Slide

Modeling and control of renewable energy systems
Handout (WS 2021/2022)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Christoph M. Hackl

Munich University of Applied Sciences (MUAS)
Institute for Sustainable Energy Systems (ISES)

ises.ee.hm.edu
Laboratory for Mechatronic and Renewable Energy Systems (LRMES)

lmres.ee.hm.edu
2021/11/16
Outline I
Introduction
1 Motivation
2 Preliminaries
3 Modeling
4 Control
5 Operation management
6 Conclusion and outlook
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. C.M. Hackl | Version from 2021/11/16 | Modeling and control of renewable energy systems 2/208
Outline I
Introduction
Introduction
Research focus
Large-scale WTS Small-scale WTS MPC for RES AWE systems
Geothermal energy Wave energy Electric vehicles Power systems
Biogas power plants Multi-level converters Electrical drives Motion control
Introduction
Interdisciplinary expertise (ą 140 peer-reviewed publications, one monographe)
326 11 Speed and position control of industrial servo-systems
load
direction of motion
System part A
junctions fric- ψp0q

ep0q
ψptq
eptq ψp¨q “ BFψ p¨q
Non-identifier
identification tion
boundary
layer with
boundary
´λ
t
ep¨q
time t
based adaptive
lubrication
[9–13] mixed (or partially fluid) lubrication

part B
[14, 15] ´ψp0q
funnel Fψ control [14, 16–31]
(a) Regime III: Mixed (or partially fluid) lubrication.
load
Paper part A
direction of motion
Teaching yE y ref,E Robotics /
coating (EOF Preis ’13)
boundary
Mechatronics
layer with
machines [31, 90–96] boundary

lubrication [14, 15, 31–42]
full fluid lubrication
[4–8] part B
(b) Regime IV: Full fluid lubrication.
System theory
Fig. 11.4: Cross-section of contact surfaces between mechanical parts A & B for lu-
brication regimes III & IV.
Power electronics
Elektro-active (dynamical [31, 31, 43–62]
polymers
[1–3] systems)
Renewable energy Electrical drives

systems (motors/generators)
[13, 28, 30, 31, 44, 45, 48, [13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 29,
52, 53, 55–57, 59, 61, 62, 31, 37, 41, 54, 63–80]
67–69, 72, 74, 80–89]
Introduction
Energy research “ Interdisciplinarity
Electrical Energy
Materials Mathematics
engineering economics
Aero- Control
Electrical machines Remote sensing
dynamics theory
Mecha- Landscape
Semiconductors System identification
tronics architecture
Mechanical Condition
Power electronics Politics
engineering monitoring
Introduction
Approach
Modeling &
system identification
Theory & application Theory & application

Renewable energy systems
(e.g. Wind turbines: conventional/airborne)
and Mechatronics
(e.g. el. drives, power electronics)
Fault detection & Controller design

condition monitoring (stability & robustness)
Theory & application
Introduction
Contact information
phone: 089 1265-3417

email: christoph.hackl@hm.edu
office: R4.037
Munich University of Applied Sciences (MUAS)
Lothstr. 64, 80335 München
www: ‚ https://www.ee.hm.edu/fk04/profs/hackl.de.html (MUAS-Profil)
‚ https://lmres.ee.hm.edu (Infos about Laboratory)
‚ https://ises.hm.edu (Research Institute)
‚ course materials in MOODLE (Lecture notes, handout & tutorials)
office hours after class on friday
Schedule (tentative)
Lectures take place online (fridays, 09:45-12:15 & 13:15-14:45)
Date Topic
10.12.2021 Motivation, introduction and preliminaries
(e.g. three-phase systems, electrical power, wind power coefficient)
17.12.2021 Modeling: Generator, back-to-back converter, filter and grid
07.01.2022 Control: Machine- & grid-side current control, speed control
14.01.2022 Control and operation management: DC-link control & regime III
21.01.2022 Outlook and tutorials
28.01.2022 Exam revision
Introduction
ECTS and teachnig/learning goals
Sub-module: “Modeling and control of renewable energy systems”

‚ 2.5 ECTS (=75 hours)
‚ « 30 hours lectures
‚ 45 hours self study (pre- & postprepartion of lectures)
Teaching/learning goals:
After this course you will be able to:
‚ understand the working principles of renewable energy systems (e.g. wind turbine systems);
‚ analyze and implement the respective state-space models;
‚ understand, apply and implement typical control concepts for renewable energy systems;
‚ understand, apply and implement the overall operation management for renewable energy systems;
‚ understand and analyze the instantaneous power flow and efficiency of sub-systems and the overall
renewable energy systems
Introduction
Final exam
Setting:
‚ written exam (at TUM)
‚ Duration: 90 min.
‚ no auxiliary materials allowed; exceptions are dictionaries & unchanged formulary
‚ Date: tba.
‚ Room: tba.
Typical problems:
‚ Knowledge-based problems (ca. 10-20%)
e.g. What is a Phase-Locked Loop?
‚ Mathematical problems (ca. 50-60%)
ypsq
e.g. Derive the transfer function FS psq “ upsq
from differential equation (2)!
(Hint: Laplace transform)
‚ Engineering problems (ca. 30-40%)
e.g.How can active and reactive power be provided by renewable energy systems? Which crucial
information about the grid is necessary?
Introduction
Recommended books
Besides lecture notes and set of problems with solutions, the following books may be of help:
[1] D. Schröder, Elektrische Antriebe - Regelung von Antriebssystemen. Springer-Verlag, 2015.
[2] C.M. Hackl, Non-identifier based adaptive control in mechatronics: Theory and Applications.
Springer International Publishing, 2017.
[3] V. Quaschning, Regenerative Energiesysteme. 7., aktualisierte Auflage, Hanser-Verlag,
München, 2011.
Outline I
1 Motivation
Background information
Figures and facts
Historical development and use of wind power
Wind power in Germany
Modern wind turbine systems
Core components
Operating ranges
Working principle
Reliability and faults
Summary
Outline I
1 Motivation
Figures and facts
Core components
Operating ranges
Working principle
Summary
Figures and facts
‹ 11
Primary energy use worldwide (overall 14282 M t OE “ 1.661 ¨ 10 MWh [97])
Oil
31.6% Black coal
26.9%
2.0%
Renewables 2.5%
Hydro power
9.3%
22.8%
Bio mass and waste 4.9%
Nuclear power
Natural gas
‹
Mt OE “ million tons oil equivalent (OE).
Figures and facts
Primary energy use worldwide ùñ share of renewables slightly increases!
1971 2014 2015

Oil
Oil Oil
31.3% 31.7%
46.2% Black coal Black coal
28.6% 28.1%
Renewables 0.1%
1.8% Renewables 1.4% Renewables 1.5%
Hydro power 2.4% 2.5%
Hydro power Hydro power
10.5% 24.5%
10.3% 9.7%
Bio mass and waste 0.9%
Black coal 21.2% 21.6%
16% Bio mass and waste 4.8% Bio mass and waste 4.9%
Nuclear power
Nuclear power Nuclear power
Natural gas Natural gas Natural gas
86.7 % fossil (6 098 Mt OE) 81.1 % fossil (13 699 Mt OE) 81.4 % fossil (13 647 Mt OE)
2016 2017 2018

Oil Oil Oil
31.9% 31.9% 31.6% Black coal

Black coal Black coal
27.1% 27.1% 26.9%
1.7% 1.7% 2.0%

Renewables 2.5% Renewables 2.5% Renewables 2.5%
Hydro power Hydro power Hydro power
9.8% 9.8% 9.3%
22.1% 22.1% 22.8%

Bio mass and waste 4.9% Bio mass and waste 4.9% Bio mass and waste 4.9%
Nuclear power Nuclear power Nuclear power

Natural gas Natural gas Natural gas
81.1 % fossil (13 761 Mt OE) 81.1 % fossil (13 972 Mt OE) 81.3 % fossil (14 282 Mt OE)
Figures and facts
Evolution of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere [98]
400
350
CO2 / ppm
300
250
200
150
−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
time t / a ·105
Figures and facts
Anthropocentric greenhouse effect ñ global warming
Figures and facts
Scarcity of resources
215
coal 140
65
64
gas 59
38
prognosis from 2001 (no economic growth)
43 prognosis from 2008 (no economic growth)

oil 31 prognosis from 2008 (2, 2% economic growth)
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

Availability in years
(Fig. is based on [99, Tab. 1.3]; w/o shale gas)
Figures and facts
11
46. Primärenergieverbrauch
Primary energy use worldwide 1990-2016 (in 2016: « 580 EJ “ 1 611 ¨ 10
weltweit kWh, [100])
Exajoule (EJ)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Afrika OECD-Amerika Südamerika1 Asien (Nicht-OECD-Länder)2 Europa (OECD-Länder) Europa (Nicht-OECD-Länder ohne Eurasien) Frühere SU Pazifik (OECD-Länder)3
Mittlerer Osten Bunkeröle des internationalen Schiffs- und Flugverkehrs
1 Ohne Chile 2 Ohne Mittlerer Osten
3 Umfasst Japan, Südkorea, Australien, Neuseeland
Quelle: Internationale Energie Agentur (IEA)
Figures and facts
9
Primary 1990-2018 (in 2018: « 13 000 PJ “ 3 611 ¨ 10 kWh [100])
in Deutschland
energy use in Germany
PJ
15.800
13.800
11.800
9.800
7.800
5.800
3.800
1.800
-200
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Mineralöl Steinkohle Braunkohle Erdgas, Erdölgas Kernenergie Wasser- und Windkraft 1 3 Andere Erneuerbare 2 Außenhandelssaldo Strom Sonstige
1 Windkraft ab 1995 2 U. a. Brennholz, Brenntorf, Klärgas, Müll 3 Inkl. Fotovoltaik
Quelle: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen (AGEB)
Figures and facts
‹ 9
Primary in Deutschland
energy use in Germany « 13PJ*)
2018 (13.106
2018 (overall 000 PJ “ 3 611 ¨ 10 kWh [100])
Braunkohle
Steinkohle
11,3 %
10,9 %
1.428 1.476 Kernenergie

6,3 %
Biokraftstoffe
Andere Abfälle + Deponiegas
829 0,9 %
0,4 % 1,0 %
46 123 Solarthermie
126
32,0 0,2 %
3.071 10,7
Erdgas 165 Geothermie
23,4 % Erneuerbare 0,082 %
13,8 % 837 48,6
1.804 65 Fotovoltaik
1,3 %
396 Wärmepumpe
0,4%
Biomasse fest/gasförmig
Windkraft Wasserkraft
6,4 %
3,0 % 0,5 %
4.452
Mineralöl
34,0 %
* vorläufig
Quelle: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen (AGEB), Stand: August 2019, Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat)
Figures and facts
Shares of net imports of different
5. Nettoimportabhängigkeit energy resources
nach Energieträgern 2018 in Germany 2018 [100]
in % des Primärenergieverbrauchs
100 100,0
97,2 96,2
90
88,4
insgesamt
70,1 %
70
50
30
10
-2,1
-10
Steinkohle Braunkohle Mineralöl Naturgase 1 Kernenergie
1 Erdgas, Erdölgas, Grubengas
Figures and facts
Primary energy sources of "Renewables” & used techologies
Hydro
power
plants
Tidal power
Heating Biogas
plants
Geothermal Wave
... power power Biofuel
plants plants
Evaporation
/ Rain
Geothermal Oceanic ...

Biomass
energy motion
Gravity / Plane- Solar energy

Radioactivity
tary motion (nuclear fusion)
Photovoltaic
power
plants
Wind Solar
Airborne
turbine Atmospheric wind power
Solar thermal
power motion irradiation power
plants
plants plants
Figures and facts
An Example: Electrical energy from black coal
Figures and facts
Gross production of electrical
27. Bruttostromerzeugung energy in Germany 1990-2018 [100]
in Deutschland
TWh
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Steinkohlen Braunkohlen Mineralöl Erdgas Kernenergie Windkraft an Land Windkraft auf See Wasserkraft Biomasse Fotovoltaik Geothermie Müll Andere
Quelle: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen (AGEB), Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat)
Figures and facts
‹ 1 9
28. Bruttostromerzeugung
Gross in Deutschland
electrical energy production 20181: insgesamt
in Germany 2018 647 TWh 647 TWh “ 647 ¨ 10 kWh [100])
(overall
Erdgas Mineralöl
12,9 % 0,8 % Sonstige
4,2 %
83,4 5,2
27,0
Steinkohle
12,9 %
Windkraft
17,3 % Biomasse
83,2 7,0 %
111,5 45,7
226,2 Erneuerbare
34,9 %
Kernenergie 76,0
46,2
11,8 %
Fotovoltaik/Geothermie
16,6 6,2 7,2 %
Wasserkraft 2 Hausmüll 2
2,6 % 1,0 %
145,5
Braunkohle
22,5 %
1 Vorläufig
2 Regenerativer Anteil
Geothermie aufgrund der geringen Menge in Fotovoltaik
Quelle: AG Energiebilanzen, Stand März 2019
Figures and facts
Electrical energy
29. Einsatz production from
von Energieträgern different resources
zur Stromerzeugung in Germany 1990-2018 [100]
in Deutschland
PJ
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Steinkohle Braunkohle Kernenergie Nichterneuerbare Abfälle, Abwärme u. a. Heizöl Gase Pumparbeit Sonstige erneuerbare Energien
Biomasse und erneuerbare Abfälle 3 Wasserkraft/Windkraft 1 2
1 Berechnet auf der Basis des Wirkungsgradansatzes 2 Windkraft ab 1995 einschl. Fotovoltaik 3 Von 1995 bis 1999 Müll und sonstige Biomasse, ab 2000 Biomasse und erneuerbare Abfälle, Abwärme u. a.
Figures and facts
CO16.
2 emissions related
Energiebedingte CO to energy needs in Germany 1990-2018 [100]
-Emissionen 2
Mt
1.200
1.000
800
600
400
200
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Mineralölprodukte Erdgas+Grubengas Braunkohlen Steinkohlen (inkl. Gicht- und Konvertergas) Sonstige
Quelle: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen (AGEB), Umweltbundesamt (UBA)
Figures and facts
CO17.
2 emissions due to
Energiebedingte COenergy needs
-Emissionen worldwide 1990-2018 [100]
weltweit
2
Mt
40.000
35.000
30.000
25.000
20.000
15.000
10.000
5.000
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Afrika Nordamerika Südamerika Asien und Ozeanien Europäische Union übriges Europa Mittlerer Osten
Quelle: BP Statistica Review of World Energy 2019
Figures and facts
Employees inim
2. Beschäftigte energy sector in Germany 1991-2018 [100]
Energiesektor
Personen
600.000
500.000
400.000
300.000
200.000
1.000
0
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Steinkohlebergbau und -veredelung Braunkohlebergbau und -veredelung Fernwärmeversorgung* Mineralölverarbeitung

Gewinnung von Erdöl und Erdgas Gasversorgung* Elektrizitätsversorgung*
* vorläufig
Quelle: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen, Statistik der Kohlenwirtschaft, Bundesverband Braunkohle, Bundesamt für Wirtschaft und Ausfuhrkontrolle, Mineralölwirtschaftsverband
Time line
Spread of
First use Use of lift rotors
of wind mills drag rotors for grinding
Invention of
in Mesopotamia in Persia in Europe
steam machine
1800 BC AD 1000 1400 1700 2000
1700 0 x 700 1200 1500 1900
Use of Improvements of Regaining strength

drag rotors lift rotors of wind power
in China for watering
Chinese windmill
(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinesische_Windm%C3%BChle)
Persian windmill (644 AD, historical proof)
(Modell im deutschen Museum; http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persische_Windm%C3%BChle)
Persian windmill in Nashtifan (“bite of typhoon”)
(http://payvand.com/blog/blog/2010/11/21/photos-centuries-old-windmills-of-nashtifan-in-iran)
Dutch windmill (without sail)
(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windm%C3%BChle)
Modern wind turbine systems (for electrical energy conversion)
(http://www.siemens.com/) (http://www.ge.com/) (http://www.enercon.de/)
Properties
‚ Three rotor blades (working principle: drag power)
‚ Luv rotor with horizontal axis
‚ Dominant generator topologies:
˝ Synchronous generator without gear (“direct drive”)
˝ Doubly-fed induction generator with gear
Evolution of size of modern wind turbine systems
250 m
160 m Airbus 380

Rotor diameter / m
126 m
??
112 m
Wing span
79.8 m
15 m
85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 10 ? First-time operation
0,05 0,3 0,5 1,3 1,6 2 4,5 5 7 8-10? Nominal power / MW
(based on figure on p. 17 in [101])
Installed nominal wind power in Germany 1990-2018
59, 6
60 56, 2
installed nominal power / GW
49, 4
50
44, 1
40 38
32, 8
29, 6
30 27, 3
25, 2
23, 7
21, 9
20, 4
18, 7
20 16, 5
14, 7
12, 8
10, 7
10 7, 2
4, 8
3, 3
2, 1
1, 1 1, 5
0 0, 1 0, 1 0, 2 0, 4 0, 8
0
19 0
19 1
19 2
19 3
19 4
19 5
19 6
19 7
19 8
99
20 0
01
20 2
20 3
20 4
20 5
20 6
20 7
20 8
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 2
20 3
20 4
20 5
20 6
20 7
18
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
19
20
20
(based on Fig. 4 in [102])
Prognosis of installed nominal wind power in Germany 2030
107, 9
100
installed nominal power / GW
annual peak power (84 GW)

80 77
61, 1
60 53
44, 1
40 35, 6
31, 2
20
prognosis for best case
prognosis for worst case
12
15
20
30
20
20
20
20
(based on figure on p. 6 in [103])
Nuclear power plants
31. Kernkraftwerke and theirund
in Deutschland installed nominal powerinin
ihre Kapazitätsleistung Germany
MW: (21
insgesamt 517 MW,
21.517 aus [100])
MW (brutto)
KKI 1 Isar/Isar, 912 KKG Grafenrheinfeld/Main, 1.345 Abschaltung des Leistungsbetriebs Ende 2015
bzw. 2017 gem. Art. 1 des 13. AtGÄndG
GKN 1 Neckarwestheim/Neckar1, 840
KRB Gundremmingen B/Donau, 1.344
KKP Philippsburg 1/Rhein, 926
Biblis B/Rhein, 1.300

KRB Gundremmingen C/Donau, 1.344
Biblis A/Rhein, 1.225

KWG Grohnde/Weser, 1.430
Abschaltung des Leistungsbetriebs am 06.08.2011
gem. Art. 1 des 13. AtG-ÄndG Noch in Betrieb stehende Anlagen,
rd. 10 TWh Kapazitätsleistung
KKK Krümmel/Elbe, 1.402
KKP Philippsburg 2/Rhein, 1.468
KKU Esensham/Unterweser, 1.410

KBR Brokdorf/Elbe, 1.480
KKB Brunsbüttel/Elbe, 806

KKI 2 Isar/Isar, 1.485
GKN 2 Neckarwestheim/Neckar2, 1.400

KKE Emsland/Dortmund-Ems-Kanal, 1.400
1 Davon ein separater Maschineneinsatz 152 MW Anteil Deutsche Bahn AG
2 Davon 150 MW Bahnstromumformer
Quelle: Deutsches Atomforum e.V.
Construction of a wind turbine system (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jHn1n2tdnRc; Length: 2:00 min)
orte), Windzo-
Anteil an
20
I (Küstennahe
Abbildung 5.2
Percentage share of topologies of newly installed WTS in Germany 1998-2018 (from [104])
0 b
ung fand der 100
II und IV statt.
e die meisten 80
i in der Wind- Sonstige
CS
ut der stärkste IG
60 DFIG
dzone IV geht PMSG
EESG
ierlich zurück. DD-PMSG
40 DD
bestandes auf
Die meisten
20
errichtet. Nach
Waldflächen ist
on 25 Prozent 0 c
2
12
00
10
98
08
04
14
18
6
16
0
018 vornehm-
20
20
20
20
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
t Windzone
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. C.M.II
Hackl Abbildung 5.1: Anlagenzubau
| Version from 2021/11/16 nachenergy
| Modeling and control of renewable Standortkategorie
systems (a), Leistungs- 40/208
orte), Windzo-
u. a. einer ver-
Anteil an
20
20
I (Küstennahe
huldet ist. Der
Abbildung 5.2
im Schnitt
EAPercentage share of nominal ab
00 power of newly installed WTS in Germany 1998-2018 (from [104])
ung fand
hatten, warender 100
100
II MW
und deutlich
IV statt.
eand diezum
meisten
Ende 80
80
iesamtleistung
in der Wind-
Anteil an neu installierten Turbinen [%]
Sonstige
ab 5 MW
CS
4 - 5 MW
ut der stärkste IG
3 - 4 MW
60
60 DFIG
2 - 3 MW
dzone IV geht PMSG
1 - 2 MW
EESG
0,5 - 1 MW
ierlichunterteilt
DIBt) zurück. DD-PMSG
bis 0,5 MW
40
40 DD
bestandes auf
erhältnisse, in
Die Windzo-
orte), meisten
20
20
errichtet. Nach
I (Küstennahe
Waldflächen ist
Abbildung 5.2
00 bc
on 25 Prozent
ung fand der 100
02
12
00
0
98
8
04
14
18
06
16
1
0
018
I undvornehm-
IV statt.
20
20
20
20
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
t Windzone II Abbildung 5.1: Anlagenzubau nach Standortkategorie (a), Leistungs-
Distribution of installed nominal wind power vs. wind distribution (in 80 m height)
den Zubau Leistungsdichte

[MW/km²]
ahresbeginn 0-0,05
0,05-0,1
rden die im 0,1-0,5
0,5-1
1-5
tungen [17] >5
Ausbauziele
etzbetreiber
ellt. Für die
en des NEP
sher geneh-
lung der in
noch nicht
Realisierung vs.
veau in den
Stattdessen
neu an den
höhere Ver-
Windenergie
und Regio-
usschlusskri-
icklung von
Abbildung 3.12: Postleitzahlgenaue Verteilung der in Deutschland
(siehe www.dwd.de)
(taken from [104])
installierten Onshore-Windleistung 2018, Datenquelle: [10, 11].
enlage der 60,0%
]
Wind and landscape (from [105, Fig. 2.26])
Offshore wind parks in the North Sea (from [106])
Offshore wind parks in Baltic Sea (from [106])
Offshore versus Onshore
vs.
(from [106]) (from [106])
Advantages Disadvantages
+ better wind conditions - more maintenance
+ 40 % annual operation (vs. 16 %) - expensive grid connection
+ lower hub height - in Germany: solely “farshore”
+ no people - Risks of collisions / accidents (ship routes)
+ no obstacles - extreme weather conditions
.. ..
. .
Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) in Germany 2013
electricity production costs / e Cent/kWh

22 21,5
20 19,4
18
16 15,4
14,2
14
12 13,5
10,7
11,9 9,8
10
8,0
8 6,6
7,8 5,3 7,5
6
6,3
4 4,5 5,1
3,8
2 2,53
0
as
m
er
)
)
al
al
PV
re
re
s.
ea
w
co
co
og
in
ho
ho
po
st
bi
/o
n
ck
ns
ffs
ro
ow
(w
a
(o
(o
an
d
bl
br
hy
PP
d
s
in
in
ga
N
w
(based on Fig. 1 in [107] and Tab. 4.12 (ą 500 kW) in [108]).
Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) in Germany 2018 (Hydro 2015)
electricity production costs / e Cent/kWh

22
20
18
16 14.74
13.79
14
12 11.54
10.8
9.86 9.96
10 8.46 8.23 10.14 7.98 8.4
8
7.23 7.49 7.78
6
6.27
4 4.59
3.71 3.99 3.6
2
2.2
0
s
e)
)
)
)
l
al
a
as
le
re
re
s.
ga
ve
co
co
al
in
ca
ho
ho
(g
sc
(ri
l
ra
/o
l-s
ck
ns
ffs
s
e-
ow
er
tu
(w
as
a
al
(o
(o
rg
bl
w
na
m
br
om
PP
(la
po
d
d
(s
in
in
bi
ro
N
PV
w
PV
d
hy
(based on Fig. 1 in [109] and [110]).
Outline I
1 Motivation
Figures and facts
Core components
Operating ranges
Working principle
Summary
Core components
Inside a wind turbine system (animation) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNXTm7aHvWc; Länge: 9:53 min)
Core components
Inside a wind turbine system (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NG1uGt6qUfM; Länge: 7:16 min)
Core components
What are the core components?
‚ Rotor with hub

‚ Nower
‚ Nacelle with:
˝ Generator
˝ [Gear]
˝ Wind sensors for measurement of wind speed and direction
˝ [Transformator]
‚ Yaw system
‚ Pitch system
‚ Transformator
‚ Bback-to-back converter with shared DC-link
‚ Grid-side filter
‚ Mmonitoring and control system
‚ ùñ Goal: Derivation of dynamical systems (differential equations, block diagrams, etc.)
Core components
Wind turbine system with synchronous generator (SG) or induction generator
Turbine Gear Generator Back-to-back Converter Filter PCC Trafo Grid
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
(A)SG
DC AC
ωm abc abc udc abc abc abc

β is sm sg if ug
Control system
λ
⋆ udc,ref ppcc qpcc
βref
Operation management
v
bw (ppcc,ref ) qpcc,ref
Core components
Wind turbine system with doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG)
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
DFIG
DC AC
ωm abc abc abc udc abc abc abc

β is ir sm sg if ug
Control system
λ
βref
v
Core components
Wind turbine system with electrically-excited synchronous generator (EESG)
DC
DC
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
EESG
DC AC
ωm abc abc ab udc abc abc abc

ie is sm se sg if ug
β
Control system
λ
βref
v
Operating ranges
Turbine power for different wind speeds
I II III IV
pt,R
pt / W
m
vw,cut-in vw,R vw,cut-out vw / s
‚ Range I: Standstill. No output power, i.e. pt “ 0.
‚ Range II: Operation with variable power output, i.e. 0 ă pt ă pt,R (Goal: Maximum power point tracking).
‚ Range III: Nominal operation. Nominal power output, i.e. pt “ pt,R .
‚ Range IV: Standstill (safety shutdown), i.e. pt “ 0.
Working principle
Drag force vs. lift force
Rotational plane
uw
vw Chord
Aa
Aw
Fw FR,⊥
ξ
FR
FR,k
vw
Fa Fw′
αβ
wa
−ua
2 2 2
Fw “ 21 ϱ cw Aw pvlooomooon
w ´ uw q Fa “ 21 ϱ ca Aa pvlooomooon
w ` ua q
“:ww 2
“:wa
where 0 ď uw ď vw ^ 0 ď ww ď vw where ua ě 0 ^ wa ě vw
Working principle
Lift and pitch capabilities (similar to wind surfing)
Reliability (from a 15 year-long study including 1500 WTS, [111])
availability
98%
2%
failure
With respect to life time of 20 years (=7 300 days) this leads to:
‚ Availability: 7 154 days of operation
‚ Failure: 146 days standstill
Fault distribution
sensors
electrical system
control 10%
23%
18%
4% 7%
generator 4% rotor blades
2% 5%
gear 6% 4%
9% 8% rotor hub
drive train
brake structure
hydraulics yaw system

(based on Fig. 2 in [111])
Failure rates and downtimes
6, 21
Gear 0, 1
5, 71
Drive train 0, 05
5, 39
Generator 0, 11
4, 9
Structural parts 0, 1
3, 71
Rotor hub 0, 17
2, 89
Break 0, 13
2, 7
Yaw system 0, 18
2, 6
Rotor blades 0, 11
1, 59
Control system 0, 43
1, 53
Electrical system 0, 57 Failure rate / 1
turbine year
1, 41
Sensors downtime / days
0, 25
1, 36
Hydraulic system 0, 23
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Average downtimes (within 20 years): (based on Fig. 2 in [112])
‚ Electrical subsystem: 18.9 days

‚ Control: 16.7 days
‚ Gear: 13.6 days
Seldom failure: Fire (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Chtr76jJyA; Länge: 1:03 min)
Outline I
1 Motivation
Figures and facts
Core components
Operating ranges
Working principle
Summary
Summary
Wind power – the “beacon of hope” for the Energiewende [100, 104, 113]
‚ 2018: Installed nominal wind power: 59.6 MW

(Ausbauziel 2024: 50 GW)
˝ Newly installed nominal power: 3 490 MW (in 2017: 6 763 MW)
˝ Onshore: 2 515 MW (growth rate: 5.0 %)
˝ Offshore: 975 MW (growth rate: 18.1 %)
‚ 2018: Gross electricity production: 646.5 TWh

˝ 226 TWh (34.9 % of overall electriciy share) by renewables
(in 2013: 24.7 %)
˝ Detailed list: Wind power: 17.3 %, Bio mass: 7 %, PV/Geothermal: 7.2 %, Hydro power: 2.6 %, Waste: 1 %
‚ Central research questions (some)

˝ Increasing life time and productivity
˝ Repowering / recycling of older wind turbine systems
˝ Safe and reliable grid integration
˝ Overall goal: Reduction of LCOE by increasing efficiency, reliability and intelligence (additional services)
Outline I
2 Preliminaries
Control theory (recap)
Control loops
Single-/three-phase alternating current (AC) systems (recap)
Single-phase alternating current (AC) systems
Three-phase alternating current (AC) systems
Interconnection of three-phase AC systems
Balanced three-phase AC systems
Space vector theory for three-phase systems and electrical machines
Illustration of space vector theory
Clarke transformation
Space vector animation
Park transformation
Power definitions
Classical power theory (sinusoidal signals)
Instantaenous power theory
Outline I
2 Preliminaries
Control loops
Park transformation
Power definitions
Preliminaries
Control theory: Control loops
z1
yref e u v − y
FC (s) FS,1 (s) FS,2 (s)
−
z2
ym −
FF (s) FFB (s)
ypsq “forward branch”

Fyref psq “ “
yref psq 1 ` “forward branch” ¨ “feedback branch”
FC psqFS,1 psqFS,2 psq
“
1 ` FC psqFS,1 psqFS,2 psqFFB psqFF psq
Preliminaries
Control theory: Control loops
z1
FFF (s) FDF (s)
yref e v − y
FC (s) FS,1 (s) FS,2 (s)
− u
z2
ym −
FF (s) FFB (s)
ypsq ypsq ypsq

Simultaneous derivation of Fyref psq “ yref psq , Fz1 psq “ z1 psq and Fz2 psq “ z2 psq ?
Outline I
2 Preliminaries
Control loops
Park transformation
Power definitions
Preliminaries
Definition (Phase signal (x P tu, iu))

x : Rě0 Ñ R, t ÞÑ xptq :“ x̂ptq cospϕx ptqq
with amplitude x̂p¨q P L8 pRě0 ; Rq and phase angle ϕx p¨q P C abs pRě0 ; Rq.
Definition (Sliding average, rectified value, root mean square rsinusoidal signals
with x̂, T ą 0 and ϕx “ 2π
T
t s)
1
şt
‚ Sliding average: @ t ě T ą 0 : Xptq :“ T
xpτ q dτ r “ 0 s
t´T
1
şt 2x̂
‚ Rectified value: @t ě T ą 0 : X dc ptq :“ T
|xpτ q| dτ r “ π
s
t´T
d
1
şt 2 x̂
‚ Root mean square (RMS): @t ě T ą 0 : Xrms ptq :“ T
xpτ q dτ r “ ?
2
s
t´T
Preliminaries
Definition (Phase signals in vector notation (x P tu, i, ψ, . . .u))

¨ a ˛ ¨ a
x̂ ptq cospϕax ptqq
˛
x ptq
xabc : Rě0 Ñ R3 , t ÞÑ xabc ptq :“ ˝ xb ptq ‚ :“ ˝ x̂b ptq cospϕbx ptqq ‚
xc ptq x̂c ptq cospϕcx ptqq
with amplitudes x̂a p¨q, x̂b p¨q, x̂c p¨q P L8 pRě0 ; Rq and phase angles ϕax p¨q, ϕbx p¨q, ϕcx p¨q P C abs pRě0 ; Rq
(differentiable a.e.).
Fact (Line-to-line signals)

xa-b ptq
¨ a
x ptq ´ xb ptq
¨ ˛ ˛ » fi
1 ´1 0
xa-b-c ptq :“ ˝ xb-c ptq ‚ :“ ˝ xb ptq ´ xc ptq ‚ “ – 0 1 ´1fl xabc ptq
c-a c a
x ptq x ptq ´ x ptq ´1 0 1
looooooooomooooooooon
‹ ‹
“: T v , detpT v q“0
Preliminaries
B B
a-b ub
u B1=C2
b b-c b
Z i i b
b Z
i a
ub u
a-b
i
ub-c c a
A uc Z
c
A1=B2 A
i i Z
a
A2
c c a
=B
Z i i
2=
a
Z
C 2
uc C1=A2
uc-a c-a
C
i ua
C
Fact (Star or connection) Fact (Delta or △ connection)

a b c a-b b-c c-a
‚ i ì ì “0 ‚ i ì ì “0
a-b b-c c-a a b c
‚ u ù ù “0 ‚ u ù ù “0
a b c a b c
‚ pu ` u ` u ‰ 0q ‚ pi ` i ` i ‰ 0q
Preliminaries
Interconnection of three-phase AC systems (terminal box)
Star connection (symbol ) Delta connection (symbol △)

A B C A B C
A1 B1 C1
A1 B1 C1
ua Z
a
ub Z
b
uc Z
c
ua Z
a
ub Z
b
uc Z
c
a c
b
a c
i i i
b
i i i
A2 B2 C2
A2 B2 C2
Preliminaries
¨ a ˛ ¨ a
x̂ ptq cospϕax ptqq
˛
x ptq
xabc : Rě0 Ñ R3 , t ÞÑ xabc ptq :“ ˝ xb ptq ‚ :“ ˝ x̂b ptq cospϕbx ptqq ‚
xc ptq x̂c ptq cospϕcx ptqq
Assumption 1 (Identical phase amplitudes)

@ t ě 0: x̂ptq :“ x̂a ptq “ x̂b ptq “ x̂c ptq
Assumption 2 (Phase shift between phases of ´ 23 π)

@ t ě 0: ϕx ptq “ ϕax ptq “ ϕbx ptq ` 23 π “ ϕcx ptq ` 43 π, ϕx p¨q P C abs pRě0 ; Rq.
Fact (Gamma (zero) component cancels out for balanced systems)

(A.1), (A.2)
@ t ě 0: xγ ptq :“ xa ptq ` xb ptq ` xc ptq “ 0
Preliminaries
Examples: Balanced voltages and currents
Examples
Balanced phase voltages:
¨ a ˛ ¨ ˛
u ptq cospϕ u ptqq ˘
uabc ptq :“ ˝ ub ptq ‚ “ u
`
@ t ě 0: pptq ˝cos `ϕu ptq ´ 23 π ˘‚
c
u ptq cos ϕu ptq ´ 43 π
Balanced phase currents:

ä ˛ ¨ ˛
i ptq cospϕ i ptqq ˘
abc `
@ t ě 0: i ptq :“ ˝ ib ptq ‚ “ pıptq ˝cos `ϕi ptq ´ 23 π ˘‚
ic ptq cos ϕi ptq ´ 43 π
Definition (Phase difference or phase shift)

@ t ě 0: φptq :“ ϕu ptq ´ ϕi ptq
Outline I
2 Preliminaries
Control loops
Park transformation
Power definitions
Preliminaries
Electrical machines
Induction machine (IM) Synchronous machine (SM)
http://www.automation.siemens.com/bilddb/ http://www.automation.siemens.com/bilddb/
Preliminaries
Sectional view of induction machine
www.siemens.com
Preliminaries
Illustration of space vector theory (IM)
A d
ωp “ dt ϕp
B Stator β
B βr d
Rotor ϕp d
ωr “ dt ϕr
ψ αβ q ψ αβ
b r r αr
b ϕsa ϕr
ar
br br r
α
a a
cr
c c
r
pα, βq-reference frame
c
pαr , βr q-reference frame
pd, qq-reference frame
Preliminaries
Illustration of space vector theory (PMSM)
A
β ωp “ d
B Stator dt ϕp
B
Rotor q
d
ϕp
b αβ dq
ψpm ψpm
NP b
α
SP a a
c
c
Preliminaries
Clarke transformation pa, b, cq Ñ pα, β, 0q
a
Definition (Clarke transformation with κ P t2{3, 2{3u)
1 ´ 21 ´ 12
» fi ¨ ˛
xa
¨ α˛
xa
˛ ¨
x ? ?
‹ 3 3 ˝ b‚
f c : R Ñ R , x ÞÑ xβ ‚ :“ f c pxabc q :“ κ– 0 3
´ 23 fl ˝ xb ‚
˝ — ffi
2
xcon xγon ?1 ?1 ?1 xc
loomo loomo 2 2 2
loooooooooooomoooooooooooon
abc αβγ
“:x “:x ‹ 3ˆ3 ‹
“:Tc PR , @ κ‰0 : detpTc q‰0
» ? fi
2 2
3 0
?3 ffi
somit xabc “ pf ‹c q´1 pxαβγ q “ pTc‹ q´1 xαβγ .
—
pTc‹ q´1 “ 1 — 1
´
κ – 3
?1 2 ffi
,
3 ?3 fl
2
´ 31 ´ ?13 3
Remark (Choice of κ)
2 a α
κ“b
3
ùñ amplituden-invariant transformation, i.e. |x | “ |x |.
2 abc J abc αβ J αβ
κ“ 3
ùñ power-invariant transformation, i.e. pu q i “ pu q i .
Preliminaries
Simplified Clarke transformation pa, b, cq Ñ pα, βq
For balanced systems, i.e. xa ptq ` xb ptq ` xc ptq “ 0 for all t ě 0, we have :
¨ a˛ ff ¨xa ˛
x ˆ α˙ «
1 ´ 1
´ 1
x 2 2
f c : R3 Ñ R2 , ˝ xb ‚ ÞÑ β :“ f c pxabc q “ κ ? ? ˝ xb ‚
c x 0 3 3
x on
loomo
loomoon 2 ´ 2
loooooooooomoooooooooon xc
αβ
“:x 2ˆ3
“:x
abc “:Tc PR
where
» 2
fi
3 0
1 — 1
?1 ffi , somit gilt xabc “ pTc q´1 xαβ .
ffi
pTc q´1 :“ —´ 3
3 fl
κ –
´ 31 ´ ?13
Preliminaries
Preliminaries
Park transformation pα, βq Ñ pd, qq
Definition (Park transformation (simplified))

xα xα
ˆ ˙ ˆ d˙ „ ȷ ˆ ˙
2 2 x cospϕq sinpϕq
fp : R ˆ R Ñ R , p β , ϕq ÞÑ q :“ f p pxαβ , ϕq “
x
loomoon x
loomoon
´ sinpϕq cospϕq
looooooooooomooooooooooon xβ
αβ dq ´1 2ˆ2
“:x “:x “:Tp pϕq PR ,@ ϕPR : detpTp q‰0
Properties
‚ @ ϕ1 , ϕ 2 P R : Tp pϕ1 ` ϕ2 q “ Tp pϕ1 q ¨ Tp pϕ2 q
„ ȷ
cospϕq ´ sinpϕq ´1 J
‚ @ ϕ P R : Tp pϕq “ “ Tp p´ϕq “ Tp p´ϕq
sinpϕq cospϕq
„ ȷ
0 ´1
‚ J :“ Tp p π2 q “ and @ϕ P R : JTp pϕq “ Tp pϕqJ
1 0
abs d d
‚ @ ϕp¨q P C pRě0 ; Rq : ωp¨q :“ dt
ϕp¨q ^ T pϕptqq
dt p
“ ωptqJTp pϕptqq
Outline I
2 Preliminaries
Control loops
Park transformation
Power definitions
Preliminaries
Classical power definitions (sinusoidal signals)
¨ a˛
u
PCC β
i
a uαβ “ Tc ˝ ub ‚, ∥uαβ ∥ “ u
p
c
L1
u
b loomoon
i
ua “:u
abc
b
c L2 u
i
uc
0 L3 b φ iαβ “ Tc iabc , ∥iαβ ∥ “ pı
i α
a
N
c
Definition (Average active power r for T, u

p,pı, φ ą 0 s)
şt
@ t ě T :“ 2π
ω : P3„ ptq :“ 1
T t´T
uabc pτ qJ iabc pτ q dτ r “ 32 u
ppı cospφq s
Definition (Average reactive power r for T, u

p,pı, φ ą 0 s)
şt
@ t ě T :“ 2π
ω : Q3„ ptq :“ 1
T t´T
uabc pτ qJ iabc pτ ´ T
4 q dτ r “ 23 u
ppı sinpφq s
Preliminaries
PCC β
a
i uαβ “ Tc uabc , ∥uαβ ∥ “ u
p
b L1
i
ua
b
c L2 u
i
uc b φ iαβ “ Tc iabc , ∥iαβ ∥ “ pı
0 L3 α
i a
N
c
Definition (Instantaenous active power)

@ t ě 0: p3„ ptq :“ 32 uαβ ptqJ iαβ ptq r “ uabc ptqJ iabc ptq “ 23 u
pptqpıptq cospφptqq s
Definition (Instantaenous reactive power)

@ t ě 0: q3„ ptq :“ 32 uαβ ptqJ J iαβ ptq r “ 23 u
pptqpıptq sinpφptqq s
Outline I
3 Modeling
Wind turbine systems (WTS) with permanent-magnet synchronous generator (PMSG)
Example: Wind turbine system with direct drive
Core components (recap)
Power flow (qualitative)
Aerodynamics and power coefficient
Wind power, turbine power and Betz limit
Tip speed ratio and power coefficient
Power coefficient without pitch control
Power coefficient with pitch control
Generation of turbine torque (simplified)
Permanent-magnet synchronous generators (PMSG)
Core components of WTS with PMSG (recap)
Stiff mechanical coupling with gear
Dynamics of electrical system of PMSG
Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG)
Generatortopologien
Nacelle
Core components
Outline II
Space vector theory (recap)
Modeling
Power electronics
Electrical network of wind turbine systems (overview)
Output voltages of voltage source converters (VSC)
Modulation strategies
VSC dynamics
Dynamics of the DC-link
Grid connection
Electrical network of WTS (overview)
Modeling of the grid in grid voltage orientation
Modeling of the grid-side subsystem in grid voltage orientation
Summary
Outline I
3 Modeling
Generatortopologien
Nacelle
Core components
Outline II
Modeling
Power electronics
VSC dynamics
Grid connection
Summary
Wind turbine systems with PMSG
Wind turbine SWT-2.3-113 Direct drive

(permanent-magnet
synchronous generator (PMSG))
http://www.siemens.com/press/de/pressebilder/ http://www.siemens.com/press/de/pressebilder/
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
(A)SG
DC AC

β is sm sg if ug
Control system
λ
βref
v
Starting point:
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
(A)SG
DC AC

β is sm sg if ug
Control system
λ
βref
‚ Energy storages? Operation management
‚ Losses? v
‚ Power flow?
Outline I
3 Modeling
Generatortopologien
Nacelle
Core components
Outline II
Modeling
Power electronics
VSC dynamics
Grid connection
Summary
A3
A2 = πrt2
v3
A1
v1 = vw v2
1
pw ptq “ ϱπrt2 vw ptq3 ñ pt ptq “ cp p¨, ¨qpw ptq ď cp,Betz pw ptq (1)
2 loomoon
“16{27«0,59
Starting point: Kinetic energy of the wind

A3
A2 = πrt2
v3
A1
v1 = vw v2
‚ Wind power
‚ Optimal ratio of incoming and outgoing wind speed
‚ Derivation of the Betz limit
r t ωt
vw At
ωt rt Tip speed ratio

rt ωm
γ β λ :“ λpωm , vw q :“ , ωm “ ng ωt . (2)
An
n g vw
Power coefficient (approximation)
cp : D Ñ Rą0 , pβ, λq ÞÑ cp pβ, λq :“

c1 c2 f pβ, λq ´ c3 β ´ c4 β x ´ c5 eć6 f pβ,λq
“ ‰
with D :“ t pβ, λq P Rě0 ˆ Rě0 | cp pβ, λq ą 0 u (3)
cp,1 (·)
0.6 cp,Betz
power coefficient
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
tip speed ratio λ
Turbine power
1 1
pt “ cp,1 pλqpw ptq “ cp,1 pλq ϱπrt2 vw ptq3 ď cp,Betz ϱπrt2 vw ptq3 (4)
2 2
cp,1 (·)
cp,Betz
0.6
power coefficient
cp,2 (·, ·)
0.4
0.2
0 0
20 20
15 10 40
5 0 60 ◦
λ β/
Turbine power
1 1
pt ptq “ cp,2 pλ, βqpw ptq “ cp,2 pλ, βq ϱπrt2 vw ptq3 ď cp,Betz ϱπrt2 vw ptq3 (5)
2 2
Ausgangspunkt:
1
pt ptq “ cp,2 pλ, βqpw ptq “ cp,2 pλ, βq ϱπrt2 vw ptq3
2
‚ Derivation of torque equation (power balance)

‚ Mathematical limitations of the torque model
‚ Physical limitations of the torque model
Outline I
3 Modeling
Generatortopologien
Nacelle
Core components
Outline II
Modeling
Power electronics
VSC dynamics
Grid connection
Summary
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
(A)SG
DC AC

β is sm sg if ug
Control system
λ
βref
v
mt ωt
Θt ng
mm ωm m′t ωt′ mm ωm
Θm
Θ′t Θm
Gear ratio
ωm
ng :“ ě1 pfor WTSq
ωt
Energy and power conservation
1` ˘2
@ t ě 0: Θt ωt ptq2 ` Θm ωm ptq2 “ const. ^ mt ptqωt ptq “ mm ptqωm ptq
2
Starting point:
mt ωt
Θt ng
mm ωm m′t ωt′ mm ωm
Θm
Θ′t Θm
‚ Relations between primed and unprimed quantities?

d
‚ maschine-side time derivative of angular velocity ω ptq
dt m
“ ...?
Recap: WTS with direct drive
Wind turbine SWT-2.3-113 Direct drive

(Permanent-magnetsynchronous generator)
http://www.siemens.com/press/de/pressebilder/ http://www.siemens.com/press/de/pressebilder/
uas uaf
a a
pm es a
ps pf a ug ppcc
Rs Ls Am ` ` if Ag Lf Rf
a ` `
b is im ig b
es b idc b ug
Rs Ls Bm if Bg Lf Rf
Om udc Cdc Og
b
is pdc c
c
es c c ug
Rs Ls Cm if Cg Lf Rf
c ´ Odc ´
is
ùñ Goal: Dynamic models of machine, grid and dc-link
PMSG
uas uaf
a a
pm es a
ps pf a ug ppcc
a ` `
b is im ig b
es b idc b ug
Rs Ls Bm if V Lf Rf
os udc Cdc og
b
is pdc c
c
es c c ug
Rs Ls Cm if W Lf Rf
c
is ´ odc ´
d abc d a b c J abc abc

‚ Current dynamics i
dt s
“ pi , i , i q
dt s s s
“ f pis , ψ s q in pa, b, cq-reference
frame ?
d αβ d α β J αβ αβ
dt s
“ pi , is q
dt s
“ f pis , ψ s q in pα, βq-reference
frame ?
d dq d d q J dq dq
dt s
“ pi , i q
dt s s
“ f pis , ψ s , ωp q in pd, qq-reference
frame ?
Dynamics of electrical system of PMSG in pd, qq-reference frame
Starting point:
Stator: uαβ
s “ Rs iαβ d
s ` dt ψ s
αβ
„ d ȷ ˆ ˙
Ls 0 dq ψpm
flux linkage: ψ dq “ i `
s
0 Lqs s
loooomoooon
0
looomooon
dq 2ˆ2 dq
“:Ls PR “:ψpm
Torque: mm piαβ αβ
s , ψs q “ 2 αβ J
2 np pis q J ψ s .
αβ
3κ ´ ¯
d 1 mt pβ,vw ,ωt q αβ αβ
Shaft: dt ωm “ Θ ng ` m pi
m s , ψ s q
d dq dq dq
dt s
“ f pis , ψ s q in pd, qq-reference frame ?
dq dq
‚ Torque mm “ f pis , ψ s q in pd, qq-reference frame ?
‚ Special case: Terminal voltages of generator for idle (no-load) operation?
Outline I
3 Modeling
Generatortopologien
Nacelle
Core components
Outline II
Modeling
Power electronics
VSC dynamics
Grid connection
Summary
Generator topologies (examples)
Doubly-fed Electrically-excited Permanent-magnet

induction generator (DFIG, synchronous generator synchronous generator
e.g. ABB) (EESG, e.g. Enercon) (PMSG, e.g. Siemens)
www.abb.com www.enercon.de www.siemens.com
Nacelle
www.nordex.com
Core components of WTS with DFIG
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
DFIG
DC AC

Control system
λ
βref
v
Illustration of space vector theory (DFIG)
As d
ωp “ dt ϕp p“ ωs q
Bs β
Bs βr d d
ϕp ωr “ dt ϕr
q uαβ
b s αr
ar b ϕsa ϕr
br br r
α
a a
cr
c c
r
Ar
Br pα, βq-reference frame
c Br
Modeling
Ausgangspunkt:
d
ωp “ dt ϕp p“ ωs q
β
As
Bs βr d d
Bs ϕp ωr “ dt ϕr
q uαβ
s αr
b
ar b ϕsa ϕr
br br r
a α
a
cr
Ar
Br c c
c Br r
‚ Current dynamics of stator and rotor?

‚ Meaningful orientation of pd, qq-reference frame?
Generator: Generic Dynamics (after Clarke transformation)
uαβ αβ αβ
ψ αβ αβ
d
,
Stator: s ptq “ Rs is ptq ` dt ψ s ptq, s p0q “ ψ s,0 /
/
α β /
Rotor: uα
r
r βr
ptq “ Rr iα
r
r βr d
ptq ` dt ψα
r
r βr
ptq, ψ rαr βr p0q “ ψ r,0r r /
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
ψ αβ αβ ` αβ
is ptq, iαβ
˘
r ptq, ϕm ptq
/
Flux linkages: s ptq “ ψ s
/
/
/
(general) ψ α r βr
ptq “ ψ α r βr
iα r βr
ptq, iα r βr
` ˘ /
r r r s ptq, ϕm ptq /
.
(DFIG)
´ ¯ /
/
d 1 mt ptq 0
/
Shaft: ω Θ mm ptq ` ´ pFωm qptq , ωm p0q “ ωm
/
dt m ptq “ ng
/
/
/
/
d
dt ϕm ptq “ ωm ptq, ϕm p0q “ ϕ0m
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
2 αβ J αβ /
Torque: mm ptq “ 2 np is ptq J ψ s ptq
-
3κ
Generator: Equivalent electrical network (linear flux linkages)
dq dq
ωp Jψ s (ωp −ωr )Jψ r
Rs Ls,σ Lr,σ Rr
dq dq
is ir
dq d dq d dq dq
us ψ
dt s
Lm ψ
dt r ur
uαβ αβ αβ
ψ αβ αβ
d
,
/
α β
uα r βr
ptq “ Rr iα r βr d
ψα r βr
ptq, ψ α r βr
/
Rotor: r r ptq ` dt r r p0q “ ψ r,0r r /
/
.
(DFIG)
/
Flux linkages ψ αβ Ls iαβ αβ
s ptq ` Lm ir ptq, Ls “ Ls,σ ` Lm
/
s ptq “ /
/
/
ψα r βr
Lr ir ptq ` Lm iα
αr βr r βr
-
(linear) r ptq “ s ptq, Lr “ Lr,σ ` Lm
Dynamics in arbitrary rotating pd, qq-reference frame
Starting point:
,
Stator: uαβ αβ d
s ptq “ Rs is ptq ` dt ψ s ptq,
αβ
ψ αβ αβ
s p0q “ ψ s,0 /
/
α β
uα r βr
ptq “ Rr iα r βr
ψα r βr
ptq, ψ rαr βr p0q “ ψ r,0r r
d
/
Rotor:
/
r r ptq ` dt r
/
/
/
.
Flux linkages: ψ αβ αβ
s ptq “ Ls is ptq ` Lm ir ptq,
αβ
Ls “ Ls,σ ` Lm
(linear) ψ α r βr
ptq “ Lr iα r βr
ptq ` Lm isαr βr ptq,
/
r r Lr “ Lr,σ ` Lm /
/
/
/
/
2 αβ J αβ /
-
3κ
(DFIG)
‚ Stator dynamics in pd, qq-reference frame

‚ Rotor dynamics in pd, qq-reference frame
‚ Current dynamics in pd, qq-reference frame
‚ Impact of different orientations on mm , ppcc,s and qpcc,s
Outline I
3 Modeling
Generatortopologien
Nacelle
Core components
Outline II
Modeling
Power electronics
VSC dynamics
Grid connection
Summary
Power electronics
Back-to-back converter
uas uaf
a a
pm es a
ps pf a ug p
Rs Ls U ` ` if U Lf Rf pcc
b a ` ` b
es b is is idc if b ug
Rs Ls V if V Lf Rf
om udc Cdc og
c
is
b pdc c
ug
es Rs
c
Ls
c
if Lf Rf
W W
is
c ´ odc ´
Power electronics
Voltage source inverter (ideal)

`
Z
`
i
A
idc sa s
b
s
c
i
a
ua-b
udc Cdc B uc-a
b
i
c
a c
i ub-c
b
s s s
C
´
Z
sabc :“ psa , sb , sc qJ
Power electronics

`
Z
`
i
A
idc sa s
b
s
c
i
a
ua-b
udc Cdc B uc-a
b
i
c
a c
i ub-c
b
s s s
C
´
Z
a-b-c a-b b-c c-a J abc
‚ Output line-to-line voltages u “ pu ,u ,u q “ f ps , udc q ?
abc a b c J abc
‚ Output phase voltages u “ pu , u , u q “ f ps , udc q ?
Power electronics
Voltage hexagon
β
b
udc
"ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙*
0 1 1
sabc
s P 0 , 0 ,..., 1
0 0 1
2u
αβ 3 dc αβ
u010 u110
1u
3 dc
αβ
uref
αβ 1 u
? αβ αβ 1u αβ
u011 3 dc u000 “ u111 2 dc
u100
α
údc ´ 2 udc
3
´ 1 udc
3
0 1u
3 dc
2u
3 dc
udc a
´ 1 udc
3
αβ αβ
u001 ´ 2 udc u101
3
ú
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. C.M. Hackl | Version from 2021/11/16 | Modeling and control dc
of renewable energy systems 114/208
Power electronics
Pulse width modulation (PWM): Symmetrical PWM
uas,ref [·](udc /2)−1 ubs,ref [·](udc /2)−1 ucs,ref [·](udc /2)−1

ucarrier / p.u. 1
0.5
0
−0.5
−1
1
sas / 1
1
sbs / 1
1
scs / 1
0
0.02 0.0205 0.021 0.0215 0.022 0.0225 0.023 0.0235 0.024 0.0245 0.025
time t / s
Power electronics
Pulse width modulation (PWM): Symmetrical PWM
400
phase voltage / V 200
−200
uas (·) uas,ref (·) uas (·)
−400
600
common-mode voltage / V line-to-line voltage / V
uab
s (·) uab
s,ref (·) uab
s (·)
300
−300
−600
400
200
−200
ucm (·)
−400
0.02 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04
time t / s
Power electronics
Pulse width modulation (PWM): Asymmetrical PWM
400
300
200
100
voltage [V]
0
−100
−200
−300
−400
uas (·) uas,ref (·)
−500
1
voltage (norm .) [1]
0.5
−0.5
−1 uas,ref (·) uas,ref [·]

uDC uDC (sam pled) fcarrier (·)
2 2
0.0 2 0.022 0 .024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0 .03 2 0.0 34 0.036 0 .03 8 0.04
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. C.M. Hackl | Version from 2021/11/16 |

tim e t [s]
Modeling and control of renewable energy systems 117/208
Power electronics
Pulse width modulation (PWM): Asymmetrical PWM
1
carrier [1]
0
−1
1
0.5
s a [1 ]
0.5
s b [1]
0.5
s c [1]
0
0 0.00 025 0.0005 0.000 75 0.0 01 0.00125 0 .00 15 0.00175 0.002
tim e t [s]
Power electronics
Comparison of symmetrical & asymmetrical PWM
400
300
200
voltage [V]
100
−100
−200
−300
uas (·) [sym ] uas (·) [asym .] uas,ref (·)
−400
1
voltage (norm .) [1]
0.5
−0.5
−1 uas,ref (·) uas,ref [·] uas,ref [·]

uDC uDC [sam pled; sym .] uDC [sa m pled; asym .] fcarrier (·)
2 2 2
0.0 2 0.022 0 .024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0 .03 2 0.0 34 0.036 0 .03 8 0.04

tim e t [s]
Power electronics
Comparison of symmetrical & asymmetrical PWM
1
carrier [1] 0
uas,ref [·] uas,ref [·]

−1 fcarrier (·) uDC [sa m pled; sym .] uDC [sam pled; asym .]
2 2
0.5
s a [1 ]
0.5
s b [1]
0.5
s c [1]
0
0 0.00 025 0.0005 0.000 75 0.0 01 0.00125 0 .00 15 0.00175 0.002

tim e t [s]
Power electronics
VSC dynamics
PWM VSI SVM VSI
uabc
ref s abc
u abc
uabc
ref s abc
uabc
or
udc udc
1 Tdelay
uabc
ref uabc
‚ Approximation by first-order lag system reasonable/admissible?
Power electronics
VSI (ideal) DC-link VSI (ideal)
` `
im ig
Am Ag
c b a a b c
sm sm sm idc sg sg sg
usa-b ua-b
f
a a
uc-a
s Bm is udc Cdc if Bg uc-a
f
b b
is if
c c
ub-c
s
is
a
if
c
ufb-c
c b a b
sm sm sm sg sg sg
Cm Cg
sabc a b c J
m “ psm , sm , sm q sabc
g “ psag , sbg , scg qJ
d abc abc abc abc

‚ DC-link dynamics u
dt dc
“ f psm , is , if , sg q ?
Outline I
3 Modeling
Generatortopologien
Nacelle
Core components
Outline II
Modeling
Power electronics
VSC dynamics
Grid connection
Summary
Grid connection
filter+grid
uas uaf
a a
pm es a
ps pf a ug ppcc
a ` `
b is im ig b
es b idc b ug
os udc Cdc og
b
is pdc c
c
es c c ug
c
is ´ odc ´
Grid connection
β ωp “ ωg
q
uabc
g d
ϕp “ ϕg
uag uαβ
g
ubg
t b ş
ϕg “ ωg dτ ` ϕg,0
ucg α
a
Grid connection
filter+grid
uas uaf
a a
pm es a
ps pf a ug ppcc
a ` `
b is im ig b
es b idc b ug
os udc Cdc og
b
is pdc c
c
es c c ug
c
is ´ odc ´
d abc d a b c J abc abc abc

dt f
“ pi , if , if q
dt f
“ f pif , uf , ug q ?
d dq d d q J dq dq dq
‚ Current dynamics dt if “ pi , if q
dt f
“ f pif , uf , ug , ωp q in
pd, qq-reference frame?
dq dq dq dq
‚ Active power ppcc “ f pif , ug q & reactive power qpcc “ f pif , ug q in
pd, qq-reference frame ?
Outline I
3 Modeling
Generatortopologien
Nacelle
Core components
Outline II
Modeling
Power electronics
VSC dynamics
Grid connection
Summary
Summary
Dynamics of electrical subsystems in pd, qq-reference frames
uas uaf
a a
pm es a
ps pf a ug ppcc
Rs Ls Am ` ` if A g Lf Rf
a ` `
b is im ig b
es b idc b ug
os udc Cdc og
is
b pdc c
c
es c c ug
c
is ´ odc ´
Machine-side dynamics Grid-side dynamics

in PM-flux linkage orientation (FOC) in grid voltage linkage orientation (VOC)
d d 1 ` d d q q˘ d d 1 ` d d q ˘
i
dt s
“ us ´ Rs is ` ωp Ls is i
dt f
“ u ´ Rf if ` ωg Lf if ´ u
Lf f
d pg
Ls
d q 1 ` q q d d ˘ d q 1 ` q q d˘
i
dt s
“ q us ´ Rs is ´ ωp Ls is ´ ωp ψpm i “
dt f
uf ´ Rf if ´ ωg Lf if
Ls Lf
q d q d q˘ 2 d 2 q
“ 22 np ψpm is ` pLs ´ Ls qis is
`
mm ppcc “ 2u
pg if & qpcc “ ´ 2u
pg if
3κ 3κ 3κ
Outline I
4 Control
Recapitulation
Core components
Voltage source converter (electrical network, dynamics, PWM)
Modeling of the grid in voltage orientation
Dynamics of electrical subsystems in pd, qq-reference frame
Control of grid-side currents
Control of machine-side currents (torque generation)
Control of turbine angular velocity
Operating ranges over different wind speeds
Overall machine-side control system
Control objective for Range II
Control of dc-link voltage
Dynamics of electrical subsystems in pd, qq-reference frame (recap)
Overall grid-side closed-loop system
Dc-link dynamics
Linearization around operating point
Root locus of structurally varying dc-link dynamics
Stability analysis and controller tuning
Outline II
Simulation results
Non-minimum phase behavior
Outline I
4 Control
Recapitulation
Core components
Dc-link dynamics
Outline II
Simulation results
Recapitulation
Core components
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
(A)SG
DC AC

β is sm sg if ug
Control system
λ
βref
v
Recapitulation
Modeling of voltage source converter/inverter (VSC/VSI)

`
Z
`
i
A
idc sa s
b
s
c
i
a
ua-b
udc Cdc B uc-a
b
i
c
a c
i ub-c
b
s s s
C
´
Z
ua-b ptq
˛ »¨ fi
1 ´1 0
a-b-c
u ptq “ ˝ ub-c ptq ‚ “ udc ptq – 0 1 ´1fl sabc ptq
uc-a ptq ´1 0 1
» fi
2 ´1 ´1
a b c
u ù ù “0 u ptq
ùñ uabc ptq “ dc –´1 2 ´1fl sabc ptq
3
´1 ´1 2
Recapitulation
Voltage hexagon
β
b
udc
"ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙*
0 1 1
sabc
s P 0 , 0 ,..., 1
0 0 1
2u
αβ 3 dc αβ
u010 u110
1u
3 dc
αβ
uref
αβ 1 u
? αβ αβ 1u αβ
u011 3 dc u000 “ u111 2 dc
u100
α
údc ´ 2 udc
3
´ 1 udc
3
0 1u
3 dc
2u
3 dc
udc a
´ 1 udc
3
αβ αβ
u001 ´ 2 udc u101
3
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. C.M. Hackl | Version from 2021/11/16 | Modeling and control
úof renewable energy systems 133/208
dc
Recapitulation
Symmetrical PWM and (average) delay
400
phase voltage / V
200
−200
uas (·) uas,ref (·) uas (·)
−400
600
ommon-mode voltage / V line-to-line voltage / V
uab
s (·) uab
s,ref (·) uab
s (·)
300
−300
−600
400
200
−200
ucm (·)
−400| Version from 2021/11/16 | Modeling and control of renewable energy systems
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. C.M. Hackl 0.02 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04 134/208
Recapitulation
VSC/VSI dynamics (approximated)
PWM VSI SVM VSI
uabc
ref s abc
u abc
uabc
ref s abc
uabc
or
udc udc
1 Tdelay
uabc
ref uabc
Delay depends on implementation of PWM (or SVM):
uabc psq 1
Tdelay 9 Tsw ùñ Fvsi psq :“ “ e´sTdelay «
uabc
ref psq
1 ` sTdelay
Recapitulation
β ωp “ ωg
q
uabc
g d
ϕp “ ϕg
uag uαβ
g
ubg
t b ş
ϕg “ ωg dτ ` ϕg,0
ucg α
a
c
ˆ ˙
dq u
pg ´1 αβ ´1 abc
‚ ug “ “ Tp pϕg q ug “ Tp pϕg q T c ug
0
‚ Estimation of ϕg (and ϕg,0 ) with Phase-locked Loop (PLL)
Recapitulation
uas uaf
a a
pm es a
ps pf a ug ppcc
a ` `
b is im ig b
es b idc b ug
os udc Cdc og
is
b pdc c
c
es c c ug
c
is ´ odc ´

d d 1 ` d d q q˘ d d 1 ` d d q ˘
is “ d us ´ Rs is ` ωp Ls is i “ u ´ Rf if ` ωg Lf if ´ u
dt f Lf f
pg
dt Ls
d q 1 ` q q d d ˘ d q 1 ` q q d˘
i “ q us ´ Rs is ´ ωp Ls is ´ ωp ψpm i “ u ´ Rf if ´ ωg Lf if
dt s Ls dt f Lf f
q d q d q˘ 2 d 2 q
mm “ 22 np ψpm is ` pLs ´ Ls qis is
`
ppcc “ 2u
pg if
3κ 3κ 3κ
Outline I
4 Control
Recapitulation
Core components
Dc-link dynamics
Outline II
Simulation results
Starting point: Grid-side model in voltage orientation
d d 1` d
uf ´ Rf idf ` ωg Lf iqf ´ u
˘
dt if “
Lf
pg
d q 1` q q d˘
dt if “ L uf ´ Rf if ´ ωg Lf if
f
ppcc “ 2
pg idf
2u & qpcc “ ´ 2
pg iqf
2u
3κ 3κ
dq J
‚ Phase-locked loop (Goal: ug Ñ pp
ug , 0q )
‚ Block diagram
‚ Disturbance feedforward compensation
‚ Controller design and tuning
Outline I
4 Control
Recapitulation
Core components
Dc-link dynamics
Outline II
Simulation results
Starting point: Machine-side model in PM-flux orientation
d d 1 `
uds ´ Rs ids ` ωp Lqs iqs
˘
dt is “
Lds
d q 1 ` q q d d ˘
dt is
Lsq us ´ Rs is ´ ωp Ls is ´ ωp ψpm
“
mm “ 2 2 np ψpm iqs ` pLds ´ Lqs qids iqs

` ˘
3κ
‚ Block diagram
‚ Disturbance feedforward compensation
‚ Approximation of torque dynamics (for speed controller design)
Outline I
4 Control
Recapitulation
Core components
Dc-link dynamics
Outline II
Simulation results
I II III IV
pt,R
pt / W
m
Speed Current Park Clarke

controller controller (PI) trans. trans. PWM VSI Generator
q
is,ref dq αβ abc
(0) abc abc
us,ref dq us,ref αβ us,ref sm us
f (·) PMSG
αβ abc
− −
udc
d φp ωm
is,ref Com- Com-
pen- ωp puta-
sation tion
ψpm
dq αβ abc
is dq is αβ is
αβ abc
ωm
Implementation in (d, q)-CoSy (PM-flux orientation) Approximation
1 T dq
app,is
dq dq
is,ref is
Control objective for Range II: Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
pλ‹ , cp,1 pλ‹ qq cp,1 p¨q

0.6 ‹
cp,1 pλ q 3
‹ 3 p¨q
pλ q
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
λ
¨ ˛
d 1 ˚ cp,1 pλq 2 ‹
dt ωm “ ˚c0 3 ωm `mm,ref ‹
Θt λ
Θm ` 2
˝looooomooooon ‚
ng
“mt {ng
Control objective: λ Ñ λ‹ or ωm Ñ ωm
‹
for all λ P pλmin , λmax q & vw “ const.
Control objective for Range II: Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
¨ ˛
1 ˚ c pλq ‹
d ˚ p,1 2
dt ωm ˚c0 ω
‹
“ m `m m,ref ‹
Θm ` Θt
2 λ3
˝loooooomoooooon ‚
ng
“mt {ng
‚ Assumptions
‚ Controller type
‚ Analysis of closed-loop system
Outline I
4 Control
Recapitulation
Core components
Dc-link dynamics
Outline II
Simulation results
uas uaf
a a
pm es a
ps pf a ug ppcc
a ` `
b is im ig b
es b idc b ug
os udc Cdc og
is
b pdc c
c
es c c ug
c
is ´ odc ´

d d 1 ` d d q q˘ d d 1 ` d d q ˘
i
dt s
“ us ´ Rs is ` ωp Ls is i
dt f
“ u ´ Rf if ` ωg Lf if ´ u
Lf f
d pg
Ls
d q 1 ` q q d d ˘ d q 1 ` q q d˘
i
dt s
“ q us ´ Rs is ´ ωp Ls is ´ ωp ψpm i “
dt f
uf ´ Rf if ´ ωg Lf if
Ls Lf
q d q d q˘ 2 d 2 q
“ 22 np ψpm is ` pLs ´ Ls qis is
`
mm ppcc “ 2u
pg if
3κ 3κ 3κ
VSC/VSI dynamics (delay)
uaa
4, 0 ua
uref
2, 0
voltage [kV]
−2, 0
−4, 0
0 0, 005 0, 01 0, 015 0, 02
time t [s]
Delay depends on implementation of PWM (or SVM):
uabc psq 1
Tdelay 9 Tsw ùñ Fvsi psq :“ “ e´sTdelay «
uabc
ref psq
1 ` sTdelay
Machine-side closed-loop control system (recap)
1
Vr,id Tn,id
s s
1 Tdelay Rs Tsd
ids,ref
−
uds,ref uds ids
− uds,dist
Lqs
uds,comp
ωp
ψpm
− Lds
uqs,comp
−
1
Vr,iqs Tn,iqs 1 Tdelay Rs Tsq
− uqs,dist
iqs,ref uqs,ref uqs iqs
Grid-side closed-loop control system (recap)
1
Vr,id Tn,id 1 Tdelay Rf Tf
f f
idf,ref udf,ref idf

−
udf
− udf,dist
ωg L f
udf,comp bg −
u
−ωg Lf
uqf,comp
1
Vr,iq Tn,iq 1 Tdelay Rf Tf
f f − uqf,dist
iqf,ref uqf,ref uqf iqf
Controller tuning for ideal disturbance feedforward compensation (e.g. for filter currents)
d/q d/q
uf,comp uf,dist
FDF
Vr,id/q Tn,id/q Tdelay 1

Tf
f f 1 Rf
d/q − ud/q d/q d/q
if,ref f,ref uf if
−
1 Tf,id/q
f
PI controller tuned according to Magnitude Optimum (MO) ùñ good tracking capabilities

1 ` sTn,iqf Tf
FC,iqf psq “ Vr,iqf where Vr,iqf “ and Tn,iqf “ Tf
sTn,iqf 2 ¨ 1{Rf ¨ Tdelay
q
Approximation of current closed-loop system dynamics (recap.; for is )
We have
iqs psq 1
FCL,iqs psq “ q “
is,ref psq 1 ` s2Tdelay ` s2 2Tdelay
2
1
« with Tapp,iqs “ 2Tdelay
1 ` sTapp,iqs
i.e.
1 Tapp,iqs
iqs,ref iqs
Since Tdelay ! 1, the following approximation is reasonable

iqs psq
FCL,iqs psq “ q «1 ùñ mm,ref « mm
is,ref psq
Power coefficient and turbine speed (recap)
pλ‹ , cp,1 pλ‹ qq cp,1 p¨q

0.6 ‹
cp,1 pλ q 3
‹ 3 p¨q
pλ q
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
λ
¨ ˛
1 ˚ c pλq
˚ p,1 2 ‹ 2‹
‹ cp,1 pλ‹ q
d
dt ωm “ ˚c0 ω ´k ω
m loomoon
p m‹ with kp‹ “ c0
Θm ` Θt
2 λ3
˝loooooomoooooon ‚ pλ‹ q3
ng “mm,ref
“mt {ng
ùñ λ Ñ λ‹ or ωm Ñ ωm
‹
for all λ P pλmin , λmax q and vw “ konst.
Turbine speed closed-loop system (recap)
1
mt λ
ng (TOR) β=0
≈1
1 2 1
2 1 Tapp,iqs 2n ψ
Controller 2 np ψpm 3κ p pm Θ
3κ +
0 mm,ref iqs,ref iqs mm ωm
(CON)
−
cp,1 pλq 2 rt ωm
Turbine torque: mt pλ, ωm q “ c0 ωm with λ “ (TOR)
λ3 n g vw
2 cp,1 pλ‹ q
Generator torque: mm,ref “ ´kp‹ ωm « mm with kp‹ “ c0 (CON)
pλ‹ q3
DC-link current Park Clarke

controller controller (PI) trans. trans. PWM VSI Filter PCC Grid
d
if,ref dq αβ abc abc
udc,ref abc
uf,ref dq uf,ref αβ uf,ref sg uf
αβ abc
− −
φg,0 udc pf
q abc
if,ref Com- ug
pen- ωg PLL ps
DC-link
sation (capacity)
u
bg
dq αβ abc
if dq if αβ if
αβ abc
udc
Implementation in (d, q)-CoSy (voltage orientation) Approximation
1 T dq
app,if
dq dq
if,ref if
Modeling of dc-link: Electrical network
uas uaf
a a
pm es a
ps pf a ug ppcc
a ` `
b is im ig b
es b idc b ug
os udc Cdc og
is
b pdc c
c
es c c ug
c
is ´ odc ´
d 1 ` d
˘
‚ pdc “ udc Cdc dt udc “ ´ps ´ pf ùñ´ ps ´ pf u
dt dc
“
udc Cdc
dq 2 q d q d q dq J dq dq
‚ ps “ 22 Rs ∥is ∥ ` 22 np ψpm is ` pLs ´ Ls qis is ωm ` 22 dt
` ˘ d
pis q Ls is
3κ
loooooomoooooon 3κ
loooooooooooooooooooooomoooooooooooooooooooooon 3κ
looooooooooomooooooooooon
ps,L “pR pm “mm ωm pL
s s
2 dq 2 2 d dq J dq d
‚ pf “ 2 Rf ∥if ∥ ` 2 Lf pif q if ` 22 u pg if
3κ
loooooomoooooon 3κ dt
loooooooooomoooooooooon 3κ
looomooon
pf,L “pR pL “ppcc
f f
Starting point:
d 1 ` d
˘
‚ pdc “ udc Cdc dt udc “ ´ps ´ pf ùñ u
´ ps ´ pf
dt dc
“
udc Cdc
dq 2 q d q d q˘ dq J dq dq
‚ ps “ 22 Rs ∥is ∥ ` 22 np ψpm is ` pLs ´ Ls qis is ωm ` 22 dt
` d
pis q Ls is
3κ 3κ 3κ
loooooomoooooon loooooooooooooooooooooomoooooooooooooooooooooon looooooooooomooooooooooon
“:ps,L “:pm “mm ωm pL
s
2 dq 2 2 d dq J dq d
‚ pf “ 2 Rf ∥if ∥ ` 2 Lf pif q if ` 22 u pg if
3κ
loooooomoooooon 3κ dt
loooooooooomoooooooooon 3κ
looomooon
pf,L “:pL “ppcc
f
Goal:
‹ ‹ d,‹ q,‹ J ‹
‚ Linearization around operating point x “ pudc , if , if q mit ps P R
d q J
‚ Linearized system dynamics for small-signal approximation pr
udc , rif , rif q
Current Linearized
control loop system FS,eid (s)
f
1 Tapp,idq
f
eidf,ref eidf ⋆ ⋆ edc

u
(1+sTv )
− Vs s
‹
d,‹ ‹ u
rdc psq Vs
(S1 ) if “ 0 ùñ Tv “ 0 ùñ “ (IT1 )
ridf,ref psq sp1 ` sTapp,idq q
f
‹ ‹
d,‹ ‹ u
rdc psq Vs p1 ` sTv q
(S2 ) if ą 0 ùñ Tv ą 0 ùñ “
f
(IT1 + PD, minimum phase)
‹ ‹
d,‹ u
rdc psq V p1 ´ s|Tv |q
“ s
‹
(S3 ) if ă 0 ùñ Tv ă 0 ùñ
f
(IT1 + PD, non-minimum phase!)
Varied PI controller Current Linearized

parameter (normalized) control loop system FS
−Vr,dc 1 Tn,dc 1 Tapp,idq
f
edc,ref
u ee eidf,ref eidf ⋆ ⋆ edc
u
(1+sTv )
− Vs s
−
Open-loop system
, Tn,dc ą 0, Vs‹ ą 0
$
u
rdc psq Vr,dc Vs‹ p1 ` sTn,dc qp1 ` sTv‹ q & Tapp,idq
f
‹
“ , T P R (depend on op. point!)
erpsq s2 Tn,dc p1 ` sT dq q % v
app,if Vr,dc Ñ 8 increased gain
Root loci for different operating points
2500
0.76 0.62 0.44 0.22 TV = 0
0.85 TV > 0
2000 TV < 0
1500 0.92
# rad $
1000 0.965
s
Imaginäre Achse ω
500 0.992
0033e+03
2.5e+032e+03
1.5e+031e+03 500
−500 0.992
−1000 0.965
−1500 0.92
−2000
0.85
0.76 0.62 0.44 0.22
−2500
−3000 −2000 −1000 0 1000 2000 3000
# rad $
Reelle Achse σ s
Starting point:
Varied PI controller Current Linearized
parameter (normalized) control loop system FS
−Vr,dc 1 Tn,dc 1 Tapp,idq
f
edc,ref
u ee eidf,ref eidf ⋆ ⋆ edc
u
(1+sTv )
− Vs s
−
Steps:
‚ Transfer function of closed-loop system
‚ (local) stability analysis with Hurwitz criterion
Stability analysis with Hurwitz criterion
Starting point: Closed-loop system (linearized)

‹ ‹
Vr,dc Vs p1`sTn,dc qp1`sTv q
2
s Tn,dc p1`sT dq q
u
rdc psq app,if
“ ‹ ‹
u
rdc,ref psq 1`
Vr,dc Vs p1`sTn,dc qp1`sTv q
2
s Tn,dc p1`sT dq q
app,if
‚ compute transfer function of closed-loop system (Ñ expanding denominator)

‚ check for Hurwitz conditions
Stability analysis with Hurwitz criterion (summary)
Closed-loop system
udc psq
FCL psq “
udc,ref psq
Vr,dc Vs‹ p1 ` sTapp,idq qp1 ` sTv‹ q
f
“
s3 Tn,dc Tapp,idq `s2 loooooooooooomoooooooooooon
Tn,dc p1 ` Tv‹ Vs‹ Vr,dc q `s looooooooooomooooooooooon
pTv‹ ` Tn,dc qVs‹ Vr,dc ` Vr,dc Vs
‹
f
loooooomoooooon loomoon
“:a3 “:a2 “:a1 “:a0
Two conditions (sufficient):

1
(C1 ) 0 ă Vr,dc ă ‹
|Tv |Vs
‹
T dq
app,if ‹
(C2 ) Tn,dc ą ‹
1´Vr,dc Vs |Tv |
‹ ` |Tv | ą 0
ùñ locally stable, since a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ą 0 and D2 “ a2 a1 ´ a3 a0 ą 0.
Simulation results: Reference tracking and disturbance rejection
600
550
ps [W]
500
450
400
590
udc,ref
585
udc [V]
580
575
570
−1
−2 idf,ref
idf [A]
−3
−4
−5
−6
1.5
1
0.5
iqf [A]
0
−0.5
−1 iqf,ref
−1.5 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
time t [s]
Simulation results: Reference tracking and disturbance rejection (reactive power & currents)
600
550
ps [W]
500
450
400
590
udc,ref
585
udc [V]
580
575
570
100 qpcc,ref
qpcc [var]
50
0
−50
−100
5
f [A]
0
iabc
−5 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

time t [s]
Non-minimum phase behavior: An explanation in time domain
Starting point: Dc-link dynamics (nonlinear)

„ ˆ ˙ȷ
d 1 2 dq 2
´
d dq
¯J
dq d
dt udc “ C u ´ps ´ 2 Rf ∥if ∥ ` Lf dt if if ` u
pg if
3κ
dc dc
d
‚ Why non-minimum phase for if ă 0?
‚ Explanation for time instant t0 ě 0 imposing the following assumptions
d q q
˝ dt if ptq “ if ptq “ 0 for all t ě t0 ,
˝ ps pt0 q ą 0 and
d
˝ if pt0 q ă 0
Outline I
Power coefficient with pitch control system
Possible actuation of WTS for operation management
Speed closed-loop system für range II
Speed closed-loop system for range III (with pitch control system)
WTS with PMSG
Overview and modeling depth
Generator
Instantaneous power flow
Control systems
Simulation results
WTS with DFIG
Generator
Instantaneous power flow [88]
Control systems
Simulation results
Outline I
WTS with PMSG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
WTS with DFIG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
Turbine power for different wind speeds
I II III IV
pt,R
pt / W
m
Outline I
WTS with PMSG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
WTS with DFIG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
cp,1 (·)
cp,Betz
0.6
power coefficient
cp,2 (·, ·)
0.4
0.2
0 0
20 20
15 10 40
5 0 60 ◦
λ β/
Turbine power
1 1
pt ptq “ cp,2 pλ, βqpw ptq “ cp,2 pλ, βq ϱπrt2 vw ptq3 ď cp,Betz ϱπrt2 vw ptq3 (6)
2 2
Outline I
WTS with PMSG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
WTS with DFIG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
(A)SG
DC AC

β is sm sg if ug
Control system
λ
βref
v
Outline I
WTS with PMSG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
WTS with DFIG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
Speed closed-loop system for range II
1
mt λ
ng (TOR) β=0
≈1
1 2 1
2 1 Tapp,iqs 2n ψ
Controller 2 np ψpm 3κ p pm Θ
3κ +
0 mm,ref iqs,ref iqs mm ωm
(CON)
−
cp,1 pλq 2 rt ωm
Turbine torque: mt pλ, ωm q “ c0 ωm with λ “ (TOR)
λ3 n g vw
2 cp,1 pλ‹ q
Generator torque: mm,ref “ ´kp‹ ωm « mm mit kp‹ “ c0 (CON)
pλ‹ q3
Outline I
WTS with PMSG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
WTS with DFIG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
≈1
1 2
2 1 Tapp,iqs 2n ψ
2 np ψpm 3κ p pm
! 3κ
mm,R = mm,ref iqs,ref iqs mm
vw > vw,R
1 1
ng Θ
ωm,R mt + ωm
βref β
? (TOR)
− +
Controller
cp pvw , βq 2 rt ωm
Turbine torque: mt pvw , β, ωm q “ c0 3 ωm with λ “ (TOR)
λ n g vw
Outline I
WTS with PMSG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
WTS with DFIG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
WTS with PMSG
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
(A)SG
DC AC

β is sm sg if ug
Control system
λ
βref
v
WTS with PMSG
Generator: Permanent-magnet synchronous machine
WTS with PMSG
Generator: Space vector theory and PM-flux linkage orientation
A
β ωp “ d
B Stator dt ϕp
B
Rotor q
d
ϕp
b αβ dq
ψpm ψpm
NP b
α
SP a a
c
c
WTS with PMSG
Generator: Generic and dynamic model (in PM-flux linkage orientation)
udq Rs idq ωp J ψ dq dq d dq
idq dq
,
Stator: s ptq “ „ s ptq ` s ˆptq ` L s dt is ptq, s p0q “ is,0 /
/
Lds 0 dq
ȷ ˙
ψpm
/
/
dq /
Fluxes: ψ s ptq “ i ptq ` /
0 Lqs s 0
/
/
/
/
loooomoooon looomooon /
/
dq dq
/
/
“:Ls “:ψpm /
/
´ ¯ .
d 1 m ptq 0
Shaft: dt ωm ptq Θ mm ptq ` ng ´ pFωm qptq , ωm p0q “ ωm (PMSG)
t
“
/
d
dt ϕm ptq ωm ptq, ϕm p0q “ ϕ0m /
/
“ /
/
/
/
/
/
/
2 αβ J αβ /
/
/
3κ
/
/
2
` q d q d q ˘ /
“ 2 n p ψ i
pm s ptq ` pL s ´ L qi
s s ptqis ptq -
3κ
WTS with PMSG
Instantaneous power flow of a WTS with PMSG (part 1)
Source: Wind power pw
Storage Losses
Turbine
pt

pt,L = 1 − cp (λ, β) pw
Gear
pn g = pm
Machine shaft
d
png ,L = 0 (assumption)
p Θ = Θ ωm dt ωm
Stator inductance
2 dq ⊤ dq d dq
Machine
pLdq = 2i Ls dt is
s 3κ s
p
Gear
WTS with PMSG
pn g = pm
Machine shaft
Instantaneous power flow of a WTS with PMSG
d
(part 2) png ,L = 0 (assumption)
p Θ = Θ ωm dt ωm
Stator inductance
2 dq ⊤ dq d dq
Machine
pLdq = 2i Ls dt is
s 3κ s
ps
2 dq 2
ps,L = pRs = 2 Rs kis k
3κ
DC-link
d
BTB
pdc = Cdc udc dt udc
pbtb= pf
pbtb,L = 0 (assumption)
Filter inductance
2 dq ⊤ d dq Filter & Trans.
pL f = 2 Lf i f dt if
3κ
2 dq 2
pf,L = pRf = 2 Rf kif k
3κ
Sink: Power ppcc at PCC

WTS with PMSG
Machine-side control system

controller controller (PI) trans. trans. PWM VSI Generator
q
is,ref dq αβ abc
(0) abc abc
us,ref dq us,ref αβ us,ref sm us
f (·) PMSG
αβ abc
− −
udc
d φp ωm
is,ref Com- Com-
pen- ωp puta-
sation tion
ψpm
dq αβ abc
is dq is αβ is
αβ abc
ωm
Implementation in (d, q)-CoSy (PM-flux orientation) Approximation
1 T dq
app,is
dq dq
is,ref is
WTS with PMSG
Grid-side control system
DC-link current Park Clarke

d
udc,ref abc
αβ abc
− −
φg,0 udc pf
q abc
if,ref Com- ug
pen- ωg PLL ps
DC-link
sation (capacity)
u
bg
dq αβ abc
if dq if αβ if
αβ abc
udc
1 T dq
app,if
dq dq
if,ref if
WTS with PMSG
Simulation results: Machine-side control system (1)
10
vw
vw [m/s] 5
0
15
λ⋆
λ [1] 10
5
0.6
cp [1] 0.55
cp,Betz c⋆p
0.5
1
pw
pt
ppcc [MW] 0.5
0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

time t [s]
WTS with PMSG
Simulation results: Machine-side control system (2)
1
pw
pt
ppcc [MW] 0.5
0
0.2
qpcc,ref
qpcc [Mvar] 0
−0.2
1
ua0 /û0
iaf / max(iaf )
[1] 0
−1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

time t [s]
1
0.5
[1] 0
−0.5
−1149.9 149.92 149.94 149.96 149.98 150 150.02 150.04 150.06 150.08 150.1
Outline I
WTS with PMSG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
WTS with DFIG
Generator
Control systems
Simulation results
WTS with DFIG
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
DFIG
DC AC

Control system
λ
βref
v
WTS with PMSG
VSI DC-link VSI

AC DC
(A)SG
DC AC

β is sm sg if ug
Control system
λ
βref
v
WTS with DFIG
Generator: Doubly-fed induction generator
WTS with DFIG
Generator: Generic and dynamic model (after Clarke transformation)
uαβ αβ αβ
ψ αβ αβ
d
,
/
α β
urαr βr ptq “ Rr iα r βr d
ψα r βr
ψα r βr
/
Rotor: r ptq ` dt r ptq, r p0q “ ψ r,0r r /
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
ψ αβ αβ ` αβ
is ptq, iαβ
˘
r ptq, ϕm ptq
/
Fluxes: s ptq “ ψ s
/
/
/
(general) ψ α r βr
ptq “ ψ α r βr
iα r βr
ptq, iα r βr
` ˘ /
r r r s ptq, ϕm ptq /
.
(DFIG)
´ ¯ /
/
d 1 mt ptq 0
/
Shaft: dt ωm ptq mm ptq ` ´ pFωm qptq , ωm p0q “ ωm
/
“ Θ ng
/
/
/
/
d
dt ϕm ptq “ ωm ptq, ϕm p0q “ ϕ0m
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
2 αβ J αβ /
-
3κ
WTS with DFIG
Instantaneous power flow (part 1) [88]
source: wind power pw
2 3
pw “ 12 ϱπrt vw
turbine
pt
` ˘
pt,L “ 1 ´ cp pw
mechanical shaft
d
gear / shaft
pΘ “ ωm Θ dt ωm
pm,L p“ 0q
pm
pm,r pm,s
mechanical shaft
gear / shaft
WTS with DFIG d
pΘ “ ωm Θ dt ωm
Instantaneous power flow (part 2) [88] pm,L p“ 0q

pm
pm,r pm,s
coupling inductance
rotor inductance dq J dq
stator inductance
dq J dq rotor pLm ,s “ 32 pis q Lm dt
d
ir stator dq J dq
pLs “ 32 pir q Lr dt
d
ir pLs “ 32 pis q Ls dt
d
is
dq J dq
pLm ,r “ 32 pir q Lm dt
d
is
dq 2
dq 2 ps,L “ 32 Rs ∥is ∥
pr,L “ 32 Rr ∥ir ∥ pr ps
DC-link back-to-back
d
pCdc “ udc Cdc dt udc converter
pbtb,L p“ 0q pbtb
WTS with
DC-link
DFIG d
back-to-back
pCdc “ udc Cdc dt udc converter
Instantaneous power flow (part 3) [88]
pbtb,L p“ 0q pbtb
filter inductance
dq J dq RL-filter
d
pLf “ 32 pif q Lf dt if
dq 2
pf,L “ 32 Rf ∥if ∥
pf transformer ps
ppcc,L p“ 0q
sink: power ppcc at PCC
WTS with DFIG
Rotor-side control system
Grid

controller controller (PI) trans. trans. PWM VSI
d
ir,ref dq
(0) αβ abc abc abc
ur,ref dq ur,ref αβ ur,ref sm ur
f (·) DFIG
αβ abc
− −
udc
q φp ωm
ir,ref Com- Com-
ωp ,ωr abc abc
pen- puta- is ,us
sation dq dq tion
is ,us
dq αβ abc
ir dq ir αβ ir
αβ abc
ωm
1 T dq
app,ir
dq dq
ir,ref ir
WTS with DFIG
Grid-side control system
DC-link Current Park Clarke

d
udc,ref abc
αβ abc
− −
b udc pf
q φ g abc
if,ref Com- ug
pen- ω
bg PLL ps
DC-link
sation (capacity)
u
bg
dq αβ abc
if dq if αβ if
αβ abc
udc
1 T dq
app,if
dq dq
if,ref if
WTS with DFIG
Simulation results
6
[m/s]
4
2
vW (·)
0
800
600
400
[kW]
200
0 ppcc (·) pw (·) pt (·)
−200
10
8
6
[1]
4
2 λ⋆ λ(·)
0
0.44
0.42
[1]
0.40
0.38
cp (λ⋆ ) cp (·)
0.36
1.2
[rad/s]
0.8
0.4
0 ωt⋆ (·) ωt (·)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
time t [s]
WTS with DFIG
Simulation results
200 qs(·) qs,ref (·) ps(·)

[kvar] / [kW]
0
−200
−400
200
isd isq
0
[A]
−200
−400
−600
300
200
[A]
100
d
0 ird ir,ref
0 q
irq ir,ref
−100
[A]
−200
−300
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
time t [s]
Outline I

Future research questions: (Wind) Energy research = Interdisciplinarity
Future challenges of renewable energy systems
Outline I

Conclusion and outlook
Electrical Energy
Materials Mathematics
engineering economics
Aero- Control
Electrical machines Remote sensing
dynamics theory
Mecha- Landscape
Semiconductors System identification
tronics architecture
Mechanical Condition
Power electronics Politics
engineering monitoring
Outline I

Conclusion and outlook
Future challenges of renewable energy systems (see also [114])
‚ Reliability and efficiency

(e.g. control system and power electronics are failure-prone)
LMRES
˝ Robustness & Stability analysis
LMRES
˝ Condition monitoring / fault detection
‚ More intelligent and flexible grid connection
LMRES
˝ Safety and security (e.g. unbalanced faults or cyber attacks)
LMRES
˝ Grid code requirements (e.g. LVRT)
LMRES
˝ Decentralized generation (e.g. inertia is decreasing)
LMRES
˝ Grid synchronization and grid parameter estimation
pLMRESq
˝ Grid connection of wind farms / wind power plants
‚ Novel technologies
LMRES
˝ Novel generator topologies
LMRES
˝ Novel converter topologies (e.g. multi-level converters)
pLMRESq
˝ Configurations without or very small transformers
References I
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Modeling and control of renewable energy systems

Handout (WS 2021/2022)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Christoph M. Hackl

Institute for Sustainable Energy Systems (ISES)

Laboratory for Mechatronic and Renewable Energy Systems (LRMES)

6 Conclusion and outlook

Large-scale WTS Small-scale WTS MPC for RES AWE systems

Geothermal energy Wave energy Electric vehicles Power systems

Biogas power plants Multi-level converters Electrical drives Motion control

junctions fric- ψp0q

[9–13] mixed (or partially ﬂuid) lubrication

machines [31, 90–96] boundary

(b) Regime IV: Full fluid lubrication.

Renewable energy Electrical drives

Theory & application Theory & application

Fault detection & Controller design

phone: 089 1265-3417

Sub-module: “Modeling and control of renewable energy systems”

31.6% Black coal

1971 2014 2015

2016 2017 2018

31.9% 31.9% 31.6% Black coal

27.1% 27.1% 26.9%

1.7% 1.7% 2.0%

22.1% 22.1% 22.8%

Nuclear power Nuclear power Nuclear power

43 prognosis from 2008 (no economic growth)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

Quelle: Internationale Energie Agentur (IEA)

1 Windkraft ab 1995 2 U. a. Brennholz, Brenntorf, Klärgas, Müll 3 Inkl. Fotovoltaik

Quelle: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen (AGEB)

1.428 1.476 Kernenergie

1 Erdgas, Erdölgas, Grubengas

Quelle: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen (AGEB)

Geothermal Oceanic ...

Gravity / Plane- Solar energy

Quelle: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen (AGEB), Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat)

Quelle: AG Energiebilanzen, Stand März 2019

Quelle: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen (AGEB)

Mineralölprodukte Erdgas+Grubengas Braunkohlen Steinkohlen (inkl. Gicht- und Konvertergas) Sonstige

Quelle: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen (AGEB), Umweltbundesamt (UBA)

Quelle: BP Statistica Review of World Energy 2019

Steinkohlebergbau und -veredelung Braunkohlebergbau und -veredelung Fernwärmeversorgung* Mineralölverarbeitung

1800 BC AD 1000 1400 1700 2000

1700 0 x 700 1200 1500 1900

Use of Improvements of Regaining strength

(Modell im deutschen Museum; http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persische_Windm%C3%BChle)

(http://www.siemens.com/) (http://www.ge.com/) (http://www.enercon.de/)

160 m Airbus 380

(based on Fig. 4 in [102])

annual peak power (84 GW)

Biblis B/Rhein, 1.300

Biblis A/Rhein, 1.225

KKU Esensham/Unterweser, 1.410

KKB Brunsbüttel/Elbe, 806

GKN 2 Neckarwestheim/Neckar2, 1.400

Quelle: Deutsches Atomforum e.V.

den Zubau Leistungsdichte

(from [106]) (from [106])

electricity production costs / e Cent/kWh

(based on Fig. 1 in [107] and Tab. 4.12 (ą 500 kW) in [108]).

electricity production costs / e Cent/kWh

(based on Fig. 1 in [109] and [110]).

Fact (Star or connection) Fact (Delta or △ connection)

Star connection (symbol ) Delta connection (symbol △)