Democracy
• Theories of democracy
• John Locke's Second Treatise
on Government
• Principles of Classical
Democracy
• Athenian democracy
• Aristotle’s explanation of
Democracy
• Protective Democracy
• Liberal democracies
• Modern democracy
• Separation of Powers between
the institutions of the state
• Democracy consists of four
basic elements
• Types of Democracy
• Representative Democracy
• Participatory Democracy
• Deliberative Democracy
• Social Democracy
 Introduction

The word democracy itself is of Greek origin. The Greek word demokratia is a combination
of the words demos (meaning the people) and kratos (meaning rule).

This gives democracy its meaning as a form of government which the people rule, whether
directly - through personal participation - or indirectly, through elected representatives.

John Calhoun described that "Democracy is not majority rule: democracy is diffusion of
power, representation of interests, and recognition of minorities."
George Bernard Shaw stated that democracy is "the substitution of election by the
incompetent many for appointment by the corrupt few."

According to Oxford English Dictionary, Democracy is "government by the people; that

form of government in which the sovereign power resides in the people as a whole, and is
exercised either directly by them or by officers elected by them."

The notion of representative democracy arose largely from ideas and institutions that
developed during the European Middle Ages and the Age of Enlightenment and in the
American and French Revolutions.

Democracy has been called the "last form of government" and has spread considerably
across the globe
Theories of democracy

Classical democracy

Aristotle’s explanation of Democracy

Protective Democracy
John Locke's Second Treatise on
Government (1681)
If the government fails to discharge the purposes for which it was created
i.e. life, liberty and property of individuals, the people have the right to
resist and replace it.

It is this statement of the core principles of classical liberalism -

individualism, popular sovereignty and limited government- that provided
the foundation for liberal democracy.

These principles were also celebrated in the American Declaration of

Independence (1716), which followed Locke in describing as natural and
inalienable the rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.
The French Declaration of the rights of Man reflected the
republican spirit of Jean Jacques Rousseau, in idealising citizenship
by presenting individuals as public-spirited members of a
community.

For Rousseau, however, representative government simply was not

good enough, and the only form of free government was direct
democracy in which citizens would participate directly.
 Classical Democracy

The standards of classical democracy or Athenian democracy:

• The chief political ideals were equality among all people, liberty and respect
for law and justice. The Athenians paid high and glowing tribute to justice
and law= Rule of law.
• That system prevailed in ancient Greece and from there it later on, ramified
in other parts of Europe.
• Because of the pervasiveness of equality in Greek city-states all the citizens
could get the opportunity to participate in the policy/decision making
process of the state.
• Thucydides stated the ideals and aims of Athenian democracy in an address
attributed to Pericles’ funeral.
Thucydides (460-399 BC) claimed that Athenian democracy was unique in the sense
that its constitution, system of administration, institutions were not copied from
other systems.

Rather the Athenian democracy was a model to be followed by others. Every

Athenian had equal right to be equally treated by law.

Equality before law and equal treatment of law enabled justice to prevail in almost
all the spheres of society.

Political life was free and open. All the citizens took active interest in public of fairs
and naturally they were not at all neglected. Every man showed obedience to law
and authority. Disputes were settled among themselves.
 Characteristics of Athenian democracy which
represent classical democracy
Form of mass meeting- The Athenians periodically met together to take stock of the situation of the state
and make policies and decisions.

All the full-time public officials were chosen by the Athenians through lottery or election.

The arrangement was made in such a manner that every citizen could get (at least once in his lifetime) the
scope of participation in the offices of the state.

The Athenians never hesitated to participate in the affairs of state or to shoulder the responsibility.

Official positions rotated among all the citizens and no special training was required to run the
administration.

However, there were special training arrangements for military generals. In this way the Athenian
democracy - the representative of classical democracy, worked in ancient Greece.
Aristotle’s explanation of Democracy
According to Aristotle, “The foundation of democratic constitution is liberty. People
constantly make this statement implying that only in this constitution is there any share in
liberty at all”.

Every democracy has liberty for its aim. “Ruling and being ruled in turn” is one element of
liberty.

Aristotle believed that only in democracy ruling and being ruled in turn take place. It is
absent in a state which is not democratic. The absence of the opportunity to rule is the
symbol of slavery.

He also asserted that in his democracy equality is to be interpreted numerically and it is

not based on merit.
Principles of Democracy
Aristotle has postulated certain fundamental principles of democracy.
• Officials of the city state will come through the elections and all citizens are
eligible for all posts or offices.
• A common rule will operate throughout the state and this rule is rule over each
and each by turn over all.
• All the citizens are eligible for all posts excepting the posts which require special
qualifications or experience.
• No tenure of office dependent on the possession of property qualification.
• The same man not to hold the same office twice. A man will be allowed to hold
office only for once in his lifetime. However, in the field of warfare this principle
will not hold.
• Aristotle prescribed short tenure of office. Jury courts will be chosen from all the
citizens and will adjudicate on all.
The Assembly (in Greek it was called Ecclesia) will have the sovereign authority
over anything except minor matters.

Payment services in assembly, in law courts and in the offices shall be regular.

Good birth, wealth and culture shall be the marks of the rule of the few. The
opposite shall be the rule of the many.

Perpetual tenure of office is not favoured by democracy.

 Protective Democracy
The main subject of classical democracy was the participation of all peoples in the processes of state and the
Athenians where the classical democracy flourished most prominently.

It is believed that they could achieve equality. Classical democracy was equality in respect of rights and privileges.

But the protective democracy emphasized different aspect. According to Heywood “democracy was seen less as a
mechanism through which public could participate in political life, and more as a device through which citizens could
protect themselves from the encroachments of government, hence protective democracy”.

Democracy has been regarded as a means at the disposal of individuals which they can use to safeguard their rights
and liberties. In ancient Greece, many intellectuals had the idea about protection of rights and liberties.

Plato supposed that the rule of the guardian class could serve the purpose properly. But Aristotle enquired who will
guard the guardians? From all these ideas, protective democracy emerged.
 Origin of the Protective Democracy
The origin of democracy as an instrument of protecting human rights and liberties can
suitably be traced to the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

John Locke (1631-1704) is regarded as the great advocate of protective democracy. His
civil society based on democratic principles was created through the instrumentality of
social contract to shield the right to life liberty and property and guarantee pursuance
of happiness. James Madison (1751-1836) also supported this type of democracy.

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) James Mill (1773-1836) and John Stuart Mill.

The utilitarianism was powerfully advocated in favour of protective democracy. The

theme of utilitarianism was to safeguard right liberty and opportunity and these are
basic principles of democracy.
These must be protected at any cost. According to these theorists, democracy was
the best form of government which could guarantee these.

Bentham, James Mill and his philosopher son contended that only in democracy all
sorts of individual interests could be protected and advanced.

Locke, Madison, Bentham, and the Mills-supported the principle of protective

democracy and it is an aspect of liberal democracy. In their hands this received best
treatment. In fact, Bentham and the Mills were the representative philosophers of
protective democracy.
Features of protective democracy
Protective democracy believes in popular sovereignty
• But since people cannot directly take part in the processes of state, they do it
through their representatives.
• Both the popular sovereignty and representative form of government are
legitimate.
• It is the primary duty of the state to protect the rights and liberties of citizens and
whether this is properly performed or not people keep a strong vigilance over the
functions of state.
• The authority is accountable to the People and in order to establish it elections are
held on regular basis. There are also other ways of establishing accountability.
• Significant way of protecting the rights, liberties and distribution of privileges is the
division of powers among legislature, executive and judiciary. This is done in all.
Liberal democracies
• There is dominance of constitutionalism. Both the ruler and the ruled are
controlled by the principles laid down in constitution.
• Constitution is the source of power for all and is the guarantor of rights and
liberties. There are also measures to prevent the violation of rights and liberties.
• Organisations associations groups have enough freedom and they always act as
friends of citizens and fight against any violation of rights or encroachment on
liberty.
• Competition in all spheres is a feature of protective democracy.
• A clear distinction between state and civil society is strictly preserved.
Modern democracy
• Western governments are called democracies. Democracy only works if
voters are active and informed. Now modern democracy has found deep
change as and revolutions in ideal and practice. It has wide variety of
elements. Modern democracy is drafted to fit the modern political life of
humankind.

Major features of modern democracy

• To preserve modern democracy, a country needs to fulfil some basic
requirements and they need not only be written down in its constitution
but must be kept up in everyday life by politicians and authorities:
• Guarantee of basic Human Rights to every individual person vis-à-vis the
state and its authorities as well as vis-à-vis any social groups (especially
religious institutions) and vis-à-vis other persons.
Separation of Powers between the institutions of the
state
Government (Executive Power), Parliament (Legislative Power) and Courts of Law (Judicative Power)

• Freedom of opinion, speech, press and mass media

• Religious liberty
• General and equal right to vote (one person, one vote)
• Good Governance (focus on public interest and absence of corruption)

The "majority rule" is labelled as a characteristic feature of democracy, but without governmental or
constitutional protections of individual liberties, it is possible for a minority of individuals to be
troubled by the "tyranny of the majority".

• An essential process in representative democracies is competitive elections that are fair both substantively and
procedurally.
• Additionally, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are indispensable so that
inhabitants are informed and able to vote in their personal interests.
Democracy consists of four basic elements:

The active
Political system for choosing
participation of the
and replacing the government
people, as citizens, in
through free and fair elections.
politics and civic life.

A rule of law, in which the

Protection of the human
laws and procedures apply
rights of all citizens.
equally to all citizens.
Democracy as a Political System of Competition for Power

Democracy is a means for the people to choose their leaders and to hold
their leaders accountable for their policies and their conduct in office.

Government is based on the consent of the governed. In a democracy, the people are
sovereign. They are the highest form of political authority. Power flows from the people
to the leaders of government, who hold power only temporarily.

Laws and policies necessitate majority support in parliament, but the rights of
minorities are protected in various ways.
Elected representatives at the national and local levels should
listen to the people and respond to their needs and suggestions.

Elections have to occur at regular intervals, as prescribed by law.

Those in power cannot extend their terms in office without
asking for the consent of the people again in an election.
 Participation: The role of the citizen in a democracy

Citizens have responsibility to become informed about public issues,

to watch cautiously how their political leaders and representatives
use their powers, and to express their own opinions and interests.

Voting in elections is another important public duty of all citizens.

Major participation comes through active membership in

independent, non-governmental organizations, what we call “civil
society.”
These organizations signify a variety of interests and beliefs: farmers, workers,
doctors, teachers, business owners, religious believers, women, students,
human rights activists.

In a society, women must participate fully both in politics and in civil society.
Participation in civic groups should be voluntary. No one should be forced to
join an organization against their will.

Political parties are vital organizations in a democracy, and democracy is

solider when citizens become active members of political parties.
 The Rights of Citizens in a Democracy
In an egalitarianism, every citizen has some basic rights that the state cannot take away from them.

Citizens have the right to have their own beliefs, and to speak and write what they think.

Everyone is free to choose their own religion and to worship and practice their religion as they see fit.

Every individual has the right to follow their own culture, along with other members of their group, even if
their group is a minority.

There is freedom and pluralism in the mass media.

Citizens are free to move about the country.

Citizens have the right to assemble freely, and to protest government actions.

However, everyone has an obligation to exercise these rights peacefully, with respect for the law and for
the rights of others.
 The Rule of Law
Democracy is a system of rule by laws, not by people.

In a democracy, the rule of law guards the rights of citizens, maintains order, and limits
the power of government. All citizens are equal under the law.

No one may be arrested, imprisoned, or exiled arbitrarily.

If people are detained, they have the right to know the charges against them, and to
be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to the law.
The rule of law places limits on the power of government. No government official may
violate these limits. No ruler, minister, or political party can tell a judge how to decide a
case.
 The Limits and Requirements for Democracy
If there is democracy in country, citizens must not only participate and exercise their rights.
They must also observe certain principles and rules of democratic conduct.

People must respect the law and reject violence.

No one should condemn a political opponent as evil and illegitimate, just because they have
different views.

People have a right to question the decisions of the government, but not discard the
government’s authority.

Every group has the right to practice its culture and to have some control over its own
affairs, but each group should accept that it is a part of a democratic state.
TYPES OF DEMOCRACY

Representative Participatory Deliberative

Democracy Democracy Democracy

Social Cosmopolitan
Democracy Democracy
 Representative Democracy
Representative democracies are based upon numerous interconnected principles:

The existence of regular, free, fair elections based upon universal suffrage and secret ballots.

The existence of competing political parties offering electoral choice.

The existence of electoral laws supervised by an independent judiciary.

Freedom of speech and association.

Freedom to stand as an election candidate.

“Reasonable” relationships between votes cast and representatives elected.

Availability of accurate unbiased political information.

Criticism of Representative Democracy

Schumpeter and the elite theorists

• To Joseph Schumpeter, the classical theory of democracy assumes -
mistakenly - that sovereignty lies in the hands of the people who
elect individuals to an assembly where their will can be carried out.
• The main purpose of democracy seems to be to elect leaders from
among a given set of candidates, who compete with each other for
the people's vote.
• Leadership is the driving-force, the people merely give their
endorsement to one or the other leader.
• This has been called the "realist" theory of democracy.
Participatory democracy
People will have the opportunity to directly participate in the functions and decision-
making processes of state and there shall be no provision for delegating power to
another body or organ.

At all stages of state administration (even local levels) people are the determining
factors and that cannot be challenged or “done away with to facilitate representative
system”.
Though Rousseau was the supporter of participatory democracy, he did not favour
party system. In modern times, it is recommended that party system is essential for
the smooth functioning of participatory democracy. Only political party can organise
such democracy and lead it to the stage of success.

A system which has accepted participatory democratic system remodels and remoulds
the social and political structure so that democracy can function smoothly.
Creation of institutions and organisation is not enough; in such a system there is an ever-
vigilance to maintain these in suitable manner.

Though unanimity is emphasised, to make this form of democracy workable, there shall be
an option for majority decision system.

In participatory democracy, equality is always stressed. Particularly political equality is the

sine qua non of such democratic system.

Rights, liberties are also equally highlighted.

This could take the form of strengthening local democracy, so that-citizens are involved in
community affairs and social movements.

Advocates of participatory democracy generally follow Mill 'in attaching importance to

civic education as a way of creating a more active and politically engaged citizenly.
 Deliberative Democracy
Deliberative democracy values open and public deliberation on Issues of common concern. It starts from
the assumption of individuals as autonomous persons, but does not view the social relationships
between these autonomous persons as relationships of conflict or interest.

Rather, it sees people as relating to each other and seek influence each other through reasoned
argument and persuasion.

For advocates of deliberative democracy, persuasion is the best basis for political power, because it alone
respects the autonomy of individuals and values their capacity for self-government.

It also gives individuals control over an important aspect of their lives, and makes for greater and
continuous accountability of political power.

Unlike participatory democracy, which requires individuals to be constantly engaged in making decisions,
deliberative democracy allows for a political division of labour between citizens and professional
politicians, though citizens are involved in deliberation about public issues.
 Social Democracy
Social democracy is a form of democracy that is based on a strong commitment to equality.
Social democrats, therefore, support the idea of the welfare state based on redistribution.

They believe in the liberal institutions of representative democracy, but wish to combine these
with the ideal of social justice.

To the extent that liberalism frequently takes the form of right-wing libertarianism - a belief in
the unfettered freedom of the individual and the free market – social democracy is more
egalitarian than liberalism.

However, it is less radical than Marxian socialism and may be said to stand at the intersection of
these two ideologies. Indeed, it has been said that social-democracy is more than democracy
and less than socialism.
Social democrats argue that all individuals should get an equitable share of society's
resources, in older to realise their own plans of life.

If poverty or disability or belonging to a minority are obstacles in this respect, then

it is the duty of the state to remove such obstacles. Social democracy is thus
particularly concerned with providing the conditions for the well-being of workers,
women, the disabled, the elderly, members of cultural minorities, and so forth.

It is basically interested in creating the conditions for equality, so that all citizens
can enjoy their democratic rights to the same extent. It sees democracy as not only
a form of government, but also a principle that should inform collective life in
society as a whole.