UNIT – 3

Learning - Learning Theories - Attitudes - nature - formation of attitudes, functions of

attitudes - work-related attitudes – values Motivation - nature, importance, Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy Theory, Two Factor Theory, Theory X, Theory Y - Financial and non-
financial motivation

LEARNING
Definitions
“Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
experience.”
According to Mitchell, ‘Learning is the process by which new behaviours are acquired. It is
generally agreed that learning involves changes in behaviours, practising new behaviours and
establishing permanent change in the behaviour’.

Nature of Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behaviour that results from

practice or experience. The nature of learning is:

 learning comes change.

 the change in knowledge or behaviour has to be relatively permanent or long lasting.
 learning takes place as a result of practice or through experience.

Process of Learning
Learning is a process of acquiring skills, knowledge, attitude and behaviour. It takes
following four stages.
1. Stimulus
In learning process, there should be stimulus to the learner. Stimulus is the source of
motivation or incentives. Learner should be clear about stimulus. There will be no learning
takes place if there is no stimulus or learner has not understood the stimulus. Such stimulus
can be -
 expansion of knowledge, skills and abilities,
 improving quality of work life,
 productivity and profitability,
 effectiveness,
 career advancement,
 financial and non-financial rewards.
2. Response
Response is the reaction of learner towards the stimulus. This means, response in learning
process is the outcome of first step. To take place the learning, learner should have positive
response. Only if learner is convinced for positive changes in behaviour, she/he responds
positive otherwise negative response. Thus, organization management must encourage
employees for learning with ensuring the rewards. Employees should be allowed and
encouraged to practice the performance response.
3. Motivation
Motivation is the drive to encourage individual to learn. Without drive or motivation,
learning cannot take place. This provides interest and attitude to learn. Whatever learning and
understanding ability of the person, without motivation, none of the person can learn.
4. Rewards
Rewards are incentives satisfying the motive. There should be proper reward system in
learning process. It should be transparent and predictive. Employees should know what will
be their return or rewards when they learn at different levels. For examples, praise is the
incentive which satisfies the motive of social approval. Salary increment is the incentive
which satisfies the motive of financial security. Rewards can be financial as well as non-
financial.

TYPES OF LEARNING STYLES / LEARNERS

1. Visual Learners

(a) Visual learners learn primarily through the written word.

(b) They tend to be readers who diligently take down every word.

2. Auditory Learners

(a) Auditory learners learn primarily through listening.

(b) They focus their ears and attention on words, listening carefully to everything one says.
(c) They like to talk rather than write and relish the opportunity to discuss what they’ve
heard.

3. Kinesthetics Learners

(a) kinesthetics learners learn better by doing

(b) This group learns best when they can practice what they’re learning
(c) They want to have their hands on the keyboard, the hammer, or the test tube because they
think in terms of physical action.

LEARNING THEORIES

Basically, there are four major theories in learning as: Classical conditioning theory, operant
conditioning theory, cognitive theory and social learning theory.
1. Classical Conditioning theory
Classical conditioning theory is developed by Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian
physiologist in the early 1900s. This is called classical because this is the first theory in the
area of learning.
Classical conditioning theory has introduced a simple cause and effect relationship between
stimulus and response. This theory states that learning a conditioned response involves
association between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. It explains simple
reflexive behaviour which is unlearned behaviour.

Pavlov Experiment with dog

Pavlov established this theory through findings of the experiment with dog. Pavlov presented
piece of meat to dog. He noticed salivation in dog and the salivation is increased noticeably.
He later, rang the bell without meat but the dog did not salivate. This means ringing bell did
not stimulate for salivation. He then, linked ringing bell and serving meat of piece repeatedly.
Dog learnt that when the bell rings he will get meat. Thus, whenever dog hears ringing bell,
starts salivating. Later, Pavlov stopped providing meat, but dog continued salivation on
ringing bell. Pavlov described this phenomenon i.e. dog responded with ringing bell. The dog
had learned an association between ringing bell and the food. In conclusion, this learning is
conditional response involves association between conditioned stimulus (bell), unconditioned
stimulus (food), and unconditioned response (salivation).

2. Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant conditioning theory or model is developed by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), a

psychologist. Skinner suggested that learning of complex human behaviours can be explained
or better understood with the help of operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning theory states that behaviour is function of its consequences. According
to this theory, habits can be learnt through reinforcement. After long experiment, Skinner has
identified three types of responses or operant that can be follow behaviour. He identified
neutral operant, reinforcers, and punishers.

Neutral operant is the responses from environment which neither increases nor decreases the
changes for repeating the behaviour.

Reinforcer is the responses from environment which increases the changes for repeating the
behaviour. Reinforcer can be positive or negative.

Punisher is the responses from environment which decreases the chances of repeating the
behaviour. As people do not wish to get punishment, punishment weakens behaviour.

Experiment of Operant Conditioning

Skinner conducted experiment with rat and pigeon to conclude the operant conditioning
theory. In an experiment with rat, he put rat inside a Skinner Box having lever and feeder to
serve food. There was provision that when rat pressure lever with its paws, food pellet is
delivered from the feeder. The delivery of food is possible only on the response of pressing
the lever. The contingently delivered food pellets act to reinforce the lever-pressing response.
Rat repeats the behaviour if the reinforcement i.e. food serving with lever pressing.

3. Cognitive Mapping Theory

Cognitive mapping theory was established by Edward Tolman (1886-1959), an American

psychologist. This theory is primarily based on how events and objects are related to each
other. This theory relates two stimuli i.e. describes stimulus-stimulus. Irrespective to classical
conditioning and operant conditioning theories, cognitive theory considers the learning as the
outcome of deliberate thinking about the problem.

Cognition is the process of acquiring knowledge. Cognitive is the individual's thought,

knowledge, level of understanding and interpretation of any event, object or person. This
theory states that learning involves a relationship between cognitive cues (hints about how to
choose the right way) and expectations. Learning is the outcome of thinking and knowing.

Experiment of cognitive theory

Tolman conducted an experiment with white rat. He first trained rats to run in maze (web)
without providing rewards (food). After trained them, he served food as rewards. One day
after providing food, the rats are found running faster in this maze. This showed that rats
learnt there will be food at the end of race and they used this knowledge in different ways in
the following ways. This proves that animals have ability to learn things which they can use
later in different ways. This connects cognitive maps in rats.

Tolman explained this phenomenon as individual act on beliefs, as individual act on beliefs,
attitudes, changing conditions. They use their knowledge to strive their goals. He believed
that individual not only respond to stimuli but does more than responding.

4. Social Learning (Behaviour Modelling) Theory

Social learning theory was proposed by Albert Bandura in 1977. Bandura states that people
can learn from observation, imitation and modelling. This theory believes that behaviour is
the function of consequence. People respond as on they perceive and understand the
outcomes.

This theory explains the behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of
observational learning. For instance; newly appointed employees observe the ways of
supervisors and managers and imitate their behaviour in organization. Likewise, children can
easily copy the dancing steps observing their people dancing or watching television. This
model is more applicable in teaching-learning process in school and colleges, training and
development in organization, etc.

ATTITUDE

Definitions

Attitudes are positive or negative feelings about objects, people, or events.

Attitudes are learnt predispositions towards aspects of our environment. They are positively
or negatively directed towards certain people, service or institutions.

Attitude can be defined as a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular way
towards some objects, persons or events.

Formation of Attitudes

Formation of attitude is through two sources:

1. Direct experience - One’s direct experience with an object or person as a powerful source
for attitude formation.
2. Social learning - The process of deriving attitudes from family, peer groups, religious
organisations and culture is called social learning.

Components of Attitude

1. Cognitive or Informational Component – It consists of an individual’s perceptions, beliefs,

ideas and values about an object. It is called opinion.

2. Emotional Component - It is an individual’s emotions or feelings about an object. It is

expressed as like or dislike, good or bad, favourable or unfavourable.

3. Behavioural Component – It is the tendency of an individual to behave in a particular

manner towards the object.

Characteristics of Attitude

Attitude are predispositions - Attitude are predispositions of purpose, interest or opinion of

the person to assess some objects in a favourable or an unfavourable manner.
Attitude are different from values - Attitude are different from values: Values are the
ideals, whereas attitudes are narrow, they are our feelings.
Attitude are evaluative statement - Attitude are evaluative statements: either favourable or
unfavourable concerning the objects, people or events.
Attitude influence human behaviour - A positive attitude towards a thing will influence
human behaviour towards the thing favourably and vice-versa.
Attitude have intensity - It refers to the strength of the effective component. For example,
we may dislike an individual but the extent of our disliking would determine the intensity of
our attitude towards the person.
Attitudes are learnt - Attitude is not inborn phenomenon. Attitude are learnt through social
interaction and experience.

Functions of Attitude

1. Adjustment function – Attitudes are the means for reaching the desired goals.
2. Ego-defensive function – Attitudes serve the function of defending self image.
3. Value- expressive function – One’s attitudes may express one’s values enhance one’s self-
identity.
4. Knowledge function – With the help of knowledge about an individual’s attitude, one can
anticipate the behaviour with accuracy.

WORK-RELATED ATTITUDES

Job satisfaction is the amount of pleasure or contentment associated with a job. Workers will
have high job satisfaction when they have positive attitudes toward such job factors such as
the work itself, recognition and opportunity for advancement.

Organizational commitment is a person’s identification with and attachment to an

organization. A highly committed person will probably see himself or herself as a true
member of the firm, overlook minor sources of dissatisfaction, and see himself or herself
remaining a member of the organization.

Job involvement is the degree to which employees immerse themselves in their jobs, invest
time and energy in them, and view work as a central part of their overall lives. Job
involvement results in an individual’s tendency to exceed the normal expectation associated
with his or her job. An employee with little job involvement will see it as just something to
do to earn a living. Thus, all of his/her motivation is extrinsic and she/he has little or no
interesting on learning how to perform the job better. On the other hand, a person with a lot
of job involvement will derive intrinsic satisfaction from the job itself and will want to learn
more and more about how to perform the job effectively. Job involved employees are likely
to believe in the work ethic, to exhibit high growth needs, and to enjoy participation in
decision making.

Job performance is the accomplishment of those tasks that comprise a person’s job. It means
execution of total set of job-related tasks. Task performance involves the effectiveness which
employees perform the activities that are formally part of their job and contribute to the
organization’s technical core and behaviours are maintained in the vast social environment in
which the technical core must function.

VALUES
Values represent basic convictions of an individual as to what is right, good or desirable.
They imply enduring conviction and carry moral flavor. There may be set of values which
form a value system. This system represents an order of priority of individual values in
relation to their relative significance. It can be ascertained by assessing the relative
significance assigned by an individual to varied objects such as freedom, pleasure, self -
respect, honesty, obedience and equality culture is a source of values. It contains as well as
reinforces them.
Importance
Values lay the foundation for understanding attitudes. The importance of values is as follows:
1. Personal value system influences one’s perception of individuals.
2. Personal value system influences one’s perception of situations.
3. Personal value system influences one’s decision-making process.

Types of values
Milton Rokeach conducted the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS). The RVS consists of two sets
of values with each set containing eighteen individual value items.

Set I Terminal Values: Refers to desirable end states of existence, the goals that the person
would like to achieve during his life time

Set II Instrumental Values: Refers to preferable modes of behavior means of achieving

one’s terminal values.

Terminal Values Instrumental Values

 A comfortable life (a prosperous life)
 An exciting life (a stimulating, active life)
 A sense of accomplishment (lasting
contribution)
 A world at peach (free of war and conflict)
 A world of beauty (beauty of nature and
the arts)
 Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity
for all)
 Family security (taking care of loved ones)
 Happiness (contentedness)
 Inner harmony (freedom from
inner conflict)
 Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy)
 National security (protection from attack)
 Pleasure (an enjoyable, leisurely life)
 Salvation (saved, eternal life)
 Self-respect (self-esteem)
 Social recognition (respect, admiration)
 True friendship (close companionship)
 Ambitious (hard working, aspiring)
 Broad minded (open-minded)
 Capable (competent, effective)
 Cheerful (light hearted, joyful)
 Clean (neat, tidy)
 Courageous (standing up for his
beliefs)
 Forgiving (willing to pardon others)
 Helpful (working for the welfare of
others)
 Honest (sincere, truthful)
 Imaginative (daring, creative)
 Independent (self-reliant, self-
sufficient)
 Intellectual (intelligent, reflective)
 Logical (consistent, rational)
 Loving (affectionate, tender)
 Obedient (dutiful, respectful)
 Polite (courteous, well mannered)

 Wisdom (a mature understanding of life)  Responsible (dependable, reliable)

 Self-controlled (restrained, self-
disciplined)
Changing Attitude

Attitudes of employees can be changed and it is in the best interest of the organization to try
for the change. But change is difficult as there are barriers to it.

Attitude changes are of two types – Congruent and Incongruent.

Congruent change involves increasing the strength of an existing attitude to make it more
favourable.
Incongruent change involves changing the attitude of negative nature by weakening it and
making it favourable.

Developing Positive Attitudes

Managers can use the following methods to develop positive attitudes in employees:

1. Setting challenging tasks

2. Role clarity
3. Performance feedback
4. Participation of employees
5. Effective reward system
6. Considerable supervision
7. Adequate training

MOTIVATION

Motivation comes from the Latin word “movere” which means, “to move”.

Motive is defined as an inner state that energises, activates (or moves) and directs (or
chanalises) the behaviour towards certain goals.

Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organisational goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual needs. - Stephen P Robbins

It is the desire within an individual that stimulates him or her to action. - George R. Terry

It is the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, strivings or needs direct, control or
explains the behaviour of human beings. - D.E. McFarland

Nature of motivation

 Motivation is a psychological phenomenon

It is the inner desire of an individual to achieve something more. More is the individual
motivated better performance and organization relations.
 Motivation is a continuous process
Since need and desire are endless so the need is a continuous phenomenon if one need is
satisfied the other need emerges.

 Motivation is caused due to anticipated perceived value from an action.

Perceived value is the probability or expectancy. motivation= value × expectancy.

 Motivation varies from person to person and time to time

Motivation is different for different persons and it also varied according to time and place
because wants are different for different people, according to time and places.

 An individual is motivated by positive or negative motivation

Positive motivation is based on incentives or reward. Incentive can be monetary and non-
monetary.
Negative motivation is based on penalties, calling for explanation, threats, fear, etc. Fear
of losing the job or promotion

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION

1. High level of performance

Organization must ensure that the employees have a high degree of motivation. A highly
motivated employee put extra effort into work and have a sense of belonging for the
organization.
The efficiency of work will be improved, wastage will be minimum which will result in
the increased productivity, and performance level will be high.
2. Low employee turnover and absenteeism
Low level of motivation is a root cause of low turnover and absenteeism. High leve l of
absenteeism causes a low level of production, poor quality, wastages and disruption in
production schedules.
Increased turnover is disastrous for any organization as it puts a strain on the financial
position of the organization due to additional recruitment, selection, training and
development.
3. Acceptance of organization change
Social change and technology evolution happens in the external environment have
greater impact on the motivation of the employee. Management must ensure that the
changes are introduced in the organization and its benefits explained to the employees so
that there is no resistance to change and organizational growth is achieved.
Re-engineering, empowerment, job enrichment, job rotation, the introduction of new
technology and processes will go a long way to boost employee morale and achieve a
high degree of motivation.
4. Organizational image
Employees are the mirrors of any organization. Regular training & development
programmes should be organized to keep employee updated with latest skills. It will
 have a positive impact on the employees and the image of the organization will be
improved. High organizational image will contribute towards the brand image of the
product and services the organization is marketing.

MOTIVATION THEORIES

• Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

• Two Factor Theory

• Theory X & Theory Y

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Maslow’s classified the human need into five hierarchy category.

Physiological need: These are a basic need for human life related to survival and
maintenance.
Safety need: Once physiological needs are met. One’s attention turn to safety and stability.

Social need: Those needs which are related to interaction with other people and may include
need for friends, need for belongingness and to give and receive love.

Esteem needs: It includes prestige, recognition, acceptance, admiration and self-respect.

Self-Actualization: Self-actualization is the realizing of oneself. Many people reach a stage

in their life where they start wondering what is expected out of them in their life.

Implications of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory - This model helps the managers to
understand and deal with issues of employee motivation at the workplace. This model can be
applied to motivate people at all levels in the organization. Managers who understand the
need patterns of their staff can help the employees to engage in the kinds of work activities
and provide the types of work environment that will satisfy their needs at work.

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Two Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg proposed a motivation-hygiene theory or Two factor theory. According

to Herzberg, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two separate dimensions.
1. Satisfaction is affected by motivators and dissatisfaction is affected by hygiene factor,
which is the key idea for managers.
2. This theory suggests to improve hygiene factor (dissatisfiers) and to provide motivators
(satisfiers) for the motivation of employees.
3. Motivation cannot take place only by improving the highest factor in the work
environment.
4. So, the manager has to improve hygiene factor for removal of dissatisfaction from the
minds of employees and to provide motivators to increase satisfaction among the
employees.
Hygiene factors, or extrinsic motivators, tend to represent more tangible, basic needs.
Extrinsic motivators include status, job security, salary, and fringe benefits. It’s important for
managers to realize that not providing the appropriate and expected extrinsic motivators will
sow dissatisfaction and decrease motivation among employees.

Motivation factors, or intrinsic motivators, tend to represent less tangible, more emotional
needs. Intrinsic motivators include challenging work, recognition, relationships, and growth
potential. Managers need to recognize that while these needs may fall outside the more
traditional scope of what a workplace ought to provide, they can be critical to strong
individual and team performance.

Implications for Managers - In Herzberg’s framework, these managerial reactions have

focused primarily on the hygiene factors surrounding the job, which has resulted in bringing
individual to the theoretical “zero point” of motivation. The two-factor theory would predict
that improvements in motivation would only appear when managerial action focused not only
the factors surrounding the job but on the inherent in most assembly line jobs and developing
jobs that can provide increased levels of challenge and opportunities for a sense of
achievement, advancement, growth and personal development.

Theory X & Theory Y

Douglas McGregor introduced these two theories i.e., Theory X and Theory, based on two
distinct views of human beings. He proposed, at opposite extremes two pairs of assumptions
about human beings which he thought were implied by the actions of the managers. Theory X
deals with one extreme, based on one set of assumptions and Theory Y, deals with another
extreme based on another set of assumptions.

Theory X:
This theory is based on the traditional approach to human behaviour

The assumptions generally, held by the managers in this theory are:

1. The average human beings inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it, whenever
possible.
2. As the employees are lazy, they must be controlled, coerced, threatened with punishment
to achieve goals, to which they are indifferent.
3. Average employees will try to avoid responsibility and seek formal directions whenever
possible, because they have relatively little ambition.
4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work. These
assumptions about human nature are negative in their approach. Managers who advocate
these views feel that extreme control is most appropriate for dealing with irresponsible and
immature employees. This is an autocratic style of leadership based on the traditional theory
of what workers are like and what management must do to motivate them. Workers have to
be persuaded and pushed into performance.
Theory Y:
This approach assumes that management by direction and control is a questionable method
for motivating such people whose physiological and social needs have been satisfied and
whose social esteem and self-actualization needs are becoming more important. For such
people, Theory Y seems to be applicable, which is the contrast of Theory X.

This theory makes the following assumptions about people:

1. The average human being does not inherently dislike work. He can view work as natural or
enjoyable as rest or play.
2. Employees will exercise self-direction and self-control in the attainment of the objectives
to which they are committed.
3. Given proper working conditions, average person can learn to accept and even to seek
responsibility.
4. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement.
5. All the people are capable of making innovative & creative decisions and the decision
making is not the sole province of the people in management positions.

This theory has assumed a new approach in management. It emphasizes on co-operation

between management and employees. The individual and organisational goals do not conflict
in this approach. This theory places greater emphasis on satisfaction of high level needs of
the employees. McGregor himself holds that the assumptions of theory Y are more valid than
Theory X. Thus, delegation of authority, job enlargement, management by objectives and
participative management techniques are great motivators for the employee.

Implications for Managers - The management implications for Theory X workers are that,
to achieve organisational objectives, rewards of varying kinds are likely to be the most
popular motivator. The challenge for management with Theory Y workers is to create a
working environment (or culture) where workers can show and develop their creativity.

Financial and non-financial motivation

Regardless of which theory of employee motivation is followed, the research studies on

motivation conclude that interesting work, appreciation, pay, good working conditions, and
job security are important factors in helping to motivate.

(a) An analysis of what motivates individual staff members

(b) The performance objectives of the individual
(c) The strategic goals of the organization
(d) The values and culture of the organization

The techniques can be of two types – Financial and Non-Financial.