at depths of covering of few hundreds Silicification is an allochemical diagenetic pro-
to a thousand or more meters. Stilolitization cess in which solution enriched with Si-ions, usu-
significantly reduce the porosity and the total ally in the form of silicic acid (H4SiO4) in
thickness of limestone deposits. carbonate rocks suppress calcite, aragonite and
Cementization at greater depths of covering dolomite with opal, chalcedony or low-
in the limestone sediments are mainly down to temperature quartz, meaning, silicon hydroxides
the secretion of coarse crystal calcite cement or oxides, and dissolved carbonates taking in the
and/or iron dolomite (baroque dolomite). form of Ca-hydrogen carbonate. Like other allo-
Baroque iron dolomite typically contains 15 or chemical diagenetic processes, silicification may
more molar percent FeCO3, and occurs with induce another untied and unlithified deposit
the participation of hydrocarbons at greater at the early diagenetic stage, or already rigid
depths of covering at temperatures between 60 and solid rock is replaced during late-
and 150 C or fills voids or mineral substance diagenetic silicification. Silicification processes
that suppresses the surrounding carbonates in in limestone generates autogenous quartz, opal
the rock. or chalcedony in the form of single crystals or
crystal aggregates, and nodule, lump, lenticular
5.7.1.4.3. ISOCHEMICAL AND ALLOCHEMICAL or implants of hornfels.
DIAGENETIC PROCESSES Anhydratization in carbonate rocks may be the
Isochemical diagenetic processes in limestone do process or forcing early diagenetic carbonate or
not lead to changes in chemical composition of anhydrite deposits, suppression of carbonate
limestone, but change only their porosity and minerals in the solid limestone or dolomite
structure. The most critical multifunctional anhydrite during late-diagenetic process, and
mechanisms are dissolution of some mineral secretion of anhydrite in the pores, cavities and
substances (halite and aragonite), transforma- veins of limestone, dolomite and other rocks in
tion of aragonite and magnesium calcite in the circulation of pores solution containing sul-
calcite, secretion of aragonite or calcite cement fate. Sulfate ions-rich solutions usually originate
in the pores (cementization summarized in from tidal saline (sabkha), or salt ponds or lakes
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 199
left in the recesses by tidal environment after the Limestone enjoys major shares of sedimentary
withdrawal of the sea. Early diagenetic anhy- rocks in the Earth’s crust. It is easily identifiable
dratization in such environments requires due to softness, color, texture and instant effer-
strong evaporation with increasing temperature vescences with hydrochloric acid (HCl). The nat-
and a permanent increase in salinity (“sabkha- ural landscape of limestone gives an excellent
conditions”). Late-diagenetic anhydratization panorama in the country sides (Fig. 5.63).
occurs during circulation of pores water con- Limestone is readily available, relatively easy
taining SO2 4 -ions through the rigid carbonate to cut into blocks/carving and long lasting.
rocks, with the suppression of carbon com- Limestone is very common in architecture and
pounds anhydrite. Such suppression will be of sculpture across the World (to name a few Great
unequal intensity, irregular, and often in the Pyramid, Egypt, Courthouse building, Manhat-
rock selectively anhydratizationed only some tan, USA, Golden Fort, India), historical monu-
components, while others remain largely fully ments and buildings. It is the primary raw
preserved. In late-diagenetic anhydratization material for the manufacture of quicklime (cal-
with large anhydrite crystals in limestone are cium oxide), slaked like (calcium hydroxide),
usually found numerous tectonic venation, cav- cement and mortar, as flux in the blast furnace
ities and pores filled with anhydrite crystal ag- in iron industry, soil conditioner, aggregate,
gregates as a result of secretion of anhydrite glass making, paper, plastics, paint, tooth paste,
from solution that are circulated in these rocks. medicines and cosmetics. The fossil bearing (cya-
Dolomitization is the most important and nobacteria algae, skeletons and shells) lime-
common allochemical diagenetic process that en- stones are potential sources of phosphate,
gages the limestone deposits and limestone, and petroleum and gas.
turning them into dolomitic limestone or dolo-
stone or simply dolomite. Dolomitization is a
process by which dolomite is formed when mag-
5.7.2. Dolomites
nesium ions replace calcium ions in calcite. It in- Dolomite is a carbonate mineral composed of
volves substantial amount of recrystallization. calcium magnesium carbonate [CaMg(CO3)2]
FIGURE 5.63 High NeS trending low-dip hills at the east bank of river Nile stands for an vast resource of commercial
quality limestone (top of the picture). The river cruse near Esna town, Egypt, presents a typical landscape with luxuriant
growth of date palm trees in the middle and the flowing Nile water in the foreground.
200 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
FIGURE 5.65 Dolomitization in a mixed zone of marine and freshwater in wet conditions (humid) climate with migration
of mixed zone in the direction of the sea due to the relative lowering of sea level.
TABLE 5.6 Limit Values Necessary to Increase the Gypsum is excreted in the closed shallow
Concentration of Seawater at 30 C for seawater and salt lakes in the initial stages of
Extraction of Minerals Evaporites
drying sabkha. The initial salinity might not
Increase in the reach the concentration suitable for the secretion
Mineral Excreted Concentration of Seawater of anhydrite (Table 5.6). The extract of gypsum
Calcite, aragonite, To 3.5 times
or anhydrite depends primarily on the concen-
dolomite tration (salinity) of water and environments in
shallow-sea water or protected shallow or salt
Gypsum 3.5e4.8 times
lake, and evaporites sabkha conditions.
Anhydrite 4.8e9.5 times Anhydrite (sabkha anhydrite) is excreted in
Halite 9.5e11 times large amounts in association with early diage-
netic dolomite in coastal saline or sabkha at tem-
KeMg salt >60 times
peratures of about 25e35 C in conditions of dry
Source: Ref. 16. climate and strong evaporation of water, which
significantly increased the concentration of Ca-
sulfate and salinity at approximately 4e7 times
anhydrite commences above this concentration higher than normal salinity of seawater.
at temperature of 30 C. Necessary increase of Halite (rock salt, Fig. 1.9) is excreted mostly in
concentration in relation to the normal concen- close marine shallow waters, saline (sabkha) and
tration of seawater and the sequence of secretion occasional salt lakes which during dry periods
of singular evaporite minerals at a temperature left without water in the form of layered cyclic
of 30 C displays in Table 5.6. sequence. Such sequences often destroyed
The secretion of Ca-sulfates (gypsum and completely by diapirism, which are very prone
anhydrite) can take place from solutions of small to salt deposits. In diapirism, by plastic injection
concentration at temperatures much higher than in roof sediments a significant part of the salts
30 C. Gypsum, for example, is excreted at a tem- can dissolve. In subaquatic conditions, i.e. the
perature of 58 C from the water with normal closed shallow sea and salt lakes, salt crystals
salinity, and anhydrite secretes much above in evaporation grow, at the surface of water,
that temperature. On the other hand, gypsum particularly intense at the contact water-
and anhydrite can secrete at lower temperatures, sediment and within the sediment due to the
if solutions have a high salinity. For example, relatively slow growth of crystals and slightly
anhydrite begins to exude at a temperature of elevated salinity, resulting in large crystals of
60 C from seawater with normal concentration. halite.
The same secretion begins at 20 C from the wa-
ter with 7 times higher concentrations at arid sa-
line or sabkha. The secretion of anhydrite, Diapirism is an anticlinal fold or sedimentary
gypsum, halite and KeMg salt is directly depen- layers in which a mobile core, such as, salt or
dent on temperature and salinity of water. gypsum, has pierced through the more brittle
Normal salinity requires high temperature, and overlying rocks.
with increasing salinity the secretion of evapo-
rites is possible at lower temperatures, especially
in saline or sabkha and salt lakes. The primary porosity in the salt sediments is
Gypsum, anhydrite and halite evaporite sedi- directly dependent on the dimensions of the
mentary rocks can be found much more likely crystal and place of their origin. Mechanical
than evaporites rocks containing KeMg salt. compaction can be very different compared to
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 205
the thickness of salt deposits as it depends on periods in the peritidal environment zone. The
the pore waters and the waters in surrounding tides and ebb, and coastal sabkha salt water are
sediments outside evaporite deposits. Migration lost in the recesses of high-tide zone (Fig. 5.70).
of highly concentrated fluid from the salt de- Such environments are found along border parts
posits in the water layer or from the water in of the sea in younger Perm (geological period of
the residue can cause dolomitization of lime- <265e251 million years). The level of sea gradu-
stone deposits, and cementing early diagenetic ally declines with regressive tendency, and the
salt and other deposits in the form of extraction continental environments of clastic Playa and
of gypsum, anhydrite and calcite. In such evaporite coastal environment progress in
cementation primary texturalestructural fea- shallow-sea sedimentary area. While the clastic
tures of evaporites deposits may preserved rocks (Fig. 5.68) precipitate in the environment
very well, such as lamination, nodule, stratifica- of front beach and/or playa to the salt lakes,
tion, and so on. the community of carbonate and evaporites
From the standpoint of geology and petro- (anhydrite, which on the surface is hydrated in
leum the evaporite complexes, especially halite early diagenetic gypsum and dolomite) is
and gypsum deposits, are excellent insulator created in the coastal sabkha and supratidal
rocks beneath which often found significant zones in condition of permanent relative
amount of oil and gas accumulation. lowering of the sea levels and shrinking of the
sea area (Fig. 5.68).
5.7.3.2. Petrology and Diagenesis Most of the anhydrite arises directly in the
of Evaporite Sediments sabkha conditions and part of the anhydrite
The common textural and structural feature of can come from dehydration of gypsum in sabkha
the sabkha anhydrite is nodular configuration or cycles that originated in the tidal zones (inter-
nodular anhydrite, thicker and/or thinner tidal) or in the initial stages of drying sabkha.
concentric layers, lamina, or just thin layers of Large amount of gypsum arising in underwater
dolomite. Anhydrite within nodule consists of conditions could be dehydrated in anhydrite.
different oriented, elongated to needle crystals These anhydrites have pseudomorph based on
(acicular anhydrite). Relationship of anhydrite gypsum, and often preserve beautiful contours
and dolomite in nodular anhydrite depends on of gypsum crystals. Dehydration of gypsum to
salinity, temperature and strength of water evap- anhydrite is reversible process that can be shown
oration in saline, as well as the duration of sab- by the following reversible reaction:
kha conditions and the content of sulfate in
saline water. Extraordinary examples of sabkha
cycles with nodular sabkha anhydrite are gypsum anhydrite water
found in deep exploratory oil wells anhydritee CaSO4 $2H2 O 4 CaSO4 þ 2H2 O
carbonate complexes in the Long Island district, !
increase in temperature and salinity
Croatia. Upper Permian evaporites and associ-
ated carbonates and the fine-ground clasts of
central part of the Dinarides (central and north- Gypsum dehydration takes place at increase
ern Dalmatia, Croatia and north-western Bosnia) of salinity and temperature, and hydration of
belong to the regressive sedimentary system anhydrite at reduced salinity and temperature.
with evaporation conditions of coastal sabkha Anhydrite occurs on the surface of Earth in
and peritidal environment. arid hypersalted, and gypsum in the colder and
Playa are the coastal salt lakes that remain less salty environments. If the gypsum came un-
with very little water or without during dry der the influence of hypersalted fluid its
206 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
FIGURE 5.68 Environment of deposition of calcareouseevaporite complex in central Dalmatia: (1) tidal zone or intertidal
environment with the deposition of limestone, (2) supratidal zones or supratidal environment with coastal sabkha, (3) early
diagenetic dolomites and evaporites (evaporite-dolomite facies) and (4) salt lake in which deposit fine-ground and gypsum
crystals.
conversion into anhydrite occurs at tempera- anhydrites and rocks in which they appear do
tures between 25 and 45 C and the depths of not belong to evaporates, or be considered evap-
the overlay of 1e2 m. The pore or meteor water, orite deposits.
under the influence of average salinity of pore Hydration of anhydrite into gypsum usually
fluid and the geothermic gradient of 1 C in begins along cracks of cleavage anhydrite crys-
each 33 m depth and if the temperature rises tals and along tectonic crushed and fissured
from w20 C on the surface to w50e60 C at zones in the form of veins microcrystalline and
depth of the overlay of >1 km, gypsum goes macrocrystalline aggregate of gypsum or fibrous
into anhydrite by dehydration. The relics of gyp- gypsum cluster.
sum crystals are often preserved in the newly At a higher degree of hydration of anhydrite
created anhydrite. On the other hand, under to gypsum, larger crystals of newly created gyp-
the action of pore and meteor water at normal sum fit relic anhydrite or centripetal push anhy-
salinity at depths cover of <1 km the anhydrite drite crystals. Homogeneous, fibrous gypsum
hydrates to gypsum increasing its volume by occurs at complete hydration of anhydrite,
about 38%. which contains the remains of a rare anhydrite.
The conversion of gypsum to anhydrite Hydration of anhydrite to gypsum depends on
causes other diagenetic effects at greater depths, the reduction of temperature and salinity of
especially melting, cementing, dolomitization pore water contained in evaporates, especially
and anhydratization, secretion of secondary by long effect of fresh rainwater on anhydrite
anhydrite in cracks, tectonic cracks, cavern and surface. This process is particularly intense in
melt holes in limestones and dolomites. These tectonically fissured and crushed anhydrite, as
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 207
in dolomite which contain sabkha anhydrite,
and typically leads to cracking or complete
destruction of thick dolomitic lamina. In this
way, along with actual tectonic crushing,
result in dolomitic-gypsum breccias composed
of fragments of dolomite and gypsum binder
or matrix. The share of dolomite in the sabkha
anhydrite is considerably smaller than the
share of what was originally, because it is sup-
pressed by early diagenetic anhydratization
processes already in sabkha, and also in the
hydration and dehydration processes in enter-
olithic folding and diapirism. Diapirism is
mainly moving plastic gypsum and dolomite
FIGURE 5.69 Gypsum with laminae and layers of early remains.
diagenetic dolomite rich in organic matter (black). Gypsum
appears only in the surface of the evaporite complex, where 3. Silicon sediment and sedimentary rocks
it is originated by hydration from anhydrite.
5.7.4. Siliceous Sediments and Rocks
it is the case of the upper Permian evaporites
surrounding of Sinj and Knin, Croatia Silicon sediment and sedimentary rocks are
(Fig. 5.69). composed of autogenous non-detrite silicon ox-
Hydration process of anhydrite to gypsum ides or oxides with water. Siliceous rocks are
and dehydration of gypsum in the anhydrite composed of opal-A, cristobalite or opal-CT,
can be in the same rocks frequently repeated. chalcedony, quartzite and cryptocrystalline or
While the thin lamina of early diagenetic dolo- microcrystalline quartz, which are in biochemical
mite, and organic matter in evaporites, due to or inorganic chemical processes extracted from
repeated expansion and contraction, forming ter- aqueous solutions enriched in silicic acid,
minates or pleated lamina, nests and bent strips H4SiO4. They can occur by deposition of opal
(Fig. 5.51). That is so-called enterolithic folding skeletons and inorganic secretion of these min-
like tectonic folding, which are often interpreted erals in solution containing silica acid. In chemi-
like it. Although it is similar to tectonic deforma- cal secretion silicon minerals suppress the
tion, it is not due to tectonics, but recrystalliza- original minerals in deposits and rocks in the pro-
tion and chemical changes in the volume of cess of silicification. This leads to silicified lime-
Ca-sulfate for shrinkage and expansion during stones, dolomites and tuffs, as well as nodule,
hydration and dehydration, reversible transi- lenses and lumps of chert in carbonate rocks.
tions anhydrite in gypsum and gypsum in
anhydrite. 5.7.4.1. Mineral Composition, Origin
The volume of evaporite rocks increases and Classification of Silicon Sediments
during hydration of anhydrite to gypsum by and Sedimentary Rocks
about 38%, which is accompanied by strong Opal-A and opal-CT are primary constituent
stresses and diapirism, injecting gypsum into of the silicon sediments, and the silicon rocks
the surrounding rocks, usually in the roof of have in addition of quartzite, quartz and
evaporites. In the process enterolithic folding chalcedony.
occurs on account of significant differences in Opal (SiO2$nH2O) is an amorphous mineral
the degree of plasticity of gypsum or lamina flint, mixture of amorphous SiO2 and opal-CT,
208 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
i.e. cryptocrystalline cristobalite with 8e10% of (chert concretions, nodules, bumps and
water. In silicon sediments occurs or as an lenticulares):
ingredient of opal skeletal diatoms, radiolaria
1. As microquartz in the form of isometric
and spiculae sponges diatom (biogenic opal or
idiomorphic, mosaic crystals of diameter
opal-A) or its origin is related to processes of
<35 mm, which intrude into each other, and
surface-silicification as well as processes of
often contain many small impurities.
early diagenetic and late-diagenetic silicifica-
2. As megaquartz in the form of mosaic
tion of deposits or solid rocks, with the partici-
equidimensional crystals of diameter from
pation of solutions enriched in silicic acid
50 to 300 mm.
(H4SiO4).
Besides biogenous origin (opal-A of which are Chalcedony is microcrystalline fibrous vari-
built houses of radiolaria and diatoms or needles ety of quartz with small shares of water
of diatom sponge) and diagenetic origin (as a (1e2% H2O probably built in the form of
product of secretion of aqueous solutions of the SiOH layers). Chalcedony fibers occur in paral-
normal temperature), opal may be hydrothermal lel with each other or radially arranged ball,
in origin (as a product of secretion from the hot kidney or irregular clusters. Chalcedony is
solution), as for example, in the case for found also in the form of veins, and botryoidal
geyserite. mass within cherts.
Low-temperature cristobalite or opal-CT is a The criteria for the classification of silicon sed-
low temperature tetragonal modification of SiO2, iments and silicon rocks are based on organic or
stable below 270 C which is generated in silicon inorganic origin, degree of lithification, diage-
sediments during diagenesis by transformation netic change and the textural and structural char-
from opal-A, i.e. opal skeleton. This transforma- acteristics (Table 5.7).
tion occurs in a mild increase of temperature at
depths of covering a few hundred meters. Thus, 5.7.4.2. Siliceous Sediments and Siliceous
opal-CT is a transitional structural form between Rocks of Biogenic Foundation
biogenous opal (opal-A) and quartz. The most important organisms and its opal
Quartzite is cryptocrystalline short-fiber vari- skeletons that participate in the formation of sili-
ety of incompletely recrystallized of chalcedony ceous sediments are diatoms, radiolarians,
into quartz whose fibers are elongated in direc- spicule of sponge and silicoflagellate. In the
tion of crystallographic axis c. It occurs by group of biogenic silicon sedimentary rocks
recrystallization in diagenetic processes from (Table 5.7) of petrographic important sediments
opal-A, mainly in the recrystallization of radio- are diatomaceous, radiolarian and spicule
larian shells, in the presence of pore fluid satu- muds as loose deposits, and diatomaceous and
rated with quartz and rich in magnesium and radiolarian earth and porous spiculite as weak
sulfate. It also occurs in association with elon- lithificated and porous rocks, and as firmly lith-
gated fibrous chalcedony which is difficult to ificated, thick rocks without porosity: diatomite,
distinguish in micrographic thin section. radiolarite and spiculite.
Quartz in silicon sediments, especially in Diatomaceous mud, diatomaceous earth and
layered and striped chert, appears in the diatomite are silicon sediments mostly built of
form of microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline skeleton of diatomaceous algae, and with them
isometric clusters, and in flint in the form of often and skeletons of silicoflagellate, radiolaria,
dense cryptocrystalline clusters. Quartz is clay minerals, Fe oxides and Fe hydroxides.
found in the silicon sediments made by Recent diatoms are widespread in the cold sea
silicification of carbonate sediments and rocks around the South Pole and the northern Pacific
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 209
TABLE 5.7 Distribution of Silicon and Silicon Rock Sediments by Way of Origin, Structure and Mineral Composition
Ocean. There is also the largest deposit amount of (zooplankton) organisms that float near the sea
recent depositionddiatomaceous muddwith surface. These are single-celled organisms whose
predominant ingredient of diatoms skeletons. homes consist of SrSO4, some organic silicate, or
With the marine environment diatoms were opal-A. The only preserved fossils are opal
and still today, adapted for life in marine and homes (opal-A) of spherical shapes, diameters
lacustrine sweetened water, so that within lake between 50 and 250 mm, usually about 150 mm.
sediments often form a lamina or layers exclu- The rocks consist of fungous glassy membranes
sively composed of opal skeleton, (diatomite with many regular radially spaced thorns.
lamina). The lake water poor in earth-alkalic Radiolarites are thick rocks of glassy shine,
ions (lake with “soft water”), and rich in dis- have microgranular structure, mainly composed
solved silica, nitrates and phosphates, ecologi- of radiolaria skeleton and fibrous chalcedony ag-
cally are favorable environment for the gregates. Black radiolarites are rich in organic
development of diatomaceous which deposit dia- matter and are called touchstone.
tomaceous mud after dying and gradually turns Spicule muds and spiculites are mainly
in diatomite in lakes with areas of cold climate. composed of spicule silica sponge, built of
Diatomite, unlike diatomaceous mud and dia- opal-A. Opal-A in spiculites, during diagenetic
tomaceous earth, is very hard, dense low- processes, as one of the skeletons built and the
porosity rock, of light gray or white color, one excreted as cement, recrystallized in opal-
composed opal skeletons of diatomaceous, CT and cryptocrystalline quartz, and chalced-
amorphous opal-A, cemented together with ony. Spiculites also contain carbonate, clayey
opal or in older rocks, microcrystalline or crypto- and powder matrix as essential ingredients and
crystalline quartz or fibrous chalcedony cement. glauconite. Spicule of sponges is constructed
Chalcedony fills the pores of the largest from opal or chalcedony, and an elongated cen-
dimension. tral channel of spicule filled with opal cement.
Radiolarian muds, radiolarian earths and Biogenic silicon deposits occur in areas with
radiolarites are predominantly composed of high primary production of opal and radiolarian
radiolaria skeletons built of opal-A, diagenetic skeletons or spicule with low influence of terrig-
transformed chalcedony and quartz. Radiolarian enous material and low carbonate, or the CCD
belongs to protozoaemarine plankton boundary line is located at short depth. All or
210 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
most of the carbonate in such environment is dis- Tripoli is white or light gray, porous silicon
solved in water column before it sediments at the sediment composed of microcrystalline quartz.
bottom, or melting occurs within sediment It occurs by partial silicification of carbonate
located below the CCD boundary line. The solu- rocks, where the quartz component stays after
bility of opal in seawater is relatively good and the weathering, while the carbonate component
enhanced with increasing temperature and almost entirely secreted from the rock.
depth, and therefore deep sea silicon sediments Cherts appear in two ways:
are good indicators of diagenetic processes. Sili-
1. As layered rocks.
con muds have high porosity (75e90%) and
2. As nodules, lenses and irregular clumps.
remain diagenetic unchanged near the seabed,
up to several hundred meters of deposits. These rocks are known under the general
name of chert, and some call it hornfels. Cherts
5.7.4.3. Siliceous Sediments and Siliceous include all solid-silicon rocks, regardless of origin
Rocks of Diagenesis Origin of silicon mineral, consisting of cryptocrystalline
The silicon rocks are divided into two groups or microcrystalline quartz of non-detrite origin
based on appearance, texture characteristics, and/or chalcedony (Fig. 5.70), and opal-CT.
form of occurrence and origin: inorganic and/ These are dense, very hard rocks, sharp fracture
or diagenetic origin (Table 5.7). silicon minerals contain Fe-oxides or hydroxides
and organic matter (Fig. 5.70). The silicon min-
1. Weak lithificated and high porous rocks;
erals within cryptocrystalline to microcrystalline
geyserite, porcelanite, tripoli.
mass composed clearly preserved skeletons, or
2. Firm lithificated, dense rocks with no
their unclear remains, “ghosts” due to intensive
porosity: layered cherts, flint, novaculite,
recrystallization. It applies to radiolarians that
jasper, nodular and lenticular cherts.
from the entire silicon skeleton most resistant to
Geyserite is a siliceous sedimentary rock recrystallization.
which occurs by secretion of opal from hot water The dimensions of quartz crystals in the cherts
in geysers and hot springs at its outbreak to the rarely exceed 10 mm (Fig. 5.70), and for further
surface of the Earth. Geyserite and rocks of research of cherts structure needs electronic
similar origin are known as silicon sinter. Geyser- microscope.
ites are incrustation of fibers and pearls (silicon
sinter) resulting in the secretion of opal in evap-
oration of silica-rich hot springs fiorite, accord-
ing to the locality of Santa Fiora from Tuscany
in Italy where the “sintered silicon” is extracted
as stone for making ornaments.
Porcelanite is a chert variety cryptocrystalline
in structure, blurry shine of white color very
similar to unglazed porcelain. It consists of
opal-A, opal-CT (cryptocrystalline cristobalite)
and sometimes tridymite. It is more porous
and softer than chert. It occurs by diagenetic
processes of recrystallization of opal-A into
opal-CT from radiolarian muds and secretion
of tridymite from pore solution in a greater FIGURE 5.70 Microscopic recording of chert composed
depth of the overlay. of microcrystalline quartz cluster and fiber chalcedony.
5.7. CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 211
Bedded cherts (layered hornfels) appear in the smaller/larger amount of quartzite and chalced-
form of thin layered (3e8 cm) or tens of meters ony, and opal-CT. Microcrystalline quartz in
thick chert deposits within dark gray to black shale limestone suppresses micrite mass, typically
or fine-grained graywacke sandstone, layered iron contains numerous small impurities of calcite,
sediments, and striped cherts. Bedded cherts are evaporite minerals and/or the primary struc-
common in preCambrian, Paleozoic and Meso- tural components (micrite, pellets, ooids, and
zoic. The Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits occur fossils), chert concretions in limestone of south-
almost everywhere in the World. The chert family ern Istria (Croatia). In general, nodular and
can be described as the following: lenticular cherts are egg or spherical shapes
regardless of whether they appear inside layer
1. Cherts, in the wider sense, are known as flint,
or between two layers (Fig. 5.71).
novaculite and jasper, porcelanite and tripoli.
Most bedded cherts occur mainly by processes
2. Flint is the chert with cryptocrystalline texture
of recrystallization of diatomite, radiolarites and
used as artifacts, weapons and tools of
spiculite or acid tuffs and volcanic glasses.
prehistoric man.
Nodular and lenticular cherts generally occur in
3. Novaculite is a variety of light or white, dense
the processes of suppression of carbonate sedi-
and solid chert, laminated, Devonian age,
ments or some other rock with opal, chalcedony
characterized by homogeneous
or quartz, with the participation of silicon acid,
cryptocrystalline to microcrystalline anhedral
i.e. processes of silicification (Section 5.7.1.4.3).
texture, isometric tiny quartz crystals and
Sediments and sedimentary rocks that origi-
over fibrous chalcedony.
nate from igneous, metamorphic and older sedi-
4. Jasper is a dense, opaque variety of
mentary rocks, is ever forming new sedimentary
cryptocrystalline chalcedony, contain
deposits through the millions of geologic age.
significant proportion of Fe-oxides and
Erosion of preexisting rocks is the primary
hydroxides namely hematite, limonite and
source of natural embryo-grains, that move, de-
goethite so that reddish characteristic come
posit, lithify and form the sedimentary rocks.
from hematite and brownish color from
The process continues for eternity (Fig. 5.72).
goethite.
5. Tripoli is a naturally-occurringfine-grained
microcrystalline mineral from chert family. It
has special application abrasive mineral used
in a variety of industries for sharpening,
buffing and polishing end uses.
6. Novaculite is a form of microcrystalline or
cryptocrystalline quartz of chert family. The
color varies from white to gray-black and the
specific gravity shows an increase from 2.2 to
2.5. The very hard dense rock is used as
abrasive machining for steel tools, sharpening
and grinding blocks or whetstone.
Nodular and lenticular cherts occur within
limestones and dolomites, and significantly less
within pelite and sandy sediments. It consists FIGURE 5.71 Egg-like chert nodule and spherical
of microcrystalline and/or cryptocrystalline impression in limestone from which was removed chert
quartz, equidimensional quartz crystals, with nodule. Southern Istria, Croatia.
212 5. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The sedimentary depositional system preserves Potter, et al.,35 Slovenec,43 Slovenec et al.42 and
its own history for the students of mineralogy, Sam Boggs10 provide a detailed description on
stratigraphy and exploration geology (Fig. 5.73). sedimentary rocks and their origin. Moore31 and
Boggs (Jr)3 will be an interesting reading on the
FURTHER READING subject. Academicians and students knowing
Croatian language will be benefited reading
Tucker et al.,54 Tucker,55 Bathurs,1 Engel- Tisljar47e51 on sedimentary rocks.
hardt,15 Füchtbauer,19 Flügel,20 Pettijohn et al.,32
C H A P T E R
6
Metamorphic Rocks
O U T L I N E
The weight of the overburden sediments or pressure (stress) causes the crushing of minerals
upper part of the crust will have little effect in and rocks. The directed pressure (static stress)
transformation, other than compaction and lithi- can cause partial melting and recrystallization
fication including secretion of liquids by bringing of minerals by Ricke principle at greater depths.
and binding the grains close together in sedimen- This is because the melting point of minerals de-
tary rocks. The compressive forces, due to creases with increase of pressure at that place
orogenic movements or mountain-making and also increases its solubility. In places of
process, act as lateral thrust on the crust. The lesser pressure, minerals are often recrystallize.
entire mass of geological strata including intru- The plate-, leaf- and stick-like minerals occur in
sive, extrusive and fragmented volcanic igneous parallel rows under the influence of unidirec-
rocks are folded, closely deformed and faulted tional pressure during metamorphism. The
by this powerful pressure and tend to produce newly formed metamorphic rocks attain schis-
shearing stresses. The deformation by shearing tose texture and lepidoblastic (leaf-like) or nem-
stresses would be the potential agent in produc- atoblastic (stick-like) structure.
ing metamorphism. The large crystals and peb- The rocks of metamorphic family are crystal-
bles will be flattened, elongated and deformed. line and resemble sedimentary rocks in having
Heat is a powerful metamorphic agent. The parallel lamellar structure with well-defined foli-
increase of temperature in the lithosphere is ation that simulates bedding. The varieties of
driven by three factors: foliation are recognized as (1) gneissic, (2) schis-
tose and (3) slaty.
1. Geothermic gradient gradually increasing the
temperature of the surface toward depths of 1. Gneissic structure is applied to perfect to
the earth (w25e30 C for each kilometer of roughly foliated rocks and characterized as
depth or 1 C for every 33e40 m depth). banded and lenticular layers of different
2. Effect of heat by magmatic body that is composition (say quartz and hornblende)
printed in the interior of the lithosphere. with parallel alignment make the rock with
3. Friction in rock masses by tectonic distinct structure (Fig. 6.1) that resembles
movements in the lithosphere.
The water, under the influence of heat and pres-
sure, acts as a powerful chemical agent. It operates
as solvent and promotes recrystallization.
The common rock forming minerals in meta-
morphic groups are kyanite, zoisite, staurolite,
garnet, biotite, talc and graphite representing
as characteristic constituents. Chlorite and seri-
cite are attributes of low-rank (mild) metamor-
phism. Kyanite and staurolite are high-rank
(more intense) metamorphism. Some minerals
like quartz can be formed under all conditions
of metamorphism or be present as relicts from
the original rocks.
The rocks that plunge into the deeper parts of
FIGURE 6.1 Banded or layered granite gneiss as illus-
the lithosphere by geological processes are sub- trated by alternate layers of crystalline feldspar and quartz
jected to remain under increasing high pressure. (white), and biotite and hornblende (black) resembling
In the shallower parts of the lithosphere, directed unique sedimentary bedding structure.
6.1. ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 215
sedimentary bedding. In lenticular gneiss,
some of the layer components are represented
by aggregates of thicker and thinner lenses
wrapped by other minerals (Fig. 6.11). The
coarse and fine lenticular structure resembles
lumpy or stretched lenses aligned along the
layers.
2. Schistose or schistosity is well-foliated rock that
tends to cleave into thin flakes made up of
flaky minerals like mica. Schistosity is the
most significant macroscopic feature
encompassing the majority of the
metamorphic rocks, particularly those whose FIGURE 6.3 Typical mica schist mainly composed of
metamorphism was carried under one-way sericite with satin color and silky golden shine. Mica schist is
pressure and stress. Schistosity manifests often folded showing microcrenulation cleavage texture and
itself in a parallel or subparallel agreement of wavy structure. Source: Prof. A.B. Roy.
slips, flaky and sticky minerals (mica, chlorite,
and amphibole). The elongated crystals of
3. Slaty rocks are well foliated, aphanitic and
feldspar, quartz and Al-silicates (andalusite,
composed of extremely fine-grain minerals.
sillimanite, kyanite, and cordierite) are
The slaty rocks have remarkable property of
oriented in parallel with the schistosity.
splitting into thin slabs. The foliation is so
Schistosity can be manifested by a parallel or
perfect that it can be termed as slaty cleavage.
a cluster of striped orientation of bright
(leucocratic) and dark (melanocratic) In the great depths, the pressure acts on all
minerals, or alternately stacking lanes of sides (called hydrostatic pressure) and that re-
coarse and fine crystalline mineral aggregates sults in formation of new minerals with higher
(Figs 6.2 and 6.3). density than the density of the original minerals.
The new minerals occur in isometric shapes and
oppose the pressure striving to be as close to a
sphere shape (forms in cubic system, hexahe-
dron, octahedrons, and orthorhombic dodecahe-
dron) or monoclinic and triclinic minerals. The
newly created isometric minerals of metamor-
phic rocks (such as calcite in the marble and
quartz in the quartzite) have no preferred orien-
tation or schistosity. Usually these are mineral
deposits of mosaic type (Fig. 6.4(A)). The pri-
mary texture of the resulting metamorphic rocks
is granoblastic (Fig. 6.4(A)). Granoblastic is
an anhedral phaneritic equigranular metamor-
phic rock texture. The characteristics granoblas-
tic textures include grains visible to the
FIGURE 6.2 Schistose, basic feature of crystalline schist,
is caused by parallel bending of slips mineral around the unaided eye, sutured boundaries and approxi-
grains of quartz and feldspars. The development of small- to mately equidimensional grains. The grain
medium-scale crenulated structure is prominent feature. boundaries intersect at 120 triple junctions
216 6. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
FIGURE 6.4 Conceptual diagrams showing (A) granoblastic marble texture characterized by large granoblastic calcite, and
(B) structure of gneiss such as network of eye-like large granoblastic quartz and feldspars clusters surrounded by major slips
lepidoblasts mice in finely granulated quartzefeldsparemice mass.
under ideal conditions. The schistose textures are composed mainly of rod, needle or fibrous min-
variation resulting from the ideal results from erals. Eye structure is a special kind of porphyro-
stress-produced foliation during crystallization. blastic structure in which individual
The textures of metamorphic rocks are the porphyroblasts (quartz and feldspars) accumu-
result of recrystallization of the original minerals late in clusters like eye wrapped with flakes in-
subjected to metamorphic processes. Minerals side finely crystalline granoblastic or
formed from metamorphic processes are called lepidoblastic primary mass (Fig. 6.4(B)).
blasts (Greek meaning “lump”). Many types of
structures of metamorphic rocks have a suffix
of blast. Metamorphic recrystallization forms TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE
main mineral components of metamorphic OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
rock, which can be large, and named as grano-
blasts and porphyroblasts. The minerals without Textures are the relationships of crystals at the
correct crystal form are called xenoblasts smallest scale such as fine-, medium- and coarse-
(Fig. 6.4(A)). The smaller share of minerals which grained poikiloblastic, granoblastic, xenoblastic,
have a typical crystalline form are called idio- idioblastic, nematoblastic, porphyroblastic and
blasts, for example, magnetite, rutile, garnet, helicitic or snowball.
andalusite and staurolite. Structures are larger scale features, at times
If metamorphic rocks contain predominantly requiring a whole outcrop to fully describe such as
of isometric (equidimensional) mineral grains foliated, lineated, cleavage, layered or banded,
and it is known as granoblastic texture schistose, gneissose, slaty, crenulated or small-
(Fig. 6.4(A)). A rock composed of leaf-like min- scale regular folds.
eral is called lepidoblastic texture (Greek, “lep-
is” ¼ shell). Porphyroblast texture is typical of An extremely significant factor of the meta-
rock that contains some large crystals (porphyr- morphism is the presence of water in rocks, espe-
oblasts) and granular mass. Nematoblastic texture cially the water in the form of constitutional water
represents (Greek, “nema” ¼ fiber) for rock (OH groups) and crystalline water (H2O), that
6.1. ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 217
exists and associates within hydrosilicate min- and gabbro will be metamorphosed to green
erals by solid molecular bonds. The water schist under similar condition and process of
squeezes out of hydrosilicate minerals and retrograde metamorphism. The processes of
change to anhydrous silicate minerals by retrograde metamorphosis are extremely slow
increasing the pressure and temperature to in geological time scale and will take millions
particular level. For example, the clayey sedi- of years.
ments containing chlorite, kaolinite, and In prograde/progressive and retrograde
smectiteemontmorillonite with increasing metamorphism, part of mineral in the parent
temperature will transform into a cluster of and rock that undergone a metamorphic process
alusite, quartz, cordierita, biotite and can remain preserved and unaltered as relict min-
Na-plagioclase, i.e. the rock hornfels (Section 6.5). erals. Therefore, a metamorphic rock usually con-
The sequence of transformation or metamor- tains two or more generations of minerals, and
phism of minerals and rocks occurs at a constant can include old and new community of minerals
and gradual increase of temperature and pres- as assemblages. Specifically, the mineral compo-
sure conditions. The existing mineral assemblage sition of metamorphic rocks is a community of
of lower temperatures and pressures gradually all minerals in the rock, as those of stable and un-
transform into a stable mineral assemblage at changed at a given temperature and pressure, as
higher temperatures and pressures. This process well as, those emerging in the new changed con-
of transformation is called progressive or prograde ditions. This is due to gradual metamorphic
metamorphism. The conversion of clay minerals changes during the geological history of the
in the clay sediments into sericite and chlorite is afflicted rock. Some assemblage includes only
an example of progressive metamorphism. The those minerals in metamorphic rocks that are
sediments itself may transform to phyllites, and formed under the same conditions of pressure
phyllites may transform into mica schist under and temperature, which determine the degree
further increase in temperature and pressure of metamorphism and metamorphic facies. The
(Table 6.1). Prograde metamorphism results in same metamorphic facies can contain different
higher density and generally larger crystals. mineral assemblages as they are a direct product
On the other hand, the metamorphic pro- of different mineral and chemical composition of
cesses that occur in gradual lowering of temper- the original rock, i.e. protolith. A protolith is the
ature and pressure leads to retrograde original, unmetamorphosed rock from which a
metamorphism. The quartz-amphibole rock given metamorphic rock is formed, e.g. shale or
will be metamorphosed to quartz-amphibolite mudstone is the protolith in slate.
(Fig. 6.5) or amphibole quartzite depending on Metamorphic facies indicates all the different
the ratio of quartz and amphibole in the parent mineral assemblages of equal and similar condi-
rock, formed in great depths at high tempera- tions with regard to the origin of pressure and
tures and pressures. The same rock may ascend temperature, irrespective of origin of some min-
up close to the surface by tectonic movements erals in metamorphic rocks. In this book, meta-
and keeps on in terms of low pressure and tem- morphic rocks are systematized according to
perature. The mineral garnet, Ca-plagioclase and metamorphic facies.
amphibole will be metamorphosed into chlorite, Recrystallization of preexisting original min-
actinolite, zoisite, and epidote garnet and eral components during metamorphism is the
saussurite schist. Therefore, the quartz- principal phenomena. Calcites of different grain
amphibolite will transform into the green schist sizes and matrix that make up limestone are con-
or garnet-chlorite schist by retrograde metamor- verted to the aggregate coarse crystalline calcite
phism (Fig. 6.6). The primary minerals of basalt during progressive metamorphism, resulting in
218 6. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Amphibole Hornblende, feldspar, garnet quartz, Base magmatite, clay limestone, marl
schist biotite, magnetite
Regional Garnet schist Garnet, mica, chlorite feldspar, quartz, Nearly all igneous and sedimentary
high degree hornblende rocks
Distended Kyanite, sillimanite, cordierite, Shale, siltstone, clay
sillimanite, staurolite, garnet, mica, quartz
cordierite,
staurolite schist
Graphite schist Graphite, quartz, mica feldspar, Pelite sediment rich in organic matter
chlorite
6.2. TYPES OF METAMORPHISM AND CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 219
TABLE 6.1 Primary Distribution and Mineral Composition of Metamorphic Rocks (cont'd)
Metamorphic Mineral Premetamorphic
Metamorphism Rocks Ingredients Originating Rocks
Gneiss Quartz, feldspar, mica garnet, kyanite, Acid magmatite and feldspar arenite
staurolite, sillimanite
Amphibolite Hornblende, plagioclase, garnet, mica, Base and neutral magmatite and clay
epidote limestone
Plutonic Granulite Quartz, feldspar or quartz pyroxene, Acid magmatite and graywacke
garnet, kyanite sandstone
Eclogite Omphacite, garnet, glaucophane Base magmatite
plagioclase, kyanite
FIGURE 6.7 Mylonite rock comprises biotiteequartzefeldspar and displays strong fluxion banding (flow layers) with
numerous white porphyroblasts and porphyroclasts of feldspar that show strong component of flattening into the fabric
implying blastesis during the mylonitization. This rock type separates the biotiteegarnetefeldsparequartz “gneisses” hosting
the rich sulfide ore from intensely metamorphosed partially melted biotiteegarnetefeldspar gneisses at the footwall at
Rampura-Agucha zinceleadesilver mine, India.
FIGURE 6.9 Stabile areas of major mineral community (metamorphic facies) with respect to the increase in pressure and
temperature with increasing depth of the overlay and by heating with magma.
and are often fine grained. The grains are of the rocks at greater depths, the intensity of
equidimensional contours and are relatively change will be stronger in large igneous intru-
small in size due to short duration of metamor- sions of the body than in the subsurface injection
phic processes of cooling. The newly formed or the outpouring of lava. The contact metamor-
metamorphic rocks will contain minerals of phic rocks commonly occur in large masses
smaller dimensions and less metamorphosed at the edge of the intrusive igneous massif
further from the contact. The vapor and gases (Fig. 6.9), and smaller crowds at the contact of
play an important role near the contact with volcanic rocks.
the magma or lava. If the surrounding rocks The most sensitive rocks to contact metamor-
are metamorphosed by hot water vapor, gases, phism are clay and carbonate sediments, and are
or pneumatic gas released from magma or subjected to the highest degree of metamorphic
lava, it is pneumatolytic metamorphism. The sur- change and metamorphosed to “hornfels” and
rounding rocks can be metamorphosed with “skarn” (Fig. 6.9).
hot solutions that originate from the magma, The rocks of contact metamorphism are horn-
and such a metamorphism is called hydrother- fels created from clay and pelite sediments and/
mal metamorphism. or tuffs. The skarn rocks are created from marl
The intensity of contact metamorphism de- and clay limestone and dolomite (Table 6.1).
pends on the size of intrusions (magmatic The contact metamorphic marbles occur at the
body), the cooling rate of magma or lava and contact of the magma or lava with limestones
the quantity of gases and vapors emitted from and dolomites. The contact metamorphic quartz-
the magma. It is clear that due to higher temper- ites occur at the contact magma or lava
atures and slow cooling of magma injected into with quartz-rich sedimentary rocks (sandstone,
6.5. ROCKS OF REGIONAL METAMORPHISM 223
siltstone and chert). The resultant marbles and simultaneously increase in depth on regional
quartzites do not differ significantly with respect basis. Differences in pressure at greater depths
to the structure and composition from those of the Earth’s crust is not only a consequence
generated in high-degree regional metamor- of the depth of covering, i.e. the weight of over-
phism (Section 6.5.2). lying rocks, but are the result of tectonic move-
Hornfels are medium to coarse crystalline ments, such as the collision of continental
rocks, dark color and rich in silicates with masses or between two tectonic plates (Section
granoblastic and porphyroblastic texture. They 3.4.2). This will cause strong compression and
consist of andalusite, garnet and cordierite as folding of rocks.
major minerals and quartz, feldspar, biotite, The intensity and degree of metamorphic
muscovite and pyroxene as typical minerals. change increases with depth, which is mani-
Hornfels often include epidote, diopside, actin- fested by the various new communities of meta-
olite, or wollastonite and sometimes titanite morphic minerals, characteristic for different
and tremolite. conditions of temperature and pressure. The ef-
Skarns arise from pure limestone or dolomite fect is changes not only in the mineral composi-
at the direct contact with the magma from tion of the original rock (protolith) but also in
which large quantities of Si, Al, Mg and Fe infil- the texture and structure of the newly formed
trate. Skarns are characterized by a granoblastic metamorphic rocks, such as schistosity, lepido-
to porphyroblastic texture. Skarns usually blastic, nematoblastic and granoblastic texture
contain one of these minerals of hedenbergite (Section 6.1).
(CaFeSi2O6), grossular (Ca3Al2(SiO4)3), diopside Increasing temperature and directed pres-
(FeCaSi2O6) or wollastonite (CaSiO3) as an sure cause distinct schistosity of metamorphic
essential ingredient (Table 6.1). The marbles rocks that manifests with schedule from slips
and quartzite are formed from limestone and and stick mineral substances parallel with the
dolomite and quartz sandstone and siliceous plane perpendicular to the target pressure
sediments, respectively, by contact and regional (Figs 6.2 and 6.3). Rocks of such textures
metamorphism (Table 6.1). They are presented and structures are called crystalline schists, and
in detail in Section 6.5.2. may occur at low and high degree of
metamorphism.
orientation of minerals or schistosity is the signif- Phyllite is foliated metamorphic rock rich in
icant feature of schist of low-grade metamor- tiny sheets of sericite mica. It presents gradation
phism, and their slips and stick form is the in degree of metamorphism ranging between
basic feature of lepidoblastic and nematoblastic slate and mica schist. The color varies between
structure. black and gray to greenish gray. Phyllite forms
Typical low-grade metamorphic minerals are from pelitic sediments (shale and mudstone) at
albite, muscovite, chlorite, actinolite and talc. slightly higher degree of regional metamor-
The main and most widely spread metamorphic phism from slate (Table 6.1). It may also result
rocks from the group of low-grade schist meta- from finely grained tuffs and clayey tuffite. Phyl-
morphism are argillaceous rocks namely slate, lites have excellent fissility with tiny sheets
phyllites and schists as shown in Table 6.1. showing thin schistosity due to the high content
Slate is an extremely dense, fine-grained meta- of mica and chlorite. The schistosity surfaces
morphic rock form under low-grade regional display silvery shine. The essential mineral in-
metamorphism emerged from pelitic sedimen- gredients of phyllites are microcrystalline
tary rocks such as shales and fine-grained tuffs quartz, fine-grained micas (sericite and musco-
(Table 6.1). The level of precrystallization of pri- vite) and chlorite. The quartz is usually in the
mary minerals witness very weak changes under form of elongated thin lenses or veins within
the increase of only directed pressure and low the sheets, which contain mainly fine-grained
temperature. These metamorphic rocks largely mica and chlorite. Phyllites no longer include
retain the primary mineral composition and clay minerals, unlike slate, because of higher
structure of the original rocks, except a smaller level of metamorphism and fully recrystallized
or larger part of typical clay minerals, partially into a fine-grained mica and chlorite.
or fully recrystallized as illite, sericite and chlo- Sericite schist is a variety of fine-sheet phyllites
rite. Slate is characterized by an excellent flat in transition to mica schist. It consists mainly of
schistosity, which is usually difficult to differen- sericite quartz, i.e. clusters of very small slips
tiate from sheet pelitic sedimentary rocks, due to of illite, muscovite and other mica that cannot
the flat surfaces of schistosity split into sheets or be accurately determined by petrographic micro-
thin plates. This structure is caused by parallel scope (see sericite, Section 2.5.8.5.2). Sericite
orientation of microscopic tiny leaves of illite schist exhibits shining silver, gray, brown color
and chlorite. The essential mineral ingredients with excellent fissility.
of slate are cryptocrystalline quartz, feldspar Green schists and chlorite schists are fine-
(albite), chlorite, calcite and illite, and organic grained to medium-crystalline schist of low-
matter. These unique properties enable it useful grade metamorphism resulting from basic
for roofing, inner walls and as small board (slate) igneous rocks at relatively low temperature
for small school children in the class room in the and pressure (Figs 6.6 and 6.9). Some green
olden times. schist may also occur in progressive regional
The pelite sediments (claystone, mudstone low-grade metamorphism of calcite-rich pelitic
and shale) turn into slate passing through rocks sediments. Green schists are named after their
from the transitional stage between the diage- characteristic green color, caused by the high
netic changes and the lowest degree of metamor- content of green minerals like chlorite, epidote,
phism. Such rock may be called as argillite. The actinolite and zoisite. In addition to these min-
slate contains a higher proportion of uncrystal- erals, it includes quartz, acid plagioclase, tremo-
lized clay minerals, and instead of schistosity lite, calcite, dolomite, magnesite and hornblende.
shows sheet or thin horizontal lamination, unlike Glaucophane schists are formed in a regional
argillite. low-grade metamorphism of basalt, diabase,
6.5. ROCKS OF REGIONAL METAMORPHISM 225
feldspar arenite, graywacke sandstone and forms a brand-new mineral composition with
marl sediments at relatively low temperatures entirely new structures and textures.
and high directed pressure (Fig. 6.9). The The distinctive minerals of higher degree
glaucophane schist includes a high content of regional metamorphism are sillimanite, stauro-
Na-amphibole (glaucophane) associated with lite, cordierite, andalusite and biotite. The
albite, epidote, garnets, mica, quartz and characteristic rocks of high-degree regional
calcite. metamorphism are various schists, such as
Talc schist originates in regional low-grade mica, amphiboles, cordierite, sillimanite, stauro-
metamorphism by transformation of ultrabasic lite and graphitic schists, and also amphibolites
igneous intrusive magmatic rocks (peridotite, and gneisses.
dunite, and olivine gabbro) and also serpentinite Mica schists are distinct schistose metamor-
that occurs by hydrothermal metamorphism phic rocks (Fig. 6.3). The schists originate
from olivine-rich ultrabasic rock. They consist from clay, shale, mudstone, graywacke sand-
of Mg-silicate (talc, antigorite, and chlorite), stone, and acidic and neutral igneous rocks,
actinolite, magnesite, calcite and dolomite. The fine-grained basalts and tuffs at medium and
talk is usually in the form of thin lenses or zones high degree of regional metamorphism and at
along the surface of schistosity. The calcite, significantly higher level of phyllite and sericite
magnesite and dolomite exist as irregular masses schist (Fig. 6.9). They follow by gradual steps to
or veins. the highest degree of progressive regional
metamorphism such as slate / phyllite /
6.5.2. Schists of High-Grade sericite schist / mica schist (Fig. 6.10). Specif-
ically, the intensity of the recrystallization at
Metamorphism
higher pressure and temperature is significantly
The physical and chemical properties of min- increased in relation to the conditions of phyl-
erals, in the deep parts of the lithosphere, change lites. Recrystallization causes many larger crys-
on account of interaction of high pressure and tals in particular to mica (muscovite and
high temperature during high degree of meta- biotite), quartz, feldspar, garnet, staurolite and
morphism. The process causes almost complete sillimanite and is well observed macroscopi-
primary recrystallization of mineral ingredients cally. In addition to sericite, the mica schist con-
in rocks that are affected by such high degree tains quartz, acid plagioclase, chlorite, and
of metamorphism. The primary minerals typical metamorphic minerals such as graphite,
become unstable in condition of very high pres- garnets, kyanite, andalusite and staurolite. The
sure and high temperature and recrystallize rock can be designated as sericite, muscovite,
into minerals that are stable in condition of biotite, graphite, staurolite and andalusite
higher degree of metamorphism. The general mica schists.
characteristics of these minerals are decrease in Amphibole schists are schistose metamorphic
volume and higher packing density of ions in rocks that are formed under conditions of high-
the crystal lattice. The extremely high hydro- degree metamorphism from basic magmatic,
static pressure and high temperature cause the clay limestone and marl, and are mainly
formation of minerals from the group of nesosi- composed of hornblende and feldspars and mi-
licates, sorosilicates, inosilicates and tectosilicate. nor amounts of quartz, garnet, magnetite and
The new minerals mainly crystallize in the cubic, biotite (Fig. 6.6).
rhombohedral and monoclinic system and thus Disten or sillimanite, cordierite and staurolite
constitute schistose rocks with granoblastic, por- schists occur in conditions of high-degree meta-
phyroblastic and nematoblastic textures. This morphism from pelite sediment, i.e. shale,
226 6. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
FIGURE 6.10 Chlorite quartz schist garnet (top), hosting foliation parallel or statiform type of late veins of chalcopyrite
(brassy golden) and pyrrhotite (brown) in transition zone at Kolihan Section, Khetri Cu Mine, India. Source: Prof. Martin Hale.
mudstone and marl. The essential mineral com- igneous and sedimentary rocks. If the original
ponents of medium to large crystalline schist rocks contain quartz and feldspars, the resultant
are aluminosilicate (or disten), sillimanite, stau- product will be “orthogneiss” and is case of
rolite and cordierite, and in association with quartz and clay minerals are known as “para-
quartz, K-feldspar, Na-plagioclase, garnet, gneiss”. In other words, orthogneiss designates
mica, graphite, hematite and magnetite. The alu- gneiss derived from an igneous rock, and
minosilicates occur in the form of larger or paragneiss originates from a sedimentary rock.
smaller porphyroblasts and granoblasts. The Gneiss resembles structure to describe appear-
resulting schist receives appropriate name with ance of alternate layers of unlike mineral
prefix of the individual aluminosilicate, for composition and colors (Fig. 6.1). The gneiss
example, disten schist, sillimanite schist, stauro- and gneissose are very similar to schist and
lite schist, etc. These groups of schistose rocks schistose in metamorphic rocks with structure
are the product of high-degree regional meta- presenting gneissosity (alternate layers or
morphism from organic matter rich in clay sedi- bands) and schistosity (thin lamination). The
ments (or mudstone and shale). term gneiss is used as suffix with the original
Graphite schists are black in color, and contain rocks that have been transformed by metamor-
graphite between 5% and 10% in the form of phism. Granite gneiss is the most common
elongated lenses, lines, layers or veins within type and formed by transformation of granite.
the cluster of mica, chlorite, quartz, K-feldspar, Similarly, presence of excess hornblende in the
garnet, sillimanite and magnetite. Graphite rock will be designated as hornblende gneiss
schist is the product of high-degree regional or amphibole gneiss or simply amphibolites af-
metamorphism from organic matter-rich clay ter metamorphism.
sediments like mudstone and shale (Fig. 8.11). Orthogneissic rocks are medium to coarsely
Gneisses are common and widely distributed foliated and largely recrystallized. Mineral
medium- to coarse-grained rocks formed by composition of orthogneiss is similar to
high-grade regional metamorphic process and the composition of granites (Figs 6.11 and 6.12).
plutonic metamorphism under high pressure The essential minerals are quartz and
and temperature from a variety of preexisting feldspars (orthoclase, microcline, perthite, and
6.5. ROCKS OF REGIONAL METAMORPHISM 227
recrystallized in the deep zones of the earth’s
crust in an amphibolite facies of metamorphism.
Paragneiss contains quartz and feldspar and
amply mixed up with other minerals typically
sillimanite, kyanite, cordierit, andalusite and
staurolite. A certain excess of alumina, from the
content of clay material in the primary sediments
is typical of paragneiss. The varieties of para-
gneiss are distinguished according to the
admixture content. There are numerous varieties
of gneiss depending on the different mineral
composition. The most prevalent are the
quartz-feldspar, muscovite, biotite, sillimanite,
andalusite and cordierite gneiss. Gneisses are
FIGURE 6.11 Granite gneiss (orthogneiss) composed of characterized by generally “eye” or porphyro-
large porphyroblasts of feldspar (pink) arranged in a gneissic blastic schistose texture, and often granoblastic
or layered structure, roughly along north eastesouth west or granolépidoblastic texture along with devel-
direction, with alternate fine-grained matrix. Source: Prof.
opment of characteristic gneissic structure
Arijit Ray.
(Figs 6.4(B), 6.13 and 6.14).
Amphibolites are the most common metamor-
phic rocks formed by regional metamorphism
under high pressure and high temperature
(Fig. 6.5). Amphibolites usually occur along
with the mica schist and gneiss. Schistosity is
considerably less pronounced in amphibolites
than those in the amphibole schists and is
mainly influenced by more or less parallel
orientation of prismatic crystals of black horn-
blende. The rocks are often striped due to
semiparallel sort of mutual narrow bands, pre-
dominantly of rich black hornblende and light
plagioclase. Mineral composition of the am-
phibolites is simple and mostly contains horn-
blende and plagioclase, with variable amounts
FIGURE 6.12 Photomicrograph of thin section of granite of anthophyllite, garnet, mica, quartz and
gneiss (orthogneiss) composed of large porphyroblasts of
feldspar (white) and quartz (blue) in a fine-grained matrix of epidote. The rocks may originate from pelitic
feldspar, quartz, biotite (yellow brown) and ilmenite (black). sediments, with amphibole (hornblende),
All mineral grains display an excellent gneissic structure. plagioclase and typically include green pyrox-
Source: Prof. Arijit Ray. ene. Amphibolites are characterized with
nematoblastic or granoblastic texture Amphib-
Na-plagioclase), and with significant amount of olites are formed from more basic magmatites
biotite and/or muscovite. usually containing more magnesium amphibole
Paragneiss results from metamorphism of (anthophyllite), and the ones crops up from
fine-grained clastic pelitic sediments (mud, mud- weak basic and neutral magmatites containing
stones and other argillaceous rocks) that nearly equal amounts of hornblende and
228 6. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
FIGURE 6.14 Biotiteegarnetefeldsparequartz gneisses display strong fluxion banding (flow layers) and extensively
microfolded replicating regional structure with numerous white porphyroblasts and porphyroclasts of feldspar showing
varying degrees of flattening into the fabric with psammitic bands, and are locally overprinted by large feldspar porphyr-
oblast growths, exists close to the host mineralization at Rampura-Agucha zinceleadesilver mine, India. Source: Prof.
Martin Hale.
6.5. ROCKS OF REGIONAL METAMORPHISM 229
Quartzite is composed almost exclusive of relict structures, i.e. remnants of sedimentary
monomineral, medium to coarse crystalline texturalestructural features.
metamorphic rocks with granoblastic texture. Quartzite is extremely resistant to chemical
The isometric grain shape and their jagged con- weathering, and is often found in the form of
tacts are a consequence of the process of recrys- morphological elevations or areas that protrude
tallization and loss of primary forms, and from the surrounding rocks. As very resistant
contacts of grain under high pressure and high to weathering appears in the form of clasts
temperature conditions. Pure quartzite forms (as fragments of quartzite) in the sands or sand-
from the quartz-rich sedimentary rocks (sand- stones, conglomerates, schist or generally in
stone, siltstone and hornfels). The quartzite, in many clastic types of sediment (Fig. 6.16).
addition to quartz exceeding 90% share, may Marble is a metamorphic rock that contains
contain minor amounts of mica (mica quartzite), predominantly of calcite (Fig. 6.4(A)) and/or
feldspar (feldspar quartzite), chlorite (chlorite dolomite, and minor minerals like tremolite, for-
quartzite), garnet (garnet quartzite) and amphi- sterite, spinel, garnet, diopside and wollastonite.
bole (amphibole quartzite (Fig. 6.15)). It occurs in regional and rarely contact metamor-
Quartzite forms in regional metamorphic of phism of carbonate sediments like limestone or
feldspar and quartz sandstone, siltstone, chert, dolomite, which contains a smaller or larger
and rarely in quartz-rich (pegmatites) veins. amount of clay. Marble forms by combined ef-
The metamorphic transformation of sandstone fects of high pressure at great depths of covering
into quartzite is usually caused by high temper- and high temperatures from the carbonate sedi-
ature and high pressure, with the participation mentary rocks (limestone and dolomite). Marble
of tectonic movements, especially in orogenetic may also occur with the high pressure and tem-
tectonic compression zone. It may also occur perature increased at contact zones with magma
by contact metamorphism of quartz-rich and lava. Typical marble has granoblastic texture
sandstones. The quartzite often displays characterized by coarse crystalline aggregates of
isometric calcite crystals with single larger xeno-
blasts of calcite (Fig. 6.4(A)).
Pure-white marble is formed from unadulter-
ated limestone, which in addition to calcite
practically does not contain other ingredients
(Fig. 6.17). The colored marbles originate from
limestones with mineral impurities such as clay
and mica. Marbles of different nuances of colors
derived from clay limestone containing organic
matter (gray and dark gray marble) or contami-
nating iron oxides (pink and reddish-brown
marble) and presence of serpentine from contact
ultramafic magma (green marble).
FIGURE 6.15 Amphibole quartzite composed mainly of Marble is exceptionally appreciated as a deco-
massive hard conchoidal quartz (greasy bluish) and needles rative stone due to the special relationship be-
of amphibole (dark) in linear style and located at the foot- tween brilliant colors and excellent polishing
wall of main copper mineralization at Kolihan Section,
capabilities. Marble has been prized for its uses
Khetri Copper Mine, India. Amphibole quartzite also hosts
part of copper mineralization (Lode-I). The major minerali- in historical sculptures since time immemorial
zation is hosted by garnet mica schist and graphite due to its softness, homogeneity, and a relative
mica schist. resistance to shattering (Figs 6.17, 6.18 and 6.19).
230 6. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
FIGURE 6.16 Steep (back side) quartzite ridges standing as stony (nothing other than hard massive quartzite) barren
(no trace of plants and forest) standing 50 m above valley level (500 m above main sea level). The quartzite ridge is sitting
at the top of rich metal-grade deep seated ore body of 60 Mt averaging 5% Zn, 3% Pb and 215 g/t Ag that starts at a
depth of 120 m from valley level. The cover quartzite does not respond to geological and geochemical exploration
signature.
FIGURE 6.18 Victoria Memorial Hall, 56 m high, is monumental memorial building and garden setup dedicated to Queen
Victoria, Empress of British India, 1901, costing 10.5 million Indian Rupee (present day equivalent to 210,000 US$) US$ and
located in Kolkata, formar capital of British India. It currently serves as museum and a tourist attraction. The majestic
structure in white marble is modeled on Taj Mahal, Agra, India.
FIGURE 6.19 Taj Mahal, the jewel of Muslim art in brilliant milky-white marble and one of the universally admired
masterpieces of the world’s heritage, was built between 1632 and 1653 by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife
Mumtaj Mahal. It is located at Agra, India.
232 6. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
rocks (gabbro and basalt). The optimum pressure metamorphism and partial melting of preexist-
requires for formation of eclogites is certainly ing rocks such as gneiss, and/or injection of
much greater than the typical pressures of Earth’s bright granite magma. The granitic magma is
crust. Moreover, it forms from unusually denser the outcome of partial melting of mineral
rocks and minerals. The necessary depth requires components of some dark metamorphic rock.
for creation of eclogites is believed to be more Migmatites form under extreme temperature
than 4 km and temperatures higher than 500 C, conditions during prograde metamorphism
so that olivine and basic plagioclase could be with partial melting of preexisting rocks. Mig-
transformed into alkali amphibole omphacite matites often appear as extremely deformed
[(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe2þ,Al)Si2O6]. It also contains and extensively tight micro-folded.
smaller amount of glaucophane, plagioclase,
amphibole, kyanite and rutile. Eclogites have
relatively small presence and share of the meta- FURTHER READING
morphic rocks in the Earth’s crust, but are the
main ingredients with peridotite of earth layer Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology
(Section 3.1). by John D. Winter63 will be an excellent reading
Migmatites are special kind of mixed in the subject with much greater details. Meta-
igneous and metamorphic rocks with complex morphic Petrology by Mason29 can be a good
structure. It forms by combination of plutonic choice.
C H A P T E R
7
Precipitation Systems of Major
Sedimentary BodiesdCollector
Rocks of Oil and Gas
O U T L I N E
insulator rocks without which no oil and/or gas 7.2. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR
field formation is possible. SEDIMENTARY BODIES
Most common reservoir rocks of the oil and IN CLASTITES
natural gas are the conglomerates, breccias,
and sandstones, among the clastic sedimentary Clastic sedimentary rocks are the main collec-
rocks. Similarly, the limestones and dolomites tors of oil and natural gas. These sedimentary
are most suitable among biochemical and chem- bodies are largely composed of gravel, conglom-
ical components. The pelite sediments and erate, debris, breccia, sands, and sandstones The
marls, i.e. evaporites, are equally favorable and key and most frequent forms are represented by
significant insulator rocks in oil and gas alluvial fans, deltas, tidal plains, sandy beach,
reservoirs. sandbank, barrier islands, underwater dunes
The strongly fractured igneous rocks, particu- and sand ridges, as well as debrites and turbidity
larly at the peripheral parts of the igneous mass, fans.
may be the appropriate collectors of oil and gas
in special conditions. This is particularly suitable
at the cover of waterproof clay and marly sedi- 7.2.1. Alluvial Fans
ments and good communication with the source Alluvial fans are morphological fanlike for-
rocks. The primary porosity of igneous rocks is mations of small to extremely large sizes result-
usually poor and is mainly related to minor ing in accumulation of clastic materials at the
intergranular and oscular porosity. However, outputs of river flows from the narrow valley
the development of secondary porosity due to of mountain chains into lowland areas
intense tectonic crushing known as “cracking (Fig. 7.1). The dimensions and shapes of
porosity”, may often be significant.
The metamorphic rocks of the large “Panno-
nian basin” in East-Central Europe and the
buildup of basic “highlands” of Tertiary sub-
strate, particularly Miocene sediments, often
contain oil and gas. The fissured edges of the
crystalline massif consisting of metamorphic
rocks, with or without the intrusive igneous
rocks, may be collectors of oil and gas in an envi-
ronment of sedimentary rocks under certain
geological and geotectonic conditions.
The significant collector characteristics and
the possibility of oil and gas deposits in sedimen-
tary rocks depend on their manner of appear-
ance, shape and size of sedimentary bodies and
basins, as well as their relation to the insulating
rocks. In such favorable relations, oil and gas
may occur already in the deposition or by subse-
quent postsedimentary tectonics. FIGURE 7.1 Deposition of alluvial fans on outputs of
river flows from the narrow valley of mountain chains into
The main forms of sedimentary bodies and
lowland areas. A large amount of gravelesand deposits
collector rocks of oil and gas, that are the direct accumulate in a fan shape at the ends of canyons and
consequence of the method and conditions of trenches. Migrating channels may exist and extend from top
deposition, will briefly be discussed. of the fan, and at its end could continue into riverbed.
7.2. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR SEDIMENTARY BODIES IN CLASTITES 235
sedimentary bodies of alluvial fans essentially 2. Reduction in grain size toward the lower part
depend on the surface spread of the catchment of fans.
area of the mountain river systems, the intensity 3. Spreading of the marginal parts of the fans
of physical weathering of rocks, and the amount with thinning and decrease of thickness.
of water energy in the river systems. Their sur- 4. In vertical sequence of layers, clear sequence
faces typically vary from a few tens of square of enlargement upward occurs with several
meters to several thousand square kilometers, a meters thickness due to progradation of
length of several hundred meters and often younger sedimentary units with the gradual
exceeding 50 km. progress of alluvial fans in the valley or lake.
The sediments of alluvial fans are relatively 5. Covering of fans with younger muddy
easy to recognize and distinguished from other sediments of floodplains, i.e. marly lacustrine
river sediments by fan-shaped sedimentary or marine sediments, as a consequence of the
bodies consisting of coarse gravel and irregular establishment of river, lake, or sea
blocks with diameter greater than 1 m depositional systems in the fan areas.
(Fig. 7.2) in the upper proximal portion. The
There are three different types of alluvial fans
most important features of alluvial fans sedi-
in the subenvironment designated as proximal
ments are:
or upper fan, mid or middle fan, and distal or
1. A large amount of gravel with the blocks in lower fan.
the proximal range or upper fan (Gms in In the proximal fan subenvironment, located
Fig. 7.2) whereby gravel, particularly in the just at the exit of the mountain range (upper
distal area fans, typically contain muddy fan), coarse-grained massive gravel (Gm) and
matrix. blocks which contain relatively high proportion
FIGURE 7.2 Facies characteristics of the upper, middle, and lower parts of alluvial fan and humid type: Gm, horizontally
layered clast-support gravel; Gp, planar slanted layer gravel with a gradual transition from clast support into sandy matrix-
rich gravel; Gt, clast support gravel with trough slanted layers, Gms, not layered matrix support gravel; Sp, sand with planar
slanted layer; St, sand with trough slanted layers; Fm, massive sandy pelites; Fl, horizontally laminated sandy pelites and silts.
236 7. PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS OF MAJOR SEDIMENTARY BODIESdCOLLECTOR ROCKS OF OIL AND GAS
of fine-grained matrix are highly prevalent. The lake, ocean, or reservoir water. The river rapidly
fan sediments gradually change to more and deposits the detritus sediments and spreading at
more sand and even powder or silty detritus the estuaries causing a reduction in the rate of
further downstream in the lower parts flow. The river that cannot remove the sediment
(Fig. 7.2). The inclinations of conglomerate quickly due to reduction of water flow may end
bodies in proximal parts are typically 10 e15 , up forming a delta. Deltas can also form in
and on the outskirts, they are up to 30 . inland region where the river water spreads
In the middle part of alluvial fan, the out and deposits sediments. The river is no
morphology depicts characteristics of frequent longer confined to its channel when its flow en-
changes of planar inclined layered gravels ters the standing water and expands in width
(Gp), clast-supported troughed inclined strati- causing decrease in the flow velocity. The river
fied gravel (Gt), massive matrix-supported is no longer in a position to transport sediments
(muddy) gravels (Gms), and planar inclined further, and hence drops out of the flow and de-
layered sands (Sp) of different thickness and posits (delta). The growth of a river delta farther
diverse granulometric composition. out into the sea over time takes place by progra-
The dimension of the sedimentary deposition dation. In doing so, granulometric separation of
is often extremely wide in the distal part of detritus occurs with the constant spreading of
the alluvial fan (lower fan). There is prevalence delta outward. Coarse-grained sediments accu-
of sands with planar (Sp) and trough slanted mulate immediately near the river mouth, fol-
stratification (St) over clast-supported pebbles lowed by deposition farther from the mouth to
with trough slope stratification (Gt) and the lake or sea bottom i.e. in the basin plain.
massive (Fm) and horizontally laminated silty The deposition and resedimentation of detritus,
sediments (Fl). particularly in the upper part of the delta (delta
The characteristic features of the midfan plain), may significantly affect tidal currents,
represent the combined attributes of both sides waves, and ocean currents, so that a very
of upper and lower fans (Fig. 7.2). different and complex sedimentary formations
Alluvial fans are covered with younger clayey may occur in the delta area.
or marly sediments subsequently. These “Gilbert deltas” are formed by accumulation
younger cover sediments act as excellent insu- of coarse material transported by high-energy
lator rocks. The large dimensions will often be rivers that flow into lakes with steep shores
a significant trap for liquid and gaseous hydro- and steep bottom. Gilbert deltas have three char-
carbons, i.e. oil and gas. acteristic parts, namely, bottomset, foreset, and
topset (Fig. 7.3(B)).
7.2.2. Deltas
1. Bottomset consists of fine-grained sediments,
“Deltas” are vast landform areas in the estu- mostly fine-grained horizontally laminated
aries of rivers into seas or larger lakes in which sandy and muddy sediments that are
most of the detritus carried by these flows pre- deposited at the lake bottom. The layers are
cipitates due to reduced energy and velocity of horizontal or only very slightly inclined
river flows. The deposition of river detritus cre- toward the center of the lake and differ from
ates large-sized fan-shaped sedimentary body. those in the foreset (Fig. 7.3(B)).
The layout looks like the Greek letter “delta” 2. Foreset is the underwater part of the delta and
from which the name originates (Fig. 7.3(A)). consists of gravel and sand sediments
River deltas form as and when a river carrying deposited in fast currents of high density.
large sediment reaches the body of standing These sediments are primarily inclined
7.2. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR SEDIMENTARY BODIES IN CLASTITES 237
FIGURE 7.3 The conceptual diagram displays (A) sea delta fan with delta plain, steep delta front, and spacious prodelta
on the seabed and (B) longitudinal profile of lacustrine fan delta of Gilbert type with the basic characteristics of sediment in
topset, foreset, and bottomset of delta showing accumulation of material transported by high-energy river flow on the estuary
of lake of steep shores and bottom. Source: Ref. 22.
toward the center of the lake at an angle of sand with gravel pebbles which have lower
10 e25 , due to prograde precipitation inclination and gradually pass into bottomset.
sequence as well as the morphology of the 3. Topset is nearly horizontal or only slightly
delta (Fig. 7.3(B)). Larger erosion channels can inclined in the direction of the basin. Topset is
be seen sometimes in foreset part of the delta. the package of layers of sand and gravel
The height of foreset is typically a few meters. sediments with inclination of 5e10 m/km, i.e.
Inclined layered conglomerates with angles from 0.5 e1 /km. This part of the delta exists
typically varying between 20 and 25 mostly outside and only partly underwater of
precipitate (with heavy delta progradation of the lake into which it flows (Fig. 7.3(B)). The
foreset) in the middle of the lake deltas with layout is semicircular with a radius of not
strong river flows and steeper relief of land. more than a few kilometers. It is an extension
The lower slopes of foreset contain layers of of the river flow and therefore contains only
238 7. PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS OF MAJOR SEDIMENTARY BODIESdCOLLECTOR ROCKS OF OIL AND GAS
Besides the ebb (movement of a tide back to- at the bottom. The mud carried by suspension,
ward the sea) and tide currents, the activities of usually, results in flazer with wavy and lentic-
waves have significant influence on the pro- ular bedding structure as a consequence of
cesses of sedimentation in the lower clastic repeated reductions of water energy (Fig. 7.5).
shores. The seashores and offshore constantly The upper layered surfaces in general develop
receive large amounts of sand and mud from desiccation (mud) cracks and current ripples.
low shore region. This sand-in-wave activity The upper parts of tidal plains are flat areas
comes to foreshore and shoreface, at the same and are located above the sea level during the
time the mud and part of the sand with return tidal cycle, except for a short time at the
currents come to shoreface and offshore. The maximum of high tide when the sea is flooded
sand bodies of large dimensions may be poten- for short periods. The mud deposits on it mainly
tial collectors and reservoirs of oil and gas occur- as very fine detritus which could be transported
ring in large tidal plains, shoreface, and offshore. with weakened tidal currents. The water cur-
Tidal flats are areas on the low sea shores and rents weaken their energy and most of the sedi-
low islands, which are flooded by sea during ments deposit during passage through the low
high tide and ebb, and are largely out of the and high tidal plains. Muddy deposits of the up-
main sea. The lower parts of the tidal plains are per part of tidal flats can have more or less
mostly flooded by sea, except for a very short clearly defined horizontal lamination, numerous
time at the lowest ebb. These are the suitable pla- desiccation cracks, and bioturbation in the form
ces for accumulation of sands in the form of sand of vertical rooting traces of organisms that live
waves which on the surface contain asymmetric in the mud.
ripples and the size of grain from sea to shore re- The most important characteristic of sedi-
duces. The middle parts of the tidal plains are ments deposited in siliciclastic tidal plains is
about half the time flooded by sea and half the the frequent vertical changes of sandemuddy
time above sea level during the tidal cycles. sediments that are characterized by frequent
The sands carried by tidal currents accumulate changes of flazer, lenticular, and wavy
FIGURE 7.5 The morphology of the tidal plain with the system of tidal channels and sand dunes which form a barrier
between the shoreface and tidal plains.
7.2. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR SEDIMENTARY BODIES IN CLASTITES 241
stratification (Fig. 7.5). The sand layers are transition from foreshore to shoreface (Fig. 7.6).
deposited during the heavy flow of water at Sandbank slopes inclined toward the mainland
higher energy, and mud (pelite interbeds) is are mostly composed of units of planar stratifica-
deposited during weak tidal currents. The un- tion inclined with an angle of 10 e30 .
derwater sand dunes (sand waves) may occur “Barrier islands” and sandbanks occur along
in some places on the tidal shallows by the influ- the coast with prevailing wave activity and
ence of storm tides and waves. The sand dunes microtidal conditions (tides <2 m) by accumula-
are mostly well developed with thickness be- tion of sand, mostly parallel to the coastline
tween 1 and 2 m in wide tidal channels on the because of the activities of the waves and coastal
tidal plains. This could happen due to migration currents. Barrier islands have the shape of long
of sands at dominant currents, typically at strong and narrow sand islands separated from each
return currents down the channels. The water other with several permanent tidal backwaters
drainage moves from the valley into the trough or bays. In general, a series of disconnected
of channels at low tide. sand islands or sandbanks are formed parallel
Low sand ridges and reefs, underwater to the shore (Fig. 7.6) along with narrower or
dunes, or sand waves (megaripples) occur in wider rip channels (channels with feedback
the lower part of the highly energetic foreshore drainage of coastal currents) or tidal backwaters
with prevailing tidal currents where the differ- (backwaters through which water drains at low
ence between the level of low tide and high tide).
tide is greater than 1 m and on shoreface with “Lagoon” is a shallow water body separated
existing tidal currents. Sand ridges or reefs are by barrier islands or reefs from a large body of
typically rugged or separated from each other water (sea). It may connect with open sea, be
by shallow tidal channels which are subse- filled with tidal brackish backwaters, and have
quently filled with sand (Fig. 7.6). limited communication with the open sea. The
Long shore bars or elongated coastal sand- muddy sediments are often deposited in the
banks have an asymmetrical cross-section, and lagoon. If the barrier complex has a progradation
consist of slightly inclined (4e6 ) laminae in tendency, then the coastline and/or barrier com-
the direction of sea. It occurs during the plex moves increasingly into the sea. The sandy
FIGURE 7.6 Sandbanks deposition on shoreface by transferring of sand with coastal currents and rip currents that occur
on the confluence of two currents and operate between sandbanks in the rip channels.
242 7. PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS OF MAJOR SEDIMENTARY BODIESdCOLLECTOR ROCKS OF OIL AND GAS
sediments form a characteristic sequence of wave base during stormy weather. The currents
enlargement with vertical sorting of mud and of waves bring sediment to shore while moving
sands with increasing grain size upward due to to all shallow parts of the shores. Therefore, dur-
progradation of muddy deposits in offshore ing the stormy weather at the bottom part of sub-
and/or the inner shelf precipitate barrier sands. merged shore there are sudden aggradations
The fine-grained sediments, from the calm water (rapid vertical accumulation of sediment), such
suspension, deposit in the lagoons that separate that the currents pull from the shallow areas.
the barrier islands and the coast during the nice The sand and mud deposited during the long
weather. This deposition is usually in the form period of nice weather is suddenly redeposited
of sludge and thinly laminated changes of clay in the form of gradated layers at the same place
and powder. The accumulation of such lagoon or nearby in a short time, by the power of storm
sludge is very slow. In the humid climates, and waves with oscillating current raised from the
lagoons with warm water, mud usually contains bottom of the lower part of shoreface. A special
a high proportion of organic matter, including layer form of structure occurs by the combina-
the remains of plants, which arrive in rivers. tion of these energy conditions and the changes
There may exist underwater dunes or sand of two different flow regimes, one for nice
waves (megaripples) oriented parallel to the and the other for the stormy weather. This sedi-
coastline (Fig. 7.7). These are inclined layers of mentary structure is most typical feature of
sandy sedimentary bodies that formed underwa- “hummocky cross-bedding” or “hummocky
ter in depths (>1 m) at high-energy shoreface, cross-stratification” (HCS). It is made in fine-
subjected to strong tidal currents (storm tides), grained sand in association with wave ripples
and high-energy foreshore. Underwater dunes and fine-grained silty deposits as a consequence
of larger dimensions (height between 75 and of the weakening storm waves and precipitation
150 cm and length between 10 and 20 m) are during the nice weather. The resulting layer is
relatively stable sedimentary bodies that can be known as “tempestite”, “tempestite sequence”,
preserved from the resedimentation. The sedi- or “storm layer” (Fig. 7.7).
ments are in the form of slanted layers of “clinos- Sand bodies in the form of underwater sand
tratified foresets” (whose slopes at most inclined, dunes, sand ridges and stripes, as well as barrier
leeward side between 10 and 20 ), often found islands built on the foreshore, shoreface, and
in the sediments of the lower part of the highly offshore can have large dimensions (thickness
energetic foreshore and shoreface with prevail- from several meters to several tens of meters, a
ing tidal currents. They could be significant traps width of several tens of meters, and length of
for the accumulation of oil and gas, or significant several hundred meters to several kilometers).
hydrocarbon reservoirs, usually isolated with Considering that they are later in depositional
sediments of tidal plains or lagoon sludges. cycle usually covered with mud and clay sedi-
In the lower part of the shoreface, the fine- ments which serve as insulator rocks, such
grained sediments are deposited with wavy rip- sand bodies are significantly important reservoir
ples and wavy bedding of small dimensions. The rocks and potential reservoirs of oil and gas
deposits are not affected by waves during the (Fig. 7.7).
nice weather, and are usually strongly bio-
turbated. The reduction of sand grain size in
7.2.4. Debrites
the direction of the sea and decrease of bio-
turbidity intensity toward the coast is a normal The cogenetic “debriteeturbidite” beds occur
feature. The waves affect the whole deeper part in a variety of ancient and modern zoned facies
of submerged shores up to storm weather of mass flow systems with distinctive basic
7.2. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR SEDIMENTARY BODIES IN CLASTITES 243
Frontshore
(A) Barrier Lagoon Bringing of
complex sand and mud
tion
Tidal sandy rada
ridge Prog
ebb
and
Tide
Tidal sandy
ridge
Underwater dunes
(sandy waves)
Tidal sandy
Sand ridge
tempestite Sand
tempestite
Sandy
siding
Offshore sands
Lag sediment
Sandy tempestite
Mud tempestite
Bioturbated
clay with silt laminae
FIGURE 7.7 Conceptual diagram showing (A) offshore depositional systems with prevailing tidal action (Source: Partially
modified after Einsele13) due to the intensive input of sandemuddy sediments from the land and its precipitation with tidal
currents. There are, according to arrangement from the coast toward the sea, deposit of large sand bodies: tidal sand ridges,
underwater dunes, and sandy stripes and thinner interbeds of sand as sand “tempestite”. (B) Complete enlargement of
upward sequence caused by progradation of the sand barrier complex in offshore with the order of deposition of sand bodies
(collector rock) within muddy sediments (insulator rocks).
244 7. PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS OF MAJOR SEDIMENTARY BODIESdCOLLECTOR ROCKS OF OIL AND GAS
characters. The beds include an ungraded and slump and the gravity flows on the slope
muddy sandstone interval encased within un- and at its foot. This mass flow is known as
sorted gravel sand, mud-poor graded sandstone, debrite flows and turbidity currents. The resedi-
siltstone, and mudstone. The mixed coarse- mented coarse- and fine-grained detritus mixes
grained clastic sediments and resedimentation with the deep water and pelagic sediments at
detritus often deposit debrites on the submarine slopes and at its bottom or at the bottom of
and forereef calcareous slopes of inshore or deep water sedimentary areas. Such coarse-
shallow sea. The mudstone and siltstone turbi- grained detritus with the characteristics of the
dite deposits in relatively deeper water environ- collector, covered with fine-grained sediments
ments. The most common forms of sedimentary (silt, marl, and shale), are regularly formed after
bodies are known as “debrites” and “turbidites” the end of deposition from debrite flow or
(Fig. 3.4 and Fig. 7.8). turbidity currents. These sedimentary bodies,
The resedimentation processes takes place in in petroleum geological terms have the role of
the form of stone rockslide or talus, sliding, “insulator rocks”.
Turbidite
Turbidity clay clay
Sand turbidite
E3 Turbidity mud Ideal
Ta–d bouma
Gradated mud sequence
Normal
E2
Sandy gradation
predominantly sand
mud
E2
Sequence with
Laminated mud
members
Gradated Gradated
E1 sand sand Olistolith
Gradated
coarse
Sequence of Inverted
sand gradation
mud turbidity
Sequence of Sequence of
sand turbidity debrites
FIGURE 7.8 Idealized view of the horizontal and vertical distribution of debrite and turbidite facies on the slope and part
of basin plain that occurred by sedimentation from gravitation currents with display of structure of debrites, sequence of
sandy turbidites, and mud turbidites sequences. Source: Modified after Einsele.13
7.2. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR SEDIMENTARY BODIES IN CLASTITES 245
Debrites or deposits of debrite flows (detrite)
7.2.5. Turbidity Fans
consist of highly heterogeneous fine to boulder
rocks. The constituents vary from those of the The sediments deposited from turbidite cur-
sludge which contains only a little sand detritus rents are called turbidites (Section 5.2.2.1). Their
and clasts with dimensions of blocks ranging basic lithological and sedimentological features
from a few centimeters to several tens and even are regularity of vertical sorting detritus of spe-
hundreds of meters in diameter (olistolith). cific granulometric and texturalestructural char-
They occur at steep and vast submarine slopes acteristics and form fan-shaped sedimentary
or forereef slopes as a consequence of the caving bodies (Fig. 3.4, Figs 7.8 and 7.9), as a conse-
or collapsing (Fig. 7.8). The main factors in foun- quence of sedimentation way from turbidite
dation of debrites are tectonic processes of crush- flows.
ing and physical weathering of rocks at steep The largest grains, which have been trans-
relief, especially tectonic grinding at faulting ferred by dragging, from the lower part of the
stress. Debrites, especially limestone debrites, turbidity current deposit initially and quickly
are usually represented by megabreccia layers (Section 5.2.2.1). Thereafter, all the smaller
of sedimentary bodies in the shape of covers or grains, which have been dragged from forehead
sheets. It predominantly contains fragments of turbidity current and in suspension, travel
and grains which have clast support and contain longer and slowly deposit. There will be sedi-
small amounts of fine-grained matrix (Fig. 7.8). ments with gradational bedding (graded coarse
Rockfall breccias are similar to the foundation sand in sequence of sandy turbidites in
of debrites, except with relatively short transport Fig. 7.10). Once all the materials are deposited
of clasts without formation of debrite flow. It from forehead and immediately after forehead
typically just falls down the steep slope and ac- of turbidity current, which usually has a vast
cumulates in the immediate foot of such land. number of towing large granular gravel or
It also accrues, sometimes, underwater slopes, sand detritus, the speed and turbulence of the
generally at the base of canyons or gullies at current are reduced. The remaining small sandy
the land or seafloor. The debrite breccias also grains transfer only by suspension. At this stage,
consist of materials from the poorly sorted coarse mainly sand-sized detritus and occasionally silt
granular detritus and individual large blocks of deposit in the form of thin horizontal laminae
olistolith (Section 5.5.2.2). of sand. The sand grains are no longer carried
Debrites can cover areas from the several in suspension with further decrease of current
thousand square kilometers after moving hun- speed and are transferred by dragging at the bot-
dreds of miles across long gentle slopes of only tom. So it begins deposition of fine-grained sand
1 e2 . On the steep underwater slopes and cliffs, detritus and some clay particles with the forma-
their distribution is generally limited to slopes or tion of wavy, irregular, or sloping bedding
foot of the slope or cliff. The thickness of debrites (Fig. 7.10).
ranges from several tens of centimeters to several The turbidity currents transfer only detritus of
tens and even hundreds of meters. In some cases, dimensions of clay and dust in suspension by
for example, in a sufficiently long underwater dragging negligible amount of fine sand grains.
slope, debrites could be directly covered by sed- The flow velocity will be low and slow and sedi-
iments or turbidites of muddy flow rich in ment deposited at this stage presents poorly par-
powder-muddy matrix that contains only few allel bedding. The current speed will be so slow
individual larger clasts. In this way, debrites at the end and it can transfer only the smallest
usually exceed in coarse, sandy, and often even particles of silt and clay in suspension with
mud turbidite (Fig. 7.8). slow deposition. The small detritus from muddy
246 7. PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS OF MAJOR SEDIMENTARY BODIESdCOLLECTOR ROCKS OF OIL AND GAS
FIGURE 7.9 Main shapes of sedimentary bodies of “submarine fan” at the seafloor formed by the deposition of detritus
from gravity flows. 1, supply channel; 2, trench at the slope as the extension of the river flow with the delta to offshore and
inner shelf; and 3, slump scars and slumps at submarine slopes. Source: Modified after Stow45 and Einsele.13
Tide
level Flood–tidal delta
Sand
barrier Lagoon
Tidal flat
ls
leve
Ebb
Tide
level
Tide
e
refac
Ebb Sho
Ebb delta
Base wave of
nice weather
FIGURE 7.11 Conceptual model of carbonate depositional system of carbonate sand bodies on high-energy shore above
the nice weather wave base which contains sand barrier islands, lagoon with sand deltas generated by activity of tides on
flood-tidal delta, and deltas formed by activity of ebb on exit of channel (ebb delta) into shallow sea.
maintained with the deposition of several hun- open sea with tidal backwater or tidal channel
dreds or thousands of meters thick shallow ma- (Figs 7.11 and 7.12).
rine carbonate sediments on the carbonate The typical sediment of platform shallows,
platform during one or several geological pe- with high energy of water, is bioclastic detritus
riods, as for example, the case at Adriatic carbon- composed of skeletal grains and peloids, inter-
ate platform of older Jurassic to Paleogene spersed with a significant proportion of ooids
period. (Fig. 5.51). The sediment is dominated by skel-
Shallow sea carbonate platform depositional etal, peloid and/or ooid greystone. The grain
system includes high-energy shallow water envi- size of detritus is usually increased from shore-
ronments, peritidal environments, restricted face toward foreshore. However, concentration
shoals, lagoons, the environment of “inner of coarse granular skeletal detritus is still visible
shelf”, as well as the complex environments of at foreshore, as well as reduction of the share of
the ridge. fine-grained peloid detritus, especially of car-
bonate mud, due to their rinse with strong tidal
7.3.1.1. Carbonates of High-Energy currents, storm tides, and waves. The general in-
Shallows crease in grain size in the shore direction, the in-
The formation of large carbonate sand creases in the level of sorting, and the degree of
detritus and systems of carbonate beach-barrier roundness of bioclastic detritus due to increased
islands occur in the platform shallows in areas abrasion occur in parallel. The important fea-
with middle- and high-energy waves, if the dif- tures of limestones deposited at foreshore or in
ferences of tide and ebb are less than 3 m. There high-energy tidal zone and on tidal bars are
are lagoons, and behind these barrier islands, cementation-type “shore rocks”, cementation of
there are the tidal plains that connect to the grains with fibrous and acicular aragonite, and
7.3. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR SEDIMENTARY BODIES IN CARBONATE ROCKS 249
Sho
als
with
ooid
san
SZ dba
nk
Org
ano
ge
reef nic
Pro Bed
gra
dat
ion
Lagoon
Limestones
limestone
with
hornfels
FIGURE 7.12 Interpretation of depositional environments in the younger Jurassic of Gorski-Kotar mountainous region
(Croatia) with the ooid sandbanks in platform shallows and organogenic reefs at edge of the intraplatform trough; SZ,
Shallow Zone. Source: Ref. 52.
micrite composed of high magnesium calcite cross-stratification of large, medium, and small
cement. The characteristic depositional feature size with slope of inclined layers mainly in the
at the upper part of the foreshore is well-sorted direction of the coast.
carbonate sand with the planar layered surfaces. Deltas created by the current tide (ebb delta)
The rocks contain fine-grained well-sorted pellet, are carbonate sand bodies at the exit of tidal
skeletal, ooid, or bioclastic greystones. The up- channels and backwaters toward the sea. These
per layered surfaces show asymmetrical wave deltas are formed by sand transfer with water
ripples of small amplitude and frequent tidal currents at ebb, i.e. by strong withdrawal of wa-
channels filled with coarse sediments (greystone, ter from the lagoon through tidal channel or tidal
rudstone, and coarse limestone). backwater at low tide (Fig. 7.11). This is charac-
These are the main environments of accumu- terized by clear cross-stratification with general
lation of ooids (ooid greystones) and bioclastic inclination slanted layers in the direction of
and/or skeletal carbonate sands with relatively the sea.
small proportion of carbonate muds (bioclastic, At high-energy water shoreface, the carbonate
skeletal, and peloid greystones). Ooid and skel- platforms are commonly found at depths of
etal detritus are derived from crushing and 5e20 m in the area between low tide level and
breaking of skeletons of mollusks, echinoderms, nice weather wave base. The high-energy
foraminifera, and corals. shallow water sedimentary bodies can occur in
Tidal deltas are carbonate sand bodies formed the form of sand barrier (Fig. 7.11) and ooids
by the accumulation of carbonate sand at the and/or bioclastic sandbank (Fig. 7.12). At high-
mouths of tidal channels and tidal backwaters energy foreshore with existing tidal currents,
into the lagoon (Fig. 7.11). They have a clear where the difference between the level of low
250 7. PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS OF MAJOR SEDIMENTARY BODIESdCOLLECTOR ROCKS OF OIL AND GAS
tide and high tide is greater than 1 m, and on the of asymmetric ripples with sloping layers (fore-
shoreface subjected to intense tidal currents set) on the steep, leeward slope of w10 , and in
(storm tides), sedimentary bodies known as the some cases up to 20 . The dimensions of such
underwater dunes, or “sand waves” result subaquatic dunes can be very large, so that their
(“megaripples”). length of ripples amounts from 10 to several
Carbonate sedimentary bodies in the form of hundred meters and the height of ripples “H”
sandy barrier islands are typical of carbonate from few centimeters to 5 m. The subaquatic
shoals with the features of shoreface and fore- dunes with length L <20 m and height H
shore on which a system of beach-barrier <1.5 m are often given the old term megaripples.
islands and lagoons exist. Typical vertical con- Similarly, large and very large underwater
tinuity of limestones occurs due to fluctuations dunes (L from 10 to >100 m and H from 1.5 to
of sea level and progradation of barrier island >5 m) are termed “sand waves”.
in the direction of the sea. The limestone The exceptional examples of slanted layered
sequence is in the form of cycle enlargement foresets of underwater dunes of large dimen-
upward and composed all the larger and sions with angle between 6 and 10 , mainly
coarser carbonate detritus. Thickness of composed of coarse and fine clear gradated rud-
enlargement upward cycles (usually 10e30 m) ist debris, are located within Cenomanian lime-
depends on wave energy and/or tidal regime, stones of southern Istria and in Vinkuran
which determines the depth of wave base and quarry, Croatia. Cenomanian limestone con-
the height of beach. The sequence of cycles tains very notable fossil faunas including am-
from bottom up consists of: monites that are scarcely known elsewhere in
Britain.
1. mudstone with the features of storm
sediments deposited in deeper part of
subtidal or offshore; 7.3.1.2. Peritidal Carbonates
2. peckstone and greystone with HCS, deposited Peritidal carbonate sediments include carbon-
on a submerged shore or shoreface; ates deposited on the carbonate platforms in
3. coarse greystone and rudstone deposited on low-energy subtidal and supratidal environ-
the foreshore; and ments, especially those deposited in the
4. on the top of the cycle sometimes and coarse- intertidal zone and tidal flat, i.e. peritidal envi-
grained greystones with cross-stratification of ronments. Peritidal environments include
large dimensions. different low-energy environments on carbonate
platforms in which the action of tide and ebb cur-
Carbonate submarine dunes, except on the
rents is felt (peritidal area around the high tide
foreshore with incidence of high tidal currents,
and low tide). The peritidal carbonates are classi-
occur on the shoreface subjected to intense storm
fied into three main zones (Fig. 7.13):
tidal currents and/or storm waves. They have
the shape of asymmetric ripples with sloping 1. Subtidal zone is the lowest part of the tidal
layers (foreset) on the steep, leeward slope of plains or peritidal areas of low-energy
w10 , and in some cases up to 20 . The dimen- lagoons or restricted shoals which is always
sions of such subaquatic dunes can be very large, located below the low tide level at a depth of
and so their length of ripples “L”. Carbonate <10e15 m at optimal ecological conditions
submarine dunes, except on the foreshore with for the development of green algae.
incidence of high tidal currents, occur on the 2. Intertidal zone and tidal plain is the part of the
shoreface subjected to intense storm tidal cur- tidal flat located above the low tide and below
rents, and/or storm waves. They have the shape the normal tide levels.
7.3. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR SEDIMENTARY BODIES IN CARBONATE ROCKS 251
Intertidal
Tidal
channel
Tidal flat
Tidal
l
da
sleeve
bti
su
on
rgy
go
ne
La
we
Lo
Tide level
Ebb level
FIGURE 7.13 Conceptual diagram showing peritidal environment of deposition on carbonate platform and classification.
3. Supratidal zone is the highest part of the tidal The intertidal zone, also known as the fore-
plain or mild, flat shores with low relief. It is shore, seashore, or littoral zone, is the area exist-
only occasionally flooded by sea and typically ing above water at low tide and underwater at
during the stormy waves, or the occasional high tide or the area between high and low
high tides, or is only damped with seawater tide marks. Intertidal environments are very
due to high waves splashes. The inshore gently inclined or nearly flat areas along the
Sabkha environment is normally considered coastline or along the coast of low islands be-
to be in this zone. tween the levels of normal tides (Figs 7.11 and
7.13).
Carbonate sediments deposited on suprati- The supratidal zone, also known as the splash
dal environment are represented by changes or spray or supralittoral zone, on the other hand,
of limestones and early diagenetic dolomites. is the area above the spring high tide line on
The characteristic structures for these rocks coastlines and estuaries that is regularly
are “fenestral” and “geopetal” with internal splashed, but not submerged by ocean water.
sediment, irregular laminations occasionally Seawater penetrates these elevated areas only
potentiated with thin bituminous films, desicca- during storms with high tides. The supratidal
tion cracks, and inserts of desiccation breccias zone slopes toward the sea-facing side on
and intraclastic rocks. These rocks occur in the shallow subtidal zone and protected low-
accumulation of detritus flooded with high energy lagoon or bay (Fig. 5.70 and Fig. 7.13).
tides and/or by storm waves on supratidal An important feature of the tidal zone and tidal
zone, i.e. storm tidal sediments. The fossil plains is their constant interchangeable flooding
remains are few in number or completely with seawater during tides and their emergence
absent. during ebb.
252 7. PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS OF MAJOR SEDIMENTARY BODIESdCOLLECTOR ROCKS OF OIL AND GAS
instance, the case of “blotchy limestone” of the 3. Reef front is the front part of organogenic reef
Middle Liassic around the coasts of United which is exposed to waves, and its highest
Kingdom and Yugoslavia. and most exposed part is reef crest.
The final result of such intense bioturbation is 4. Solid reef core is the central part of
complete homogenization of deposits without organogenic reef and reef flat, which is
any clear individual traces of rooting, digging, composed of skeletal reef grid with most
and burrow-making. resistant reef-making organisms.
In petroleum and geological terms, peritidal 5. Back-reef environment is the shallow sea area
and lagoon carbonates can be extremely brilliant at the rear side of reef or reef barrier that is
source rocks for oil and gas because of their high unlike forereef and reef front, protected from
content of organic matter. direct wave action.
6. Back-reef lagoon is the shallow sea, protected
7.3.1.4. Carbonate Bodies of Reef from waves with reef area at low energy of
and Perireef Limestones in Carbonate water, and occasionally with high salinity.
Platform
The organogenic reef formations occur along
Reef complex includes environments that
the edges of the carbonate shelf, platforms, or
form large and resistant organogenic reef that
ramps where they form distinctive carbonate
has great impact on waves, topography, and re-
depositional system, in morphology, relief, and
lief as illustrated in Fig. 7.14 and is expressed as
dimensions including its ecological, biological,
follows:
climatic, chemical, physical, and hydrological
1. Reef slope is the relatively steeply sloping features. The biological, physical, and chemical
surface or the very steep side of reef. processes with very different mutual interactions
2. Forereef environment is the high-energy area participate in the formation of reef and reef com-
of the front, facing the open seaside of plex. These processes can be grouped into four
organogenic reef or reef barrier. main types: (1) building or construction,
FIGURE 7.14 The environment of reef complex deposition with solid reef core and the heterogeneous and contiguous
fragmentary material derived from it by abrasion. Source: Ref. 41.
7.3. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR SEDIMENTARY BODIES IN CARBONATE ROCKS 255
(2) destructive or processes of reef degradation, organogenic reef creations. The detritus, that
(3) sedimentation, and (4) cementation. originates outside of reef environment or
Building or construction processes include detritus drifted from neighboring environments,
biogenic processes of growth of reef-making or- involves the sedimentation process to a lesser
ganisms with carbonate skeletons. Primarily it is part. The interskeletal pores and caverns in the
the accumulation and binding of sediments reef, and cavities formed by bioerosion, are
through the organisms that live in colonies. The very quickly filled with internal sediments. The
life forms are eventually lithified during the posi- sediments are carried by sea currents and
tional growth along with their compete habitats. stamped with hitting of the waves and tides in
Abundance of holes occurs due to growth of irreg- the cavity surface of the reef, especially on reef
ular skeletal grids during the building process. front or reef crest, in the form of multiple gener-
Destructive processes or processes of reef ations of internal deposits.
degradation cause damages and degradation of The cementation processes play a significant
reef growth due to its physical destruction by role in the formation and lithifaction of reef. The
the activity of waves and sea currents and bio- process is active in the early phase of reef emer-
erosion. Mutual relations between the skeletal gence with the direct participation of seawater
grid intensity and speed of growth, physical in the pores of the ridge structure. Cementation
destruction of reef with waves, and intensity of is most intense on the reef front and the reef crest.
bioerosion are key factors in the development The saturated seawater, brought by wave activ-
of reef. This maintains the balance between con- ity, constantly inserts, retains, and evaporates in
struction and destruction process at their crea- the pores and cavities. The fossil reef limestones
tion. The physical degradation of reef is are very significant reservoir rocks of liquid and
continuous and parallel process with their con- gaseous hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas) due
struction due to abrasion activities of the waves to their high porosity. The processes of their
and ocean currents. It is particularly intense dur- cementation are subject to numerous complex
ing the occasional storm and hurricane waves physical and chemical conditions. In general, we
that can destroy large quantities of organogenic can say that in most of the fossil reef limestones
reef and colonies of organisms forming the skel- the main types of cement are located as early
etal reef grid. Bioerosion processes deploy dril- diagenetic marine aragonite and magnesium
ling, scraping, breaking, and digging in life calcite cements.
activity of different organisms. These are slow Reef front and reef core are made of nonlay-
processes of degradation of reef that, however, ered and massive organogenic limestones
become very important factor in their degrada- mostly built of the skeletons of reef-making or-
tion passing through long time. It finally leads ganisms with well-preserved skeleton (reef)
to the emergence of cavities, causing a high grid. At least 10e40% of skeleton remained lith-
permeability and porosity of reef limestones. In ified at the site of growth that includes various
the destructive processes, a huge amount of forms of bioherm, biostrome, or biolithite. The
reef biodetritus of different grain sizes arises, remaining part of most of the rock mass makes
which is deposited near or further away from the larger or smaller skeletal debris of reef-
the reef itself. making organisms, and the cavity filled with
The formation of reef are the result of deposi- cement and/or with internal sediment the “stro-
tion and accumulation of large amounts of matactis structure”.
detritus during the sedimentary process. The In forereef environments, coarse, poorly
volume of detritus is generated by abrasion sorted, and unrounded skeletal debris of reef-
and bioerosion of reef skeletal grid and generally making organisms and reef limestones
256 7. PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS OF MAJOR SEDIMENTARY BODIESdCOLLECTOR ROCKS OF OIL AND GAS
precipitate. These components are created in the (centimeter to millimeter), and skeletal grid and
destruction of reef due to heavy abrasion by skeletal debris of reef-making organisms.
wave action, especially during storm and hurri- Back-reef environment, especially back-reef
cane bad weather. Limestones, deposited in fore- lagoons, are characterized by the key feature of
reef environment, are characterized by poorly low-energy water, appropriate for the deposition
expressed slope stratification of large dimen- of only fine-grained carbonate detritus and life of
sions, with layers that are inclined toward the organisms possessing significantly different
open sea, i.e. down the reef slope at an angle of ecological features than the organisms living in
35 e60 . The incline slope depositional the reef core and reef front. The back-reef la-
unitsdforesetdusually have a wedge shape. goons are especially favorable for the develop-
The accumulation of large amounts of reef bio- ment of calcareous algae and seaweed. The
detritus in forereef environment, especially right limestone deposits of black-reef environment
beside the reef slope, create sloping stratified are mainly composed of fine-grained, well-
sedimentary bodies with a wedge form of fore- rounded, and medium-sorted reef skeletal
set, leaning down the slope. The continuous debris, shells of some foraminiferas, skeletons
deposition of these sedimentary bodies place of green algae, oncoids, and peloids. The domi-
one over the others from reef in deeper sea. nant types of sediment are bioclastic sands i.e.
Reef slope gradually fills in and becomes a greystone to peckstone, and away from reef in
shallow sea over which it continues expansion the lagoon often wackestone and even mudstone
or progradation, particularly in the phase of (pellet mud) precipitate. The back-reef sediments
lowering of sea level as shown in Fig. 7.15. move away from the reef core and gradually
The main limestone type of forereef environment pass into the micrite-rich lagoon limestones.
is reef breccias, bioclastic rudstones and The circulation gets weaker and salinity rises
floatstone made of biolithite limestone fragments higher as the energy of water lowers. The
FIGURE 7.15 Development and growth of organogenic reef depending on the relative sea-level fluctuations: Development
of the reef body as a complete depositional sequence occurs during a complete cycle of relative sea-level change: (1) low state
of sea-level (LST) and high state of sea-level (HST), characteristic progradation of reef over forereef clinostratified sediment;
(2) transgression (TST), characteristic aggradation growth shown in figure above; and (3) reduction of sea level, back to the
low state (LST) in which highly prevalent progradation of reef body over forereef sediments and where reef-making or-
ganisms follow reduction of sea level and grow only at favorable depth.
7.3. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR SEDIMENTARY BODIES IN CARBONATE ROCKS 257
sediments will be higher in proportion to fecal accumulated in environments of deeper sea on
pellets, aggregate grains, skeletons of gastro- slopes of same mechanisms and clastic sedi-
pods, ostracodes, and, certainly micrite and algal ments. The limestone turbidites deposited from
oncoid. The back-reef sediments will actually as- turbidite currents of high density, i.e. calcirudite
sume characteristics of sediments deposited in (coarse-grained limestone) or limestone breccias,
lagoons and restricted shoals. are restricted to the edges of the basin with steep
Reefeperireef limestones of carbonate plat- slopes and on forereef slopes. They are character-
forms have great significance as reservoir rocks ized by textural features, typical of coarse turbi-
for liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons (oil and dite. The limestone turbidites deposited from
gas) due to their great dimensions and high low-density turbid currents encompass charac-
porosity. The economic potentiality of reservoir teristics of Bouma turbidites with sequences of
excels with the subsequent precipitation pro- thickness between 50 and 30 cm. The submarine
cesses of impermeable deep sea or lagoon silty distribution channel generally exists on slope,
limestones acting as cover/insulator rocks. and turbid fan-shaped sedimentary body will
generate from these turbidity currents. The de-
7.3.2. Carbonate Debrites and posits are composed of Bouma sequences with
interval Taec containing coarse limestone and
Turbidites or Allodapic Limestones
sandstones with or without shallow marine
The carbonate debrites consist of clasts of reef and perireef fossil detritus, Tdee intervals
various dimensions and fine- to medium-grained of mudstone and/or wackestone, and occasion-
marl or clay matrix in such mutual ratio that car- ally clay mudstone and wackestone and/or
bonate clasts include matrix support (clasts marl and marlstone. There may be significant
“swim” in fine-grained matrix). The carbonate differences between the limestone and siliciclas-
clasts originate from the strong physical weath- tic turbidites. The complete Bouma sequences
ering and erosion of carbonate rocks outside the in limestone turbidites are rarer and have verti-
depositional area. It belongs to extraclasts, and cal zoning difference, much fewer lamination,
partly from the erosion of some older sedimentary and convolution due to relatively weak thixot-
rocks within the same depositional area or intra- ropy of carbonate mud. That is why limestone
clasts. The limestone debrites occur on steep and turbidites deposited from turbid currents of
vast slopes of carbonate platforms or on forereef low density have been given the name “allo-
slopes as a consequence of collapse process or dapic limestone”.
collapsing due to brecciation process of platform The allodapic limestone precipitates from
carbonates in tectonic deformations. This gener- turbid currents and forms a sequence character-
ates during the course of the formation of great ized by vertical zoning of the three characteristic
systems of normal faults in the Earth’s crust and zones.
tectonic crushing in overthrusting. The limestone First zone consists of three parts:
debrites are usually represented by layers of meg-
abreccias with sedimentary body in the shape of 1. Lower part consists of poor and then the well-
cover or sheet. It is mainly composed of carbonate sorted shallow marine fossil detritus and
clasts which have clast support and contain small lithoclasts showing imbrication and gradation
amounts of fine-grained matrix, such as “stone (common reversed gradation).
dust” of finely disintegrated limestone and/or 2. Middle part contains fine-grained carbonate
dolomite rock debris. detritus.
The limestone turbidites or allodapic lime- 3. Upper part contains thin laminated carbonate
stones, deposited from turbidity currents, are mud.
258 7. PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS OF MAJOR SEDIMENTARY BODIESdCOLLECTOR ROCKS OF OIL AND GAS
Second zone consists of two parts: shallows and inshore parts of sea depositional
area that does not belong to the carbonate plat-
1. Fine-grained limestone with a flat layer
form. In such cases, the reef limestones follow
surface and horizontal lamination.
transgression on older rocks with the gradual
2. Fine-grained limestone with wavy lamination
advance of sea and sinking of earlier land.
and sometimes with convolution.
The reef limestones outside of the carbonate
Third zone contains: platform are typically connected to the morpho-
logically prominent relief of rocks of different
Marls or clayey limestones that gradually
ages that form underwater cliffs or islands in
take on more characteristics of pelagic
shallow sea with high energy of water and
sediments upward. Fossil detritus of shallow
good aeration. It happens in the warm seas and
marine benthic organisms lack in this zone
provides ideal environmental conditions for the
and are found in the open sea (pelagic)
exuberant growth and development of reef-
fossils.
making organisms, especially corallinacea algae,
The allodapic layers of limestone can be bryozoans, corals, and some species of sessile
traced continuously on a large expanse of a foraminifers (nubecularia) and thick-shell bi-
few hundred meters to several kilometers. The valves, particularly oysters. The sedimentary sil-
thickness of the layers is typically from 1 cm iciclastic detritus, mixed with lesser or greater
to several meters. The allodapic limestones or amounts of fossil debris, originating from the
calcareous turbidites are often significant as reef-making organisms, dominates away from
reservoir rocks for oil and gas. They are charac- the shore and in deeper parts of the marine depo-
terized by relatively high porosity compared to sitional area without morphologically prominent
the densely packed micrite (pelagic) limestones submarine cliffs and islands, as shown in
within which the turbidity currents caused Fig. 5.24 and Fig. 7.16. The reef limestones in
greater sedimentary bodies or turbidity fans. such conditions generally form a few tens of me-
The allodapic limestone type of greystone, peck- ters thick bioherms associated with wide belt of
stone, and rudstone contain large amounts of perireef limestones (biocalcrudite and bio-
skeletal and nonskeletal detritus transferred calcarenites) formed by accumulation of vast
from the reef environment or sandbanks. This amounts of reef-making organisms’ skeletal
high primary intergranular texture will contain debris.
high secondary porosity too. This is caused by Bioherms contain organogenic skeletal grids
the diagenetic processes of dissolution. The sur- and are made up of the fossilized skeleton in
rounding basin micrite deposits, rich in organic the place of growth. The basic reef grid or “reef
matter, will be the potential source rocks from skeleton” originates in the inshore submarine
which the hydrocarbons migrate during diage- cliffs of crystalline limestone or dolomite compo-
netic processes in allodapic limestones under sition. It consists of corallinacea algae skeleton
anaerobic conditions of deposition at a greater and corals or corallinacea algae and bryozoa.
depth. The space within skeletal lattice are filled by
bryozoans, sessile foraminifers, incrusted cyano-
7.3.3. Reef and Perireef Bioclastic bacteria, and bioclasts. It is composed of debris
Limestones Outside the Carbonate of different organisms created by destruction
and abrasion of reef-making organisms. The
Platforms
large extent and thickness of perireef limestones
Reef and perireef limestones, except on car- mainly contains debris of reef-making organ-
bonate platforms (Section 7.3.1.4.), occur in isms, bioherms with the rise of sea levels and
7.3. MAIN FORMS OF COLLECTOR SEDIMENTARY BODIES IN CARBONATE ROCKS 259
FIGURE 7.16 Conceptual diagram showing depositional environments of corallinacea reefeperireef limestones in the
Baden of the large Pannonian Basin or Carpathian basin in East-Central Europe.
gradual flooding and sinking of the morpholog- Croatian territory. It forms large sedimentary
ically indented relief. It is made up of older bodies characterized by very high intergranular,
Paleozoic and/or Mesozoic rocks during the interskeletal, and intraskeletal porosity and
Badenian (Middle Miocene) in the Pannonian ba- permeability. The Badenian reef limestones are
sin covered by large expanses of coastal shal- typically belong to bioherms, dome morpholog-
lows. The greatest part of them, however, is ical type of organogenic reef (Fig. 5.54(B)). The
ruined and destroyed by the activity of waves resulting growth and lithification of corallinacea
and is redeposited with progradation mecha- algae colonies for several generations and bryo-
nisms closer to or away from the reef in the zoa, together with thick testaceous shellfish (oys-
form of perireef bioclastic limestones. ters), inhabits on shallow marine cliffs (Fig. 7.16).
The perireef bioclastic limestones contain It consists mainly of corallinacea algae colonies,
large amounts of skeletal debris deposited in incrusted bryozoans and shellfish shells, and
the perireef shallows with turbulent water. It in- sometimes large benthic foraminifers. They
dicates strong- and long-term destruction of may also contain a small proportion of siliciclas-
organogenic reef creations with processes of bio- tic ingredients, generally grains of sand of quartz
erosion and wave abrasion, and the fact that the and fragments of granitoid rocks, and sometimes
final volume and area of reef is significantly in addition fragments or pebbles of quartzite,
lower than their actual initial distribution crystalline schist, limestones, and dolomites.
(Fig. 7.16). These are clasts carried by sea currents and
The greatest significance as reservoir rocks of waves on organogenic reef and remain petrified
oil and gas in the Pannonian Basin have Bade- and embedded in the ridge formations.
nian, and sometimes Paleocene, reef and perireef The Baden perireef limestones, known as
limestones (bioherms, biocalcarenites, and bio- corallinacea (lithothamnium) and corallinacea-
calcrudites), since they are the most widespread bryozoan biocalcrudite and biocalcrudite lime-
transgressive reefeperireef carbonate sediments stones, consist of corallinacea algae bioclasts
in the Tertiary sediments of the Pannonian (lithothamnia), bryozoans, urchins, and
260 7. PRECIPITATION SYSTEMS OF MAJOR SEDIMENTARY BODIESdCOLLECTOR ROCKS OF OIL AND GAS
shellfishes. It represents different degree of sort- is the result of redeposits by turbidity current in
ing and mutual proportions. In general, these the deeper parts of the sea area in the form of tur-
are bioclasts of sand size, i.e. at biocalcrudite bidites, largely as Ta, Tb, and Tc intervals of
debris of gravel size (2e20 mm). They also Bouma sequences (Fig. 7.10). The turbidity fans
contain variable amounts of siliciclastic materials are significantly potential and unique collector
(quartz, granitoid fragments and metamorphic bodies. The turbidity fans with Ta, Tb, and Tc
rocks, sandstone, chert, and volcanic rocks) intervals are predominantly composed of
and/or clasts of Mesozoic limestones and dolo- biocalcarenite or biocalcrudite having high
mites, as well as detritus resedimented along porosity, permeability, and larger thickness and
with bioclasts of reef-making organisms by sea are usually covered by marls as insulating rocks.
currents and waves. The Baden biocalcarenites
and biocalcrudites often show well-preserved
gradation and slope stratification. It also includes FURTHER READING
numerous textural and structural features char-
acteristic of deposition of material in the deltas, It is recommended referring Dott et al.,11
shores, sandbanks, and tidal channels by activity Miall,30 Reading,36 Reeckman,37 Tisljar,47,48,50,51
of waves and tidal currents. A significant portion and Tissot53 on depositional environment favor-
of reefeperireef detritus in the Pannonian basin ing petroleum.
C H A P T E R
8
Mineral Deposits: Host Rocks and Origin
O U T L I N E
Minerals are non-renewable wasting assets and or group of minerals within it under certain
once taken out of Mother Earth, can never be physicochemical conditions, classification sys-
replenished by human ability. Haldar tems based on various characteristic features,
and their origin.
8.1. DEFINITION 8.1.1. Mineral
Let us revise our understanding of some com- “Mineral” is a naturally occurring homoge-
mon terminology to explain and establish the neous substance, usually inorganic, and symbol-
mutual relationship between minerals, mineral ized by unique atomic structure and chemical
deposits, the host rocks that bear specific mineral formula with minor deviation (addition or
01 Native elements Antimony (Sb), copper (Cu), gold (Au), silver (Ag), sulfur (S)
02 Sulfides and sulfosalts Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), sphalerite (ZnS), galena (PbS), bournonite
(PbCuSbS3), tennantite (Cu12Sb4S13), and tetrahedrite ((Cu Fe)12Sb4S13)
03 Oxide and hydroxides Quartz and amethyst (SiO2), hematite (Fe2O3), cassiterite (SnO2), boehmite
(g-AlO(OH)), and gibbsite, Al(OH)3
04 Halides Cryolite (Na3AlF6), fluorite (CaF2), halite (NaCl), and sylvanite (KCl)
Province or Represents large area having essentially notable ZnePbeAg-bearing McArthureMt Isa inlier in
metallogenic concentration of certain characteristic metal or Northern Territory, Australia (Fig. 8.2); gold province
province several metal assemblages or a distinctive style in Canadian shield; PtePdeNieCueAu deposits in
of mineralization to be delineated and developed Sudbury basin, Canada; Bushveld igneous complex
as economic deposits. The metallogenic province with PtePdeCr deposits, South Africa; Katanga and
can be formed on various processes like plate Zambian copper province; tungsten province of China;
tectonic activity, subduction, igneous intrusive, ZnePbeAg deposits of Aravalli province, India
metal-rich epigenetic hydrothermal solution, and
expulsion of pore water enriched in metals from
sedimentary basin
Region Relatively smaller in size compared to province Kalgoorlie goldfield, Esperance region of Western
and controlled by stratigraphy and/or structure, Australia; ZnePb region of Mississippi Valley; copper
for occurrence of specific mineral(s) at commercial region of Chile and Peru; diamond-bearing region of
quantity. northern Minas Geraes, Brazil and at Kimberley, South
Africa; Pacific and Central coal-bearing region of the
United State; and rubies in high-grade metamorphic
region of Kashmir region, India
District Stands for one geographical area popularly known Aeolian soils of Blayney District, NSW, Australia;
for the occurrence of particular mineral Baguio mineral district in Philippines for copper
deposits; new Mexico for uranium deposits; and East
Singhbhum district for copper and Salem district for
magnesite, India
8.3. HOST ROCKS 265
TABLE 8.2 Classification of Mineral Deposits Based on Geographical Distribution (cont'd)
Type Description Examples
Belt Represents narrow linear stretch of land having Colorado goldemolybdenum belt, USA;
group of deposits of associated minerals KhetrieNimkathana copper belt,
RajpuraeDaribaeBethumni zinceleadesilver belt,
Rajasthan (Fig. 8.3) and Sukinda-Nausahi chromite belt,
Orissa, India
Deposit Stands for a single or a group of mineral Broken hill group of zincelead deposits, Australia; Red
occurrences of sufficient size and grade separated Dog zincelead deposit, Alaska; Zawar group of
by natural narrow barren partings zincelead deposits, India; OK Tedi copper deposit,
Papua new Guinea; Olympic Dam
copperegoldeuraniumesilver deposit, South
Australia; Neves-Corvo polymetallic deposit, Portugal;
and Stillwater group of platinum deposit, USA
Block Well-defined area having mineral concentration Broken hill main, Australia, and Bailadila deposit-14,
wholly or partly of economic value Central Mochia, India
the surface and may or may not continue in concentrate at suitable location; and remobilize
greater depth. It may occur near/close to the sur- and reorientate as postgenetic activity. The fea-
face like coal and lignite seams. Many of the min- tures related to mineralization control are defor-
eral deposits are deep seated and hidden deep. mation, weathering, joints, fractures, folds,
The discovery, development, and mining will faults, breccias, and zone of subduction. The
be easier for the former and complex for the structural features are given in Table 8.6.
latter type. A comparative statement is given in
Table 8.3.
8.3. HOST ROCKS
8.2.4. Mode of Occurrence
There are three types of rocks that host the
Minerals and rocks are found in varied forms
mineralization, namely, igneous, sedimentary,
in nature. The type or mode of occurrences are
and metamorphic (Table 8.7). Examples of
characteristic to certain groups of minerals and
igneous rocks are porphyry copper deposits
are classified as given in Table 8.4.
in granite, platinumepalladiumechromiume
nickel deposits in dunite, as well as peridotite,
8.2.5. Nature of Mineralization gabbro, norite and anorthosite, tantalite, colum-
Mineral deposits can be classified based on bite, and cassiterite in pegmatite. Ore deposits
the nature of their appearances in situ as can exclusively be formed by sedimentation
described in Table 8.5. process like iron ore formation (Banded Iron
Formation (BIF) / Banded Hematite Quartzite
(BHQ)), zincelead deposits in dolomite, cop-
8.2.6. Structural Control peregold in quartzite, and diamond in conglom-
Structural changes, tectonic movements, and erate and limestones. The deposits show bedded,
surface weathering play a significant role over stratabound, and often stratiform features hav-
geological time as avenue for hydrothermal ing concordant relation with country rocks.
flow of mineralized fluids; accumulate and Metamorphic rocks host important ore deposits
266 8. MINERAL DEPOSITS: HOST ROCKS AND ORIGIN
Arnhem
Shelf
McArthur Caledon Shelf
Basin Gulf of
Carpentaria
Walker Fault
Zone
Urapunga
Fault Zone
Bauhinia
Shelf
HYC
Wearyan
Shelf
Batten Fault
Zone
Murphy lnlier
Walford Creek
Kamarga
Lawn Hill
Platform
Century
Grevillea
Lady Dugald
Loretta River
George Fisher
Hilton
Mt lsa
Mt Novit
N.T.
Qld.
200 km Cannington
FIGURE 8.2 Distribution of significant stratiform and stratabound zinceleadesilver deposits in Proterozoic province of
North Australia. The deposits occur along NW-SE lineament. Source: Ref. 23.
FIGURE 8.3 Position of significant zinceleadesilver deposits in RajpuraeDaribaeBethumni Belt, India. Source: Ref. 24.
Exposed to surface Mineral deposits like iron ore, bauxite, Prospecting efforts get emphasis on looking for
chromite, copper, limestone, and magnesite fresh rock exposure and newly derived
are exposed to the surface and easy to boulders as is Adi Nefas ZneCueAueAg
explore. It is formed by igneous, deposit, Madagascar; El Abra Cu deposit,
sedimentary, alluvial, and eluvial Chile; Rampura-Agucha ZnePbeAg and
weathering process including beach chromite deposits in Orissa, Tamil Nadu
and river sand (Fig. 8.4), India; Red Dog, Alaska; OK Tedi
copperegold, Papua new Guinea; and Olympic
Dam copperegoldeuraniumesilver
Shallow depth Deposits like base metals, coal, and Cerro de Maimon copperegold deposit at
gypsum are covered by altered oxidized Dominican Republic; Zawar zinceleadesilver;
capping or exist at shallow depth or Raniganj coalfield and gypsum deposits, India
under thick overburden of bed rock
Deep-seated Igneous intrusive deposits are often deep Polymetallic deposits discovered in past are
hidden deposit seated and hidden at greater depth posing Neves-Corvo copperezincetin at 330e1000 m
difficulties in discovery, exploration, and depth, Portugal and Sindesar Khurd
extraction zinceleadesilver at 130 m depth, India
Stratabound Minerals deposits in stratabound formats are Proterozoic Mt IsaeMcArthur Basin System of
exclusively confined within a single specific Northern Territory, Australia (Mt Isa, George
stratigraphic unit. Stratabound deposits will Fisher, Hilton, Lady Loretta, Century, and
include various orientation of mineralization McArthur River) and Proterozoic Middle Aravalli
representing layers, rhythmic, stratiform, veinlets, System in India (Zawar, RajpuraeDariba and
stringers, disseminated, and alteration zones, RampuraeAgucha)
strictly contained within the stratigraphic unit, but
that may or may not be conformable with bedding
Stratiform Hydrothermal, volcanogenic, and “SEDEX”-type White Pine copper deposit, Michigan, Zambia;
mineralization closely resembles stratification of copper, zinceleadecopper deposits of Sullivan in
sedimentary formation, formed by upward moving British Columbia and RajpuraeDariba in India
metal-bearing solution through a porous aquifer, (Fig. 8.5); lead zinc deposits of Broken hills in new
and deposits ore minerals in the overlying pile of South Wales, Mt Isa in Queensland; and McArthur
sedimentary strata of shale and carbonates. It may river in Northern Territory, Australia
contain significant amount of fine pyrite and
organic matter
Bedded, layered, Bedded deposits are formed generally by Banded Hematite quartzite (BHQ), limestone,
and rhythmic deposition and consolidation of sediments. Layered lignite, and coal (Fig. 8.6). Bushveld
and rhythmic features are developed during the platinumechromite deposits, South Africa;
differential crystallization and segregation of mafic Sittampundi CrePtePd (Fig. 8.7); Sukinda CreNi
and ultramafic magma in a huge chamber over a and Nausahi CrePtePd, India
prolong time
8.4. GENETIC MODEL 269
TABLE 8.4 Classification of Mineral Deposits Based on Mode of Occurrences (cont'd)
Type Description Example
Porphyritic Igneous host rock consisting of large-grained Chuquicamata (690 Mt @ 2.58% Cu), Escondida and
crystal of quartz, feldspar, and amphiboles El Salvador, Chile; Toquepala, Peru; Lavender pit,
scattered in a fine-grained groundmass. Porphyritic Arizona; and Malanjkhand, India
refers to the texture of the rocks
Pipe/chimney These deposits are relatively narrow in horizontal Diamond-bearing kimberlite/lamproite pipes at
dimension and extensively large in vertical Kimberly, South Africa and Panna deposit, India
direction. Pipes may be formed by infillings of
mineralized breccias in volcanic pipes, e.g. copper-
bearing breccia pipes of Messina, South Africa
Disseminated Disseminated types of mineralization are Diamond in kimberlite pipes in South Africa,
formed by crystallization of deep-seated magma. porphyry copper deposits at El Salvador, Chile;
The early formed in situ valuable metallic and porphyry tungstenemolybdenum deposit at
nonmetallic minerals are sparsely disseminated Yukon; Malanjkhand copper and Sargipalli lead-
or scattered as fine grains throughout or part copper deposit, India
of the host rock
Massive Massive deposits are characterized by substantial Zinceleadesilver deposit of Red Dog, Northwest
share of ore-forming minerals with very little Alaska; Neves-Corvo, Portugal; and chromite
gangue þ60% sulfides in VMS-, VHMS-, or deposits of Tamil Nadu, India (Fig. 8.4)
SEDEX-type base metals, chromite, and
magnetite deposits
Veins and Veins, fissure, and lodes are tabular deposit Polymetallic deposits of Silvania; Silver Cup, Lucky
stringers formed by deposition of ore and gangue Jim, Highland Lass Bell in British Columbia; Zawar
minerals in open spaces within fault, shear, zinceleadesilver (Fig. 8.8); Kolihan copper deposit;
and fracture zones chromiteemagnesite deposit at Sindhuvally, India
Sheet and Stringers are large numbers of thin, tiny, and Zawar group of zincelead deposit, India (Fig. 8.9)
stringers closely spaced mineralized veins originating
from the main orebody and often described as
“stringer zone”
Stock work Style is characterized by a large mass of rock Nevada, copper- and tin-rich stock work at Neves-
impregnated by dense interlacing network of Corvo mine, Portugal; zinceleadesilver
variously oriented irregular metal-bearing mineralization at Sindesar Khurd (Fig. 8.10); and
hydrothermal veins and grouped veinlets. platinumepalladiumechromite mines at Boula-
Common occurrences are platinum-bearing Nausali India
sulfides, copper, gold, molybdenum, tin,
tungsten, beryllium, uranium, mercury,
and other metal ore
(Continued)
270 8. MINERAL DEPOSITS: HOST ROCKS AND ORIGIN
Ladder veins Ladder veins are regularly spaced, short, and Examples of commercial ladder vein-type deposits
transverse nearly fractures confined wall are Morning Star gold mine in Victoria;
to wall within dikes or compact rock mass for molybdenite veins in New South Wales, Australia;
considerable distance. Fractures are formed by and copper ladder veins in Norway
contraction joints and filled with auriferous
quartz or valuable minerals forming economic
deposit
Identical with host Mineral deposits like granite, limestone, Limestone deposits of Egypt and Saudi
marble, quartzite, and slate are Arabia (Fig. 8.15)
indistinguishable from the host rock
Different from host Gold-bearing quartz veins act as an exclusive Kolar gold deposit, Karnataka, India
host for Au and are different from the
surrounding rocks
Gradational contact Forms around the vein systems with Bulldog Mountain fine-grained sphalerite,
characteristic disseminated mineral Colorado, and Sargipalli leadecopper, India
distribution
from the crystallization of felsic, mafic, and ultra- NieCuePGE deposits at Stillwater Igneous
mafic magma (Fig. 8.16). Ore minerals are Complex, Montana, USA; and MoeCu porphyry
formed by the separation of metal sulfides and deposits at Malanjkhand, CreNi PGE deposits
oxides in molten form within an igneous melt at SukindaeNausahi belt (Orissa), and Byrapur,
before crystallization. The deposit types include Layered Igneous Complex (Karnataka), India.
copper, chromite, nickelecopper, and platinum
group of elements. There are several large 8.4.2. Sedimentary
magmatic deposits: they are CrePGE (Platinum
Group of Elements) deposits at Bushveld “Sedimentary” type of deposits are formed by
Igneous Complex, South Africa; NieCuePGE the process of deposition and consolidation of
deposits at The Great Dykes, Zimbabwe; loose materials under aqueous condition. The
NiePGEeCr deposits at Sudbury, Canada; sedimentary deposits are concordant and may
be an integral part of stratigraphic sequence. It
is formed due to seasonal concentration of heavy
minerals like hematite on the seafloor. The struc-
tures consist of repeated thin layers of iron ox-
ides, hematite, or magnetite, alternating with
bands of iron-poor shale and chert. The large re-
serves and production are shared by China,
Northwestern Australia, Brazil, India, Russia,
Ukraine, South Africa, United States, Canada,
Iran, Sweden, Kazakhstan, and Venezuela. Simi-
larly, limestone deposits are formed by chemical
sedimentation of calciumemagnesium carbonate
FIGURE 8.5 Stratiform sphalerite (honey brown) ore fossils on the seafloor. The fossil-bearing sand-
forming mineralization in calc-silicate (bluish grey) host rock stones, carbonates, and conglomerates may pre-
at Rajpura Dariba deposit, India. Source: Ref. 24. sent large reservoir of petroleum and gas.
8.4. GENETIC MODEL 273
FIGURE 8.7 Layers of chromite (black) and PtePd-bearing gabbro (white), Sittampundi Igneous Complex, Tamil Nadu,
India. Source: Ref. 23.
Phosphate-bearing stromatolitic limestone may Arabia, Canada, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, United
contribute large resources of phosphate fertilizer Arab Emirates, Russia, Kazakhstan, Libya,
such as at Jhamarkotra, India (Fig. 8.17). Coal and Nigeria, Qatar, China, United States, Angola,
lignite are formed under sedimentary deposi- Algeria, Egypt, and Brazil.
tional condition. The largest coal reserves are Evaporite deposits form through the evapora-
from the United States, Russia, China, Australia, tion of saline water in lakes and sea, in regions of
India, Germany, Ukraine, Columbia, Canada, low rainfall and high temperature. The common
Indonesia, and Brazil. The largest reservoirs/pro- evaporite deposits are salts (halite and sylvite),
duction of petroleum are from Venezuela, Saudi gypsum, borax, and nitrates. The original char-
acter of most evaporite deposits is destroyed
by replacement through circulating fluids.
FIGURE 8.11 Stratiform pyriteezincelead mineraliza- FIGURE 8.13 Field photographs of layered ultramafic
tion folded and microfaulted with mineral concentration at igneous complex in the left (peridotite, gabbro, and norite)
crests presenting saddle reef structure, RajpuraeDariba de- showing tectonic breccias zone (center and right) at Boula-
posit, India. Source: Ref. 24. Nausahi open-pit mine, Orissa, India.
8.4. GENETIC MODEL 275
FIGURE 8.15 The hills of horizontal bedded limestone (30e50 m high) on either side of the Riyadh-Jeddah-Mecca
National Highway, Saudi Arabia, gives a pleasant journey in the desert countryside. These limestone orebodies are iden-
tical to the host rock and excellent raw material for cement and lime-related industries.
276 8. MINERAL DEPOSITS: HOST ROCKS AND ORIGIN
FIGURE 8.19 Massive sphalerite (iron-brown) and galena (shining) in carbonaceous calc-silicate host rock sedimentary
exhalative deposition at Sindesar Khurd SEDEX type in India. Source: Ref. 24.
8.4.7. Mississippi Valley Type defined by regional stream sediment and soil
and gossan sample anomaly supported by aero-
The “Mississippi valley-type” (MVT) de- magnetic and gravity survey. There are
posits are epigenetic, stratabound, often rhyth- numerous ZnePbeAg sulfide deposits along
mically banded (stratiform) ores with the Mississippi river in the United States; Pine
replacement of primary sedimentary features Point, Canada; San Vicente, Central Peru; Sile-
predominantly carbonate (limestone, marl, sia, Southern Poland; Polaris, British Columbia;
dolomite, and rarely sandstone) host rocks. as well as Lennard Shelf (Fig. 8.20) and Admiral
The mineralization is hosted in open space Bay, Western Australia.
filling, collapse breccias, faults, and hydrother-
mal cavities. The deposits, formed by diagenetic
recrystallization of carbonates (limestone/dolo-
8.4.8. MantoeChimney - Replacement
stone), create low-temperature hydrothermal
solution that migrates to suitable stratigraphic “Mantoechimney - replacement” type of de-
traps like fold hinge and faults at the continen- posits are hosted by limestone and dolostone.
tal margin and intracratonic basin setting. The The Manto orebodies are stratabound and
ore-forming minerals are predominantly sphal- even have stratiform irregular sheetlike to
erite, galena, and barite. Calcite is the most com- rod-shaped peneconcordant to transgressive
mon gangue mineral. Low pyrite content mode of occurrence, usually horizontal to near
supports clean concentrate with high metal re- horizontal in attitude. Manto deposits represent
covery of þ95%. Some deposits are surrounded platformal to rift settings in epi/intra continental
by pyrite/marcasite halo. Prospects can be regions. These type of deposits may stack
FIGURE 8.20 Sphalerite (yellow) and galena (black) mineralization in calcite (white) bands indicating different fluid-phase
events, Lennard Shelf MVT deposit, Western Australia. Source: Ref. 24.
278 8. MINERAL DEPOSITS: HOST ROCKS AND ORIGIN
vertically one above the other and be connected stratabound, often dislocated by normal faults,
by pipes or chimneys of dispersed mineralization. and occur as riftogenic basin margin with the
The major ore minerals are sphalerite, galena, sul- presence of basic volcanic and pluton rocks.
fosalts silver, pyrite, pyrrhotite, and, locally, chal- Dolomitization and silicification along with
copyrite Au. The orebodies are often affected silica-rich Fr oxide zoning are common. The ma-
by deformation and metamorphism. The mineral- jor metallic minerals in order of abundances are
ization is genetically replacement type by sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite with minor
hydrothermal solutions (Fig. 8.21) at w200 C amount of barium, silver, and cadmium. The
with/without development of skarns. The metal usual age of formation is Carboniferous. Navan
sources are from plutonic granite/granodiorite is the largest (preproduction ore reserves of
and introduction of hydrothermal fluids 58 Mt @ 8.33% Zn, 2.05% Pb, and 244 t Ag) of
penecontemporaneous with sedimentation dur- the Irish ZnePb deposits and contains some
ing Devonian to Jurassic period. The examples of the most important evidence for epigenetic
are Santa Eulalia silverezinceleadecopperetin mineralization and is hosted in Lower Carbonif-
deposit at Chihuahua, Mexico, and similar depo- erous platform carbonates of the early
sit at Leadville, Colorado, USA. Courceyan Navan Group (w351 4 Ma).
8.4.11. Alpine/Bleiberg
The “alpine” deposits are hosted by dolostone,
limestone, and marble occurring as concordant
sheets, lenses, and discordant veins on rifted plat-
form formed during Middle to Upper Triassic
period. Dolomitization and silicification of host
rock is very common. The major metallic minerals
are sphalerite, galena, and pyrite sulfosalts,
fluorite, barite, and anhydrite.
8.4.12. Skarn
FIGURE 8.21 Massive crystalline galena (shining steel
gray) with remnant of partially replaced quartz vein/frag- The “skarn”-type deposits are formed in a pro-
ment (white). cess similar to that of porphyry orebodies. Skarn
FURTHER READING 279
deposits are developed due to replacement, alter- NieCo and Cr in laterites on top of peridotites,
ation, and contact metasomatism of the surround- New Caledonia and Western Australia, respec-
ing country rocks by ore-bearing hydrothermal tively; and Ti in soils on top of alkali igneous rocks
solution adjacent to mafic, ultramafic, felsic, or (Parana Basin, Brazil).
granitic-intrusive body. It is most often devel-
oped at the contact of intrusive plutons and car-
bonate country rocks. The latter are converted 8.4.14. Placer
to marbles, calc-silicate hornfels by contact meta- The “placer” deposits are formed by surface
morphic effects. The mineralization can occur in weathering and ocean, river, or wind action
mafic volcanic and ultramafic flows or other resulting in concentration of some valuable
intrusive rocks. There are many significant strongly resistant minerals of economic quanti-
world-class economic skarn deposits: Pine Creek ties. The placer can be an accumulation of valu-
tungsten, California; Twin Buttes copper, able minerals formed by gravity separation
Arizona, and Bingham Canyon copper, Utah, during sedimentary processes. The type of placer
United States, OK Tedi goldecopper, Papua deposits are, namely, alluvial (transported by a
New Guinea; Avebury nickel, Tasmania; and river), colluvial (transported by gravity action),
Tosam TineCopper, India (reconnaissance stage). eluvial (material still at or near its point of forma-
tion), beach placers (coarse sand deposited along
the edge of large water bodies), and paleoplacers
8.4.13. Residual (ancient buried and converted rock from an orig-
The “residual” deposits are formed by chemical inal loose mass of sediment). The most common
weathering process like leaching which removes placer deposits are those of gold, platinum
gangue minerals from protore and enriches valu- group minerals, gemstones, pyrite, magnetite,
able metals in situ or at nearby location. The cassiterite, wolframite, rutile, monazite, and
most important example is formation of bauxite zircon. The California gold rush in 1849 began
under tropical climate where abundance of high when someone discovered rich placer deposits
temperature and high rainfall during chemical of gold in streams draining the Sierra Nevada
weathering of granitic rocks produces highly Mountains. The marine placer deposits of rutile,
leached cover rich in aluminum. Examples are monazite, ilmenite, and zircon are currently be-
bauxite deposit of Weipa, Gove Peninsula, Darling ing exploited along the coast of eastern
Range and Mitchel Plateau in Australia; Awaso Australia, India, and Indonesia.
and Kibi, Ghana; East Coast, India; and Eyre
Peninsula Kaolin deposit Australia. Basic and ul-
trabasic rocks tend to form laterites rich in iron FURTHER READING
and nickel, respectively. Nickel-bearing laterites,
which may or may not be associated with plat- Pirsson33 and Dana9 gave a comprehensive
inum group of elements, are mined at New Cale- account of almost all minerals and description
donia, Norseman-Wiluna greenstone belt of of rocks, their composition. Dana’s New Miner-
Western Australia and Central Africa, Ni- alogy by Genies et al.21 described a new outlook
bearing limonite overburden at Sukinda, India. to the system of mineralogy. Host rock environ-
The other residual-type deposits are auriferous lat- ments, structures and classification has been
erites in greenstone belts (Western Australia); described in detail by Evans21 and Haldar.24
C H A P T E R
9
Resource Assessment and Economic
Parameters
O U T L I N E
FIGURE 9.2 The flat low-lying hills in the east bank of River Nile are fully exploited by miners with virtually no or little
mechanization, mainly for production of good-quality limes and cement situated close to Cairo city. The picture is taken while
on a train journey between Cairo and Aswan, Egypt.
X
n
Salem magnesite deposits, India. There is no Total T ¼ ðt1 þ t2 þ t3 .tn Þ
choice of preferential geographical location of ore- i¼1
bodydit can be at a remote place or below a where
thickly populated city. It has to be accepted as it
is and where it is. Moreover, ore deposits, being t or T ¼ measured quantity in tons,
an exploitable nonrenewable asset, have to be V ¼ volume in cubic meter (m3), and
used judicially at present and be left sensibly for A ¼ area in square meter (m2) derived by
the future (Fig. 9.2). measurement from plans or sections of the
geologically defined mineralized area of the
deposit.
“Influence” of third dimension is the
9.3. ESTIMATION PROCEDURE thickness of horizontal deposit like coal seam,
bauxite, placer deposits, or drill section
The conventional and general procedure of
interval for base metal deposits.
mineral/ore reserves (tonnage, “T” or “t”) and
Sp. Gr. ¼ specific gravity, bulk density,
average grade (percent or part per million or
and tonnage factor; although not truly
grams per ton metal/nonmetal content) can be
synonymous, these are used in computation
computed by geometrical methods.
of tons by including likely volume of the void
The mineral resource and ore reserve poten-
and pore spaces. Measurement of number of
tial of mineral deposit are estimated principally
undisturbed drill cores or bulk samples is the
by one straightforward formula with minor vari-
most reliable means of establishing a tonnage
ation. The unit of measurement is ton.
factor.
t ¼ V Sp:Gr: The volume/tons can also be estimated by mak-
V ¼ A influence of third dimension ing 3D wireframe model of the deposit (Fig. 9.1).
9.3. ESTIMATION PROCEDURE 285
The database takes into consideration of
all samples and geological aspects collected
during exploration program and uses in-house/
commercial software.
The average grade of the deposit is computed
by the standard formula:
X
Grade ðgÞ ¼ t1 g1 þ t 2 g 2 . þ t n g n
X
n
ðt1 þ t2 . þ tn Þ
i¼1
where
t ¼ tons of ore in subblock and FIGURE 9.3 Conceptual diagram showing reserve esti-
g ¼ grade of sample mation by square, rectangle, and polygonal method keeping
sample at the center of the square or polygon. Source: Ref. 23.
The average grade for linear samples (chan-
nel, drill hole), area (plan or section subblock),
and volume can be computed by replacing “t”
by “l”, “a”, and “v”, respectively. 9.3.2. Large and Deep Seated
The resource and reserve estimation can be Large and medium deposits are represented
planned based on the type of deposits by con- by zinc, lead, copper, chromite, and many other
ventional procedure. The quality estimated can types of mineralization. These deposits exhibit
be upgraded by applying statistical and geostat- large volume and longer continuity along strike
istical applications. and dip. The deposits are explored by regular
grid pattern drill holes that enable creating series
of cross-sections, composite longitudinal vertical
9.3.1. Small and Medium Size
section, and regular interval level plan between
Small- and medium-size deposits like coal/ the top and bottom drill holes. The reserve/re-
lignite seam, bauxite, and laterite are virtually sources are computed with these cross-sections,
flat and exist on or near the surface. The trian- long section, and level plans. The reserves and
gular, square, rectangle, and polygonal methods grade estimated by these three methods must
are point estimates by declustering of cells show close agreement in tonnage and grade. If
around the samples. any major difference occurs between any two
Triangles are formed by joining three adjacent or all three procedures, it must carefully be
positive intersections defining a block. The hori- checked and recomputed to arrive at near-
zontal area of each block is measured and multi- identical results.
plied by the thickness of the mineralization to get
the volume. The reserve is obtained by multi- 9.3.2.1. Cross-Section
plying the volume with bulk Sp. Gr. of ore. The Geological cross-section is a vertical image of
grade is computed by averaging the three corner the plane across the geological continuity of the
values of the triangle. In the same way, squares, area. The extent of section is limited by the avail-
rectangles, and polygons can be created either by able surface geological data and borehole infor-
joining each positive drill hole or by perpendic- mation. The total surface features such as
ular bisectrix around each borehole (Fig. 9.3). rock contacts, structures, mineralized signatures,
286 9. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC PARAMETERS
weathering, and gossan are plotted with local depicted by fresh mineralization or indirectly
coordinate system along the surface profile. by signature like the presence of oxidation/
The scale is often selected as 1:2000, 1:1000, gossan of sulfide deposits. Otherwise, the ore-
and 1:500. Contours indicate elevation of the body will be treated as concealed type and
profile. All the boreholes falling on and around shape will be drawn by drill information. The
the section are plotted based on its collar coordi- orebody configuration can be very simple con-
nate (starting point), direction, angle of drilling, sisting of a single vein or it can be multiple
deviation, if any, and length of hole. The and give a complex type by splitting and coa-
information of core recovery, rock contacts, lescing with each other.
structures, chemical results, and individual or The total mineralized area is divided into
composite value from the log-sheets are plotted several subblocks around each borehole intersec-
along the trace of the hole. Geological tion by halfway influence principle (Fig. 9.4). The
correlation is made taking into to consideration halfway demarcation is made by joining mid-
the knowledge of the area and experience of the points of hanging and footwall mineralization
geologists. The orebody can be extended up to contacts between two adjacent boreholes. The
the surface if it is directly exposed, such as area of each subblock is measured by geometrical
FIGURE 9.4 Reserve estimation by cross-section method, most popularly and widely adopted by all levels of professionals
since decades. A, B, C and D represent the subblock area by halfway influence around mineralized drill core intersections.
Source: Ref. 23.
9.3. ESTIMATION PROCEDURE 287
formulas for rectangular, square, and triangular 9.3.2.2. Long Vertical Section
orebody. A planimeter or an overlay of trans- Longitudinal vertical section/projection is the
parent graph sheet, or AutoCAD software, can creation of a vertical image along the elongated
be used for measuring the area of irregular ore- direction of ore geometry. The trace of the sur-
body. Planimeter is a drafting instrument used face profile and subsurface position of mineral-
to measure the area of a graphically represented ized information as gathered by drill holes and
planar region by tracing the perimeter of the underground workings are plotted in the vertical
figure. The volume of the subblock is computed plane. The negative information of drill holes is
by multiplying the third dimension, i.e. half of considered to delimit the mineralization from
drilling interval on either side. The extremities barren rocks. The total mineralized envelope on
of the orebody at both the end sections can be the longitudinal vertical section is divided into
logically extended to any distance less than or subblocks around the positive intersection with
equal to half of the drill interval. Halfway influ- the principle of halfway influence (Fig. 9.5).
ence on either side, for volume computation be- The tonnage and average grade of individual
tween sections, may introduce significant errors subblock and total ore deposit are computed
in tonnage and grade if similar configuration similar to the cross-section method.
does not exist in the adjacent sections. It is recom-
mended to draw longitudinal vertical section and 9.3.2.3. Level Plan
level plan simultaneously to depict a reasonable Level plan is the horizontal plan image of any
3D perspective. subsurface datum plane. It is very similar to
FIGURE 9.5 Estimation of reserve and grade by longitudinal vertical sectiondan alternative process to validate the es-
timate by other techniques. Source: Ref. 23.
288 9. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC PARAMETERS
FIGURE 9.6 Conceptual diagram showing estimation of reserve and grade by level plan methoddan alternative technique
to cross-check estimates. Source: Ref. 23.
surface geological map to a large extent. Plan covariance (COV) and correlation coefficient
view of a particular level is created taking (r); scatter plot; regression and analysis of vari-
measurements from all the cross-sections and ances; etc. The statistical analysis enriches the
underground drill and development sampling. understanding of the distribution pattern and es-
The reserve is computed by the same way as timates the global average grade with global CL
discussed for cross and longitudinal vertical of the average. Correlation coefficient and scatter
section (Fig. 9.6). plot ensure quality control and quality assurance
(QC/QA) of the sample database on which the
resource estimation stand. (Refer Haldar23 for
9.3.3. Statistical Method statistical applications.)
The applications of statistics play a positive
and meaningful role in understanding the char-
acteristics of mineral deposits for over five de-
9.3.4. Geostatistical Method
cades. The applications start with sample Problems of grade tonnage mismatch esti-
probability distribution (normal or Gaussian mated by global statistical parameters and wider
and lognormal) to adopt respective computation grade variances of estimated blocks have been
procedure. The statistical analysis provides sam- resolved by developing regionalized stationary
ple population-related information like number and variability of metal distribution within the
of samples; minimum and maximum value; deposit. The geostatistical method works on
range; median; mode; frequency (f) table and regional variance concept by construction of
plot (Fig. 9.7); average, normal, or lognormal semivariogram (Fig. 9.8).
mean grade (X or m); variance (S2 or s2); stan- Estimation of tonnage and grade for a mining
dard deviation (S or s); coefficient of variation subblock (Fig. 9.9) by geostatistical method
(CV); confidence limit (CL); t-test; F-test; chi- (kriging) is complex and preferably needs well-
square (c2) test skewness; kurtosis (K); tested in-house or commercial software with
9.3. ESTIMATION PROCEDURE 289
FIGURE 9.7 Relative frequency plot showing the percentage area covered by 1 and 2 standard deviations on either side of
central value or mean grade of 1-m sample population and it represents a standard normal probability distribution. Source: Ref. 23.
FIGURE 9.8 Standard drawing of standard semivariogram along/across the drill-hole samples or along the different
directions of the mineral deposit. Source: Ref. 23.
where bi is the weight given to sample wi. The kriging estimator (mk) satisfies these condi-
tions of linear function, unbiased estimation,
2. It should be unbiased. The expected value (mk) and minimum variance. The corresponding error
should be equal to the true block value (mW). of estimation from sample (ws) to block (W) is the
290 9. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC PARAMETERS
FIGURE 9.9 Conceptual diagram showing block kriging from surrounding samples 1 to 7. Source: Ref. 23.
kriging error (d2e). Kriging estimator is also are grouped or related to the same individual
known as BLUE (best linear unbiased estimator) geological and structural feature, and/or strati-
(Refer Haldar23 for geostatistical applications). graphic condition. There may be two or more
reservoirs in a field that are separated vertically
by intervening impermeable rock, and laterally
9.3.5. Petroleum (Oil and Gas) by local geologic barriers, or both.
Petroleum is a naturally occurring mixture The shape and vertical/lateral continuity of
consisting of hydrocarbons in the gaseous, petroleum (oil/gas water) reservoir can be
liquid, or solid phase. Petroleum may also interrelated based on geologicalegeochemicale
contain nonhydrocarbons such as carbon diox- geophysical studies of favorable stratigraphy/
ide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, and sulfur. structure strongly supported by intensive dril-
The chance of nonhydrocarbon content 50% ling program (core analysis, lithofacies data,
is rare. well logs, etc.). The resources/reserves can be
“Petroleum reservoir” or “oil and gas reser- estimated from the interpreted 3D conceptual
voir” is subsurface porous and fractured unique image of the reservoir with respect to oil, gas,
rock formation containing pool of individual and water. Three general methods can be dis-
and/or separate natural accumulation of move- cussed as (1) analogy base, (2) volumetric esti-
able petroleum and gas, that is restricted by mate, and (3) performance analysis.
impermeable trap rock or water barriers and
characterized by a single-pressure system. The 9.3.5.1. Analogy Base
oil and gas-bearing strata broadly includes sand- The characteristics of reservoir under consid-
stone, calcarenite, limestone, dolomite, argillite, eration can be compared (well to well) with
and often fossil bearing with high porosity and similar features of a producing reservoir for
permeability. “Traps” are of various types, arriving at a possible resource base and average
such as, “stratigraphic”, “structural”, “hydrody- oil or gas recovery. The features include drill
namic”, and “seal”. Traps are invariably under- well spacing, lithofacies, rock and fluid proper-
lying and overlying impermeable beds, dome, ties, reservoir depth, pressure, temperature,
folds, faults, and structural unconformity. pay thickness, and drive mechanism. The
“Field” is defined as an area consisting of a analog-based approach is the least accurate and
single and/or multiple reservoirs. The reservoirs little reliable method of petroleum reserve
9.3. ESTIMATION PROCEDURE 291
FIGURE 9.10 Conceptual diagram showing oil, gas, and water accumulation in an anticline structure as interpreted
through geologicalegeochemicalegeophysical studies and supported by drill holes (bottom). The reserves for each compo-
nent are estimated by isopach method (top). •/• are location of positive/negative drill wells.
estimation. The approach simply gives an idea factor (RF). Each of the factors used in the calcu-
for further data collection, analysis, and interpre- lation have inherent uncertainties that, when
tation and to adopt reliable estimation method. combined, cause significant uncertainties and
deviations in the reserves estimate.
9.3.5.2. Volumetric Estimate The principle of volumetric approach is based
The volumetric method determines the phys- on the information derived from the wells and
ical size of the reservoir from net thickness, the supported by seismic survey into the interwell
pore volume from void spaces, and the perme- space by interpolation technique. The reservoir
ability and fluid content within the rock matrix. volume can be estimated by plotting the eleva-
This provides an estimate of the hydrocarbons tion of upper and lower levels of oil, gas, or
in place, from which ultimate recovery can be water boundaries and making isopach map by
estimated by using an appropriate recovery contouring (Fig. 9.10). The average area (“A” in
292 9. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC PARAMETERS
acres or square meters) of the reservoir is the possible predictions from the dataset. It is thus
average between the upper and lower levels. adjusted differently to reservoirs containing oil,
The average height (“H” in feet or meters) of the gas, or oil with a gas capping.
reservoir is the arithmetic mean of all wells. The
2. Reservoir Simulation Models
total reservoir volume (“V”) can be computed as:
The method involves numerical simulation
V ¼ A H ðcubic feet or cubic meterÞ technique and matching between the simulated
production and the previous performance his-
The main parameters used for estimate are (1) tory of the reservoir. The discrepancy between
the reservoir “gross” isopach map using bulk the simulation results (prediction) and the avail-
thickness of the reservoir rocks and (2) the reser- able data is minimized by adjusting the reservoir
voir “net” isopach map using cumulative thick- parameters and taking into account the most
ness of the permeable rock units only likely reservoir drive mechanism.
(Fig. 9.10). The net-to-gross ratio is an important
3. Decline Curve Analysis
parameter indicating the productive portion of
the reservoir. The method predicts future performance of
The reservoir rock porosity as volume-based the reservoir by matching the observed trend of
weighted average, permeability, and net thick- the production decline with one or several stan-
ness product; volume-based average saturation; dard mathematical methods of the production
as well as net quantity in place [N(t)] at time rateetime curves. The production decline curves
“t” in Stock Tank Barrel (STB) of oil, gas, and wa- include production rate vs time, production rate
ter can be estimated by standard formula. The vs cumulative oil production, and water cut vs
estimated ultimate recovery (EUR) of the reser- cumulative oil production.
voir is given by EUR ¼ N(t) RF.
The plotting of these parameters as contoured
maps (isopach, isoporosity, and isopermeability) 9.4. RESOURCE CLASSIFICATION
portray the critical information on their variation
and distribution within the reservoir space and The mineral resources and ore reserves are
evaluate the reservoir pore volume and its frac- estimation of tonnage and grade of the deposit
tions saturated with oil and gas (hydrocarbon as outlined three-dimensionally with variation
volume). The numerical value of hydrocarbon in sampling density, interpretations, and
resources/reserve estimate represents an assumptions of continuity, shape, and grade. It
outcome of “integrated” map analysis. stands as approximate and not certain until the
entire ore is taken out by mining. Various sam-
9.3.5.3. Performance Analysis pling techniques are conducted at different
The performance analysis method aims at density or interval with associated uncertainties.
achieving the best reservoir performance predic- One part of the deposit may have been so thor-
tion and works on the following: oughly sampled that we can be fairly accurate
of the orebody interpretation with respect to
1. Analysis based on Material Balance Equation
tonnages and grade. In another part of the same
The method is based on the data obtained deposit, sampling may not be intensely detailed,
from previous reservoir performance and PVT but we have enough geologic information to be
(pressure-volume-temperature) analysis and in- reasonably secure in making a statement of the es-
volves some assumptions for the reservoir timate of tonnage and grade. The third situation
driving mechanism to minimize the range of may be based on few scattered samples on the
9.4. RESOURCE CLASSIFICATION 293
fringes of the orebody. But we have some reason- and limitations, estimation procedure, quantity,
able knowledge from extended parts of the grade, level of confidence, categorization, and
orebody supported by geologic evidences and economic status (order-of-magnitude, prefeasi-
our understanding of similar deposits elsewhere bility, and feasibility study) of the deposit. He
to say that a certain amount of ore with certain is in a position to make the statements and
grade may exist. Increase of sampling density in vouches for the accuracy and completeness of
the lower confidence region will certainly the contained technical report. This is a matter
enhance the status as mining proceeds. of professional integrity and carries legal risk.
Mineral resource and ore reserve classification The classification system is discussed for two
system and reporting code have been evolved categories: (1) metallic/nonmetallic minerals
over the years by different countries exclusively and (2) mineral oil and gas.
on the basis of geological confidence, conve-
nience to use, and investment need in mineral
sector. Conventional or traditional classification 9.4.1. Metallic/Nonmetallic Minerals
system was in use during the twentieth century.
New development took place from third and 9.4.1.1. Conventional/Traditional
fourth quarters of the same century satisfying Classification System
statutes, regulations, economic functions, indus- The degree of assurance in the estimates of
try best practices, competitiveness, acceptability, tonnage and grade can qualitatively be classified
and internationally. There are several classifica- by using convenient terminology. In order of
tion schemes and reporting codes worldwide increasing exploration input creating high confi-
such as US Geological Survey (USGS)/US Bu- dence level and technoeconomic viability, the
reau of Mines (USBM) reserve classification categorization has been grouped as “economic
scheme, United States; United Nations Frame- reserves” and “subeconomic conditional re-
work Classification (UNFC) system; Joint Ore sources”. The economic ore reserves and subeco-
Reserves Committee (JORC) code, Australia nomic resources are further subdivided as
and New Zealand; Canadian Institute of Mining Developed, Proved, Probable, and Possible
and Metallurgy (CIM) classification; South Afri- (Fig. 9.11). The classification system helps the
can Code for the Reporting of Mineral Resources investor in decision making for project formula-
and Mineral Reserves; and The Reporting Code, tion. These terms are supported by experience,
United Kingdom. time tested, and well accepted over the years.
The basic material and information for min- The terminology is comparable with equivalent
eral resources and mineral reserves classification international nomenclature used by the USGS
scheme and reporting code must be prepared by or Russian systems such as Measured, Indicated,
or under the supervision of “qualified persons and Inferred.
(QPs)”. A QP is a reputed professional with “Developed” reserves are exposed by
graduate or postgraduate degree in geosciences trenches or trial pit on the surface for open pit
or mining engineering with sufficient experience or bounded on all sides by levels above and
(þ5 years) in mineral exploration, mineral proj- below, and raises and winzes on the sides of
ect assessment, mine development, and mine the block for underground mines. Close space
operation. The QP may preferably be in good definition or delineation drilling has been
standing or be affiliated with national and inter- completed. The block is ready for “stope” prep-
national professional associations or institutions. aration, blast hole drilling, blasting, and ore
He is well informed with technical reports draw. The risk of error in tonnage and grade is
including QA, QC, data verification, discrepancy minimal. The confidence of estimate is w90%.
294 9. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC PARAMETERS
FIGURE 9.11 Conventional reserve classification systems showing various categories of reserve and resources based on
enriched geological experienceda simple option for small players in mining industry. Source: Ref. 23.
“Proved” or “Measured” reserves are esti- resource will act as sustainable replacement of
mated based on samples from outcrops, mined out ore.
trenches, development levels, and diamond dril-
ling. The drilling interval would be þ200 m for
simple sedimentary bedded deposits (coal seam
“Stoping” is the removal of the broken ore
and iron ore) with expected continuity. The de-
from an underground mine leaving behind an
posit is either exposed by trenches or trial pit
open space known as a “stope”. Stope is a 3D
for open pit and development of one or two
configuration of in situ ore material designed for
levels for underground drilling. Further stope
mining as an independent subblock in under-
delineation drilling will continue to upgrade
ground mining. Stopes are excavated near
the reserve to the developed category. The confi-
perpendicular to the level into the orebody. The
dence of estimate is w80%.
excavated stopes are often backfilled with tailings,
“Probable” or “Indicated” reserve estimate is
development waste, sand, and rocks from nearby
essentially based on widespaced surface and un-
area. The fill material is mixed with cement at
derground drilling. The opening of the deposits
various proportions to increase the strength of
by trial pit or underground levels is not manda-
solidification. There are various stoping methods
tory to arrive at this category. The confidence of
such as shrinkage, cut and fill, sublevel, vertical
estimate is w70%.
retreat mining, etc.
“Possible” or “Inferred” resources are based
on few scattered sample information in the strike
and dip extension of the mineral deposit. There
would be sufficient evidences of mineralized 9.4.1.2. USGS/USBM Classification Scheme
environment within the broad geological frame- The USGS collected nationwide information
work having confidence of w50%. The possible of geological resources and developed a
9.4. RESOURCE CLASSIFICATION 295
FIGURE 9.12 Resource and reserve scheme by United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC) system adopted by
many countries including Government of India. Source: Ref. 23.
classification system (1980) in two combined axis mineral deposits. The format provides (1) the
(1) increasing degree of geological assurances stage of geological exploration and assessment,
and (2) increasing economic feasibility with divi- (2) the stage of feasibility appraisal, and (3) the
sion of identified resources and unidentified re- degree of economic viability. The model is repre-
sources. The identified resources include sented by multiple cubes (4 3 3 blocks) with
Measured (Proved) and Indicated (Probable) re- geological (G) axis, feasibility (F) axis, and eco-
serves and Possible resources grouped under nomic (E) axis. The three decision-making mea-
Economic and Subeconomic subclass. The Un- sures for resource estimation are further
identified Resources include Hypothetical (Pro- specified with descending order as:
spective) and Speculative (Prognostic) types. Geological axis (G) /
The resource classification scheme gives
1. Detailed exploration
emphasis to Identified Sub-Economic resources
2. General exploration
for future target. It also initiated the concept
3. Prospecting
of probability of existence of undiscovered
4. Reconnaissance
esources simply on hypothetical and speculative
ground. The USGS/USBM mineral resource Feasibility axis (F) /
classification system conveys a common classifi-
1. Feasibility study and mining report
cation and nomenclature, more workable in
2. Prefeasibility study
practice and more useful in long-term public
3. Geological study
and commercial planning.
Economic axis (E) /
9.4.1.3. UNFC Scheme
1. Economic
The UNFC system is a recent development in
2. Potentially economic
reserve categorization (E/2004/37-E/ECE/
3. Intrinsically economic
1416, February 2004). The scheme is formulated
giving equal emphasis on all three criteria of The scheme is presented in 3D perspective
exploration, investment, and profitability of (Fig. 9.12) with simplified numerical codification
296 9. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC PARAMETERS
FIGURE 9.13 Joint Ore Reserve Committee (JORC) Code developed by professionals of Australian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy (AusIMM) showing relationship between Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves. JORC-compliant organiza-
tions are registered with the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX).
facilitating digital processing of information. The minerals, and coal. The general relation between
scheme is internationally understandable, Exploration Results, Mineral Resources, and Ore
communicable, and acceptable across national Reserves classifies tonnage and grade estimates.
boundaries under economic globalization that The format reflects the increasing levels of
makes easy for the investor to take correct geological knowledge and rising confidence. It
decision. takes due consideration of mining, metallur-
gical, technical, economic, marketing, legal, so-
9.4.1.4. JORC Classification Code cial, environmental, and governmental factors.
The Minerals Council of Australia, The The scheme imparts a checklist for authenticity
Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, at each level. Mineral Resources are concentra-
and The Australian Institute of Geoscientists tion or occurrence of mineral prospects that
established the Australian Joint Ore Reserve eventually may become sources for economic
Committee or JORC for public reporting of extraction. It is placed in the Inferred category.
Exploration Results, Mineral Resources, and Mineral Reserve on the other hand is the
Ore Reserves. The scheme was formulated on economically mineable part of Measured and/
the basic principles of transparency, materiality, or Indicated ore. It includes dilution and allow-
and competency. The other organizations repre- ances on account of ore losses, likely to occur
sented on JORC are the Australian Stock Ex- when the material is mined. The relationship be-
change (ASX) and Securities Institute of tween mineral resources and mineral reserves is
Australia, and registered with the New Zealand presented in Fig. 9.13.
Stock Exchange (NZX) listing rules. All explora-
tion and mining companies listed in ASX and
9.4.2. Mineral Oil and Gas
NZX are required to comply with JORC Code
and regulate the publication of mineral explora- The fundamental principles of petroleum
tion reports on the ASX. Since 1971, the codes (crude oil and gas) resource subdivision were
are being effectively updated for comparable established by McKelvey1 in 1972 on the same
reporting standards introduced internationally. concept developed for metallic/nonmetallic
The JORC Code applies essentially to all solid minerals. The classification system has under-
mineral commodities including diamond and gone changes and the simplest model is shown
other gemstones, energy resources, industrial in Fig. 9.14.
9.4. RESOURCE CLASSIFICATION 297
FIGURE 9.14 A graphical presentation of resources classification system adopted internally for petroleum and gas. The
system defines the major recoverable reserves at successive phases of production, development, and planning. It also dis-
tinguishes Contingent, Prospective, and Unrecoverable resources. Source: Modified after Society of Petroleum Engineers.44
The reserves are a subset of resource base. The viable. The project status is subdivided into three
entire resource base is generally accepted to be categories.
all estimated quantities of petroleum contained
1. Currently on production and marketing.
in the subsurface, as well as quantities already
2. Under development and all essential
produced. Resource is the volume estimates
approvals have been obtained.
derived for an accumulation, and reserves is
3. Planned for development as it satisfies all the
only to be quoted for a known accumulation.
criteria for reserves, and there is a firm intent
“Reserves” are those quantities of petroleum
to develop, but detailed development
which are anticipated to be commercially recov-
planning and/or necessary approvals/
ered from known accumulations from a given
contracts have yet to be finalized.
date forward and must satisfy the four criteria:
discovered, recoverable, commercial, and “Contingent Resources” are those discovered
remaining. Reserves are classified under three and potentially recoverable quantities that are
categories of Proved (1P), Probable (2P), and currently not considered to satisfy the criteria
Possible (3P) with decreasing range of geological for commerciality. Contingent Resources are
uncertainties and increasing chance of commer- those quantities of (crude oil and gas) which
ciality (Fig. 9.14). Reserves are commercially are estimated, on a given date, to be potentially
298 9. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC PARAMETERS
FIGURE 9.15 Schematic phasing of investment and cash flow distribution in mineral deposit. (A) Stages of exploration
and development, (B) cash flow, and (C) probability of failure.
300 9. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC PARAMETERS
development is negative and becomes positive activities and investments or withdraw. The
with the commencement of production. The study is divided as (1) order of magnitude or
Figs 9.15(A) and (C) describes stages of explora- scoping study, (2) prefeasibility, and (3)
tion and development and probability of failure, feasibility.
respectively. The concept of annual cash flow
computation is given in Table 9.1. 9.5.3. Order of Magnitude Study/
Economic valuation of mineral deposit at any
Scoping Study
stage of exploration and development can be
assessed based on technical (geology, mining, The project is under Reconnaissance/Pro-
processing, and extraction), economic (cash specting. Assessment is conceptual to decide
flow, net present value (NPV), internal rate of re- further exploration and may look for a possibil-
turn (IRR), risk, and sensitivity), political, and ity of developing the property into a mine. One
social needs. The precision of evaluation de- has to be optimistic regarding reserves grades,
pends on adequate information gathered at miningemilling recoveries, costs, and revenues.
that point of operation. The outcome of the study Information on detailed engineering design,
will indicate to either proceed to the next stage of method of mining and beneficiation, as well as
9.5. MINERAL ECONOMICS 301
operating and capital costs are borrowed from of information base. The main purpose is to
experience, reports, case studies, and published create the ability of the investor for a “go-or-
literature on similar type of deposits. This type non-go decision”. Case study of a base metal de-
of economic review being conducted during posit during exploration has been discussed
exploration tenure forms the groundwork and later. A conceptual scoping study on hypotheti-
acts as an excellent guide to improve the area cal data input is given in Table 9.2.
TABLE 9.2 Standard Data Collection Format for Order of Magnitude/Scoping Study
Ore reserves Mt 9
Grade (Zn þ Pb) þ Ag % 13.28
(Continued)
302 9. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC PARAMETERS
TABLE 9.2 Standard Data Collection Format for Order of Magnitude/Scoping Study (cont'd)
Parameters Unit Total*
10 Cash flow
a. Before tax (5) 323.20
b. After tax (6 þ 9) 197.53
11 Capital costs 50.00
12 Exploration cost 1.30
13 Net present value (NPV)
FIGURE 9.16 View of Jhamarkotra rock phosphate mine, FIGURE 9.17 Underground mine view of a main cross-
India, with a team of visiting geoscientists. The mine is cut starting from the central main shaft to the orebody at
planned to be 7 km long, 700 m wide, and 280 m ultimate Boula-Nausahi chromite deposit, main production haulage
open pit limit @ 2 Mt ore and 16 Mt overburden waste per (December, 2009).
annum capacity (December, 2008).
physical, technical and economic criteria. Crude components and waste materials. These interme-
oil and gas is recovered by pumping out of the diate products are processed (beneficiation,
Earth’s crust. Minerals, oil, and gas as produced Fig. 9.18) to make a concentrate of higher values.
from the crust are often in the form of low Finally, the concentrate is smelted (Fig. 9.19)
grade or complex intermixed with valuable and/or refined to the highest purity metal or
FIGURE 9.18 A typical bank of froth flotation cells in operating circuit to benefit sulfide ore and generate high-grade
concentrate.
304 9. RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND ECONOMIC PARAMETERS
FIGURE 9.19 Panoramic view of new hydrometallurgical smelter of Hindustan Zinc Limited at Dariba, Rajasthan. The
smelter has annual production capacity of 210,000 t zinc and 100,000 t lead metal, and 160 MW captive power. Source:
HINDZINC Annual Report 2012e2013.
nonmetal that can be input for the manufacturers classification system including mineral eco-
or directly used by the consumer in the society. nomics. Popoff34 elaborated principles and con-
The prime uses of metallic and nonmetallic min- ventional methods of geological reserve
erals and fuels are discussed in Table 1.2. classification. The classification are continu-
ously updated by USGS and USBM,58,59
UNFC system57 and The Australian Joint Ore
FURTHER READING Reserves Committee (JORC)65 for public
reporting. Society of Petroleum Engineers pro-
Haldar24 gave detail procedure of resource vided guidelines for the evaluation of petroleum re-
and reserve estimation and reviewed the serves and resources.44
C H A P T E R
10
Hazards of MineralseRocks and
Sustainable Development
O U T L I N E
10.2.1. Earthquake
An “earthquake” is caused by a sudden
release of stored energy within the Earth’s crust
that creates radiating seismic waves. The “focus”
is the point where an earthquake originates
(source) due to underground induced seismicity, FIGURE 10.1 “Sangetser Lake (Jo-Naga-Tseir)”, 42 km
explosions, volcanic eruptions, plate movement north of Tawang, Arunachal, India. The vast lake emerged
along, plate margin, and fault movement. The during 1971 earthquake causing massive land subsidence of
“epicenter” is the point on the Earth’s surface 6e7 ft and subsequently water filled by flash flood in 1973.
The depth of sinking can be measured from the dead trees
that is directly above the focus. The magnitude still erected over the blue water. The lake attracts the
of the earthquake is measured by “seismometer” observation of nature’s beauty, serenity and sanctity and
that determines and monitors the ground gifts a peaceful rest.
10.2. NATURAL HAZARDS 307
TABLE 10.1 Division of Richter Magnitude Scale and Expected Impact of Earthquake
<2.0 Micro Felt by sensitive people and birds and Tremors are often felt in earthquake-prone
animals. region
2.0e2.9 Minor Felt by few and no damage to buildings.
3.0e3.9 Minor Minor tremor but rarely any damage. Israel May 23, 2008 (3.3)
4.0e4.9 Light Noticeable shaking and rattling noise Neunkirchen, Germany, October 20, 2004 (4.5)
with minimal damage.
5.0e5.9 Moderate Damage to weak buildings. China, November 26, 2006 (5.2e5.7)
6.0e6.9 Strong Damage to building without earthquake- Tasmania Sea: January 26, 1992, (6.9); Long
resistant structure and low casualties. Beach, CA: 1933, (6.3)
7.0e7.9 Major Moderate to extensive damage to Philippines, 1976 (7.9); Gujarat India, January 26,
building and fair casualties. 2001 (7.7)
8.0e8.9 Great Devastating and major damage to Ecuador, January 31, 2006 (8.8); AssameTibet,
buildings and other structure with August 16, 1950 (8.6)
extensive casualties.
9.0e9.9 Great Completely devastating, severe damage Chile May 22, 1960 (9.5) and March 28, 1964
to all or most buildings, change in ground (9.2); Sumatra, December 26, 2004 (9.1)
topography and enormous death toll.
>10.0 Great Completely devastating. Not recorded
specific region and time window. This is possible through which hot magma, ash and gases erupt
by scientific studies of the seismographs at the from the deep seated magma chamber. The
monitoring stations of seismometer. “volcanism” is the phenomenon of eruption of
The significant precautions to minimize the loss molten magma, ash and gases to the Earth’s
and damage of life and properties are to strictly crust or ocean floor. The most suitable location
follow earthquake-resistant structural design of and cause for volcanoes are tectonically active
buildings particularly in earthquake-prone region diverging and converging plate movements, as
and move to open space away from the residence well as stretching and thinning of the Earth’s
and workplace with slightest tremors felt. crust. The examples can be cited by the mid-
The major earthquake-prone countries include oceanic ridges such as the “Mid-Atlantic Ridge”
Afghanistan, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, and the “Pacific Ring of Fires” caused by diver-
Burma, Chile, China, Colombia, Egypt, Ethiopia, gent (pulling apart) and convergent (coming
India, Indonesia, Iran, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, together) tectonic plates, respectively.
Mexico, New Zealand, Pakistan, Russia, Turkey The status of a volcano can be active or extinct.
and United States. An active volcano is the one that has at least erup-
ted once during the last 10,000 years. An active
volcano may be erupting currently or dormant
10.2.2. Volcano and Volcanism and presume to erupt any time in geological
A “volcano” is an opening or rupture on the future. An extinct volcano has not had an eruption
surface of the Earth’s (planet) crust or ocean floor for at least last 10,000 years and is not expected to
308 10. HAZARDS OF MINERALSeROCKS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
erupt again in a comparable timescale of the infrastructures. The various forms of effusive
future. “Mount Etna”, Italy is one of the most lava flows may cause different hazards. Pahoe-
active volcanoes in the World and is in an almost hoe or basaltic lava is smooth, undulating and
constant state of eruption activity. Mount Etna ropy. The “Aa” is stony hard, blocky and
extends an extensive fertile volcanic soil support burning lava with rough and rubble surface.
system to agriculture (vineyards and orchards) Lava flows normally follow the topography,
spread across the lower slopes of the mountain. sinking into depressions and valleys flowing
The other most active volcanoes are Mauna down the volcano. The flows will bury roads,
Loa, Hawaii; Mount Nyamuragira, Congo; farmlands, crops, housing colonies, vehicles and
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii (USA); Santa Maria, other forms of livestock and properties standing
Guatemala; Peak of the Furnace (Piton de la Four- on the way. Lava flows are dangerous. But peo-
naise), Eastern Reunion Island in the Indian ple get enough time to evacuate out of affected
Ocean; Stromboli, Italy; Mount Yasur, Vanuatu areas due to slow movement of lava flow. People
in the South Pacific; Lascar Volcano, Chile; San- can also mitigate this hazard by not moving to
gay Volcano, Ecuador; Mt St Helens, USA; valley or depressed areas around a volcano.
Barren Island (Fig. 10.2), Andaman, Indian Pyroclastic material is mixture of assorted
Ocean, India; and Popocatépetl Volcano, located debris (dust, ash, cinders, bombs and blocks)
at 55 km from Mexico City (Fig. 10.3). The exam- generated by volcanic eruptions. The different
ples of dormant volcanoes are Mauna Kea, kinds of pyroclastic materials pose different haz-
Hawaii; Mount Edziza, Canada; Mount Fuji, ards. The dust and ash cover the automobiles
Japan; Mount Rainier, USA; and Western and houses, rendering them unfit to drive and
Victoria, Australia. The examples of extinct vol- stay. The pyroclasts add extra weight to roofs
canoes are Mount Ashitaka, Japan; Hohentwiel, causing the house to collapse. Inhaling of ash
Germany; and Mount Buninyong, Australia. and dust over extended period causes long-
The volcanic activities such as lava, mud and term respiratory and lung damage. Cinders are
pyroclastic flows and related events (earth- flaming pieces of ejected volcanic material that
quakes) can be threats to life, properties and may set fire to houses and wooded areas. Bombs
10.2.4. Lightning
“Lightning” is a massive electrostatic
discharge or sudden flows of electricity between
two objects, say, by contact of electrically
charged regions within clouds catalyzed by
fine mineral dust, or between cloud and the
FIGURE 10.4 View of the Aletsch Glacier, a large flat Earth’s surface. The charged regions within the
valley of snow and ice lying just south of the summit of
Jungfrau, which is one of the main peaks of Bernese Alps,
atmosphere momentarily equalize themselves
Switzerland. Photo from: Top of Europe at 11,782 ft or through a lightning flash (Fig. 10.5) or a strike if
3571 m, September, 2009. it hits an object on the ground. There are three
310 10. HAZARDS OF MINERALSeROCKS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
transportation crushing, grinding and pulveri- association with zinc and copper deposits. Lead
zation. Coal dust is easily venerable to explo- is intensely toxic to many organs and tissues
sion. The coal mine workers suffer from including the heart, bones, intestines, kidneys,
pneumoconiosis or black lungs disease due to reproduction and nervous system.
long exposure to coal dust. The main hazards
are coal mine fire all over the mining world.
10.3.12. Graphite
The mineral graphite is an allotrope of carbon
10.3.8. Corundum
(C). Graphite occurs mostly in metamorphic
Corundum occurs as a mineral in mica schist, rocks as a result of reduction of sedimentary car-
gneiss, marbles, low silica igneous and nepheline bon compounds during metamorphism. Min-
syenite intrusive. Corundum is primarily found erals associated with graphite include quartz,
in Zambia, Russia, Sri Lanka and India and is mica, and garnet. Graphite deposit contains sil-
used as gemstone abrasive. Exposure to ica and silicates. Long exposure and inhalation
corundum dusts through inhalation, ingestion, of carbon and associated dust during mining,
skin and/or eye contact will cause irritation of processing and manufacturing of graphite
eyes, skin, and respiratory system. products causes chronic type of pneumoconiosis.
Graphite is hazardous to skin and eye contact
may result mild irritation.
10.3.9. Feldspar
Feldspars represent a group of minerals
composed of sodium, potassium, calcium,
10.3.13. Gypsum
barium and aluminum silicate present in all com- Gypsum is a soft dehydrated calcium sulfate
mon rocks. Chronic inhalation of feldspar dust (CaSO4). The workers engaged in gypsum min-
causes silicosis due the presence of substantial ing and processing are exposed to high atmo-
amount of free silica. spheric concentration of gypsum dust, furnace
gases, smokes, high temperatures and risk of
burns.
10.3.10. Fluorite
Fluorite or fluorspar is a halide mineral
10.3.14. Mica
composed of calcium fluoride (CaF2). Fluorite
often occurs as veins with metallic minerals. Mica group of silicate minerals occur as basal
Fluorite is the principal source of fluorine and cleavage with tendency to generate flakes and
uses as flux in open hearth steel furnace. powder. Chronic inhalation of mica and associ-
Elemental fluorine above 25 ppm is highly toxic ated dust causes irritation of the respiratory
and causes significant irritation and damage to track, silicosis and nodular fibrotic pneumoconi-
gastric-intestinal system, eyes, respiratory tract, osis. Prolonged inhalation of vermiculite variety
lungs, liver and kidneys. Moist hydrogen fluo- of mica containing asbestos causes asbestosis
ride or hydrofluoric acid will make permanent and lung cancer.
damage to human skin.
10.3.15. Pyrite
10.3.11. Galena and Cerussite Pyrite (FeS2) is ubiquitously distributed in
Galena and cerussite are the principal sources almost all kinds of rocks in different propor-
of lead. The minerals occur individually and in tion. Pyrite generates sulfuric acid when cones
10.4. HAZARDS OF ROCKS 313
in contact with surface rain or underground 10.4. HAZARDS OF ROCKS
water. This acidic water drains out and dam-
ages the soil, surface and underground water. The natural hazards posed by rocks are rock-
Acid mine drainage is extremely harmful to falls, rock movement, and rock climbing causing
the human, animals, agriculture and forest death of human and animals. Long exposure at
lands. workplace for rock processing causes lung dis-
eases and permanent damage to respiratory sys-
tem. Rock climbing is a fun and exciting sports
10.3.16. Radon Gas
for many. But it may end with many unexpected
Radon is a colorless, tasteless and odorless dangers including death by fall from high alti-
radioactive noble gas that occurs and accumu- tude, hitting with debris from falling rocks, mus-
lates naturally as the decay product of radium. cle strain and pain, anxiety while climbing at
It is one of the densest substances that remains high level and panic attacks.
in gas form under normal conditions and is
considered to be a chronic and dangerous health 10.4.1. Granite
hazard due to its radioactivity. Long and high
exposure in radon gas environment causes The granite is the most abundant rock that
chronic cancer to the miners that often results constitutes the upper crust of the continental
in fatal end. areas. The granite is coarse- to fine-grained
igneous rock and in general composed of quartz
(20e40%), feldspars (50e80%), and remaining
10.3.17. Silica with mica, amphibole. Granite is largely used
The inhalation of dust containing free and as building and decorative stones and tiles and
combined silica damages the respiratory system other construction purposes. Silicosis is the
and causes silicosis, a serious and potential fatal major health hazard for workers engaged in
fibrotic lung disease. mining and processing of granite.
10.4.2. Limestone
10.3.18. Talc
Limestone is exclusively a sedimentary rock
Talc is an extremely white soft mineral composed mainly of calcium carbonate (calcite)
composed of hydrated magnesium silicate and with high content of impurities like silica (sili-
widely used as talcum powder. It occurs as foli- ceous), dolomite (magnesium carbonate) and
ated to fibrous masses. Talc containing silica and clay (argillaceous) in varied proportion. The com-
asbestos is harmful to human body. Chronic mon health hazards in limestone quarries and
exposures to talcesilicaeasbestos dust damage processing are the exposure to airborne calcium,
the lungs cancer, silicosis and asbestosis. magnesium and free silica dust causing pulmo-
nary changes, pharyngitis (throat inflammation),
10.3.19. Wollastonite bronchitis (inflammation of mucous membranes)
and emphysema (long-term lung disease).
Wollastonite is a calcium inosilicate mineral
(CaSiO3) Fe, Mg and Mn. It is usually white
and soft. Wollastonite dust is often sensitive
10.4.3. Sandstone
and causes irritation to skin, eye and respiratory Sandstone is a siliciclastic sedimentary rock
system. consisting primarily of quartz sand that are often
314 10. HAZARDS OF MINERALSeROCKS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
10.4.4. Slate
Slate is an ultra-fine-grained foliated homoge-
neous metamorphic rock derived from an original
argillaceous shale-type sediments composed of
clay or volcanic ash through low-grade regional
metamorphism. Silicosis and pneumoconiosis
are the common health hazards for miners work-
ing in mining, processing and construction with
slate. Chronic bronchitis and emphysema are
frequently reported, particularly in extraction FIGURE 10.7 In June 2013, a multi-day cloudburst, centred
on Himalayan Mountain belt of Uttarakhand, caused devas-
workers.
tating flash floods, landslides, and rock-fall and rock move-
ment. The worst natural calamity resulted loss of properties like
10.4.5. Rock-Fall housing, temples, cattle, human death toll exceeding 6000 and
stranded millions of locals, tourists and pilgrims due to road
“Rock-fall” is defined as the quantities of blockage. Source: Press Trust of India Ltd.
rocks and debris falling freely from higher alti-
tude or a significantly vertical or near-vertical It forms naturally by geological featuring of
rock exposure from the cliff face of the mountain. large rock mass or boulder of substantial size
The rock-fall is caused by sliding, toppling, or resting firmly on bed rock, other rocks or glacial
free falling of detached fragment of rocks (big till in a perfectly balanced state without any sup-
blocks or debris of varied sizes), that fall along port (Fig. 10.8). The balancing rocks can form by
a vertical or subvertical cliff and move down (1) transportation and deposition of large glacial
slope by bouncing, flying or rolling on talus or boulder by glaciers to a resting place, (2) large,
debris slopes. Rock-fall is a natural phenomenon detached rock fragment (perched boulder) trans-
and frequently occurs in the high hills and ported and deposited by a glacier, and (3) an
mountain ranges around the world. Rock-fall is
accelerated by earthquake, steep slope, crushed
and loose rock formation (Fig. 10.7), scanty forest
and high rainfall. The common hazards caused
by rock-fall include blockage of highways and
railways in the mountainous terrain, closing ma-
jor transportation routes for days at a time,
blocking water channel effecting flash flood,
injury and even killing of people and animals.
effort to reduce loss of life and property by less- The types of impact on land, topography and
ening the impact of disasters. soils, and possible viable environment manage-
ment solutions are the following:
1. Loss of agricultural and forest land
10.6. HAZARDS OF MINING
There will be complete loss of agricultural and
Hazards during and after mining of a forest land in and around the open pit. Under-
mineral deposit and rock are many with var- ground mining uses limited surface land for
ied magnitude, seriousness, and/or sensi- the entry system and infrastructure develop-
tivity. However, each and all hazardous ment. In either situation, adequate compensation
impacts can be mitigated technically and is provided to the land owners by cash, employ-
with good will. ment and rehabilitation. New agricultural land is
developed and afforestation is done under land-
use planning by enough plantations in nearby
10.6.1. Baseline Monitoring areas. No mining is permitted in reserve forest
area under normal circumstances.
A miner shall leave the area at mine closure in
better and habitable form than he acquired it. 2. Top-soil and subsoil degradation
Baseline monitoring is a significant component Surface mining affects the top soil and subsoil
of monitoring programs for successful mining by changing the natural soil characteristics, e.g.
project. It commences at the reconnaissance texture, grain size, moisture, pH, organic matter,
phase and incorporates in feasibility studies. nutrients, etc. It is desired that the soil horizons
The base line information identifies the possible within the selected mining limits are clearly
physical mining impact areas including eco- defined. Top-soil and subsoil are removed sepa-
nomic and social issues for taking attention dur- rately and stocked at an easily accessible stable
ing the operating stages and their management. land. These soils can selectively be relaid simulta-
The system is continuously updated with peri- neously over the reclaim degraded land for agri-
odical assessments to evaluate the extent of culture at the time of mine closure. The removed
mining-related impacts and recovery following vegetation from the mining zone should be
control of the impact or rehabilitation. replanted at suitable areas.
3. Changes of drainage pattern by blocking
10.6.2. Surface Land water and flash flood
Surface land is a finite natural resource. The The effect of unplanned mine waste dumping
necessity of land is ever increasing due to rapid will change the surface topography and the local
population growth in the developing countries drainage pattern. The waste dumps may act as a
and per capita enhanced industrial growth. barrier to the natural flow of rain water resulting
However, the total of surface land requirement in water logging, flash floods and damage to
during actual mining (including beneficiation) agriculture and to local properties downstream.
is small (<1 km2) in comparison to other indus- It will also affect the seasonal filling of local
tries. The minerals are mined at the sites where reservoir and recharging of the ground water
it exists. In general, mining activity occurs in around the area. The changes in the drainage
remote places far away from cities. The possibil- pattern can be anticipated from the expected
ity of land and soil degradation is expected at postmining surface contours. Action plan for
these remote locations only. the surface drainage pattern can be designed
10.6. HAZARDS OF MINING 317
accordingly for total water management and hazard in mining. The quantity of solid waste
erosion control. likely to generate during mine development
and production will be between 4 and 10 times
4. Landslide
of ore for surface and 0.25 times of ore in case
Surface mining on hill slopes, particularly in of underground mining.
areas of heavy rainfall, is vulnerable to land- The coarse lumpy waste generated due to sur-
slides causing loss of human life, property and face or underground mining can be used for
deforestation. This can be controlled by geotech- reclamation of unused land in and around the
nically designed slope of the mine and adequate mining area. This reclaimed land can be made
support system. into offices, industry, community buildings,
amusement parks and playground. It can also
5. Unaesthetic landscape
be used as solid-waste fill of open-pit mined-
Mining activity changes the land-use pattern out voids.
and alters the surface topography by increased
surface erosion and excavations. This will result
into unaesthetic landscape without proper recla-
10.6.4. Mine Subsidence
mation. Open-pit mines must be filled with mine “Subsidence” is the movement of ground,
waste, rain or flood water for fisheries, water block or slope. It is caused by readjustment of
sports, etc. overburden due to collapse and failure of under-
ground operating mine excavation (Fig. 10.10),
6. Land-use planning
unfilled and unsupported abandoned stopes
The procedures of land use are planned and excessive water withdrawal. It can be natu-
before the actual mining starts. The mine ral or manmade. Surface subsidence is common
area should be reclaimed to the best possible over shallow underground mines. The hazards
scenario at the time of mine closure. It is the due to sudden subsidence of ground include
responsibility of the mining company to take damage to human, material, topography, infra-
into account the cost of reclamation in the structure and even mine inundation and devel-
project cost. The reclaimed land should prefer- opment of mine fire.
ably be reverted back to the erstwhile land The mine subsidence movement can be pre-
owners under a mutual agreement. If it does dicted by instrumentation, monitoring and
not work, the land can be developed for the
local society based on the overall planning of
the region. The mode of operation can be
decided by representatives from the mining
company, local inhabitants, local authorities
and state planning department.
analysis of possible impacts. The modification of dry stock pile exposed to open environment for
underground extraction planning may help in long time under sun and atmospheric heat.
minimum possible subsidence impact. Subsi- Mine fire poses serious hazards and causes
dence can be prevented by adequate support impact with loss of economic, social and ecolog-
system (rib and sill pillars, steel and wood), cable ical nature. The losses are burning and locking of
and rock bolting, plugging of cracks, and back- valuable coal reserves, polluting the air filled
filling by sand, cement-mixed tailing and waste with excessive carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
rock. and nitrogen, raising the surface temperature
causing inconvenience to the people leaving
nearby, damage of land, surface properties and
10.6.5. Mine Fire vegetation, and lowering the ground water table.
The “mine fire” (Fig. 10.11) is a common phe- The common diseases that affect the local inhab-
nomenon all over the mining world. This is espe- itants are tuberculosis, asthma and related lungs
cially true in many of the coal seams and disorder.
sometimes in high sulfides (pyrite)-rich deposits. The nature of fire can be delineated precisely
Coal mine fire occurs due to presence of more showing fire location, boundary, intensity and
methane gas, instantaneous oxidation property direction of movement. The change of tempera-
of coal when exposed to open spaces and gener- ture and gas can be recorded and measured by
ation of excessive heat. The intensity of fire de- surface instrumentation or by airborne thermal
pends on the exposed area, moisture content, scanner. Surface thermal IR measurements are
rate of air flow and availability of oxygen in more commonly used. The temperature anom-
the surrounding area. The nature of fire may be aly is measured by a hand-held IR gun at the
confined to surface out crop, mine dump, affected area on the surface or underground
open-pit benches and exclusively underground from various spots. The measurements are
or even spread to surface. Fire in sulfides ore done in the predawn hours to minimize the ef-
and concentrate is due to high pyrite bearing fect of solar radiation. The prediction is done
by simple contouring of temperature gradient
or by applying different mathematical models.
The depth and extent of fire can be determined
by lowering probes into the fissures or along
boreholes drilled in the affected areas. The tem-
perature gradient is recorded by a digital
recording unit connected by a long data trans-
mission cable. This technique is less preferred
due to the expensive drilling involvement and
frequent damage of transmission cable. The
drill holes also act as catalysts for additional
air supply to the fire activity. The third tech-
nique is by airborne IR survey. The region is
mapped by low-flying aircraft or helicopter
fitted with an IR scanner. The airborne interpre-
tation is refined by simultaneous collection of
FIGURE 10.11 An example of coal mine fire and ground information on weather, soil moisture
recording of temperature by IR gun (left bottom) at Jharia and vegetation. Once the mine fire is properly
coalfields, India. Source: Dr A. Bhattacharya. delineated, it can either be stopped or checked
10.6. HAZARDS OF MINING 319
from further spreading. The possible remedies 4. Chemical treatment at haul roads.
are the following: 5. Selection of super-quality mine explosives.
6. Use of face mask.
1. Stripping or digging the fire out physically. 7. Installation of dust/gas extraction system at
2. Injecting filling material like fly ash, water, crushers.
mud, cement and sand to nonworking mines 8. Ventilation fans and bag filters for cleaning
and voids through fissures, boreholes and exhaust gases from refinery.
other openings. 9. Systematic stacking of waste and vegetation
3. Isolating by large-scale trenching, fire-proof over inactive benches.
foam blanketing, impermeable layer of sand 10. Afforestation/green belt development
and debris, inert gas infusion, dry chemicals, around the mine periphery.
and foams. 11. Routine medical tests, monitoring and
4. Plantation as much as possible to cool down treatment of affected people.
temperature.
5. Fast action at the earliest to prevent spreading
and change of fire position. 10.6.7. Noise
Every person deserves “noise level” within
acceptable standards in workplace and resi-
10.6.6. Airborne Contaminations dential area. It is necessary to understand and
The “airborne hazards” can occur in solid, measure the existing ambient noise level as
liquid and gaseous forms. The suspended partic- part of the hazard assessment process at the
ulate matter are small discrete masses of solids early stage of project formulation. Measure-
and liquids such as fine dust, smoke, fly ash, ments are conducted by automatic noise logger
asbestos, lead, mercury, arsenic and other toxic over adequate time period ideally during
metals. The gaseous pollutants are molecules of exploration. The recording is repeated prior
CO, SO2, metal fumes, hydrocarbon vapor and to the mine being operational and while the
acid mist, etc. The sources of air pollution are mine is not operating to reflect the natural con-
drilling (exploration and mining), blasting, ditions. Excessive noise created by industrial
crushing and grinding, ore and waste handling, machineries, transport vehicles and other asso-
workshops, vehicles, etc. Air pollution causes ciated sources increase beyond the acceptable
injury to eye, throat, breathing passage and level. Noise legislative framework is developed
lungs of the workers and the local inhabitants. by most of the countries to combat problems
Chemical pollutants are responsible for serious caused by noise. The remedies are the
diseases like birth defects, brain and nerve dam- following:
age, pneumoconiosis, tuberculosis and cancer. 1. Community liaison and involvement in the
The air pollution in the mining complexes can decision-making process.
be controlled by the following: 2. Periodical measurements and monitoring.
1. Wet drilling applications in mine and 3. Control measure at manufacture level.
grinding. 4. Change of blasting design and explosive
2. Dust suppression through mobile sprinkler control.
along the haulage road and fixed sprinklers 5. Evacuation of people from the blasting area.
in the waste dumps and stockpiles. 6. Regulation of vehicular movements including
3. Installation of dust extraction and dedusting night air traffic.
facilities. 7. Acoustic barrier and green belt development.
320 10. HAZARDS OF MINERALSeROCKS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
8. Use of ear protection devices (earplugs and accessible supply must be available to all. The
ear muffs) at workplace beyond 115 dB to water can be classified into various groups
reduce noise level exposure. depending on its source, use and quality. The
9. Location of residential and resettlement primary sources of water are mostly from sur-
colonies away from noise generating sources. face: oceans, rivers, streams, reservoirs and natu-
ral or manmade lakes. The other source is from
10.6.8. Vibration subsurface aquifers that come to surface as
springs. It can also be tapped by tube wells. In
The major sources of vibration in the mineral addition to the survival of human beings, ani-
industry are drilling and blasting in open-pit mals and plants, it is also necessary for agricul-
and underground operations, heavy machineries ture, industry and developmental activities.
deployed for breaking and transporting ore and Water is rarely available in the purest form. It
high-capacity crushing and grinding units at is usually polluted by various sources mainly
beneficiation plant. The increasing size and depth through microbial, chemical and radiological as-
of open-pit and large-diameter long-hole blast in pects. Pollutants in the form of physical, chemi-
underground mines further aggravate the vibra- cal and biological waste make it unsuitable for
tion. The other sources are movement of vehicles uses. The physical pollutants are color, odor,
around the workplace, workshop, etc. Environ- taste, temperature, suspended solids and
ment and mine safety authorities of several coun- turbidity. The chemical pollutants are primarily
tries have laid down standards of acceptable related with geology and mining. The chemical
vibration level to protect damages of existing contaminants are hardness, acidity/alkalinity,
structures and health hazards of workers based dissolved solids, metals (Fe, Pb, Cd, As and
on their researches. The average ground particle Hg), and nonmetals (fluorides, nitrates, phos-
velocity may not exceed 50 mm/s for soil, weath- phate, organic carbon, calcium, and magne-
ered and soft rocks. The limit for hard rocks is sium). The microbial hazards cause infectious
70 mm/s. Any deviations in vibration level than diseases by pathological bacteria, viruses, para-
standards may cause nervousness, irritability, sites (protozoa and helminthes), microorganism
and sleep interference. Routine ground moni- and coliform. The chances of dissolved pollut-
toring equipment can identify sources and nature ants like Fl, Pb, Cd, As and Hg are high in water
of vibration. The remedies are the following: bodies in the vicinity of mining and beneficiation
1. Modification measure at manufacture level. industries. This is due to the presence of
2. Change in blasting design by hole-spacing, pollutant elements in the ore bearing host rocks
diameter and angle. and discharge of industrial effluents to the sur-
3. Avoid overcharging, use of delays and face. Radiological hazards may derive from
improved blasting techniques. ionizing radiation emitted by radioactive chemi-
4. Use of superior quality explosive, explosive cals in drinking water. Such hazards are rare and
weight per delay and delay interval. insignificant to public health. However, radio-
5. Control of fly rocks. logic exposure from other sources cannot be
6. Green belt development. ruled out. Mining operations frequently cause
lowering of ground water table due to pumping
of water to make mining safe.
Water, being a scarce and an essential mate-
10.6.9. Water Resources
rial, needs to be used with long-term water man-
Water is known as life indicator and is agement plan. The program must satisfy the
essential to sustain life. An adequate, safe and industrial requirements as well as take care of
10.8. HAZARDS OF SMELTING 321
domestic and agricultural needs of the surround- hand sorting, screening, gigging, tabling, grav-
ing villagers. The water balance exercise should ity, magnetic, dense-media separation and froth
cover study on requirements and availability of flotation. There is likely to generate even up to
both quantity and quality for respective uses. 90% of fine waste (gangue minerals) out of the
The following water management program can total ore at 10% recovered as concentrate.
be envisaged: The major hazard of beneficiation process is
bulk generation of the fine waste in slurry form
1. Identify all surface and subsurface sources of
or tailings. The tailing is transferred through
all types of water for adequate availability.
pipe lines to the tailing ponds for settling. The
2. Introduce oil and grease trap and separator.
top of the tailing pond can be developed as green
3. Construction of check dams, garland drains
grassy park, playground, picnic spot or for other
all around mine pit and waste dumps, soak
alternative uses. The tailing mixed with 5e10%
pits, septic tanks, domestic sewage water and
cement can be directly diverted to the under-
other water harvesting practices to arrest
ground as void filling for ground support.
seasonal rain waters and any discharge of
The second hazard is the use of various pro-
industrial effluent water for reuse in industry
cess chemicals in the froth flotation of metallic
and plantation.
ore of uranium, copper, zinc, lead, and iron.
4. “Zero” discharge water management for mine
The floatation chemicals are mainly isooctyl
pumps and recoup from tailing dam followed
acid phosphate, sodium isopropyl xanthate and
by sand bed filtering, treatment for pH and
potassium amyl xanthate as conditioner and col-
recycle mainly for industrial uses.
lector; methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC) as froth-
5. Low-density polyethylene lined for seepage
ers; and sodium cyanide and copper sulfate as
control in and around the tailing dam and
depressor. Cyanide is a useful industrial chemi-
other mine water storage.
cal and its key role in the mining industry is to
6. Minimize applications of fertilizers,
extract gold. Acid leaching of low-grade Cu,
herbicides, pesticides and other chemicals.
Au, Ag, Pt ore and tailing pad is a common prac-
7. The dam and reservoir water (Fig. 1.4) is
tice. The main leaching reagents are diluted
partially used for industry and domestic
hydrochloric, sulfuric and nitric acids. These
purpose of the township. A major portion is
hazard process chemicals, disposed to the tailing
diverted to the surrounding villages for
dam, are fast-acting poisons. The intake of these
agriculture and drinking through a long-term
diluted chemicals over long time by gas inhala-
water management master plan.
tion, skin contact and through water, milk, veg-
etables and food pose toxic effect on human,
animals, birds and insects. The chronic sublethal
10.7. HAZARDS OF MINERAL exposure, above the toxic threshold or repeated
BENEFICIATION low doses, may cause significant irreversible
adverse effects on the central nervous system.
The lumpy run-of-mine ore is transported to
beneficiation plant. The ore is crushed and
grinded to very fine size for compete separation 10.8. HAZARDS OF SMELTING
of ore and waste as well as ore and ore so that a
particular mineral of interest can be separated to The primary hazards are toxic gases and
make concentrate. The concentration is achieved lethal chemical-enriched effluent water. Gas
by virtue of the physical and chemical properties cleaning system and double conversion double
of individual mineral. The common practices are absorption sulfuric plant is set up in smelter to
322 10. HAZARDS OF MINERALSeROCKS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
minimize emission and prevent sulfur dioxide fruits by using less chemical fertilizers and
and other intoxicated gases to the environment insecticides.
through tall chimneys. Mercury removal plant 2. Fiscal measures
aids to keep away from ingress of mercury in a. Tax formula aims at minimizing damage to
sulfuric acid and/or its entry into biocycle. environment and ecological balance.
b. Incentives to encourage reinvestment of
income generated from mining in other
10.9. HAZARDS OF REFINING mineral enterprises for sustainability.
3. Legislations
The refinery waste is generally in the fluid a. Legislation is a universal means to enforce
form containing precious trace elements like Ag, any policy.
Au, Co, Pt, Pd, etc. The value added metals are 4. Preservation of environment and forest
recovered by electrolytic metal/acid refinery pro- a. Clean Water (Prevention and control of
cess. The refinery discharge water contains large Pollution) Act, 1972.
quantities of arsenic, antimony, bismuth, mercury b. Clean Air (Prevention and control of
and other hazardous elements. It must be neutral- Pollution) Act, 1970.
ized and treated for effluent removal. The effluent c. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
water treatment plant is designed to remove d. The Forest Act, 1927.
heavy metals and other toxic components. The e. Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.
water discharged from various plants is collected f. Tribal’s in Mining Projects.
in ponds, tanks and chambers. The water is often g. The Environment and Sustainable
recycled for industrial purposes after neutralizing Development Act.
with lime following environmental compliance. 5. Regulated exploitation of mineral
resourcesdsustainability and longer life
a. Mineral Policy.
b. Mineral Concession Rule.
10.10. SUSTAINABLE MINERAL c. Mines Act.
DEVELOPMENT d. Mines Rules (Health and Safety).
e. Mines and Mineral (Development and
The principle of sustainable development pro-
Regulation) Act.
motes the thought of optimal resource utilization
f. Mineral Conservation Act.
and leaving behind adequate resources for the
g. Oil fields (Regulation & Development) Act,
future generations. The concept works on six key-
1948.
words “Resource, Regenerate, Reduce, Reuse,
h. Coal Mines (Conservation & Safety) Act,
Recycle and Replace”. The sustainable mineral/
1952.
mine development can be achieved by the
following:
10.10.1. Mineral/Mining Sustainability
1. Science and technology
a. Focus on pollution prevention, energy The mineral/mining sustainability is not
saving and health care. merely about complying with the applicable regu-
b. Clean technology that minimizes lations. Compliance is just the basic foundation of
undesirable effluents, emissions and waste sustainability and more often it remains hidden
from products and process. from the eyes of most of the community and stake-
c. Deficiency/excess of calcium, magnesium, holders. The visible issues are superstructure,
potassium, iodine, zinc, selenium has to be track record of environmental care, biodiversity
optimized through grains, vegetables and conservation, the socio-community development
FURTHER READING 323
efforts, transparency and delivery of good gover-
nance. All these dimensions are relevant and inte-
gral to sustainable mineral/mining. The key
management tasks in achieving sustainability in
mineral/mining industry are the following:
1. Mineral and mining sustainability focuses
around two themes: (a) concern about well
being of future generations and (b)
community development with humility.
2. Let us live with happiness for the present
and leave enough for the future generations. FIGURE 10.12 “Little deeds of kindness, little words of
3. Mineral resources are limited, finite and love, make our earth an Eden, like the heaven above”.
Source: Julia A. Carney (1845). Image source: Soumi.
nonrenewable. Once out of ground, lost
forever.
4. Mineral exploration is a continuous process
11. Full adaptation of compliance of national
to augment the resource within certain limit.
and international Impact Management
5. Promoting environmental awareness within
Codes supported by independent audit.
exploration and mining companies. Spread
12. Transparency and good governance much
the message to the community people
reflect in every plan and action.
through programs. Share the concerns and
13. Research, publication, knowledge-sharing
commitments with them.
seminars and participants at workshop.
6. Educate and train employees and
14. Leave the area in much more
contractors. Adopt the method in practice.
environmentally beautiful, progressive
7. Educate the local community people for
and sustainable.
economically sustainable program to
15. Let the future generations grow in an
achieve self-support in short period.
environment of love, affection, compassion,
8. Early dialog for community development to
happiness, trust, genuineness and
establish trust and confidence. Encourage to
transparency . (Fig. 10.12).
work together. Build partnerships between
different groups and organizations so that
there is a sense of integrity, cooperation and
transparency for shared focus to achieve FURTHER READING
mutually agreed common goal.
9. Developing community engagement plan Books by Evans17 and Chamley6 are sug-
involving employment with flexible work gested for general reading of the subject. A
rosters, collaborative participation in Guide to Leading Practice Sustainable Development
decision making, services to the society, in Mining by David28 as Principal Author, Gov-
health care and medical advice, women ernment of Australia is an outstanding report
education and child care, participation in with enormous case studies covering zinc,
community and spiritual festivals and lead, copper, nickel, aluminum, diamond, ura-
handle with deep sense of humility. nium, coal and silica sand engaged in open pit
10. Ensure sustainable postmine closure uses of and underground all over the World. Studies
land and all infrastructures toward creation on hazards and development can be updated
of alternative employment. from Haldar.24
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Index
Note: Page numbers followed by “b”, “f” and “t” indicate boxes, figures and tables, respectively.
327
328 INDEX
Bioherms, 189f, 190, 255, 258 Carbonates, 55e57. See also Collector groups, 145e146, 146t
Biological weathering, 128 rocks of oil and gas; Limestone overview, 145
Biosphere, 85b biogenic origin, 180 residual sediments, 171e174
Biostrome, 188, 189f, 190 described, 179 Clay
Biotite, 70 extraction, 180 described, 159e160
Bioturbation, 141e142 pellets, 183 hazard, 311
Bismuthinite, 15te30t sandy barrier islands, 250 Clay shale, 159e160
Bitumen, 163e164 secretion in deeper water, Clayey sediments, diagenesis,
Black augite, 65 181e182 168e171
“Black smokers” pipe-type deposits, secretion in shallow sea, 180e181 Claystone, 159e160
276 Carnallite, 57 Clean Air Act, 322
Black-pebble breccias, 148 Cassiterite, 15te30t Clean Water Act, 322
Blasts, 216 Cataclasis, 145 Cleavage, 49
Bleiberg/Alpine deposits, 278 Cataclastic sediments, 145, 146t Clinopyroxenes, 64, 64t
BLUE (best linear unbiased Cave limestone, 194e195, 194f Coal, 263, 311e312
estimator), 289e290. See also CCD. See Calcite compensation depth CoalMines (Conservation & Safety)
Kriging Celadon, 70 Act, 322
Blurry currents, 128e129 Cement, 143 Coarse-grained sediments
Boehmite, 54 Cementation, 132e133 (rudaceous), 146e153
Bornite, 15te30t Cerussite, 11f, 312 extraformational breccias, 148t,
Boula-Nausahi chromite deposit, Chain silicates, 63e68 149e152
112f, 274f, 275f, 303f Chalcedony, 207e209 extraformational conglomerates,
Bouma sequences, 245e247, 246f Chalcocite, 15te30t 152e153
Bounce marks, 140 Chalcopyrite, 10f, 226f, 272f Coastal marine environments, sand
Boundstone limestone, 190, 190f Chemical and biochemical bodies, 239e242, 243f
Bowen, Norman L., 95 sedimentary rocks. See also Coated bioclasts, 186e187
Bowen’s reaction series, 95e96, 96f Dolomites; Evaporites; Coated grains, 184
Braggite, 15te30t Limestone Cobaltite, 15te30t, 311
Breccias, 149. See also specific breccias classification chart, 146t Collapse breccias, 151e152
defined, 123 Collector rocks of oil and gas
C overview, 179 in carbonate rocks
Calcarenaceous sandstones, 159 Chemical composition, mineral/ allodapic limestones, 257e258
Calcareous siltstone, 160e161 mineral deposit classification, carbonate debrites, 257e258
Calcareouse-evaporite complex, in 263, 264t carbonate platforms, 247e257
Dalmatia, 206f Chemical mineralogy, 40 high-energy shallows, 248e250
Calcite Chemical weathering, 126e128, overview, 247
CCD, 181e182, 181f 126f peritidal carbonates, 250e253
features and uses, 15te30t Cherts, 210e211, 210f reef and perireef limestones- in
group, 56t China clay, 173 carbonate platform, 254e257
Mohs’s Scale of Mineral Hardness, Chlorite group, 72 reef and perireef limestones-
48t Chlorite schists, 224 outside carbonate platform,
photo, 9f Chromite, 55 258e260
secretion, 179e180 Chromite orebody, 272f restricted shoals, lagoons, inner
Calcite compensation depth (CCD), Cinnabar, 11f, 311 shelf, 253e254
181e182, 181f Clastic sediments and sedimentary turbidites, 257e258
Calcrete, 194 rocks. See also Coarse-grained in clastic sedimentary rocks
Caliche, 194 sediments; Collector rocks of alluvial fans, 234e236
Carbonate debrites, 257e258 oil and gas; Fine granular debrites, 242e245
Carbonate hosted sulfide deposits, clastic sediments; Medium deltas, 236e239
“Irish” type, 278 granular clastic sediments; overview, 234
Carbonate lithic clasts, 142 Pyroclastic sediments sand bodies in coastal marine
Carbonate lithic detritus, 142 diagenesis, 164e171 environments, 239e242, 243f
Carbonate platforms, 247e260 genesis, 145e146 turbidity fans, 245e247
INDEX 329
further reading, 260 Debrite breccias, 151 Dolomites
introduction, 233e234 Debrites, 129, 242e245 defined, 199e203
Collisional orogeny, 91 Decline Curve Analysis, 292 early diagenetic dolomitization, 201
Compaction, 132 Deep seated deposits. See Large and late diagenetic dolomitization,
Concentric weathering, 118 deep seated deposits 201e203
Conglomerates, 146e147, 152. See also Dehydration of gypsum to anhydrite, origin, 200e201
specific conglomerates 205e207 Dolomitization. See also Dolomites
Contact metamorphism, 219, Dellenite, 117 limestone and, 199
220e223, 218te219t Delta front, 238 in mixed zone of marine and
Contingent resources, petroleum, Delta plains, 238 freshwater, 202f
297e298 Deltas, 236e239, 237f, 239f Dolostone, 31te36t
Continuous reaction series, 96 Deltoid icosahedron, 60f Double-chain inosilicates, 66e68
Conventional/traditional Denudation, 125 Dripstone, 194e195, 194f
classification, minerals, Deposition, 130e132 Dunham classification, 125, 190f,
293e294, 294f aggradation, 130e131 191e192
Convolute bedding, 135 progradation, 131 Dunite, 114
Cooling, of magma, 96e98, 97f retrogradation, 131 Dykes, 101
Cordierite, 62e63 Depositional facies distribution, of Dynamic cutoff concept, 282
Cordierite gneisses, 62e63 Miocene sediments, 150f Dynamic metamorphism (kinetic
Core, 84 Depth of occurrence, mineral/ metamorphism), 219, 220,
Corundum, 312 mineral deposit classification, 218te219t
Covellite, 15te30t 263e265, 268t
Cross-bedding, 135e136 Descriptive mineralogy, 40 E
Cross-section, estimation procedure, Desiccation cracks, 137e138, 138f Early diagenetic dolomitization, 201
285e287, 286f Desorption, 125 Earth
Crude oil, 164 Destruction of layers/underwater age, 88e89
Crude oil and gas. See Collector rocks slides, bedding, 141e142 origin, 86e89
of oil and gas; Petroleum Detailed exploration stage, 295, 298, structure, 83e85, 83f
Crust, 84 315e316. See also Earthquakes. See also Faults
Crusty limestone, 194 Reconnaissance phase cause, 306
Crystal clasts, 174, 178 Detrite flows, 129 earthquake-prone countries, 307
Crystal forms, 45e46 “Developed,” traditional epicenter, 306
Crystal lattices, 42f, 42e43, 48f classification, 293 focus, 306
Crystal planes, 43e45 Diabase, 31te36t, 110e111 Richter magnitude scale, 306, 307t
Crystal symmetry, 43e45 Diagenesis. See also Limestone Sangetser Lake, 306f
Crystal systems, 45e46 clastic sediments and rocks, seismometer measures, 306e307
Crystal twinning, 45e46 164e171 tsunamis, 85b, 306, 315
Crystallization point, 40 evaporites, 205e207 Ecliptic plane, 88b
Crystallographic axes, 43e45 limestone, 195e199 Eclogites, 230e232
Crystallography, 39 lithification, 132e133 Economic parameters. See Mineral
Crystals, 40e46 Diallage, 65 economics
Cubic crystal lattices, 45 Diamictite, 147 Edgewise breccias, 148
Cuprite, 15te30t Diamond, 15te30t, 48t, 52 Emerson breccias, 151
Cutoff, 282 Diapirism, 204, 204b, 207 Energy minerals, 263. See also
Cyanobacterial mats, 187, 187f Diatomaceous earth, 208e209, 209t Petroleum
Cyclosilicates, 62e63 Diatomaceous mud, 208e209 Environment (Protection) Act, 322
Diatomite, 144, 208e209, 211 Environment and Sustainable
D Dinosaur footprints, 139, 139f Development Act, 322
Dacite, 31te36t, 116e117 Diorite, 108e109 Environmental mineralogy, 40
Dalmatia, calcareouse-evaporite Discontinuous reaction series, 96 Epicenter, 306
complex in, 206f Disten, 225e226 Epidote, 15te30t, 61
Debris, 146 Dolerite, 110e111 Erosion, 125
Debris flows, 129 Dolomite group, 56t Erosion channels, 140
330 INDEX
Erosional caves and holes at Zion Feldspars “Irish” type of carbonate hosted
Canyon, Utah State, 212f features and uses, 15te30t sulfide deposits, 278
Estimation procedure, mineral hazards, 312 magmatic deposits, 271e272, 275f
resources/ore reserves, Mohs’s Scale of Mineral Hardness, 48t “Manto-chimney replacement”
284e292. See Large and deep Feldspathic arenites, 157 deposits, 277e278
seated deposits. See also Feldspathic graywacke, 158e159 metamorphic rocks, 274e275
Mineral resources/ore Feldspathoids, 78 Mississippi valley-type deposits, 277,
reserves; Petroleum reservoirs Felsic igneous rocks, 99t, 104b, 277f
geostatistical method (kriging), 105e108, 116e117 overview, 266e279
288e290, 290f Ferrohornblende, 67 pennine deposits, 278
small and medium size deposits, 285 Ferromagnesian minerals, 98 placer deposits, 279
statistical method, 288 Field, petroleum reservoirs, 290 residual deposits, 279
Evaporites, 203e207 Fine granular clastic sediments SEDEX/stratiform deposits, 276,
anhydrite excretion, 204 (pelite), 159e164 277f
classification of, 203e205 classification, 159e162, 160t sedimentary rocks, 272e273, 276f
defined, 203 clay and claystone, 160 skarns, 223, 278e279
diagenesis of, 205e207 loess, 162 VHMS, 275e276
gypsum excretion, 204 marlstone, 162e163 VMS, 275e276
halite excretion, 204 organic matter in argillaceous Geographic distribution, mineral/
mineral composition, 203e205 sediments, 163e164 mineral deposit classification,
origin of, 203e205 shale and mudstone, 161e162 263
petrology of, 205e207 silt and siltstone, 160e161 Geological cross-section, estimation
Exploration hazards, 315e316 Fire. See Forest fires; Mine fires procedure, 285e287, 286f
Exploration program, 315e316 Flasar bedding, 137 Geostatistical method (kriging),
External bedding, 134 Flazer cataclasite, 220, 218te219t 288e290, 290f
Extinct volcanoes, 307e308 Flint, 211 Geyserite, 208, 209t, 210
Extraformational breccias, 148t, Floatstone, 190f, 192 Gibbsite, 54
149e152 Fluorite, 9f, 312 Gilbert deltas, 236e238, 237f
Extraformational conglomerates, Fluorospar, 9f Glacial erosion, 125
152e153 Flute casts, 140 Glacial processes, 130
Extrusive (volcanic) igneous rocks, Fluvial processes, 128e129 Glaciers, 309, 309f
102e104 Focus, earthquakes, 306 Glauconite, 71
felsic, 99t, 116e117 Footprints, dinosaur, 139, 139f Glaucophane, 68
forms of, 102e103 Forest Act, 1927, 322 Glaucophane schists, 224e225
intermediate, 99t, 117e118 Forest fires, 310, 310f Gneisses, 226
mafic, 99t, 118e120 Fossil fuel, 164 Gneissic structure, 214e215, 214f
mineral composition, 116e120 Fossil records, 3e5 Goethite, 54e55
textures, 103e104, 103f Freezing-thawing, 125 Gold, 52
Freshwater limestone, 192e195 Graded bedding, 137
F Froth flotation cells, 303f, 321 Grain support, 142, 143f
Fault breccias, 151 Grains
Faults. See also Earthquakes G packing of, sedimentary rock
active, 315 Gabbro, 109e110, 110f structure, 142e144, 143f
Alps Mountain, 315f Galena, 11f, 273f, 278f, 312 sizes of, 144, 144t
defined, 315 Garnets, 9f Grainstone limestone, 190, 190f
dynamic metamorphism, 220 Gas and oil. See Collector rocks of oil Grand Canyon, 212f
hazards, 315, 315f and gas; Petroleum Granites
plate tectonics, 89e91, 150e151 Gaussian probability distribution, defined, 105
transform, 89e90 288, 289f features and uses, 31te36t
Feasibility studies, 295, 298, Genetic model felsic intrusive igneous rocks,
302, 316 Alpine/Bleiberg deposits, 278 105e108
Fecal pellets, 184, 184f, 187f “black smokers” pipe-type deposits, Half Dome, 105f
Feldspar group, 75e78 276 hazards, 313
INDEX 331
mineral constituents, 105e106 Hornfels, 220e223 Intraclasts, 129, 154, 183, 184f
porphyritic, 105 Host rocks, 265e266, 271t. See also Intraformational breccias and
Granitoids family, 105 Mineral deposits conglomerates, 147e149, 148t
Granoblastic texture, 216, 216f Humic kerogens, 163 Intrusive (plutonic) igneous rocks,
Granoblasts, 216 Hummocky cross-bedding, 136 100e102
Granodiorite, 108 Hybrid sandstones, 159 felsic, 99t, 105e108
Granulites, 230 Hydration forms of, 100e101
Graphite, 312 anhydrite to gypsum, 125, 206e207 intermediate, 99t, 108e109
Graphite schists, 226 defined, 126 mafic, 99t, 109e113
Gravel, 146 Hydrosphere, 85b mineral composition, 104e115
Graywacke, 157e159 Hydrothermal, 95 shapes/structures, 102
Great Pyramid, 4f Hydrothermal metamorphism, textures, 101e102
Green sandstones, 159 220e222 ultrabasic, 113e115
Green schists, 224 Hydroxides, 53e55, 53t ultramafic, 99t, 113e116
Groove marks, 140 Hypabyssal, 101 “Irish” type, of carbonate hosted
Gutenberg, Bruno, 84e85 sulfide deposits, 278
Gutenberg discontinuity, 84e85 I Iron meteorite, 81f
Gypsum Ice, 53 Isochemical diagenetic processes, 198
defined, 57 Idioblasts, 216 Isomorphism, 50e51
dehydration of gypsum to anhydrite, Idiochromatic minerals, 49 Isopach map, 291e292, 291f
205e207 Igneous rocks. See also Extrusive Isostasy, 84, 85b
excretion, 204 igneous rocks; Intrusive Isotropic minerals, 50
features and uses, 15te30t igneous rocks Isotropy, 43
hazards, 312 Bowen’s reaction series, 95e96, 96f
Mohs’ Scale of Mineral Hardness, 48t chemical classification, 104b J
photo, 9f classification, 85, 98e104 Jadeite, 65
cooling of magma, 96e98, 97f Jasper, 211
H defined, 85 Jhamar Kotra rock-phosphate mine,
Half Dome, 105f features and uses, 31te36t 262e263, 272e273, 276f,
Halides, 57 further reading, 120 283e284, 303f
Halite, 15te30t, 57 lava properties, 94e95
Harzburgite, 114 layered igneous complex, 273f K
Hazards. See also Mineral hazards; magma properties, 94e95 Kaolin, 15te30t, 160, 173
Mining hazards; Natural mineral composition, 99t Kaolinite, 127e128
hazards; Rock hazards; uses and features, 31te36t Kaolin-serpentine group, 72e73
Sustainable mineral/mine veins, 120 Karst bauxites, 174
development Illite series, 70e71 Karst breccias, 151
defined, 306 Ilmenite, 111f Kayanite, 15te30t
exploration, 315e316 Impact casts, 140 Kerogen, 163
further reading, 323 Important mineral constituents, 98 Khetri Copper Mine, 9f, 10f, 12f, 13f,
mineral beneficiation, 321 “Indicated,” traditional classification, 219f, 226f, 229f, 272f
refining, 322 294 Kinetic metamorphism. See Dynamic
smelting, 321e322 “Inferred,” traditional classification, metamorphism
Hematite, 15te30t, 54 294 Kohout convection, 195e196, 203
Heulandite, 79 Inner shelf, 241e242, 253e254 Komatiite, 31te36t
Hexagonal, 46 Inosilicates, 63f, 63e68 Kriging (geostatistical method),
High-energy shallows, carbonates of, Insolation, 124e125 288e290, 290f
248e250 Intermediate igneous rocks Kyanite, 61
Himalayan snow-capped peaks, 85f defined, 104b
Hindustan Zinc Limited, 304f extrusive, 99t, 117e118 L
Hohentwiel, 307e308 intrusive, 99t, 108e109 Laccoliths, 101
Horizontal bedding, 134e135, 135f Internal bedding, 134e137 Lagoons, 241e242, 253e254
Hornblende, 68 Intertidal zone, 250e251 Lamprophyre, 120
332 INDEX
Textures. See specific textures Uraninite, 15te30t Volcanism. See also Submarine
Thawing-freezing, 125 volcanism
Tholeiitic basalts, 118e119 V hazards, 319e320
3D orebody wireframe model, 283f Variable cutoff concept, 282 pyrogenesis, 41, 42b
Tidal flats, 195, 240 Veins igneous rocks, 120 Volcanoes, 307e308, 308f
Till, 147 Vermiculite group, 71 Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS),
Titanite, 61 Vertical longitudinal section, 275e276
Tonalite, 108 estimation procedure, 287, Volumetric estimate, petroleum
Topaz, 15te30t, 48t 287f reservoirs, 291e292, 291f
Tourmaline, 10f Vertical/lateral continuity, of Vortex casts, 140
Tower/London Bridge, 3f petroleum reservoirs, 290
Trachyte, 117 Vesuvianite, 62 W
Traditional/conventional VHMS. See Volcanic-hosted massive Wackes. See Graywacke
classification, minerals, sulfide Wackestone limestone, 190, 190f
293e294, 294f Vibration, 320 Water resources
Transform faults, 89e90 Victoria Memorial Hall, 231f management plan, 320e321
Traps, petroleum reservoirs, 290 Vitroclasts, 174e175, 178 mining hazards, 320e321
Travertine, 193e194, 194f VMS. See Volcanogenic massive Wave-formed ripple marks, 139
Tribal’s in Mining Projects, 322 sulfide Wavy bedding, 137
Triclinic, 46 Volcanic basalt, 31te36t Weathering, 124e128
Tripoli, 210e211 Volcanic bombs, 176t, 177e178 biological, 128
Troctolite, 109e110 Volcanic breccia, 177 chemical, 126e128, 126f
Trough cross-bedding, 136 Volcanic glass, acidic, 178e179 concentric, 118
Tsunamis, 85b, 306, 315 Volcanic igneous rocks. See Extrusive physical or mechanical,
Tuffite material, 177e178 igneous rocks 124e125
Tuffs Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide Weiss parameter, 43
alteration of, 178e179 (VHMS), 275e276 Welded tuffs, 178
defined, 178 Volcaniclastic sediments and rocks. Wentworth scale, 144, 145f
lapilli, 175e177, 176t See also Pyroclastic sediments; Wild Life Protection Act, 322
sillar-tuffs, 178 Sedimentary rocks Witherite, 56t
welded, 178 agglomerates, 176t, 177e178 Wolframite, 13f
Turbidites, 257e258 classification, 176t Wollastonite, 313
Turbidity currents, 128e129 composition, 177e178
Turbidity fans, 245e247 defined, 123, 174e177 X
formation/origin Xenoblasts, 216
U from pyroclastic flows, 175 Xenoliths, 100
Ultrabasic intrusive igneous rocks, pyroclastic material from air,
113e115 175e177 Z
Ultramafic intrusive igneous rocks, from turbulent flow of low density Zeolites group, 78e79
99t, 113e115 and high speed, 175, 177 Zincite, 15te30t
Underwater slides/destruction of pumice stones, 104, 116, 175, 175f Zinc-lead-silver deposits, 266fe267f
layers, bedding, 141e142 pyroclastic breccias, 148t, 149, 152 Zircon, 15te30t, 61
Upper bedding plane structures, scoria, 175 Zoisite, 61e62
137e140 volcanic bombs, 176t, 177e178