Port design

• The term port comes from the Latin portus, which means gate or gateway.

• Ports are points of convergence between two geographical domains of freight circulation
(sometimes passengers); the land and maritime domains.

• Due to the operational characteristics of maritime transportation, port location is constrained to

a limited array of sites, mostly defined by geography.

• Since ports are bound by the need to serve ships, access to navigable waterways has been
historically the most important site consideration

• The port is a multidimensional entity at start anchored within geography, but also dependent on
its operations, governance structure and embedded within supply chains.

• A port can be defined as a harbour or an area that is able to provide shelter to numerous boats
and vessels (transferring people or cargo), and can also allow constant or periodic transaction of
shipment.

• Conventional break-bulk terminals were mainly focused on direct transshipment from the deep
sea vessel to inland transport modes

• The gradual shift from conventional break-bulk terminals to container terminals since the early
1960s brought about a fundamental change in the layout of terminals as well as site selection.

• As compared to conventional break-bulk cargo ships, containerships did not have onboard
cranes, and container terminal facilities had to provide capital intensive cranes and ample
storage space to stack containers dockside.

• . For handling freight, port infrastructures jointly have to accommodate transshipment activities
both on ships and inland and thus facilitate convergence between land transport and maritime
systems

Difference Between Ports and Terminals

• Ports are strategic geographical locations which are situated at the edge of ocean, seas, rivers,
or lakes. These locations are then developed to inculcate facilities for loading and unloading of
cargo ships. The facilities provided for a port depends on the purpose for which the port is being
used.

• Whereas a terminal is referred to as the set of facilities at a port where loading and unloading of
cargo/container take place. Terminals are named on the basis of the type of cargo that can be
handled by them. Some of the most common types of terminals are container terminal, bulk
cargo terminal, LNG terminal etc.
 What Are Port Facilities?

• Some common port facilities provided by the most common sorts of ports throughout the world
are as follows:

• a) Special Warehouse: This is available on all the ports, for storing the shipment and for
maintaining regular stock.

• b) Port Reception: Reception has details of all the shipment scheduled and moreover it is a guide
for the port facilities.

• c) Other facilities: Some other essential facilities are also available at seaports namely hotels,
restaurants, restrooms and eateries for the port visitors.

• d) Fishing facilities: Fishing ports allow its customer with fishing aids and amenities at the port.

• e) Warm water facility: A greater revenue-generating warm water port provides warm water
even in frosting winters.

• f) Loading and Unloading Facility: It is the mandatory part of every port to allow loading and
unloading of freight as well as people in a ship.

• g) Infrastructure and Equipment’s: A port has piers, basins, stacking or storage areas,
warehouses to store various ferry equipment.

Port Functions and Traffic

• The primary function of a port is to supply services to freight (warehousing, transshipment, etc.)
and ships (piers, refueling, repairs, etc.).

• The cargo base of a port can expand through the intensification of its fundamental hinterland,
the expansion of its hinterland to new areas, and the development of transshipment.

• In addition to significant cargo-related functions, many ports are also involved in other activities
such as fishing, ferries, cruises, and recreational activities (e.g. marinas).

• A port throughput is linked to a variety of local and regional industrial activities as the largest
ports in the world are gateways to large industrial regions

• In terms of the freight they handle, ports can be classified into two categories; monofunctional
ports and polyfunctional ports.

• About commercial 3,700 ports are in operation worldwide, but only less than one hundred ports
have global importance.

• Major ports have established themselves as gateways of continental distribution systems and
have access to high capacity inland freight distribution corridors, notably rail
• Monofunctional ports transit a limited array of commodities, most often dry or liquid bulks (raw
materials). The oil ports of the Persian Gulf or the mineral ports of Australia, Africa, and in some
measure of Canada are monofunctional ports. They have specialized piers designed to handle
specific commodities and where the flows a commonly outbound, implying that they are usually
load centers.

• Polyfunctional ports are vast harbors where transshipment and industrial activities are present.
They have a variety of specialized and general cargo piers linked to a wide range of modes that
can include containers, bulk cargo, or raw materials.

Port Authorities and Port Holdings

• Port Authority. An entity of state or local government that owns, operates, or otherwise
provides wharf, dock, and other marine terminal investments and services at ports.

• port authorities are regulating infrastructure investments, its organization and development,
and its relationships with customers using its services.

• The primary rationale behind the setting of many port authorities was their ability to manage
more efficiently port facilities as a whole rather than privately owned and operated terminals.

• Occasionally, terminals were leased to private companies, but throughout the greater part of
the 20th century, public ownership and operation of ports were dominant.

• As public agencies, many port authorities were seen by governments as a source of revenue and
were mandated to perform various non-revenue generating community projects, or at least to
provide employment.

• With the availability and diffusion of information technologies, port authorities have been
proactive in developing port community systems enabling many key actors to interact better
and share information, such as customs, freight forwarders, and carriers.

• Port holding. An entity, commonly private, that owns or leases port terminals in a variety of
locations. It is also known as a port terminal operator.

Organisation Of Port Authority:

• 1. Supervisory Board: It is the highest Department in port authority which supervises all the
activities of subsequent departments.

• 2. Executive Board: This Department is the most important department of port authority as it
actually makes and executes all the decisions regarding maintenance, control, security and
managerial operations. It has two main components namely:

• President and chief executive Officer: The main functions of President and Chief Executive
Officer are as follows:
• Corporate Affairs and Corporate Strategies: They have to look after all the corporate affairs and
make strategies regarding the improvement of corporate relations.

• Human Resources: They have to appoint crew members, labours at the port and work for their
improvement by regular performance appraisal.

• Communication and External Affairs: They have to manage internal as well as external
communication on port and work for enhancing International trade.

• Internal Audit: They have to maintain Internal Audit as well.

• Legal Department: They have to legalize trade and cater to all the legal matters.

TIME ZONES

• One of the consequences of the Earth´s rotation is the existence of the hours of the day.

• The Sun does not strike on the Earth´s surface in the same way and at the same time.
Consequently, each part of the Earth has a different hour in relation of the illumination of the
Sun.

• Until the 19th century each city had a clock with its own hour.

• Consequently, it was difficult to organize the means of transport among cities and countries.

• In October 1884, the International Meridian Conference was held in Washington, D.C., in the
United States, to determine a prime meridian for international use to establish the mean time in
the world.

• In the International Meridian Conference, the subject to discuss was the choice of "a meridian to
be employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the
world".

• It resulted in selection of the Greenwich Meridian as an international standard for zero degrees
longitude.

Local time

• Time measurement is based on mostly regular natural phenomena, such as alternating light and
dark periods caused by the rotation of the planet. The total time taken by two successive
periods is constant, but the lengths of the light and dark period vary. One simple constant is
noon.

• Noon is the time of the day when the Sun is at its highest position. Since (according to recent
research) the Earth is round, noon happens at different times in different places. This leads to
 the concept of local time. Humans measure time in many units, most of which are tied to
natural phenomena like noon. As long as you stay in the same place, it doesn't matter that local
times differ.

• As soon as you need to communicate with distant places, you'll notice the need for a common
time. In modern times, most of the places in the world communicate with most other places in
the world, so a global standard for measuring time has been defined. This time is
called universal time (UT or UTC, formerly known as Greenwich Mean Time or GMT, since it
used to be local time in Greenwich, England). When people with different local times need to
communicate, they can express times in universal time, so that there is no confusion about
when things should happen.

• Time zones are best named by the location or by telling the difference between local and
universal time. In the US and some other countries, the local time zones have a name and a
three letter abbreviation. The abbreviations are not unique, however, and should not be used
unless the country is also named. It is better to talk about the local time in, say, Helsinki, than
about East European time, since not all countries in Eastern Europe follow the same rules.

• Linux has a time zone package that knows about all existing time zones, and that can easily be
updated when the rules change. All the system administrator needs to do is to select the
appropriate time zone. Also, each user can set his own time zone; this is important since many
people work with computers in different countries over the Internet. When the rules for
daylight savings time change in your local time zone, make sure you'll upgrade at least that part
of your Linux system. Other than setting the system time zone and upgrading the time zone data
files, there is little need to bother about time

Standard time

• The time in any of the 24 time zones, each an hour apart, into which the earth is divided: it is
based on distance east or west of Greenwich, England; the 8 zones of North America (Atlantic,
Eastern, Central, Mountain, Pacific, Alaska, Hawaii-Aleutian, and Samoa) use the mean solar
times of the 60th, 75th, 90th, 105th, 120th, 135th, 150th, and 165th meridians, respectively.

• The time in any of 24 time zones, usually the mean solar time at the central meridian of each
zone. In the continental United States, there are four standard time zones: Eastern, using the
75th meridian; Central, using the 90th meridian; Mountain, using the 105th meridian; and
Pacific, using the 120th meridian.

International Date Line

• The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line on Earth's surface defining the boundary
between one day and the next.

• The International Date Line is located halfway around the world from the prime. The dateline
runs from the North Pole to the South Pole and marks the divide between the Western and
 Eastern Hemisphere. It is not straight but zigzags to avoid political and country borders and to
not cut some countries in half. meridian (0° longitude) or about 180° east (or west) of
Greenwich, London, UK, the reference point of time zones. It is also known as the line of
demarcation.

• The Dateline Is Not Straight

What Happens When You Cross the Dateline

• When you cross the International Date Line from west to east, you subtract a day, and if you
cross the line from east to west, you add a day.

• Depending on which time zone the country follows, the time difference on either side of the line
is not always 24 hours. For example, if you travel the 1061 kilometers (659 miles) across the
dateline from Baker Island to Tokelau you have to add 25 hours, or 1 day and 1 hour

• Three Dates at the Same Time

• Every day between 10:00 and 11:59 UTC, three different dates on the calendar are in use at the
same time on Earth. For example, our Time Zone Converter shows:

• At 10:30 UTC on May 2, it is

• 23:30 (11.30 pm) on May 1 in American Samoa (UTC−11),

• 06:30 (6:30 am) on May 2 in New York (UTC-4), and

• 00:30 (0:30 am) on May 3 in Kiritimati (UTC+14).

• The time in any of the 24 time zones into which the Earth's surface is divided, usually the mean
time at the central meridian of the given zone. There are four standard time zones in the
contiguous continental United States: Eastern, using the 75th meridian; Central, using the 90th
meridian; Mountain, using the 105th meridian; and Pacific, using the 120th meridian. Alaska
Standard Time, centered on the 135th meridian, is one hour behind Pacific time, and Hawaii
Standard Time, centered on the 150th meridian, is one hour behind Alaska time.

What does Loadline means?

• “Load line is a special marking positioned amidships which depicts the draft of the vessel and
the maximum permitted limit in distinct types of waters to which the ship can be loaded.

• As a result of the numerous maritime accidents that have happened at sea due to over-loading
of vessels, the significance of having a standard maximum limit for ships was identified long
before. However, it took many years from then to have an International agreement for the
universal application of Load lines.
 Purpose and Necessity of Load Lines

• The fundamental purpose of a Load Line is to allot a maximum legal limit upto which a ship can
be loaded by cargo. By prescribing such limits, the risk of having the vessel sailing with
inadequate freeboard and buoyancy can be limited.

• A vessel should be having sufficient freeboard at all times, any exceptions made will result in
insufficient stability and excessive stress on the ship’s hull. This is where load lines play an
important role, as it makes the task of detecting whether the vessel is over-loaded and its
freeboard tremendously easy and effortless.

• For example, A vessel sailing in Winter on North Atlantic Ocean will have a greater freeboard
than on a voyage in Tropical Zones and Fresh waters.

• Understanding Load Line Mark

• As we have already defined above, Load Line is a special marking positioned amidships. All
vessels of 24 meters and more are required to have this Load line marking at the centre position
of the length of summer load water line.

• There are two types of Load line markings:-

• Standard Load Line marking – This is applicable to all types of vessels.

• Timber Load Line Markings – This is applicable to vessels carrying timber cargo.

• These marks shall be punched on the surface of the hull, making it visible even if the ship side
paint fades out.

Voyage planning

• It is a procedure to develop a complete description of a vessel's voyage from start to finish.

• The plan includes: - leaving the dock and harbor area, - en route portion of a voyage,
approaching the destination, - mooring, the industry term for this is 'berth to berth‘ .

• According to international law, a vessel's captain is legally responsible for passage planning.

• The duty of passage planning is usually delegated to the ship's navigation officer, typically the
second officer on merchant ships.

• Studies show that human error is a factor in 80 percent of navigational accidents and that in
many cases the human making the error had access to information that could have prevented
the accident

International Maritime Organization

• It is the United Nations specialized agency with responsibility for the safety and security of
shipping and the prevention of marine pollution by ships.

• It is the global standard-setting authority for the safety, security and environmental
performance of international shipping.

• Its role is to create a level playing-field so that ship operators cannot address their financial
issues by simply cutting corners and compromising on safety, security and environmental
performance. This approach also encourages innovation and efficiency.

IMO for passage planning

• it considered passage planning into the following publications:

• SOLAS … Safety of Life At Sea

• STCW … International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for

Seafarers

Planning stages

• It Consist of four stages:

• 1. appraisal

• 2. planning

• 3. execution

• 4. monitoring.

Stage 1 – appraisal

• Voyage planning starts with the appraisal. Before each voyage begins, the navigator should
develop a detailed mental model of how the entire voyage will proceed. The appraisal stage
consists of gathering and contemplating all information relevant to the voyage. Much of this
appraisal is done by consulting nautical charts, nautical publications and performing a number of
technical tasks such as weather forecasting, prediction of tides and currents, and checks of local
regulations and warnings.

• Nautical publications are a valuable guide to local conditions and regulations, but they must be
updated and actually read to be of any use. These publications could include Sailing Directions
and Coast Pilots or similar texts produced by other authorities.

Stage 2 – planning

• Once information is gathered and considered, the navigator can begin the process of actually
laying out the voyage. The process involves projecting various future events including landfalls,
 narrow passages, and course changes expected during the voyage. This mental model becomes
the standard by which the navigator measures progress toward the goal of a safe and efficient
voyage, and it is manifested in a passage plan.

• A good passage plan will include a track line laid out upon the best-scale charts available. This
track is judged with respect to at least nine separate criteria given in the Guidelines including
under-keel clearance, safe speed, air draft, the use of routing and reporting services (TSS and
VTS), and the availability of contingencies in case of emergency.

• The navigator will draw and redraw the track line until it is safe, efficient, and in line with all
applicable laws and regulations. When the track is finished, it is becoming common practice to
also enter it into electronic navigation tools such as an Electronic Chart Display and Information
System, a chartplotter, an ARPA system, or a GPS unit.

• When working in a team environment, the passage plan should be communicated to the
navigation team in a pre-voyage conference in order to ensure that all members of the team
share the same mental model of the entire trip

Stage 3 – execution

• The IMO was careful to include execution as part of the process of passage planning. This
underscores the fact that the Guidelines list a number of tasks that are to executed during the
course of the voyage.

• It also reiterates the captain's responsibility to treat the plan as a "living document" and to
review or change it in case of any special circumstances that should arise.

Stage 4 – monitoring

• Once the voyage has begun the progress of the vessel along its planned route must be
monitored. This requires that the ship's position be determined, using standard methods
including dead reckoning, celestial navigation, pilotage, and electronic navigation.

• According to the Guidelines, the passage plan should always be available to the officer on watch
on the bridge.

• The Guidelines also specify that deviations from the plan should be clearly recorded and be
consistent with other provisions of the Guidelines.

There are different categories of container ships:

1. Based on overall sizing-

• Based on volumetric capacity (In older days, container ships were sized based on their volume)
• Based on TEU- twenty foot equivalent unit (This is the modern day sizing parameter of a
container ship. The TEU of a container ship is the number of twenty foot equivalent containers
that can be carried by the ship.)

2. Based on Length, Beam, Depth, and Tonnage-

3. Based on mode of handling-

• Box container ship – This is the most common type of container ship design. They can be loaded
only with marine containers, and cargo handling is carried out by cranes that belong to the port
authorities.

• RORO ship – Roll on/roll off containers are the ships using heavy lift vehicles and fork lift
trucks. In some cases these ships carry both vehicles and containers in different decks.

• LILO ship – Lift on / Lift off ships are equipped with their on cranes which are used to load the
containers on and off the ship. These ships always ply only in smaller container terminals that
are not equipped with container handling cranes, like the bigger terminals.

4. Based on Range of Service-

• Mother Ships – These are the larger ships, often above 10000 TEU capacity, that ply only
between the major container terminals of a nation. These ships cannot enter smaller ports due
to their large draft and overall size.

• Feeder Vessels – Feeder vessels operate between the major and minor container terminals,
carrying containers to and from the mother ships. Often, these vessels are LILO type, because
smaller ports are not equipped with cranes.

Marine cargo

• Marine Cargo- its means the goods and containers which is imported or exported by the ships in
inland water or oceans through national or international borders.

• A cargo ship or freighter is any sort of ship or vessel that carries cargo, goods and material from
one port to another.

• The very first cargo ships were built to carry cargo in bulk.

• Design of the cargo ship is dictated by the type of cargo. The ports on route, the functionality of
the ship, and also the economic trends in the market.
 Container Ship design (Hull geometry)

• The first and the most prominent design aspect of any type of ship is the geometry of its hull.

• In order to achieve a high speed, the resistance of the hull needs to be minimized, which is
obtained by a fine form hull.

• the hull section for most part of the length of the ship is almost rectangular. This is done in
order to accommodate maximum number of containers below the deck.

• Midship Section Of Container Ships:

• All container ships are double bottomed, so as to allow for the double bottom spaces to be
used as tanks.

• Container ships are also longitudinally framed, because the variable loading conditions often
result in large hogging and sagging moments, which result in high longitudinal bending stresses.

• The shape of the midship section is almost box-like. In the words of a designer, it has high
midship area coefficient, ranging from 0.75 to 0.85

• The bilge strake is the angular plate that joins the inner side shell and the tank top plating.

• The most important structural feature of a container ship is the torsion box.

• Container ships are usually equipped with no hatches. That is, the ship has no continuous main
deck running full breadth all along the ship.

Stowage of Containers:

• Containers are always stowed with the longer dimension along forward to aft. This is because,
the ship is more prone to rolling motion than pithing or yawing.

• Below the uppermost deck, the containers are restrained against lateral or longitudinal motion
by cell guides.

• Above the uppermost deck, containers are stowed and their motion is restricted by means of
lashing.

Torsion box- Container ships are highly subjected to torsional moments because of their very
large hatch openings. This leads to even higher warping stresses at the corners of the openings
due to lack of torsional rigidity. The upper part of the double hull in such ships is fitted with
torsion box as mentioned earlier

• It helps in preventing torsional bending on ships due to the torsional moment on ship caused by
dynamic movement of the waves.

• Helps in avoiding racking effect caused by the sheer stress on the vessel structure.
• There are refer ships which are specially designed to carry refrigerated cargo in refrigerated
containers. They are equipped with cooling systems connected to each container, which is a
different study in itself.

Ship’s Measurement
consist of a multitude of terms and definitions specifically related to ships and measuring or
defining their characteristics.

Beam – The width of the ship

Complement – The full number of people required to operate a ship.

Cube – The cargo carrying capacity of a ship, measured in cubic feet:-

Displacement - A measurement of the weight of the vessel, usually used for warships.
(Merchant ships are usually measured based on the volume of cargo space-

1. Displacement light- The weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, ballast, stores, passengers,
and crew, but with water in the boilers to steaming level.

2.Dispalcement loaded- The weight of the ship including cargo, passengers, fuel, water, stores,
dunnage and such other items necessary for use on a voyage, which brings the vessel down to
her load draft.

Deadweight tons- The difference between displacement, light and displacement, loaded. A
measure of the ship’s total carrying capacity.

Cargo deadweight tons- The weight remaining after deducting fuel, water, stores, dunnage and
such other items necessary for use on a voyage from the deadweight of the vessel.4

Draft, loaded- The depth of water necessary to float a vessel fully loaded.

Length – The distance between the forwardmost and aftermost parts of the ship. Two types-
length overall and length waterline.

Cargo transport unit

Cargo transport unit means a transport vehicle, a freight container, a portable tank or a multiple
element gas container (MEGC). Closed freight container means a freight container which totally
encloses its contents by permanent structures.

Dry storage container

Flat rack container

Open top container

Tunnel container
 Open side storage container

Double door container

Refrigerated ISO containers

Insulated or thermal containers

Tanks

Cargo storage roll containers

Half height containers

Drums

Swap bodies

Cargo ship types

The ships can roughly be divided into the following types:

• Bulk carriers

• Dry bulk- can carry unpacked dry goods e.g. grains and ore

• Liquid bulk / tanker- can carry liquid e.eg. Oil

• Combination- both type, dry and liquid

• Container ships- Holds compartmentalized containers, onboard cargo measured in TUE

• General cargo ships- can carry variety of goods. E.g. food , garment, machines, chemicals etc.
containers are not there in this ship but packages as per the needs.

• Reefer ships- refrigerated ships to carry vegetables, fruits etc.

Cargo compartment and hatch covers

Hatch covers- In shipping, the opening in the deck of a vessel which gives access to cargo hold.

The major objective of hatch covers and coamings on ships is to prevent the ingress of water
into the cargo hold and protect the goods from being damped and damaged.

The various types or hatch covers that are mainly used on board are as follows –

• Lifting type-
 • Rolling type

• Folding type

• Sliding type

• Roll stowing type

What is Ballast?

In transport / nautical terms, ballast is any dense heavy material, such as lead or iron pigs, used
to enhance stability of a ship especially when it is not carrying cargo. It is usually put in the bilge
of the vessel.

Ballast System

• During the designing and construction stages of a ship the ballast tanks are introduced at
various locations for maintaining the stability of the ship during the sea voyage.

• The ballast system is arranged to ensure that water can be drawn from any tank or the sea and
discharged to any other tank or the sea as required to trim the vessel.

• Combined or separate mains for suction and discharge may be provided where a tank or cargo
space can be used for ballast or dry cargo then either a ballast or bilge connection will be
required.

Keel is the fixed ballast in yachts, boasts and launches etc. It is made up of lead or iron.

Ship’s stability

Ship’s stability is the tendency of ship to rotate one way or the other when forcibily inclined.

Stability is a measure of the vessel’s ability to get back on an even keel after having suffered a
instability.

Stability is determined by the force of buoyancy provided by the underwater parts of a vessel,
coupled with the combined weight of its hull, equipment, fuel, stores and load.

These forces can also be adversely affected by the prevailing weather conditions and sea-state.

Understanding the factors that influence stability will assist skippers (incharge of a ship) to make
the right decisions and take the right actions to keep their vessels safe.

Why stability is so important

If the ship lost stability what will happen

 • Lost of Mobile

• Lost the human lifes

• Lost the ship

• Lost the cargo

• Oil pollution

Different factors affect a vessel’s stability.

• Basically it is the ratio between the center of gravity and the distribution of a vessel’s buoyancy
that determines the vessel’s ability to get back on an even keel.

• Lightweight, deadweight and displacement The vessel’s own weight and the distribution of the
weights on the vessel are essential for determining the vessel’s stability.

Lightweight, This is the weight of the unrigged vessel without gear, fuel oil, water, ice, boxes,
crew, provisions, catch, etc.

Deadweight ,This is the term for all the weights the crew takes on board in order to fish or
during fishing. Deadweight includes equipment, fuel oil, water, ice, boxes, crew, provisions,
catch, etc.

Displacement ,Displacement is the term for the vessel’s total weight. That means displacement
= lightweight + deadweight.

How to maintain a vessel’s stability

1. Keep weight low

New equipment added higher up on a vessel, or replacing gear with heavier equipment raises
the centre of gravity and reduces the boat’s stability. Less catch can be loaded safely and a
smaller wave and/or lower angle of roll will cause the boat to capsize.

2. Avoid overloading

The heavier the load in the hold, the lower the vessel’s freeboard and buoyancy will be. Loading
extra catch on deck lifts the centre of gravity, reduces the freeboard and makes the vessel more
top heavy.

3. Keep excess water off

 A wave on deck or downflooding can add tonnes of extra weight and produce a strong rolling
force (known as ‘free-surface effect’). The extra weight drastically lowers freeboard, raises the
centre of gravity and, when the water shifts, tries to roll the boat over.

4. Secure the load

Stow a vessel’s load, gear or catch on the centerline, or balanced port and starboard. Secure it
so that it can withstand wave impact, rolling and wind loading without shifting. Keep the stowed
positions as low as possible.

Terminal design

• A maritime container terminal is a place where containers arriving by ocean vessels are
transferred to inland carriers, such as trucks, trains, or canal barges and vice verse.

• Generally, a terminal is a facility where cargo containers are transshipped between different
transport vehicles, for onward transportation.

• The transshipment may be between ships and land vehicles, for example trains or trucks, in
which case the terminal is described as a maritime terminal.

• Alternatively the transshipment may be between land vehicles, typically between train and
truck, in which case the terminal is described as an inland terminal.

Functions of terminal

• Every terminal performs four basic functions: receiving, storage, staging, and loading for both
import (entering the terminal by sea and usually leaving by land modes) and export (usually
entering the terminal by land and leaving by sea modes) containers.

➢ Receiving involves container arrival at the terminal, either as an import or export, recording its
arrival, retrieving relevant logistics data and adding it to the current inventory.

➢ Storage is the function of placing the container in a known and recorded location so it may be
retrieved when it is needed.

➢ Staging is the function of preparing a container to leave the terminal. In other words the
containers that are to be exported are identified and organized so as to optimize the loading
process. Import containers follow similar processes, although staging is not always performed.
An exception is a group of containers leaving the terminal via rail.

➢ Loading function involves placing the correct container on the ship, truck, or other mode of
transportation. In this work the emphasis will be put on internal logistics chain of container
terminal (i.e. vessel-truck-yard and opposite direction respectively).
Structure

• container terminals can be described as open systems of material flow with two external
interfaces.

• In general logistics terms, container terminals can be described as open systems of material flow
with two external interfaces.

• These interfaces are the quayside with loading and unloading of ships, and the landside where
containers are loaded and unloaded on/off trucks and trains.

• Containers are stored in stacks thus facilitating the decoupling of quayside and landside
operation.re the quayside with loading and unloading of ships, and the land-side where
containers are loaded and unloaded on/off trucks and trains. Containers are stored in stacks
thus facilitating the decoupling of quayside and land-side operation.

Loading and discharging a ship

• When a ship arrives at the port, the containers have to be taken off the ship. This is done by
manned Quay Cranes (QCs), which take the containers from the ship's hold and the deck.

• The QCs put the containers on vehicles, like automated guided vehicles (AGVs). After receiving a
container, the AGV moves to the stack. This stack consists of a number of lanes where
containers can be stored for a certain period. These lanes are served by, for example,
automatically controlled Automated Stacking Cranes (ASCs).

• When an AGV arrives at a lane, the ASC takes the container off the AGV and stores it in the
stack. After a certain period the containers are retrieved from the stack by the ASCs and
transported by the AGVs to transportation modes such as barges, deep-sea ships, trucks or
trains.

• This process is also be executed in reverse order, to load containers on a ship.

Material handling in port

• The key task in all logistic processes involves making the desired goods available in the correct
quantity and quality at the agreed time and place.

• For domestic and sea ports all over the world, these requirements are of great importance.

• Port is the central transfer point between water, rail and road transport.• Today, port operators
are now more aware than ever of this particular

• The basic objective of any port material handling is to provide the efficient and cost effective
solution.

•
MATERIAL HANDLING PRINCIPLES

• Keep moving

• Use simple patterns of material flow

• Carry pay loads both ways

• Carry full loads

• Use gravity

TYPES OF MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS IN PORT

• Storage and handling equipment

• Engineered system

• Industrial trucks

• Bulk Material handling

Major Material Handling equipment at Port

• Container Handling Crane

• Stackers-Reclaimer

• Ship Loader

• Ship un-loader

• Forklift

• Specially designed Truck

• Passenger Gangway

• CONTAINER HANDLING CRANE The container handling crane is the specially designed crane to
load and unload the container from the ship and also to the ship

• Stackers-Reclaimer• A stacker is a large machine used in bulk material handling applications• A

stacker usually operates on a rail- like structure with movable wheels, but the main operation is
performed on a fixed place.
 • Ship Loader• A Ship loader is a huge machine used for loading bulk solid materials like iron ore
coal, fertilizers, grains into marine vessels for transportation by sea.• Ship loaders are a very
common sight in ports and jetties from where bulk materials are exported.

• Ship un-loader• The grab-type ship un-loader is the traditional method to unload bulk cargo.• A
clamshell bucket is cycled in and out of the ships hold, unloading with each scoop 15 - 20 cubic
yards, depending on the design specifications

• Rail loading facility in port• For Coal handling and iron ore handling the rail load facility should
be available in the port. The material handling i.e. loading and unloading is very complex and
time taking.

• RCC silos• Storage capacity of 10 tons to 50 tons.• Potential indoor and outdoor erection.•
Pressure conveying system for feeding silo from big/25kg resin bag.• Vacuum conveying system
provides multiple processing feeding lines from silo.

• Forklift• A forklift (also called a lift truck, a fork truck, or a tow-motor) is a powered industrial
truck used to lift and transport materials.

• Passenger Gangway• Foot passengers need to be provided with a safe path to the
accommodation deck when a ship is also being loaded or unloaded with heavy cargo. The
passenger gangway will follow the movement of the vessel

Harbour

A harbour is basically an area filled with water sheltered by natural barriers like land and rocks
or artificial barriers like breakwaters sometimes surrounded by tetrapods, that can provide a
ship with safe anchorage and allow the transfer of goods and/or passengers between the ship
and the shore.

Natural harbours are usually surrounded by land and this creates a protective bay making it a
good anchorage point for ships. Apart from coastlines around the world, natural harbours may
also be found along coves, lake sides, lagoons.

These days artificial harbours can be created anywhere along the seaboard linking to industrial
zones on land.

When these harbours are used for the purpose of commerce and trade such as loading and
unloading of cargo, passengers or anything that generates revenue, these harbours may be said
to serve as a Port.

In short, a port is a place within the harbour where a ship can dock for a commercial purpose of
either handling cargo or passengers or taking care of the ship’s requirements..

Terminals
 While some of the ports may handle only specific cargoes, a vast majority of the ports around
the world handle multiple cargoes within the same port..

These demarcated areas handling different types of cargoes are known as Terminals.

In one port there could be terminals for

Container Terminal

Ro-Ro (Roll On-Roll Off) Terminal (popularly known as Car Terminal)

Oil & Gas Terminal

Bulk Cargo Terminal

Multi Purpose Terminal

Berth/Quay

Each port or terminal will in turn have several berths/quay which usually has shore equipment
for handling cargo, covered sheds, open cargo storage areas etc where the cargo is discharged,
loaded and may be stored.

A berth is basically an area where the ship is moored onto the bollards and where the cargo is
loaded or discharged on and off the ships.. The land area surrounding the berth is also
sometimes referred to as a quay depending on where you are from..

One container terminal can have several berths/quay where several ships can be handled at the
same time.

Characteristics of cargo

Heavy and oversized cargo.

Perishable (term) load.

Moist (wet) weight

Human remain

The goods with an unpleasant smell (fragrant

Live animals

Dangerous goods
Perishable goods

These are goods that require compliance with the process of transportation and storage, special
thermal humidity and ventilation modes. They are divided into two classes: refrigerated and
non-refrigerated. In turn, refrigerated goods are divided into 3 groups: frozen, chilled and
refrigerated.

To ensure safe transportation take into account: the degree of fitness of the vessel for this
transportation, the condition of the cargo; season, direction and duration of the flight

All perishable goods in one way or another are subject to natural loss, for example, shrinkage
due to loss of moisture. The optimum relative humidity for fruits is 85-95%

Animal oil is transported in boxes, barrels, tubs. The temperature of the oil during loading
should not exceed -2 ° C. When transporting oil on non-refrigerated vessels, the duration of the
carriage should not exceed 4 days if the ambient temperature exceeds + 4 ° C.

Canned products. Canned vegetables and fruits in glass containers can be transported on non-
refrigerated vessels at temperatures from -1 to + 25 ° С

Liquid cargo

Bulk (liquid) cargoes are cargoes for the transportation of which a container is not required, and
for transportation of them, cars with special bodies – tanks are used. In the total cargo flow of
Ukraine, bulk (liquid) cargoes occupy one of the main places and are divided into two types:

food;

chemical.

For the transportation of bulk food products, tankers, railway tanks and flexitanks for shipping
are used.

Before loading into food tanks, containers undergo a mandatory check in laboratories for
cleanliness and absence of foreign substances, after which an appropriate document is issued
authorizing loading into this vehicle.

Flexitank is an elastic insulated tank made of specially developed polymer materials, designed
for 20-foot containers and is a safe tank for transporting liquid bulk cargoes.
Flexitanks have been used for the transportation of liquid bulk cargoes for more than 20 years.
Flexitank is a flexible tank with a volume of 10,000 to 24,000 liters.
Dangerous goods

Most dangerous goods are classified by the consignors (manufacturers) of dangerous goods. To
do this, they can contact the competent authorities.

When transporting dangerous goods by road, the classification of dangerous goods (hazardous
waste) is carried out on the basis of part 2 of ADR and the criteria developed by the UN
Committee of Experts.

Depending on the types of hazard, as well as their physical, chemical and biological properties,
all dangerous goods are divided into these hazard classes:

class 1 explosives and articles;

class 2 gases;

class 3 flammable liquids;

class 4.1 flammable solids, self-reactive substances, solid desensitized explosives;

class 4.2 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion;

class 4.3 substances emitting flammable gases in contact with water;

class 5.1 oxidizing substances;

class 5.2 organic peroxides;

class 6.1 toxic substances;

class 6.2 infectious substances;

class 7 radioactive materials;

class 8 corrosive substances;

class 9 other dangerous substances and products.

To indicate the dangerous properties of dangerous goods, hazard signs are used

The hazard label system is based on the classification of dangerous goods and is designed to:

make dangerous goods easily recognizable at a distance according to the general appearance of
the danger signs on them (symbol, color and shape);

provide, with the color of the hazard labels, the first useful indication in relation to loading and
unloading operations, stacking and separation of goods.
Anchoring

▪ Anchoring is as frequent operation on board as loading and unloading a cargo

▪ Anchoring is a routine job

▪ Number of incident during anchoring or while at anchor suggest that we might not have yet
mastered the art of anchoring a ship effectively.

▪ Knowing about the correct anchoring procedures and their limitations is one of the best way to
avoid anchoring related fatalities and damages.

HOW AN ANCHOR HOLDS THE SHIP?

▪ when an anchor is dropped, the crown of the anchor is the first to hit the sea bottom. as the
ship moves back, the flukes takes its position and embed itself into the sea bed

▪ it does not matter from what height the anchor is dropped, the crown will always hit the bottom
first

▪ the flukes will only dig into the sea bed once the ship moves aft and flukes are facing
downwards in to the sea bottom

▪ opposite happens when we pick up the anchor

▪ when the chain is all picked up, the flukes face upwards and gets uprooted from the bottom

PREPARING THE ANCHOR

▪ preparing the vessel for anchoring can start days before arrival

▪ master checks the charts for marked anchorage areas days before arrival

▪ anchorage area for the vessel could also be suggested in the agent’s pre-arrival message

▪ anchorage area must be physically checked in the chart to ensure that:

1. it is designated for the type of ship

2. the depths complies with the Under Keel Clearance (UKC)requirement of the company

3. depths are less than the maximum depth ship can anchor

4. anchorage is clear of any cables, pipeline, wrecks or other obstructions

5. the nature of sea bed is appropriate for anchoring

 ▪ when checking the charts for underwater obstructions, attention

should be paid to the chart symbol “#”

▪ this symbol means there is a foul ground and shall be avoided for anchoring

▪ It is also important to be aware of the ship’s windlass lifting

Capacity

▪ most of the ship’s windlass are able to lift the weight of the

anchor and about 3 shackles

Mooring

▪ Mooring is the operation performed first and foremost by the deck crew as the ship reaches the
port but it is also one of the most difficult, complex and dangerous jobs onboard.

▪ Mostly things turn out safely but sometimes an accident occurs and this usually has severe
consequences.

Safe Mooring

▪ Always wear the correct personal protective equipment (PPE), which is an important part of
proper preparation considering that PPE is the last line of defense.

▪ Always consider whether you are in a snap back zone and never stand on either an open line or
a closed bight of line.

▪ Keep an eye out for all members of the team. If you think they are in an unsafe position, alert
them. All operations need to be carried out calmly without rushing about. Rushing leads to slips,
trips and falls.

▪ Never lose sight of what is going on around you and have an escape route fromany likely danger
(that is, avoid being trapped against the bulwark or other obstacle when a line parts).

▪ Always put an eye onto a bollard or bitts by holding the eye either on its side orby a messenger
line to avoid getting fingers trapped against the bollard if theline suddenly snaps tight

▪ Never try to be heroic by jumping onto a line that is clearly running over the side and out of
control as you are likely to go overboard with it.

▪ Never run more than one line around a fairlead sheave as the lines chafe through quicklier and
the sheave is really only strong enough to take the load of a single line under tension.
▪ Never use any equipment that is obviously faulty. If you notice damage, then it should be
reported and an alternative arrangement for the mooring line used.

▪ Never let go of a mooring line under heavy load without determining first why the load is so
heavy and then taking the proper precautions if it must be let go.

Benefits of Marine Insurance Plan:

Marine insurance is helpful for a variety of reasons:

❖ It provides all-round coverage against a wide variety of risks faced while at sea.

❖ Most marine insurance providers offer claim survey assistance worldwide, along with claim
settlement assistance.

❖ Different marine insurance providers offer a variety of options and plans under marine
insurance policies to suit different budgets and requirements.

❖ Marine insurance covers can often be customized and adjusted to meet specific needs and
budgets of the customers.

❖ Often, marine insurance policies do provide extensions to provide protection against damages
caused due to riots, strikes and other such perils.

Companies Providing Marine Insurance Plan:

❖ In India, there are various major banks and financial institutions which provide marine
insurance.

❖ Some of the top providers are Bharti AXA, ICICI Lombard, New India Assurance Co. Ltd., United
India Assurance Co. Ltd., Tata AIG, HDFC ERGO, Royal Sundaram, Chola Insurance, etc.

What are the different Types of Marine Policies Available in India?

Based on specific requirements of the industry marine policies have been standardized under
following categories:

Cargo Insurance: Exclusively covers the cargo on the ship. It also covers the risk of damage to
objects owned by the voyagers of the ship.

Time Policy: This is marine insurance cover for a limited period.

Valued Policy: The insurance cover is subject to cover provided for a pre-determined value. In
the case of any mishap, your insurance policy will only reimburse subject to the fixed value.
Hull Insurance: It covers the torso and hull of the vessel. Also covered is a risk of damage to
various articles and furniture in the ship. It is insurance against the value of ship loss.

Liability Insurance (part of Hull Insurance): Insurance compensation, in this case, is calculated
based on the total liability of the insured. Suppose there is a ship accident or collision, whatever
be the liability on the part of the insured linked to risk of such an accident, is covered by your
insurer.

Mixed Policy: Mix of time and voyage policy.

Unvalued Policy: Unlike valued policy, in this type of marine insurance policy the exact insurance
amount is calculated by inspecting the extent of the damage. The exact damage loss is assessed
after the accident.

Port Risk Policy: This is risk cover when the ship is stationed at the port.

Floating Policy or Open Policy: Several shipments are covered under a single policy. A fixed sum
is determined to cover multiple shipments, and the details of any shipments are only declared
afterwards.

Fleet Policy: Several ships belonging to a single owner are covered under one policy.

Block Policy: This insurance covers the cargo for every risk of land and water. The policy covers
the cargo on Door to Door basis; i.e. from the pickup point of the seller to the drop-off point for
the buyer, even if it includes land transport in between or at either end.

Single Vessel Policy: Only one vessel is covered under this type on the marine insurance policy.

Named Policy: In this type of marine insurance coverage, ships are covered under its name. The
name of the ship is mentioned in the insurance document.

Blanket Policy: Maximum protection amount is paid at the time of buying the policy. The
amount is adjusted after compensation is paid.

Composite Policy: Under this policy, each owner of the policy is accorded a fixed sum. One
insurance policy has multiple owners, and their obligation classified legally.

Marine Insurance Covers:

The primary objective of a marine insurance policy is to protect your finances and assets while
they are being transported via sea. However, different insurance companies offer multiple types
of marine insurance policies. Due to this reason, there is no standard list of risks against which
every marine insurance will provide protection. Though most marine insurance policies do
provide cover against damages or losses to expensive cargo, some policies may while some may
not provide extended cover against cross border civil disturbances or against pirates. Following
 is a list of some of the common instances or losses which marine insurance provides cover
against:

Import or export shipments.

Goods which are being transported via sea, rail, air, road or post.

Goods being transported by coastal vessels which ply between different ports inside the
country.

Goods which are transported via vessels plying along rivers

The Three Different Levels of Institute Cargo Clauses

Institute cargo clauses are attached to a type of marine insurance that covers cargo in transit.
These clauses are to specify what items in the cargo are covered should there be damage or loss
to the shipment. Institute cargo clauses can cover everything from the cargo itself to the
container that holds it to the mode of transportation used to ship it.

There are three basic sets of institute cargo clauses; A, B, C. Just like you are able to get
insurance on smaller, domestic packages; bulk freight is insured too.

These clauses were developed by the International Chamber of Commerce as a means of

insurance for cargo while it is being shipped from the original location to its final destination.

Just like auto insurance, the higher premium you pay the more coverage you get. The three
clauses are briefly described the same way:

Institute Cargo Clause A is considered the widest insurance coverage and you should expect to
pay the highest premium because you are asking for total coverage.

Institute Cargo Clause B is considered a more restrictive coverage and you should expect to pay
a moderate premium because perhaps you are only requesting the more valuable items in your
cargo to be covered or only partial cargo coverage.

Institute Cargo Clause C is considered the most restrictive coverage and you will probably pay
the lowest premium but your cargo coverage will be much less.

Each of the institute cargo clauses are reserved for goods in transit. The items being shipped
are considered goods in transit when they have departed the original location and are in
transit to the final destination.

When goods are insured during transport, whether it be by land, air or sea; it means that if the
cargo is damaged or lost during transit it will be refunded or replaced to whichever party held
the “technical” ownership.
 Coverage under various policies

The coverage provided by marine insurance can be understood by going through the risks
handled by the insurance policies loaded with various insurance clauses:

➢ Institute Cargo Clause C provides basic coverage and includes a restricted list of risk covers. It
covers the shipment against events such as fire, discharge of cargo in case of distress, explosion,
accidents like sinking, capsizing, derailment, collision, etc.

➢ Institute Cargo clause B offers an additional layer of protection. Not only does it include all the
risk covers provided under Clause C, but it also covers the shipment against events such as
earthquake, volcanic eruption, and damage due to rainwater, seawater, river water, etc., and
loss to package overboard or during lo Institute Cargo Clause A provides maximum coverage as
it covers all risk of loss or damage to the goods. Apart from the risks covered under Clauses B
and C, it also covers losses due to breakage, chipping, denting, bruising, theft, non-delivery, all
water damage, etc.

➢ Risks such as wars, strikes, riots, and civil commotions are not covered under the institute cargo
clauses. However, the insurer may provide this cover on payment of additional marine insurance
premium.

➢ So in terms of coverage, these three types of marine insurance clauses: Institute Cargo Clauses
A, B, and C. Clause A provides maximum coverage, Clause C provides basic risk coverage.

➢ ading and unloading.

The Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY)

Key features:

➢ PMMSY is a scheme to bring about Blue Revolution through sustainable and responsible
development of fisheries sector in India under two components namely, Central Sector Scheme
(CS) and Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS).

➢ The Scheme will be implemented during a period of 5 years from FY 2020-21 to FY 2024-25.

➢ Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying.

Implementation:

➢ Central Sector Scheme (CS) – The entire project/unit cost will be borne by the Central
government (i.e. 100% central funding).
➢ The Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) Component is further segregated into Non-beneficiary
oriented and Beneficiary orientated subcomponents/activities under the following three broad
heads:

➢ Enhancement of Production and Productivity.

➢ Infrastructure and Post-Harvest Management.

➢ Fisheries Management and Regulatory Framework.

Major Benefits of PMMSY:

1) Address the critical gaps in the fisheries sector and realize its potential.

2) Augmenting fish production and productivity at a sustained average annual growth rate.

3) Improving availability of certified quality fish seed and feed, traceability in fish and including
effective aquatic health management.

4) Creation of critical infrastructure including modernization and strengthening of value chain.

5) Creation of direct gainful employment opportunities to about 15 lakh fishers, fish farmers, fish
workers, fish vendors and other rural/urban populations in fishing and allied activities.

6) Boost to investments in fisheries sector and increase of competitiveness of fish and fisheries
products.

7) Social, physical and economic security for fishers and fish workers.

The threat of ballast water

8) 1. Marine plankton are also pumped into ballast tanks along with the
9) water.
10) 2. Therefore, the ballast tanks serve as onboard aquaria.
11) 3. The ballast water taken on in one ecological zone is released into
12) another along with all the surviving organisms.
13) 4. This way, ballast water may introduce organisms (exotic species) into
14) the port of discharge that do not naturally belong there.
15) 5. Populations of exotic species may grow very quickly in the absence
16) of natural predators. In that case they are called ‘invasive’.
17) 6. Only few species are successful invaders, because most species are
18) not able to survive in new surroundings, because temperature, food,
19) and salinity are less than optimal.
20) 7. However, the species that do survive and establish a population are
21) very hardy species that have the potential to cause major harm to
22) ecology, economy or human health.
What is a ballast water
invasive species?
A species of organism that comes from some
other place (state, country, continent, or ocean)
along with ballast water and becomes a problem
in its new location by impacting human health,
economy, or the environment.

Cargo Handling

Container ships are cargo ships that carry all of their load in truck-size intermodal containers, in
a technique called containerization. They are a common means of commercial intermodal
freight transport and now carry most seagoing non-bulk cargo. Container ship capacity is
measured in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU).There are two main types of dry cargo: bulk
cargo and break bulk cargo. Bulk cargoes, like grain or coal, are transported unpackaged in the
hull of the ship, generally in large volume. Break-bulk cargoes, on the other hand, are
transported in packages, and are generally manufactured goods. Before the advent of
containerization in the 1950s, break-bulk items were loaded, lashed, unlashed and unloaded
from the ship one piece at a time.Containerization has increased the efficiency of moving
traditional break-bulk cargoes significantly, reducing shipping time by 84% and costs by 35%. As
of 2001, more than 90% of world trade in non-bulk goods is transported in ISO containers. In
2009, almost one quarter of the world's dry cargo was shipped by container, an estimated 125
million TEU or 1.19 billion metric tons worth of cargo.

The hull of a typical container ship is a huge warehouse divided into cells by vertical guide rails.
These cells are designed to hold cargo in pre-packed units – containers. Shipping containers are
usually made of steel, but other materials like aluminum, fiberglass or plywood are also used.
They are designed to be entirely transferred to and from trains, trucks or trailers. There are
several types of containers and they are categorized according to their size and functions

Cargo Handling

A major characteristic of a container ship is whether it has cranes installed for handling its
cargo. Those that have cargo cranes are called geared and those that don't are called ungeared
or gearless. The earliest purpose-built container ships in the 1970s were all gearless. Since then,
the percentage of geared newbuilds has fluctuated widely, but has been decreasing overall,
with only 7.5% of the container ship capacity in 2009 being equipped with cranes. While geared
container ships are more flexible in that they can visit ports that are not equipped with
container cranes, they suffer from several drawbacks. To begin with, geared ships will cost
more to purchase than a gearless ship. Geared ships also incur greater recurring expenses, such
as maintenance and fuel costs.

Nations Council on Trade and Development characterizes geared ships as a "niche market only
appropriate for those ports where low cargo volumes do not justify investment in port cranes
or where the public sector does not have the financial resources for such investment." Instead
of the rotary cranes, some geared ships have gantry cranes installed. These cranes, specialized
for container work, are able to roll forward and aft on rails. In addition to the additional capital
expense and maintenance costs, these cranes generally load and discharge containers much
more slowly than their shoreside counterparts. The introduction and improvement of shoreside
cranes have been a key to the success of the container ship. The first crane that was specifically
designed for container work was built in California's Port of Alameda in 1959. By the 1980s,
shoreside gantry cranes were capable of moving containers on a 3-minute-cycle, or up to 400
tons per hour. In March 2010, at Port Klang in Malaysia, a new world record was set when 734
container moves were made in a single hour. The record was achieved using 9 cranes to
simultaneously load and unload the MV CSCL Pusan, a ship with a capacity of 9,600 TEU. Cargo
Holds Efficiency has always been key in the design of container ships. While containers may be
carried on conventional break-bulk ships, cargo holds for dedicated container ships are specially
constructed to speed loading and unloading, and to efficiently keep containers secure while at
sea. A key aspect of container ship specialization is the design of the hatches, the openings
from the main deck to the cargo holds.

The hatch openings stretch the entire breadth of the cargo holds, and are surrounded by a
raised steel structure known as the hatch coaming. On top of the hatch coamings are the hatch
covers. Until the 1950s, hatches were typically secured with wooden boards and tarpaulins held
down with battens. Today, some hatch covers can be solid metal plates that are lifted on and
off the ship by cranes, while others are articulated mechanisms that are opened and closed
using powerful hydraulic rams.

Another key component of dedicated container-ship design is the use of cell guides. Cell guides
are strong vertical structures constructed of metal installed into a ship's cargo holds. These
structures guide containers into well-defined rows during the loading process and provide some
support for containers against the ship's rolling at sea. So fundamental to container ship design
are cell guides that organizations such as the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development use their presence to distinguishing dedicated container ships from general
break-bulk cargo ships.
Lashing systems

Twist-locks and lashing rods (pictured) are widely used to secure containers aboard ships.
Numerous systems are used to secure containers aboard ships, depending on factors such as
the type of ship, the type of container, and the location of the container. Stowage inside the
holds of fully cellular (FC) ships is simplest, typically using simple metal forms called container
guides, locating cones, and anti-rack spacers to lock the containers together. Above-decks,
without the extra support of the cell guides, more complicated equipment is used. Three types
of systems are currently in wide use: lashing systems, locking systems, and buttress systems.
Lashing systems secure containers to the ship using devices made from wire rope, rigid rods, or
chains and devices to tension the lashings, such as turnbuckles. The effectiveness of lashings is
increased by securing containers to each other, either by simple metal forms (such as stacking
cones) or more complicated devices such as twist-lock stackers. A typical twist-lock is inserted
into the casting hole of one container and rotated to hold it in place, then another container is
lowered on top of it. The two containers are locked together by twisting the device's handle. A
typical twist-lock is constructed of forged steel and ductile iron and has a shear strength of 48
metric tons. The buttress system, used on some large container ships, uses a system of large
towers attached to the ship at both ends of each cargo hold. As the ship is loaded, a rigid,
removable stacking frame is added, structurally securing each tier of containers together.

External lashing system

Introduction

The aim of ship’s officers and crewmembers on board should be to prevent damage or deterioration
whilst the cargo is under their care and to deliver it, as far as possible, in as good condition and order as
it was when received aboard. If unacquainted with a certain type of cargo you should ascertain as to its
nature and any necessary precautions. Therefore, the Master and officers of all vessels require a good
working knowledge of the various kinds of cargo they are likely to carry: their peculiar characteristics,
liability to damage, decay, or deterioration, their measurement, and the usual methods of packing,
loading and discharging, stowage, dunnaging, etc., as the Master is responsible for the safe loading of
his vessel and the proper stowage of the cargo. The actual handling of the cargo in loading and
discharging is done by stevedores, who are experienced men appointed for this purpose when a vessel
arrives at a port. This does not release the Master from the responsibility for the safety of the ship and
cargo, and he must supervise the work of the stevedores for general safety. Therefore, during stowage
the first consideration must be given to safety, i.e. the cargo must be stowed so that the ship will be
stable and seaworthy, and it must be secured in such a manner that it cannot shift if the vessel
encounters bad weather. The type of vessel, the cubic capacity of her compartments destined for the
cargo and the appliances on board or on shore for loading or discharging, as well as the nature of the
cargo, affect the question of how to stow the cargo in the best possible manner. The ship must be made
neither stiff nor too tender. The next consideration is for the safety of the cargo itself: it must not be
damaged by shifting; certain commodities become easily tainted by others, water might find its way into
the hold and condensation or sweating must be prevented. Valuable cargo may be stolen or broached.
Finally, the Chief Officer must bear in mind the various destinations of the goods the ship carries, and
arrange things, as far as he can, to see that the cargo for a certain place can be lifted out without
disturbing the other cargo. The Chief Officer must watch closely the ship's stability (i.e. what the ship's
trim is or how she is sitting). Since a ship is supported by fluid pressure she will incline in any direction
according to the position of the weights placed on her. The trim, therefore, is the angle that a ship is
making, fore and aft, with the water. The levels are read by numbers painted on the ship's stem and
stem. These are called draught marks. Another word is heel. This means a list or inclination from one
side to another, caused by loading. The Chief Officer must watch the load lines. They are welded or
punched on and then painted.

The ship must be made neither stiff nor too tender. The next consideration is for the safety of the cargo
itself: it must not be damaged by shifting; certain commodities become easily tainted by others, water
might find its way into the hold and condensation or sweating must be prevented. Valuable cargo may
be stolen or broached. Finally, the Chief Officer must bear in mind the various destinations of the goods
the ship carries, and arrange things, as far as he can, to see that the cargo for a certain place can be
lifted out without disturbing the other cargo. The Chief Officer must watch closely the ship's stability
(i.e. what the ship's trim is or how she is sitting). Since a ship is supported by fluid pressure she will
incline in any direction according to the position of the weights placed on her. The trim, therefore, is the
angle that a ship is making, fore and aft, with the water. The levels are read by numbers painted on the
ship's stem and stem. These are called draught marks. Another word is heel. This means a list or
inclination from one side to another, caused by loading. The Chief Officer must watch the load lines.
They are welded or punched on and then painted

Before containerisation, apart from bulk, most cargoes were handled as general cargoes. Even vehicles
were handled as general cargo before the advent of vehicle carriers and ro-ro vessels. Most ships had
their own handling facilities in the form of derricks. Now the majority of cargo is shipped in containers.
Thus there in no need for ships to have their own cargo handling gear and they rely entirely on shore
facilities. Much of the general cargo carried now is of a type that cannot be readily packed into
containers. General cargo is loaded from the dock by traditional dockside cranes except where the
weight precludes this. To speed up loading, much of the cargo is unitised. The process of unitising
consists of strapping together individual items of cargo to form a single unit. Ships designed to carry
heavy cargoes usually have their own cargo handling gear in the form of heavy duty derricks or cranes.
Most cargo vessels used to have ‘tween decks (in between decks) in the holds but not many cargo ships
are fitted with these now.

REFRIGERATED CARGO
Apples, pears, kiwis, grapes and stonefruit (peaches, cherries etc.) are traditionally the main products
that dominate this segment of reefer transportation. As many of us know from our own gardens,
deciduous fruits are highly seasonal. This makes the deciduous trade very different from the banana
trade, which is a 12-month business. Optimum transit temperatures for deciduous fruit vary greatly per
type and variety, but mostly range between –1 and +4°C. The ability of the fruit to resist pressure is
indicative of its ripeness and can be measured with a penetrometer

The appropriate carriage temperature for bananas is limited by the susceptibility to chilling injury.
Generally a carriage temperature of +13,3°C is to be maintained during the sea voyage. Bananas are a
sort of perishable cargo (pokvarljivteret) and should arrive in a fresh, green unripe condition. If
premature ripening takes place during the voyage, progressive ripening by emission of high amounts of
ethylene can hardly be avoided. Bananas may overripe to failure of the vessel's refrigeration system
during the voyage. In comparison with the previously mentioned groups of cargo, citrus fruit i.e.
oranges, lemons, grapefruit and mandarins, are a relatively simple cargo to carry. A minor fluctuation in
the hold temperature will not have disastrous effects. Successful shipments have even been carried out
using ventilation alone, without refrigeration. Amongst the most familiar fungi (glivice) affecting citrus
fruit are green and blue penicillium mould growth (shown to the right) which is accelerated by high
storage temperatures. Cargo vessels often carry timber, usually sawn construction material such as
deals, battens, planks and boards. Vertical timber side members, or stanchions (stupovi) , are used to
secure the cargo either side. The cargo is often piled high because timber is a relatively light cargo

Inflatable dunnage bags for use in securing sensitive cargo where traditional timber dunnage is
inappropriate, for example with pulp cargoes where contamination by wood splinters is unacceptable.
Vacuum clamps were primarily designed to lift newsprint, but are now also used with other types of
reeled paper. A frame carrying suction pads is lowered onto the reels, and vacuum is applied. This allows
the reels to be lifted without damage being inflicted.

Some cargoes are unitised. The process of unitising consists of strapping together individual bales or
bundles into a unit. Unitised commodities include paper, pulp, plywood, hardboard, lumber, aluminium,
lead, steel pipes and many more.

Pipe lifting frames are used to handle an increasing diversity of pipes. Various types of pipe hooks are
utilised to match the shippers requirements for the varied types of pipe, some coated, some flanged,
others strapped in bundles

Semi-Automatic Lifting Frames (beams) carry an air pressure system, operating on pneumatic release
hooks. This means that once hooked up to the load, no further intervention is required to release the
hooks as the crane driver has a control system in the crane cab. Used to lift a wide range of commodities
including unitised pulp, timber, plywood, aluminium, copper, and lead, as well as non-unitised
commodities such a slung timber, tissue reels and big bags of bulk commodities.

Head clamps are used to lift reels of paper where the quality of paper does not warrant the considerable
investment in vacuum clamps, where local technology does not support the maintenance of these
complex machines, or where reels are not suitable for core probe lifting.
Cargo Stowage Plan

1. CONVENTIONAL CARGO VESSELS.

Conventional cargo vessels are constructed with several hatch openings on the weather deck into the
holds below. In the deck arrangement of a conventional cargo ship, cargo is lowered through the main
deck hatch opening into one of the between deck levels in the hold. It is landed in the hatch square and
moved forward, aft, or into the wings by machine or by hand, where it is stowed. The hatches are
numbered in order from bow to stern and the various deck levels are normally designated as upper
tween deck, lower tween deck, and hold.

2. BREAK-BULK VESSEL STOWAGE PLANS.

The break-bulk vessel cargo stowage plan is a complete diagram of a vessel's cargo space showing the
location (both on and below deck) of all cargo aboard ship. a. General. The stowage plan looks like a
vessel when viewed from the side. It contains information about cargo stowed in the vessel's hold,
tween decks, and forecastle deck. The cargo shown in the tween decks is shown from the birdseye view.
Only the lower hold is shown from the side or profile view. The cargo stowage plan is prepared by the
loading terminal after the ship has been loaded and is used to facilitate the subsequent loading and
discharge of cargo at all ports along the voyage. The cargo stowage plan contains— A summary of cargo
to be discharged at each port. A summary and location of heavy lifts. Information on the capacity and
location of heavy lifts. Information on the capacity and location of the ship's boom. General
information such as the location of special items of cargo (protected, controlled, sensitive, mail, high-
value, and so forth).

LIQUID BULK CARGO – Oil Tankers

Many tankers now load from oilfields at sea. To do this they moor up (usually by the bow) to a gantry,
buoy or turret .Tankers on the North Sea run (often called shuttle tankers) have been specially designed
to load at the bow from a single point mooring at sea. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted
when loading and have to be removed, this being done with equipment on deck. It is estimated that 4 to
7 million of tons of cargo is lost due to VOC emission yearly versus 25,000 tons due to spillage.
Economically as well environmentally it is unacceptable. Emissions produced by venting during loading
and transit are in the range of 0.1 to 0.3 percent, depending on tanker design and cargo characteristics.
Losses can reach two percent or more when the cargo has not been stripped of its most volatile
components before loading aboard the tanker. Double hull tankers may produce higher VOC emission
than single hull tankers, because of the insulation (izolacija) of the hot oil from the surrounding cooler
temperatures. VOCs are condensed in a process plant and stored in separate tanks on the ship's deck.

Crude oil can be loaded into a tanker from a variety of offshore facilities or from a conventional oil
terminal through the midship manifold . M/T Navion Britannia shown above is equipped with the most
advanced loading systems, combining a Bow Loading (BL) system and the ship's part of the Submerged
Turret Loading (STL) system
Liquid cargo is nowadays usually transferred using an articulated arm loading/discharge systems, and
groups of arms are often found on a shore refineries or on offshore loading facilities. It connects to the
tanker’s manifold usually located near the centre of the ship. As well as used for loading petroleum
products, these loading arms (‘manige’) are also used to load a wide range of chemicals. Some arms are
designed to handle chemicals and gases at cryogenic temperatures such as liquefied natural gas,
ethylene, refrigerated anhydrous ammonia and refrigerated LPG and LNG. The first marine loading arm
came into operation in 1956, and before that hoses (fleksbilne/elastičnecijevi) were manually connected
using derricks and cranes.

Cargo is offloaded at the manifold, usually located amidships. All the tanks are connected to this point
via valves. Modern vessels have the capability of simultaneously off loading several grades or types of
cargo.

COMMUNICATION

Good communications on board the ship also serve another important role; that of keeping the
crew in touch with often distant friends and family. Internet connectively, part and parcel of
channels of communication today, also allows access to email, weather and chart updates,
position reporting, telemedicine and remote diagnostics, among other things. Seafarers also need
to be able to communicate with other ships to receive and send urgent maritime safety
information, and to send or receive distress alerts in an emergency to or from rescue coordination
centres ashore and from nearby ships, wherever they are in the world.

With ship traffic increasing around the world, it has become ever more important to improve
safety and security and to safeguard our environment. When critical decisions have to be made
quickly to protect or enhance any of these factors, good communication between all involved in
the maritime chain is essential. The telecommunications structure for those at sea is far removed
from the networks we can tap into on land. Instead, advanced communication systems enable
ship-land, land-land and ship-ship contact, using satellite, and land-based radio and telephone
infrastructure. The state-of-the-art voice and data communications technology available today
mean that ship owners, operators and crew can stay in touch, wherever they are.

What Marine Communication Systems Are Used in the Maritime Industry?

Radio telecommunication at sea had undergone a sea change in the last century. After the days of
semaphores and flags (which is still relevant today in some cases), radio brought about a drastic
change in marine communication at sea.
From the early years of the last century, ships started fitting radio for communicating distress
signals among themselves and with the shore. Radio telegraphy using Morse code was used in
the early part of the twentieth century for marine communication.

In the seventies, after considering the studies of the International Telecommunication Union,
IMO brought about a system where ship-to-ship or ship-to-shore communication was put into
action with some degree of automation, wherein a skilled radio officer keeping 24×7 watch was
not required.

Marine communication between ships or with the shore was carried with the help of on board
systems through shore stations and even satellites. While ship-to-ship communication was
brought about by VHF radio, Digital Selective Calling (DSC) came up with digitally remote
control commands to transmit or receive distress alert, urgent or safety calls, or routine priority
messages. DSC controllers can now be integrated with the VHF radio as per SOLAS (Safety Of
Life at Sea) convention.

Satellite services, as opposed to terrestrial communication systems, need the help of geo-
stationary satellites for transmitting and receiving signals, where the range of shore stations
cannot reach. These marine communication services are provided by INMARSAT (a commercial
company) and COSPAS – SARSAT (a multi-national government funded agency).

While INMARSAT gives the scope of two way communications, the Corpas Sarsat has a system
that is limited to reception of signals from emergency position and places with no facilities of
two way marine communications, indicating radio beacons (EPIRB).

For international operational requirements, the Global Maritime Distress Safety System
(GMDSS) has divided the world in four sub areas. These are four geographical divisions named
as A1, A2, A3 and A4.

Different radio communication systems are required by the vessel to be carried on board ships,
depending on the area of operation of that particular vessel.

A1 – It’s about 20- 30 nautical miles from the coast, which is under coverage of at least one VHF
coast radio station in which continuous DSC alerting is available. Equipment used: A VHF, a
DSC and a NAVTEX receiver (a navigational telex for receiving maritime
and meteorological information).
A2 – This area notionally should cover 400 nautical miles off shore but in practice it extends up
to 100 nautical miles off shore but this should exclude A1 areas. Equipment used: A DSC, and
radio telephone (MF radio range) plus the equipment required for A1 areas

A3 – This is the area excluding the A1 & A2 areas. But the coverage is within 70 degrees north
and 70 degree south latitude and is within INMARSAT geostationary satellite range, where
continuous alerting is available. Equipment used: A high frequency radio and/ or INMARSAT,
a system of receiving MSI (Maritime Safety Information) plus the other remaining systems for
A1 and A2 areas.

A4 – These are the areas outside sea areas of A1, A2 and A3. These are essentially the Polar
Regions North and South of 70 degree of latitude. Equipment used: HF radio service plus those
required for other areas.

All oceans are covered by HF marine communication services for which the IMO requires to
have two coast stations per ocean region. Today almost all ships are fitted with satellite terminal
for Ship Security Alerts System (SSAS) and for long range identification and tracking as per
SOLAS requirements.

On distress, Search and Rescue operations from Maritime Rescue Co-ordination centers are
carried out among other methods, with the help of most of these marine navigation tools.
Naturally, the sea has become a lot safer with these gadgets and other important navigation
tools recommended by the IMO and as enshrined in GMDSS.

Importance of Technological Advancement

Understanding the importance of the maritime industry in everyday life isn’t easy for people
away from coastal areas. However, one only has to look around his room.

Many products — gadgets, appliances, and factory machines — from all around the world are
transported through massive cargo ships. Fishing vessels traverse international waters to supply
markets with seafood. Marine engineers continuously devise new ways to generate hydropower
better.

For an industry that highly values capacity and efficiency, information technology is a blessing.
Construction and design of ships now involve composite materials and complex digital systems.
Communication in Open Waters

Maritime workers need a way to quickly communicate not only with each other on the vessel but
with those on other ships and with people on land. Local networks and internet access are
essential to managing work.

Information technology ensures systems won’t have severe connectivity issues. A virtual private
network (VPN) keeps sensitive maritime information away from cyber attacks. System
administrators can easily detect unusual user behavior. As long as the industry knows the pros
and cons of using a VPN, it can take full advantage of this technology.

Improved Safety

Perhaps one of the most disastrous things that can occur in the maritime industry is when ships
accidentally hit and sink one another. Better communication systems can prevent this.

On a related note, information systems will aid the maritime industry against pirates and
hijackers. Ships can use these to immediately plan out routes that can prevent the triumphant
entry of unwanted individuals.

Faster Cargo Processing

Global trade has intensified the need for bigger and better cargo ships. Apart from an
increased carrying capacity, the cargo trade can also benefit from a more efficient
processing system.

Information technology allows cargo ships to deliver their goods faster. The weight of all the
cargo is precisely determined using monitoring systems. Ships can send cargo-related
information to each other to prevent any delays in container ports.
 Advanced Navigation

Ships no longer need to rely on paper maps and an old compass. Marine navigation in the
information age involves satellite communication, radar, radio, GPS, and digital maps. The
variety of technologies allows ships to find the safest and fastest route even during undesirable
weather conditions.

The maritime industry has greatly benefited from information technology — and it will continue
to do so as long as global trade and the demand for seafood, energy, and better water transport
exist.

Technology that is shaping the shipping industry

The growth of sensor technology

Sensor technology is one of the most advanced and well-developed technologies today. With the
introduction of sensors, there is no need for checking equipment on the ships manually.
Connecting all the machinery to sensors through wireless connectivity enables the crew on the
ship to keep accurate tabs on the working condition of machines, the maintenance required at
regular intervals, and their complete operability on ships.
In addition, if the sensors are combined with machine learning and artificial intelligence, they
can access remote locations and analyze the data, immediately sending out alerts if any of the
ship’s parts need maintenance.

Robotic automation

The use of robots in every sector has become quite common in the past few years. In the
shipping industry, robots are gradually being used to aid all the tasks. Activities like packing,
delivering, inspection, firefighting, etc. can be carried out by robots effortlessly.

Since robots work more effectively and without any breaks, the shipping industry is anticipated
to come to rely heavily on the use of robots for every function. These robots will also be able to
locate and navigate ships and can be used to eliminate a threat in case of an attack. The size of
these robots is also being worked upon. Robots the size of heavy machinery can take up a lot of
space and prove to be a hurdle. New types of robots, called ‘mini-robots’, are being paired with
the sensors to identify and record all the data in the ship and work on it.

Autonomous ships

Autonomous systems in shipping are gaining immense popularity on account of their capability
to deliver goods without any interference. These systems operate at peak efficiency for a
significantly longer duration that is needed in the shipping industry.

Leading technology companies have invested in the research and development of these
autonomous systems. Surface, underwater, and air-based vehicles are being used to monitor
activity, tap desirable locations for oil and natural gas, and other such activities.
These autonomous systems are equipped with the latest, advanced heat mapping and material
detection technology, which eliminates the human effort involved.

For instance, a Transportation Management System (TMS) is a system designed to manage the
supply of goods efficiently. It enables the company to keep a proper track record of their
shipments and whether or not they are being delivered to the correct destination.

IOT (internet of things)

IoT primarily consists of a GPS and a cloud-based database which stores all the data collected by
devices on the ship. IoT also connects the sensors, robots and other devices through a wireless
network. The advantage of using IoT is that, since it keeps track of all devices and shipments, the
shipping industry will be able to provide better customer service. It can provide customers with
information about the location, time of arrival and delay in the shipment. IoT is, hence, a highly
anticipated technological solution to management problems on the ship.

Conclusion

In the end I would like to conclude myself by telling that communication and technology both
are very much important for the growth of marine transportation. And in the coming years the
growth of these two factors will grow a lot and eventually our countries import and export will
eventually increase which will also help the economic growth to increase too.7
What is IMO

• International Maritime Organization.

• IMO is the specialized agency of the United Nations (U.N.) concerned with Maritime
Affairs located in London, England.

History of IMO

• IMO (Formerly known as IMCO-International Maritime Consultative Organization) was

established under a 1948 United Nations convention that entered into force on 17 March
1958.

• As of December, 2013 IMO currently has 170 member states, 3 associate members, 51
Inter- Governmental Organizations which have concluded agreements of cooperation,
and 66 Non- Governmental Organizations in Consultative Status with IMO.

What Does IMO Do

• The IMO slogan sums up its objectives: “Safe, secure and efficient shipping on clean
oceans.”

• When IMO first began operations its chief concern was to develop international treaties
and other legislation concerning safety and marine pollution prevention.

• By the late 1970s, however, this work had been largely completed, though a number of
important instruments were adopted in more recent years. IMO is now concentrating on
keeping legislation up to date and ensuring that it is ratified by as many countries as
possible. This has been so successful that many Conventions now apply to more than
98% of world merchant shipping tonnage.

• Currently the emphasis is on trying to ensure that these conventions and other treaties are
properly implemented by the countries that have accepted them. The texts of conventions,
codes and other instruments adopted by IMO can be purchased from IMO

Why do we need the IMO to look after shipping?

• Because shipping is an international industry. If each nation developed its own safety
legislation the result would be a maze of differing, often conflicting national laws. One
nation, for example, might insist on lifeboats being made of steel and another of glass-
reinforced plastic. Some nations might insist on very high safety standards while others
might be more lax, acting as havens for sub-standard shipping.
What is the IMO Convention?

• A written international treaty made between two or more states which is binding in
International law.

• Conventions are chief instruments of IMO, being binding legal instruments, regulating
some aspect of maritime affairs of major concern to IMO e.g. safety of life at sea
(SOLAS) or marine pollution (MARPOL).

• They are identified by name and the year of adoption by the Assembly, Such as the
International Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974.

• As of December, 2013, there are 30 conventions have been made between IMO member
states

Most important IMO Conventions

• 1. International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, as amended.

• 2. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified
by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto and by the Protocol of 1997(MARPOL).

• 3. International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for

Seafarers ( STCW ) as amended, including the 1995 and 2010 Manila Amendments.

Other conventions relating to maritime safety and security and ship/port interface

• 4.Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea

(COLREG), 1972

• 5. Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic (FAL), 1965

• 6. International Convention on Load Lines (LL), 1966

• 7. International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR), 1979

• 8. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime
Navigation (SUA), 1988, and Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the
Safety of Fixed Platforms located on the Continental Shelf (and the 2005 Protocols)

• 9. International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC), 1972

• 10. Convention on the International Maritime Satellite Organization (IMSO C), 1976

• 11. The Torremolinos International Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels(SFV),
1977, superseded by the 1993 Torremolinos Protocol; Cape Town Agreement of 2012 on
 the Implementation of the Provisions of the 1993 Protocol relating to the Torremolinos
International Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels

• 12. International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping

for Fishing Vessel Personnel (STCW-F), 1995

• 13. Special Trade Passenger Ships Agreement (STP), 1971 and Protocol on Space
Requirements for Special Trade Passenger Ships, 1973

Other conventions relating to prevention of marine pollution

• 14. International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil
Pollution Casualties (INTERVENTION), 1969

• 15. Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter (LC), 1972 (and the 1996 London Protocol)

• 16. International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co- operation
(OPRC), 1990

• 17. Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Co-operation to pollution Incidents by

Hazardous and Noxious Substances, 2000 (OPRC-HNS Protocol)

• 18. International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships

(AFS), 2001

• 19. International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water
and Sediments, 2004 20. The Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and
Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships, 2009

Major Issues on IMO’s Agenda

• Maritime Security

• Role of the Human Element

• Goal-based new ship construction standards

• Member State Assessment

• Ballast Water Management

• Air Pollution from Ships

• Recycling of Ship
Definition Weather : Climate

• The physical state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time as regards heat,
cloudiness, dryness, sunshine, wind, rain, etc. E.g: on a particular day in Trinidad, the
weather is warm in the afternoon. But later in the day, when there are clouds blocking
sun’s rays, the weather could become colder.

• Climate :The weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period.
Generalized statement of the prevailing weather conditions at a given place, based on
statistics of a long period of record and including the mean values, departures from those
means and the probabilities associated with those departures.

The difference between weather and climate

• Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get” Weather. It is mix of events that
happen each day in our atmosphere including temperature, rainfall and humidity. It is not
the same every where. Perhaps it is hot, dry and sunny today where you live, but in other
parts of the world it is cloudy, raining or even snowing. Everyday, weather events are
recorded and predicted by meteorologists worldwide

Factors that influence climate and weather

• ELEVATION OR ALTITUDE EFFECT

• CLIMATE PREVAILING

• GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS

• TOPOGRAPHY EFFECT OF GEOGRAPHY SURFACE OF THE EARTH CLIMATE

CHANGE OVER TIME

Weather and climate change and their effect to maritime transportation

• Impact on ships and sea lanes Increasing temperature Reduce the amount of sea ice in
many important shipping lanes, extending the shipping season. Warmer winters Lead to
less snow and ice accumulation on vessels, decks, and rigging in marine transportation. In
Arctic, warmer temperature could also open up the possibility of a Northway Passage,
which could reduce shipping times and distance. However, this passage may also provide
a pathway for invasive species transport and survival.

• Shipping lanes experiencing sea level rise will be able to accommodate larger ships,
reducing shipping costs. However, higher sea levels will mean lower clearance under
waterway bridges. In inland waterways where water levels are expected to decline, as in
the Great Lakes, ships could face weight restrictions, as channels become too shallow.
Impact on ports and infrastructure

• Raised to accommodate higher tides and storm surges, as sea levels rise. example; in the
Gulf Coast, which is home to seven of the 10 largest ports in the United States, the
combination of relative sea level rise and more intense hurricanes and tropical storms
could lead to significant disruptions and damage.

Climate change affect on maritime transport

• Precipitation rainfall will become intense, implying in many places more droughts and
floods. Temperature number of rain, wind and storms Intensity and frequency of tropical
cyclones More rain and less snow as forms of precipitation will reduce the winter
replenishments of glaciers, accelerating summer and winter melting.

• The rise in sea level Glacier melt & thermal expansion of the oceans Exacerbate by
extreme weather ; e.g storm surges Inundate & contaminate groundwater in coastal area
Lead to mass migration from coastal areas (major impacts on port & shipping)

• Global warming In North Atlantic and in the Arctic, where the area and the thickness of
Arctic summer sea ice has dropped drastically (22% in two years), triggering a number of
systemic effects, including the opening up of new Arctic routes for maritime transport.

• Pollution, warming and acidification Rising ocean temperatures, pollution and plastic
debris Acidification from rising levels of CO2 and overfishing. Increased dead zones and
pollutions Degrading coral reefs

What is waterways?

• A river, canal, or other body of water serving as a route or way of travel or transport is
known as waterways.

Classification of waterways
 Inland water transport

• A stretch of water, not part of the sea, over which craft of a carrying capacity not less
than 50 tonnes can navigate when normally loaded.
• This term covers both navigable rivers and lakes (natural water courses, whether or not
they have been improved for navigation purposes) and canals (water ways constructed
primarily for the purpose of navigation)
• Inland waterways of India is designated as National waterways by the government.

Advantages of water transport

• Carry more and heavier cargo than truck or train

• Lower transportation cost than air transport

• Most suitable form of transport for carrying heavy and large items

Disadvantages of water transport

• Relatively slow form of transport and is unsuitable for urgent goods.

• It can not deliver the goods directly to inland destination.

• Goods can be easily lost or damaged.

• Bad weather can cause the delays and losses goods at sea.