Textbooks

1. The Art of Electronics (Cambridge low-price

edition)
- Paul Horowitz & Winfield Hill

2. Microelectronic Circuits
- Zedra/Smith

3. Electronics for Scientists

- Brophy

4. Operational Amplifiers and Linear Integrated

Circuits
- Robert F. Coughlin & Frederick F. Driscoll

5. Digital Systems
- Ronald J. Tocci
 2

Lesson 1

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (op-amps)

Amplifiers in general are the most important analogue

building blocks used in analogue electronics.
Operational amplifier is a particular type of very
high gain amplifier, designed to use as a building
block in analogue circuits (and in some hybrid
circuits, i.e. circuits containing both analogue and
digital components).
Several decades ago, op-amps were constructed using
discrete elements (valves, transistors, and passive
components), and used especially in the construction
of analogue computers to perform various
mathematical operations and other functions.

Today the operational amplifiers are manufactured

using Integrated Circuit (IC) technology (The first
IC op-amp, A 709, was manufactured in mid 1960s),
and now it has nearly become the universal building
block of many analogue circuits.

One of the reasons for the popularity of op amp is its

versatility. Equally important is the fact that the op
amp has characteristics that closely approach the
assumed ideal. This property enables one to design
 3

high quality electronic circuits using

(negative)feedback. Another important factor is their
low cost. For example, a commonly available op amp
IC consisting of about 20 transistors costs less than
100 rupees.

Generations (Development) of ICs (Timeline)

In the early days, the level of IC technology was
limited to only a few transistors in a single silicon
chip, and this small-scale integration meant the design
process was relatively simple. Manufacturing yields
were also quite low by today's standards. As the
technology progressed, millions, then billions of
transistors could be placed on one chip, and good
 4

designs required thorough planning, giving rise to new

design-methods.
Classification of ICs
SSI, MSI, LSI etc.

SSI – (Small-scale Integration)

The first family of integrated circuits manufactured
contained only a few transistors. Such a small level of
complexity is known as "small-scale integration"
(SSI). Integrated circuits containing transistors
numbering in the tens, approximately equivalent to a
few logic gates for example, belong to this category.
linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the Philips
TAA320 had as few as two transistors.

MSI (Medium-Scale Integration)

The next step in the development of integrated circuits
took place in the late 1960s, and they contained
devices with hundreds of transistors on each silicon
chip. Their complexity was categorized as "medium-
scale integration" (MSI).
They became attractive economically because while
they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they
allowed more complex systems to be fabricated using
 5

smaller circuit boards with less assembly-work

(because of fewer separate components), and several
other advantages.

LSI (Large-Scale Integration)

Further development, driven by the same economic
factors, led to "large-scale integration" (LSI)
technology in the mid-1970s, with tens of thousands
of transistors per chip.
LSI integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs,
calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that
began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the
early 1970s, had under 4000 transistors. True LSI
circuits, approaching 10,000 transistors, began to be
produced around 1974, for computer main memories
and second-generation microprocessors.

VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration)

The final step in the development process, starting in
the 1980s and continuing through the present, was
"very large-scale integration" (VLSI). The
development started with hundreds of thousands of
transistors in the early 1980s and continues beyond
several billion transistors.
 6

ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC

To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term
ULSI that stands for "ultra-large-scale integration"
was proposed for chips of more than 1 million
transistors.

Time scale development of ICs

(more than 100 million transistors per square mm)

Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a technique adopted

in building very large integrated circuits that uses an
entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip".
Through the combination of large size and reduced
 7

packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced

costs for some systems, notably massively parallel
supercomputers. The name is taken from the term
Very-Large-Scale Integration, when WSI was being
developed.
A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated
circuit in which all the components needed for a
computer or other systems, are integrated on a single
chip.
Another development is the production of three-
dimensional integrated circuits (3D-IC) having two or
more layers of active electronic components that are
integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single
circuit.
 8

Integrated Circuit (IC) technology

Development of IC technology in1960s is an

important breakthrough in the field of electronics.
Large numbers of transistors, diodes, and resistors
may be fabricated and appropriately connected within
the same single crystal using the IC technology.
If an IC chip (For example an op amp) is opened, a
tiny piece of semiconductor, called a chip, is found
within a much larger container, which is called a
header.

Internal view of an opened 741 operational amplifier

 9

(Photomicrograph of the IC chip of a 741 Op-Amp)

(Note: header is much more expensive than a single

component!) The semiconductor chip contains the
complete integrated circuit. The function of the header
is merely to protect the semiconductor and to act as a
support for the external wires.

Advantage of IC technology over the circuits

fabricated on PCBs (printed circuit boards)

In comparison with ordinary circuits, i.e. circuits

constructed of discrete elements and fabricated on
 10

PCBs, integrated circuits possess at least four

important advantages:

(1) The individual components are cheaper.

(2) The components are already assembled as a circuit

(no soldered connections that are prone to failure)
saving the cost of assembly.

(3) The circuit is more reliable.

(4) Circuit is smaller.

Fabrication of Integrated circuits

Now let us look at what constitutes a typical

integrated circuit. A cross section of a small portion
of an IC is shown schematically in the figure (a).
 11

(n-type: Impurity is a group V element such as

phosphorus
p-type: Impurity is a group III element such as boron)
 12

A small portion of an integrated circuit: (a) The

physical structure (b) The physical structure with the
aluminum layer removed. (c) The electrical circuit.

Figure (a) shows a vertical cross section of a silicon

crystal partially covered with silicon dioxide (an
insulator) and aluminum. The same view is shown in
 13

figure (b), with aluminum removed. The extents of

different regions are outlined with broken lines.
The electrical circuit integrated in this structure is
shown in figure (c).
Toward the left-hand side of figure (a) is the npn
transistor. Connections to transistor terminals (emitter,
base, and collector) are done with aluminum layers, A,
B, and C of a few microns thick.
The resistor R is a thin p region towards the right. C
and D are the aluminum conductors which connect the
resistor to rest of the circuit.
All transistors, diodes, and resistors of a given circuit
are fabricated in a single crystal in this manner. They
are isolated from one another by reverse-biased pn
junctions being formed around each element. This
is done by connecting the crystal p type substrate to
the most negative potential in the circuit.
 14

All components in ICs are essentially lie in one plane;

such a structure is called planar structure.

In an IC, similar components at various places are

constructed simultaneously during the processing
steps. Because the structure is planar, it is possible to
fabricate an entire circuit in only a few steps. For
example, in the above figure the p region that functions
as a resistor is fabricated simultaneously with the p-
type region that functions as the transistor base.
This step in the process is illustrated in the figure
below.

The p type impurities are introduced to the crystal by

solid state diffusion at high temperature. A mask is
used to protect those areas where no impurities are
 15

desired, and openings are provided in the mask in the

areas where a where diffusion of n impurities is
desired. The region to be converted to an n region is
diffused with n type impurity(phosphorus) as shown in
figure (a) above. With the increase of the
concentration of the n type impurity, the region
becomes gradually converted from p type into an n
type region. This way various of n and p type regions
can be formed on a p type crystal (substrate).

In the n-type diffusion process, all the resistors and all

the bases of transistors may be formed simultaneously.
Several masks together with several other processes
are used to complete the fabrication of a device. Figure
below shows the circuit diagram and the
photomicrograph of an IC chip of a simple integrated
circuit after fabrication. A photomicrograph of the IC
chip of a 741 operational amplifier is shown below.
16
 17

Exercises
(1) Write down five advantages of using ICs over the circuits
made of discrete elements.

(2) Identify the structure shown below and draw its circuit
symbol.
 18

Answer: Junction diode

(3) In the circuit shown below, A, B, C, D, and E represent

isolated aluminum layers deposited on an n type region, and
X represents another aluminum layer. (Disregard the
bottom p and n regions) Draw the corresponding electronic
circuit.

----------------------------------------------
 19

Lesson 2

Operational amplifier and its applications

Operational amplifier is a high gain, direct coupled

(dc), and differential amplifier with a single ended
output. They have very high voltage gains (typically
105 to 106) and allow the output to swing through most
of the supply range.

Op amps are powered usually with split supplies, most

often ±15 V), but some op amps can be operated with
a single power supply with lower voltage at zero (Eg.
0 – 5V). They are called op amps with open collector
output.

(Meaning of the terms; ‘differential’ and ‘dc

coupled’).

Differential amplifier

The differential amplifier has two inputs, and two

independent input signals (say V1 and V2) can be
applied to those inputs. This contrasts with amplifiers
 20

such as common emitter amplifier where there is only

one input. The output (Vo) of a differential amplifier
is proportional to the difference between the
amplitudes of the two inputs.
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐶(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
Where C is called the differential gain

Direct Coupling

Operational amplifier is a multi-stage amplifier

consisting of several amplifying stages connected in
tandem, the first stage being a differential amplifier. In
ordinary multistage amplifiers, the stages are
coupled through capacitors to preserve their dc
operating points.

Example of a multi-stage amplifier

 21

DC signals will not pass through such amplifiers due

to the presence of these capacitors, and the gain of the
amplifier for dc signals is therefore zero. In op amps,
however, amplifier stages are coupled (directly
without capacitors by) using voltage level shifters
and such amplifiers are called direct coupled (dc)
amplifiers. DC amplifiers are therefore capable of
amplifying dc signals too. Operational amplifiers are
now available literally in hundreds of types with the
universal symbol shown below.
+

The actual circuit diagram of the well-known 741 op

amp is given in page 18. (now in page 28).

Characteristics of operational amplifiers

In op amps, the two inputs are labeled with (+) and (-

). The one with the + label is called the noninverting
input and the one with – label is called the inverting
input. The output of the op amp goes positive when
 22

the noninverting input (+) is more positive than the

inverting input (-) and vice versa. (Note: The + and –
symbols are not related to the polarity of input signals).
If V1 and V2 are the input voltages applied to
noninverting and inverting inputs respectively as
shown below then the output voltage Vo is given by

Vo = A(V1-V2) V1 +
Vo
V2 _

A is called the open loop voltage gain

As can be seen from above expression, the op amp

responds only to difference of the two voltages, (V1-
V2), and ignores all signals common to both inputs.
That is if V1=V2, then the output is zero. (Such
identical signals are called common mode signals).
We call this property, common mode rejection, and
conclude that an ideal op amp has perfect common
mode rejection. Noise signals picked up by the op amp
terminals, which are generated by an external
source such as a spark plug, can be considered as
common mode signals.
 23

Power supply connections to op amp

The two dc power supplies (with a common ground)
can be used to power an op amp. See figure (a) below.
Sometimes, the power supply connections are also
indicated in the circuit symbol as shown in figure (b).

It is interesting to note that the reference grounding

point in op amp circuits is just the circuit ground of
the power supplies; that means no terminal of the op
amp package is needed to be physically connected to
the earth.

Output terminal of 741

All the voltages at op amp terminals are measured with
respect to circuit ground. It is important to note that
there is a limit to the current that can be extracted from
 24

the output terminal of an op amp, and it is usually of

the order of 5 to 10 mA.
There are also limits on the signal voltage levels at
output terminals. These limits are set by the power
supply voltages. Output transistors of the op amp need
about 1 to 2 V from collector to emitter to ensure that
they are acting as amplifiers and not as switches.
Therefore, the voltage at the output terminal can rise
approximately up to within 1 V of V+ and drop to
within 2 V of V- only.
The upper limit of Vo is called positive saturation
voltage +Vsat, and the lower limit is called the negative
saturation voltage –Vsat. For example, with a supply
voltage of ± 15 V, +Vsat can be + 13 V, and –Vsat can
be - 13 V. Therefore, under this situation, the linear
region of Vo is restricted to a symmetrical peak to peak
swing of ±13 V.

Both current and voltage limits impose a minimum

value on the load resistance RL to be used, and under
 25

above mentioned condition, it can be shown that it is

about 2 kΩ.
However, op amps are now available especially for
applications that operate from low supply voltages
(+3.3 V) and have MOS transistors rather than bipolar
output transistors. The output of these op amps can be
brought to within millivolts of either V+ or V-.
Most op amps, like the 741, have internal circuitry
that automatically limits current drawn from the
output terminal. Even with short circuit output current
is limited to about 25 mA.
However, there are high current high voltage op amps
available, and are suitable for high power applications
(Eg. OPA548; working output range 0 – 5A, and V@±
30 V.

The concept of ideal op amp

 26

Near idealistic performance of practical op amps has

led to the development of the concept of idealized op
amps. These ideal op amps are, however, not real but
expected to have following properties.

• Ideal op amps do not draw any input current. In

other words, the input impedance of an ideal op
amp is infinite.

• The output of an ideal op amp is an ideal voltage

source with zero internal resistance. The voltage
between the output terminal and the ground (or
common terminal) will always be A(V1-V2) and
will be independent of the current that may be
drawn from the output terminal into a load
impedance. In other words, the output
impedance of an ideal op amp is zero.

• In general, real op amps have very high voltage

gain. It is called the open loop gain (A). The
reason for this name will become apparent later
when a ‘closed loop’ is introduced between the
output and the input of the op amp, which gives
rise to a lower gain. If the op amp is ideal its
voltage gain A is infinite.
 27

• The ideal op amp has a gain A that remains

constant down to zero frequency and up to
infinite frequency. That is, ideal op amps will
have an infinite bandwidth.

• The common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of

ideal op amps is infinite.

Appearance, Pin connection and characteristics of

real op amps
 28

In general, 741 is a Mini-DIP (Dual in-line package)

package in silicon chip containing 20 transistors, and
11 resistors. The dot in the corner, or notch at the end
of the package, identifies the end from which to begin
counting the pin numbers. As with most electronic
packages, counting is done counterclockwise, viewing
from the top.
 29

The two ‘offset null’ terminals are used to reduce the

small output voltage present in real op amps (even
without any input voltage being applied), which arises
due to the small asymmetries that are unavoidable
when making the chip.

Characteristics of real op amps deviate from the ideal

behavior in all respects, but practically some of the
properties of real op amps can be considered close to
ideal.

Properties of A 741

Input impedance ≃2 M
Output impedance ≃75 
Open loop (voltage) gain -105

Circuit diagram of a 741 operational amplifier

30
 31

Voltage gain versus supply voltage & open loop

frequency response of 741 Op amp

Note that the open loop gain of is a function of the

power supply voltage, and bandwidth of the op amp is
about 100 Hz! (Need to apply negative feedback to
enhance the bandwidth)

Offset voltages and currents.

According to the ideal model of op amps, the output
voltage should be zero for zero dc input voltages or
zero input voltage differences. In practice, however, a
small dc offset voltage may be measured at the output
terminal even the dc input voltage difference is zero.
The offset voltages are much more important in dc
amplifiers than in ac amplifiers.
 32

In dc amplifiers, the relative importance of offsets

depends on the signal levels. For example, a 5 mV
offset voltage may be relatively unimportant in a
situation where the amplitude of the amplified dc
output signal is of the order of several volts.
However, the same offset would be disastrous if the dc
output signal strength is also of the order of 5 mV.

The output offset voltage arises due to two effects: (a)

input offset voltage and (b) input bias currents.

(a) The input offset voltage arises from the dc

imbalance of the two inputs. The residual
voltage present at the input due to imperfect
balance between the two sides will give rise to
an output voltage depending on the amplifier
configuration. See the figure below.
 33

Part of the input circuit of 741

Vo = A(V1-V2) = AV1- AV2

(To have perfect balance of amplification, A must be
same for both transistors)

If the dc balance is perfect, it will not contribute to the

output offset. The effect of this input offset voltage at
the output can be either positive or negative. Voff is the
input offset voltage due to dc imbalance.

(b)

Output offset voltage can also arise due to the

difference in bias currents at the input. Ib- and Ib+ are
input bias currents (due to minority carriers) at
Inverting and noninverting inputs. See figure below to
understand the minority carrier movement.
 34

Output offset voltage can be minimized by connecting

a potentiometer between offset null pins and the
negative supply pin as shown below and adjusting the
potential divider.

A741-Electrical Characteristics
(VS=±15 V, TA=25 0C, unless specified)
 35

Characteristic Condition A 741 A741C Un

M Ty M Mi Ty M it
in p. ax n p ax
Input Offset RS≤ 10𝑘𝛺 1.0 5. 2. 6. m
Voltage 0 0 0 V
Input Offset 20 20 20 20 nA
Current 0 0
Input Bias 80 50 80 50 nA
Current 0 0
Power Supply VS=+10, - 30 150 30 15 V
Rejection Ratio 20 0 /V
VS=+20. –
10V,RS=50

Input Resistance 0. 2.0 0. 2. M
3 3 0 
Input 1.4 1. pF
Capacitance 4
Offset Voltage
Adjustment ±15 ±15 m
Range V
Input Voltage ± ± V
Range 12 13
Common Mode RS≤ 10𝑘𝛺 70 90 dB
Rejection Ratio
 36

Output Short 25 25 m
Circuit Current A
Large Signal 𝑅𝐿 50 20 20 20
Voltage Gain ≥ 2𝑘𝛺, 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 k 0k k 0k
= ±10𝑉
Output 75 75 
Resistance
Output Voltage 𝑅𝐿 ≥10k ± ± V
Swing 12 14
𝑅𝐿 ≥2k ± ± V
10 13
Supply current 1.7 2. 1. 2. m
8 7 8 A
Power 50 85 50 85 m
Consumption W
Slew Rate 𝑅𝐿 ≥2k 0.5 0. V/
5 s

Exercises

(1)

Following are some good practices when constructing an op amp

circuit.
(a) Do all wiring with power supply disconnected.
(b) Keep wiring and component leads as short as possible.
 37

(c) Try to connect all the ground leads to one common point
in the circuit.
(d) If unwanted oscillations appear at the output, connect a
0.1 µF capacitor between the op amps V+ input and the
ground, and another 0.1 µF capacitor between the op
amps V- pin and the ground.
Give reason for each of the above procedures.

Answers
(a) Wrong wiring of components while the power is ON may
destroy them.
(b) The stray capacitance and resistance associated with them
can be kept low.
(c) Otherwise there can be conduction loops picking
electromagnetic noise.
(d) They will pass high frequency oscillations created at
supply ends to ground.

(2)
Clearly discuss the advantages of having following properties
for an amplifier.
(a) Very large value for the input impedance,
(b) Very large value for the voltage gain,
(c) Very small value for the output impedance, and
(d) Very large value for the bandwidth

(3)
 38

(a) If A is the voltage gain of the op amp and V0 is the output

voltage, Write down an expression for V0 in terms of
input voltages.
(b) If ±VSup = ±15 V, calculate a suitable value for RL. (You
may use the maximum allowable current through RL)

(c) What will happen if a RL value very much less than the
value calculated in (b) is used in the circuit.

(d) If the power supply given has ±10 V, is it possible to use

a value less than the value calculated in (b) for RL.
Explain your answer.

---------------------------------------------------------

Lesson 3
 39

Input (V1-V2) – Output (Vo) characteristic of op

amps Vo
Real op-amp
V+

Ideal op-amp Linear region

Vo

(V1-V2)

(V1-V2)max
(V1-V2) V-
(for linear variation)

Input-output characteristics of ideal and real op amps

are shown above. Since A is infinite for an ideal op
amp, according to the equation given below, the
characteristic curve is a vertical line on the voltage
axis.
Vo = A(V1-V2)
On the other hand, the finite but large value of A of
real op amps produce very steep and linear
characteristic curve as shown.

The output of real op amps saturates a few volts below

the supply voltage.
 40

Use of op amps for voltage amplification purposes.

Op amp can serve as a voltage amplifier only if it

operates in the linear region of the characteristic, and
that is satisfied only for differential input voltages of
(V1-V2) ≤ (V1-V2) max.

Characteristic curve also shows that, the output

voltage of the amplifier at this maximum input
voltage, is approximately equal to V+ (the power
supply voltage).
∴ 𝑉0 = 𝑉 + and at this limiting value,
𝑉 + = 𝐴(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑉+
Therefore, for linear operation, (V1-V2) ≤ .
𝐴

Let us now estimate this limiting value for 741 op amp

operating with power supply voltages of ±15 V.
15
(V1-V2) ≤ 5
10

i.e. (V1-V2) ≤ 0.15𝑚𝑉

The above condition should be satisfied by the input if
the op amp is to be used as a voltage amplifier
In practice, however, 0.15 mV is an extremely small
value for an input voltage difference. Even noise
signals present at the input of an op amp may have a
 41

magnitude greater than 0.15mV. Therefore, op amps

are never used to amplify voltage signals without any
modification.

It is clear that, to use an op amp to amplify a given

voltage signal, one has to increase this input limiting
value, (V1-V2) max, and this can be done by adding
some external electrical components in order to reduce
overall voltage gain of the system. The especial
technique being employed to achieve this task is called
‘negative feedback’’.

The Golden Rules for op amps

𝑉+
The inequality, (V1-V2) ≤ that should be satisfied
𝐴
by an op amp when operating in the linear mode can
be used to formulate a very useful practical rule for op
amp-circuit analysis. There are in fact two such
practical rules, which are extremely useful for circuit
analysis, and are therefore referred to as ‘Golden rules’
for op amps.

Golden Rules
(1) When an op amp operates in the linear
mode, the voltage difference between the
two op amp input terminals equals zero.
i.e. V1-V2 =0
 42

(2) The currents flowing into the op amp input

terminals equal zero.

The rule (1) is practically true because of the above

inequality, which predicts that if there is a value for
the input voltage difference, (V1-V2), then it should be
negligibly small (for example, less than 0.15 mV for a
741 operating at supply voltages of ±15 V which is
practically zero).

The Rule (2) is also practically true because the input

impedance of op amps is very large, producing
negligibly small input current. (For example, only 0.08
A flows into the input terminals of 741; and it is in
the range of picoamps in the case of op amps with
FET-inputs). The presence of this negligibly small
current at the input, however, is essential for the
operation of the device.

Op amp applications

Inverting amplifier
 43

For the operational amplifier, Vo = A(V1-V2)

For the inverting amplifier, Vo = -AV1

The inverting amplifier is constructed by adding two

external resistors to the op amp as shown, which has
the capability of reducing the overall voltage gain (
𝑣0
) of the system.
𝑣1
Note that in the inverting amplifier there is a loop
consisting of R2 closing the output and the input, and
it is called a ‘closed loop’

The resistance R2 in the circuit, converts output

voltage V0 into a current which is subsequently fed
back into the input of the op amp.
However, due to the difference in the polarity of the
voltage signals at the input and the output, the
direction of this current will be from the input (point
S) to the output as shown in the above figure.
 44

This will result in a reduction of the current that had

flown into the op amp before R2 being connected.
When the input current reduces, the output voltage
produced by the op amp for the given input will also
become smaller creating smaller voltage gain.

The reason for this reduction in the voltage gain is

entirely due to the diversion of the part of the input
current through the external loop. The entire process is
due to the feedback of the output signal. The feedback
produces a negative effect on the voltage gain of the
amplifier and therefore, it is called negative
feedback.
The negative feedback occurring under this situation
is categorized as “output voltage sampling and input
current summing”.
Since the resultant input current becomes very small
under this situation, it causes a negligible potential
drop across the inverting and the non-inverting input
of the op amp. Therefore, the potential at the point S
becomes almost equal to the potential at the non-
inverting input which is at the ground potential.
Therefore, potential at S is almost equal to the ground
potential and it is called the virtual ground.
Under this situation, the potential difference between
the inverting input and the non-inverting input
becomes very small (almost zero).
 45

Furthermore, as the input voltage difference at the op

amp input is very small, the op amp unit will
operate in the linear mode. Golden rules can
therefore be applied to the op amp.

According to rule 1, the voltage difference between the

two-op amp terminals, therefore, equals zero.
We must again emphasize that this happens only when
A is very large (and the output is limited by the supply
voltages). We speak of this, as the two terminals
“tracking each other in potential”.

Analysis of the inverting amplifier circuit

Since the noninverting input is grounded and has zero
volts, according to rule 1, the potential at S must also
be zero.

Rule 2 says that current flowing into the op amp

terminals equals zero. Therefore, the signal current i1
(due to vi) that passes through R1 will also pass through
R2 (i.e. i1 = i2; see figure below)
 46

𝑣𝑖 −0 0−𝑣𝑜
 =
𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑣𝑖 −𝑣𝑜
i.e. =
𝑅1 𝑅2
The voltage gain of the inverting amplifier,
𝑣𝑜 𝑅
=− 2
𝑣𝑖 𝑅1
This voltage gain is called the close- loop gain.

Note: The – sign in the above expression implies that

the input and the output are 1800 out of phase. Because
of the minus sign, which is associated with the closed
loop gain, this configuration is called the inverting
configuration.

In an inverting amplifier we have seen that the

potential at the point S is same as that of ground. This
point is therefore called the virtual ground, and the
 47

‘effective’ impedance between S and ground is nearly

zero. However, it should be emphasized that there is
no short circuit between the point S and ground as
the input impedance of the op amp is extremely high
exists between the two input terminals. This property
arose simply due to the negative feedback.

Note that the closed loop gain depends entirely on

external, passive components of R1 and R2. It means
that we can make the closed loop gain significantly
accurate by selecting passive components with
appropriate accuracy. Therefore, it is possible to
implement precision amplifier gains by this
technique. It also means that the closed loop gain is
independent of the op amp gain A. This is a direct
consequence of negative feedback. Through
application of negative feedback, we have obtained a
voltage gain that is much smaller than A, but it is stable
and predictable.

Input impedance of an inverting amplifier

Let us first derive an expression for the input

impedance (Z) of the input at S (between S and the
ground). Although we assumed that the voltage at S
is practically zero (very small), for the estimation of
 48

the input impedance Z, let us assume that there is a

very small voltage v1 across the two input terminals.

𝑣1 𝑅2 𝑣𝑜
= (𝑣1 −𝑣𝑜 ) = 𝑣 ( i1 = i2 and − = 𝐴)
(1− 𝑜 ) 𝑣1
𝑅2 𝑣1

𝑅2
=
1+𝐴

Normally R2 is in ks, and A=105

Z is very small, and in the case of 741 it is just a

fraction of an ohm. This is an effect of the negative
feedback process (output voltage sampling and input
current summing).
 49

As far as the input impedance of the overall amplifier

is concerned, the input circuit of the above amplifier
can be represented as follows, and the total input
impedance (vi/i1) is equal to (R1 + Z).
i1 R1 S

v1 Z
vi

Since Z is very small, the input impedance of an

inverting amplifier is equal to the external resistance
R1 connected at the input.

Note: If R1 is removed from the circuit, the input

impedance of the inverting amplifier becomes
negligibly small! (practically zero)
Furthermore, if a current i is sent through the input, the
above relationship shows that

0−𝑣𝑜 −𝑣𝑜
i= =
𝑅2 𝑅2
 50

The above expression indicates that the input current i

is converted to a voltage v by this circuit, and the
magnitude of the current is proportional to the output
voltage (𝑣𝑜 ). Hence an inverting amplifier with R1=0
can be considered as a current to voltage converter.

When R1 = 0, the inverting amplifier practically has

zero internal resistance (impedance), and therefore it
does not influence the current flowing from the
signal source to which it is connected. This is a
property of a good ammeter. Ammeters have
practically zero internal resistance. If a voltmeter
calibrated in terms of current is connected to the
output, the circuit can be used as an ammeter. (Note,
ammeter is an instrument which does not influence the
current that is being measured)

Multi-range electronic ammeter

 51

The circuit shown is an ammeter which can be used to

measure currents in three different ranges.
𝑣
When the switch is connected to R1, 𝑖 = − 𝑜
𝑅1
Suppose the voltmeter in the above circuit has a full-
scale deflection (f.s.d.) of 10 V.
If we would like to measure currents in the range, 0 –
1 mA with this ammeter, then the voltmeter should
provide a f.s.d. when the input current is 1 mA. The
suitable value for R1 then can be calculated from the
above expression by substituting the values as follows.
10
1 × 10−3 =
𝑅1
i.e. R1=10 k
Two other different ranges, for instance, 0 – 10 mA,
and 0 – 100mA, can be introduced into the same
 52

ammeter by selecting suitable values for R2 and R3 in

the same manner. (Note that in all cases we use the
same voltmeter.)
This idea can be extended to construct a photometer
by converting the photocurrent produced by a
photodiode, to a voltage.

Summing Amplifier
Summing amplifier is an analogue circuit which can
be used to add numbers. First the numbers to be added
are converted to voltages, then the addition is
performed with a summing amplifier. In addition, it
can also be used to mix two signals together (mixer).
Consider the following circuit.
 53

This is an inverting amplifier with several inputs

(branches). All the resistors in the circuit are identical.
The point S is the virtual ground.

Since the total current at point S is zero

(Kirchhoff’s’ 1st law),
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉𝑜
+ + =−
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

i.e. 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = −𝑉𝑜
This relationship suggests that when the magnitudes
of the voltages, V1, V2, and V3 represent three digits
(or numbers), the magnitude of Vo simply gives the
sum of those three digits. This implies that the circuit
performs an addition (a mathematical operation).
Here the circuit uses voltages as its inputs, the
magnitudes of which are analogues to the digits that
 54

are being added. This circuit is used as an adder circuit

in analogue computers. Mathematical operations
such as integration, differentiation can also be done
with following op amp circuits

Analogue Integrator

𝑣𝑖 𝑑(𝑐𝑣𝑜 )
𝑖= =−
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑣𝑜
 =−
𝐶𝑅 𝑑𝑡

1
𝑣𝑜 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑅
i.e. output is proportional to the integral of the input.

Analogue Differentiator
 55

𝑑𝑄 𝑑(𝐶𝑣𝑖 ) 𝑣𝑜
𝑖= = =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅

𝑑𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑜
 =−
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑅

𝑑𝑣
i.e. 𝑣𝑜 = −𝐶𝑅 𝑖
𝑑𝑡
Output is proportional to the derivative of the input.

Exercises

(1)
(a) Write down the conditions under which the Golden rules
can be applied.

(b) Explain why the feedback applied in an inverting amplifier

is of the form (i) output voltage sampling, and
(ii) input current summing.
 56

(c) Draw a circuit diagram of an inverting amplifier having a

voltage gain of 100. Show how you have calculated
suitable values for its resistors.
(d) Calculate the Input impedance of the amplifier that you
have given under (c) above. You may use the
corresponding values and expressions given/derived in the
lesson for this purpose.

(2)

Find the currents through R1, Rf, RL, and the output current from
the operational amplifier.

(3)
(a) Give reasons as to why an inverting amplifier is suitable to
construct an electronic ammeter.
(b) Draw a circuit diagram of a multirange electronic ammeter
to measure currents in the ranges, (i) 0 – 10 mA, (ii) 0 – 50
mA, and (iii) 0 – 100 mA.
(c) Calculate the internal resistance of the ammeter under each
range. You may assume that the open loop gain of the op
amp used is 105 ῼ.
 57

(4) Design an op amp circuit to perform the following

additions.
Give suitable values for resistors in each case.
(i) 1+2+3+4
(ii) 2+3–6

(5) A ‘mixer’ is an item used by musical bands. Qualitatively

explain its function.

(6) In the circuit shown below Rf = 2 kΩ. All the inputs are
connected to 5 V voltage sources separately.
(a) Calculate R1, R2, and R3 values so that the
contribution to the output V0 from respective
branches are of the ratio, 4: 2: 1.
(b) Find the output voltage under the above condition.
(c) Mention one application of the circuit.
 58

Lesson 4

Non-inverting amplifier

In the noninverting amplifier, the input signal is fed

through the noninverting input, and a small
fraction, 𝒗𝒇 of the output is fed back to the inverting
input.
The output is connected to the inverting input via a
potential divider consisting of resistors R1 and R2, and
a input voltage v1 is developed with reference to the
inverting input which has the same polarity as vi. The
voltage v1 is therefore equal to 𝒗𝒊 − 𝒗𝒇 , where
𝑅1
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣0 = 𝛽𝑣0 .
𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝛽 is called the feedback factor.
Since 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑓 is less than 𝑣𝑖 , the application of
feedback causes a reduction in the actual voltage (𝑣1 )
 59

appearing at the input of the op amp. The feedback is

therefore ‘negative feedback’.
The feedback variable we deal at the output and the
input are both voltages. Therefore, it is called voltage
feedback.
Furthermore, it is of the type “output voltage
sampling-input voltage summing”.
(Note: This is different from the type of feedback
employed in the inverting amplifier).
Using the relationships, 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑓 and 𝑣0 = 𝐴𝑣1 ,
we can write
𝑣0 = 𝐴(𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑓 ) or
𝑣0
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑓 =
𝐴

If the voltage gain A is very large, then 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑓 ≃ 0

This result shows that when negative feedback is
applied (especially when A is very large ), the
feedback voltage 𝑣𝑓 is always equal to the input
voltage 𝑣𝑖 . We speak of this, as the two terminals
“tracking each other in potential”.
Furthermore, 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑓 = 0.
This is the Golden rule 1.

Let us now analyze the circuit using Golden rules.

Rule 1 implies that the signal voltage at the inverting
input is also equal to 𝑣𝑖 .
 60

Considering the current through the divider consisting

of R1 and R2, and assuming Rule 2,
the voltage at the inverting input 𝑣− can be written
𝑣
as, 𝑣− = ( 𝑜 )𝑅1
𝑅1 +𝑅2
Since 𝑣− = 𝑣+ = 𝑣𝑖
𝑣𝑜
𝑣𝑖 = (𝑅 +𝑅 )𝑅1 or
1 2
voltage gain of the noninverting amplifier,
𝒗𝒐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝒂= =
𝒗𝒊 𝑹𝟏
Note: The above expression implies that the input and
the output are in phase.

Effect of negative voltage feedback on the Input

and Output Impedances of a voltage amplifier
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for an op amp

Non-inverting amplifier has extremely high input

impedance. An expression for the input impedance can
 61

be obtained by considering the effect of negative

voltage feedback on the input impedance of this
amplifier. It can be shown that the input impedance
(𝑅𝑖′ ) of an amplifier with negative voltage feedback
can be related to the input impedance (𝑅𝑖 ) of the same
amplifier without feedback by the expression,

𝑅𝑖′ = 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝐴𝛽),

where  is the feedback factor. A is the voltage gain

without feedback. Let us apply this equation to the
above noninverting amplifier with negative feedback.
Let 𝑅𝑖 be the input impedance of the op amp unit
(without the external feedback loop).
Fraction () of the output voltage fed back into the
𝑅
inverting input = 1
𝑅1 +𝑅2

𝑅1
 𝑅𝑖′ = 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝐴 𝑅 )
1 +𝑅2
Since the second term in the bracket is very much
greater than 1, this expression can be approximated to

𝑅1
𝑅𝑖′ = 𝐴𝑅𝑖 ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Example
 62

Calculate the input impedance of a noninverting

amplifier with a gain of 100. Assume that it is
constructed of a 741-op amp whose 𝑅𝑖 = 2𝑀𝛺, and
A= 105.
′ 5 6
1
𝑅𝑖 = 10 × 2 × 10 ×
100
9
= 2 × 10 𝛺
(2000 M)!

i.e. When the negative feedback is applied, the input

impedance of the noninverting amplifier made of 741
op amp will increase by a factor of 1000 over the input
impedance of the 741-op amp unit itself. This again is
a consequence of negative voltage feedback.

Similarly, the output impedance of the noninverting

amplifier can be shown to be
𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜′ =
1+𝐴𝛽
𝑅𝑜 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅𝑜′ = ( ) , where 𝑅𝑜 is the output
𝐴 𝑅1

Impedance of the amplifier without feedback.

By substituting appropriate values, it can be shown

that 𝑅𝑜′ is very small compared to 𝑅𝑜 .
 63

Because of its extremely high input impedance, the

noninverting amplifier can be used to construct
voltmeters. (Note: voltmeters have high input
impedance)

Voltage follower

Voltage follower is a special case of the noninverting

amplifier.

When the resistance R1 in the above circuit is made

infinite (removed), the circuit will have the following
characteristics.
Voltage gain

Input impedance
 64

Output impedance

Circuit diagram

(Resistor R2 can be removed from the circuit, Why?)

The above analysis shows that the voltage follower has

a voltage gain of 1, and the largest input impedance,
and the smallest output impedance. Because of these
properties it finds many applications as a buffer.
Voltmeter circuits _

(1) Circuit 1.
 65

Different measuring ranges can be introduced by

determining suitable values for R, R1, R2, and R3 using
the equations,
𝑅+𝑅
𝑣𝑜 = ( 1)𝑣𝑖 etc. as done in the case of the ammeter.
𝑅
Select a value such as 1 kΩ for R, which should be
common for all cases.

(2) Circuit 2.
The voltmeter circuit shown below uses an
appropriately calibrated ammeter A instead of a
voltmeter to read the voltages. It is a floating load type
circuit. The load is not connected to ground, (i.e. it is
floating).
Voltage (V) to be measured is connected to the
noninverting input.
 66

According to the Golden rule (1), the voltage

appearing at the inverting input is same as the voltage
V. Current through resistor R1 is therefore, can be
written as
V= IR1
(Note: For a given V, the current through R1 is
independent of the value of R2 and depends only on
R1. As the same current flows through both R1 and R2,
(Golden rule 2) the current through R2 is also equal to
I. (This is a property of a constant current source.
Hence the closed loop (R2) operates as a constant
current source).
As the same current I flows through the ammeter, its
reading is proportional to the voltage, V, to be
measured. The ammeter should be calibrated in volts,
and the value of R1 should be set so that the f.s.d. of
the ammeter occurs when V is at the maximum value
of the given range of voltage values.
 67

Exercises

(1)
(a) What are the major differences between the properties of
an inverting amplifier and a noninverting amplifier?

(b) The voltages of two signal sources having internal

resistances 10 ῼ and 10 kῼ are to be amplified by a non-
inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of 100. Assume that
the amplifier is made of a 741-op amp with suitable
resistors.

(i) What fraction of the signal amplitude from

the signal sources will appear across the
internal resistances of the signal sources?
(ii) If both signal sources have identical signal
amplitudes, will there be a significant difference
between the amplitudes of the output voltages?
Explain your answer.

(2) Suppose you are provided with three signal sources

producing voltages V1, V2 and V3. Assume that all have
negligible internal resistances. Draw a circuit diagram of a
circuit to perform the function,

V0 = 2V1 + 3V2 - 5V3

using non-inverting and inverting amplifiers. Here V0 is the
output voltage to be produced by the circuit. Calculate
suitable values for the resistors.

(3)
 68

The circuit shown above is made of a 741-op amp. The signal

source 𝑣𝑠 produces a voltage of 5 mV, and its internal
resistance is 1000Ω. R1 = 1 kΩ, R2 = 49 kΩ, and RL = 25 kΩ.
Calculate the following.
(a) The input and output impedances of the amplifier.
(b) The voltage appearing across the internal resistance of
the signal source
(c) Current through the resistor chain R1 and R2.
(d) v0
(e) Current delivered by the op amp.
(4)

(a) CA 3130 is a MOSFET op amp having an input

impedance of 1.2 × 1012 Ω. Draw a circuit diagram to
show how you would use this amplifier to construct a
multi-range voltmeter having voltage ranges 0 – 1 mV,
0 – 10 mV and 0 – 100 mV. Calculate suitable values
for the necessary resistors.
(b) Calculate the lowest and highest input impedances of
the voltmeter.
(c) If the resistivity of dry air is 2 × 1016 Ω.m, explain
qualitatively as to how that affects on the input
impedance values.
(5) The output of a signal generator is to be connected to an
oscilloscope having input impedance 50 Ω. The output
impedance of the signal generator is marked 1 kΩ.
 69

(a) Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the input

side connection and calculate the fraction of the signal
voltage appearing across the 50 Ω input impedance of
the CRO.
(b) If a voltage follower circuit made of 741 op amp is
inserted between the signal generator and the CRO,
calculate the voltage appearing across the CRO input.
You may assume the specifications of a 741 op amp.

Lesson 5
In the next few lessons, we are planning to study some
of the important circuitries inside the 741- operational
amplifier. Basically, an operational amplifier contains
four different amplifying stages.

Block diagram of an op amp

 70

Objective of this lesson is to analyze a simple

differential amplifier circuit by drawing an equivalent
circuit for the amplifier using (an equivalent circuit for
a transistor).

The knowledge of drawing equivalent circuit for bipolar

transistors is necessary to proceed with this lesson. This
knowledge is to be gained from the second-year course.
However, to refresh your knowledge, it is repeated here.

Equivalent circuit for a bipolar transistor – (given

as a separate lesson)

Small signal low frequency equivalent circuit for a

common emitter amplifier (Ctd.. From the previous
lesson)
The purpose of this exercise is to draw an equivalent
circuit for a common emitter amplifier replacing its
transistor with the equivalent circuit.
In addition to the transistor, common emitter amplifier
consists of resistors, capacitors, and a power supply.
See figure 10. Except the transistor all the other
components are linear components.
 71

When the input signals used are small, the common

emitter amplifier circuit can be considered as a linear
circuit. The principle of superposition allows us to
treat the ac behavior and the DC behavior of such
circuits separately, let us separate the two circuits, and
draw only the circuit relevant for ac operation.
To get familiarized with this technique consider a
situation in which a voltage signal containing both DC
and ac components applied across a resistor (linear
circuit) as shown below.

Now let us separate the dc and signal components,

apply the superposition principle to obtain the ac
 72

equivalent circuit for the entire common emitter

amplifier circuit shown in Figure 4.10.
The magnitudes of the DC and ac components of
voltages and currents at various paces of the circuits
are given in brackets.

The dc voltage at the top line is VCC, and that at the

bottom line is zero (it is grounded). Since the battery
has negligible internal resistance, as far as ac signals
are concerned, there is a direct connection between the
top line and the bottom line. In other words, for ac
signals the top line is grounded through the power
supply and therefore signal strengths of ac signals at
 73

the top line are zero. For example, as far as ac signals

are concerned the top end of resistor R1 can be treated
as being connected to ground. See Figure 4.11.
Considering the above facts let us redraw the above
circuit in a manner how ac signals ‘see’ it. The
complete circuit drawn is shown in Figure 4.11.
74
75
 76

Lesson 5 – continued...
Following is a circuit diagram of a basic differential
amplifier.

The above differential amplifier can be considered as

a linear circuit for small signals, and therefore its
overall response for input excitations can be obtained
by adding the responses due to individual inputs
(Principle of superposition).

Let us apply the principle of superposition for the

above circuit by applying one input voltage at a time.
 77

Suppose 𝑣𝐶′ 1 and 𝑣𝐶′ 2 are the output voltages of the

differential amplifier when,
𝑣1 = 𝑣1 &
𝑣2 = 0 (case I)

Similarly,
𝑣𝐶″1 and 𝑣𝐶″2 are the corresponding outputs when,
𝑣1 = 0 &
𝑣2 = 𝑣2 (case II)

Then the overall outputs, (𝑣𝐶1 and 𝑣𝐶2 ) when both

inputs are applied simultaneously, i.e. 𝑣1 = 𝑣1 &
𝑣2 = 𝑣2 , can be given by, the sum of the two
individual inputs. i.e.
𝑣𝐶1 = 𝑣𝐶′ 1 + 𝑣𝐶″1 &
𝑣𝐶2 = 𝑣𝐶′ 2 + 𝑣𝐶″2

Consider the ac equivalent circuit of the above

differential amplifier under case I.

Use a simplified version of the following transistor

equivalent circuit for this purpose by neglecting the
1
components ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑣0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 of the following h-
ℎ𝑜𝑒
parameter equivalent for a transistor.
 78

Therefore, Equivalent circuit of the above differential

amplifier when 𝑣1 = 𝑣1
𝑣2 = 0.
can be drawn as follows
 79

Let 𝑣 ′ be the voltage across the resistor hie at RHS

end (see figure). (Note: This is an unknown)

Applying Kirchhoff’s laws,

 80

vC 1 = − h fei1 RC …………………………. (1)

v1 − v
i1 = …………………………. (2)
hie

Since ∑ 𝑖 = 0 at E
𝑣1 −𝑣 ′ 𝑣′ 𝑣′
ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑖1 + ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑖2 + − − = 0….. (3)
ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐸 ℎ𝑖𝑒

𝑣′
𝑖2 = − ………………… (4)
ℎ𝑖𝑒

𝑣𝐶′ 2 = −𝑖2 ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶 ………………… (5)

(Analysis will continue in Lesson 6)

Exercises
(1)
Consider the section of the circuit situated left hand side (LHS) of
the line XY. Assume that RE is common to both circuits. Use your
knowledge about single stage amplifiers learnt in the second-year
course, answer the following questions.
 81

X RHS
LHS
VCC

RC RC

Output 1 Output 2
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 − 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠
𝑣𝑐1 , 𝑣𝑐2 − 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠

Input 1 RE Input 2

- VEE

(a) Identify the amplifier section at the LHS.

(b) What is the phase difference between𝑣1 and 𝑣𝑐1 ?
(c) Draw shape of the corresponding output signal 𝑣𝑐1 for
the input waveform given below.
𝑣1

(d) If the RHS section is identical to the LHS section,

comment on the behavior of the RHS section
 82

(2) Use the superposition theorem to calculate the current in

the 1ῼ resistor.

1ῼ 8ῼ 10ῼ

10 V 20 V

Lesson 6

(Continued from Lesson 5)

Using the four equations obtained in lesson 5, and

Substituting for i1 and i2 in the equation (3), we have,

𝑣1 − 𝑣 ′ 𝑣′ 𝑣1 − 𝑣 ′ 𝑣 ′ 𝑣′
( ) ℎ𝑓𝑒 − ℎ + − − =0
ℎ𝑖𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐸 ℎ𝑖𝑒
𝑣′ ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑣1
i.e. [2ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 2 + ]= (ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 1)
ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐸 ℎ𝑖𝑒

since

ℎ𝑓𝑒 ≫ 1
 83

ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑣′ = ( ℎ ) 𝑣1
2ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 𝑖𝑒
𝑅𝐸
(Note: 𝑣 ′ is the unknown variable defined earlier)

𝑣1 − 𝑣 ′ 1 ℎ𝑓𝑒
∴ 𝑖1 = = (1 − )𝑣
ℎ𝑖𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑒 1
2ℎ𝑓𝑒 +
𝑅𝐸

Now using 𝑣𝐶′ 1 = −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑖1 we have,

ℎ
ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶 ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 𝑖𝑒
𝑣𝐶′ 1 = −
𝑅𝐸
( ℎ ) 𝑣1
ℎ𝑖𝑒 2ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 𝑖𝑒
𝑅𝐸
Rearranging the expression,

ℎ𝑓𝑒 1
ℎ𝑓𝑒 +
ℎ 𝑅𝐸
𝑣𝐶′ 1 = −𝑅𝐶 ( ) ( 𝑖𝑒 ) 𝑣1
ℎ𝑖𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑒 1
2 +
ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐸

ℎ𝑓𝑒
The term, is called gm, the transconductance of
ℎ𝑖𝑒
the transistor. (It is a standard parameter).

Physical significance of gm
 84

1
𝑔𝑚 +
𝑅𝐸
∴ 𝑣𝐶′ 1 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 [ ]𝑣
1 1
2𝑔𝑚 +
𝑅𝐸

1+𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
𝒗′𝑪𝟏 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 [ ] 𝑣1
1+2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
Similarly
𝑣′
𝑣𝐶′ 2 = −𝑖2 ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐶
ℎ𝑖𝑒

ℎ𝑓𝑒
= 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( ℎ ) 𝑣1
2ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 𝑖𝑒
𝑅𝐸
or
𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
𝒗′𝑪𝟐 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( )𝑣
2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 + 1 1
 85

Note that when the output is taken from the same

transistor (𝑣𝐶′ 1 ) to which the input signal v1 is applied,
it is 1800 out of phase, whereas when it is taken from
the other transistor (𝑣𝐶′ 2 ), it is in-phase with v1.

By considering the above properties of the equations

derived for 𝑣𝐶′ 1 and 𝑣𝐶′ 2 for the case,
𝑣1 = 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 = 0,
the corresponding equations for the case, 𝑣1 =
0 & 𝑣2 = 𝑣2 , (i.e. 𝑣𝐶″1 & 𝑣𝐶″2 ) can be deduced
directly without performing any derivation. i.e.

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
𝑣𝐶″1 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( )𝑣
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 2
1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
𝑣𝐶″2 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( )𝑣
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 2
 86

Therefore, when both 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are applied

simultaneously to the differential amplifier the
corresponding outputs 𝑣𝐶1 and 𝑣𝐶2 can be obtained
from the equations,
𝑣𝐶1 = 𝑣𝐶′ 1 + 𝑣𝐶″1 &

𝑣𝐶2 = 𝑣𝐶′ 2 + 𝑣𝐶″2

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 1+𝑔 𝑅
∴ 𝑣𝐶2 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 (
1+2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
) 𝑣1 − 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 (1+2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 ) 𝑣2
𝑚 𝐸
and
𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 1+𝑔 𝑅
𝑣𝐶1 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 (
1+2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
) 𝑣2 − 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 (1+2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 ) 𝑣1
𝑚 𝐸

Note that the outputs are still not proportional to the

difference between the inputs, a property that is
always expected from differential amplifiers.

Let us now consider the behavior of the above

equations when RE is very large.

When RE is very large, the terms

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 𝑔𝑚
𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( ) 𝑣1 → 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( ) 𝑣1
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 1
+ 2𝑔𝑚
𝑅𝐸
𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
→ 𝑣1
2
and
 87

1
1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑔𝑚
𝑅𝐸
𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( ) 𝑣 → 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( ) 𝑣2
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 2 1
+ 2𝑔𝑚
𝑅𝐸
𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
→ 𝑣2
2
𝒈𝒎 𝑹𝑪
∴ 𝒗𝑪𝟐 = (𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 )
𝟐

i.e. output voltage is proportional to the difference

between input voltages, and this feature can be
achieved only by having a large emitter resistance in
the emitter circuit. Since the output voltage depends
only on the difference between input voltages,
differential amplifiers are insensitive to common
mode signals.

Differential amplifiers are generally used with a

single output terminal, and in such cases, it is
customary to use the output 2 as the output
terminal.

Definitions for noninverting and inverting inputs

Since there is no phase difference between the input 1

and the output 2, input 1 is called the noninverting
input.
 88

The phase difference between the input 2 and the

output 2 is 1800, and therefore the input 2 is called the
inverting input.

In-phase gain and Differential gain

In-phase gain
The voltage gain to two equal (identical) signals of
same phase is called the in-phase gain.
Differential gain
The voltage gain to two signals of same amplitude but
opposite in polarity is called the differential gain.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
The ratio, is defined as the
𝐼𝑛−𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) of the
amplifier.

If the amplifier is ideal, the in-phase gain is zero, then

the CMRR is infinite. If two identical signals appear at
the input of such an amplifier, it rejects both signals
without producing any output. For instance, if a
voltage signal originated from an external source (this
could be an electromagnetic noise signal generated by
 89

an electrical spark) induces two identical signals at the

two inputs of an ideal differential amplifier, it will not
amplify such signals. This is a very desirable property
for an amplifier. Therefore, CMRR is a measure of the
insensitivity of an amplifier to common mode signals
such as external noise. CMRR is usually measured in
decibels (dB).
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝐼𝑛 − 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

CMRR value when RE is infinite

Let us use the expression,

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝐶2 = (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
2
to work out the CMRR value when RE is infinite.

In-phase gain can be obtained by substituting 𝑣1 =

𝑣2 = 𝑣 for the above expression.
Under this condition, 𝑣𝐶2 = 0, and therefore the in-
phase
𝑣𝐶2
gain, = 0.
𝑣

The differential gain can be obtained by substituting

|𝑣1 | = −|𝑣2 | = |𝑣 |
 90

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝐶2 = (2𝑣 )
2
𝑣𝐶2
∴ 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
𝑣
i.e. when RE is infinite, CMRR also becomes infinite.
In real differential amplifiers, however, RE has a finite
but large value. Let us work out CMRR value for a real
amplifier.

CMRR when RE is finite and large

Consider the general expression for 𝑣𝐶2 .

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
𝑣𝐶2 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( ) 𝑣1
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
− 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( )𝑣
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸 2

In-phase gain (𝒗𝟏 = 𝒗𝟐 )

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝐶2 = − 𝑣
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
𝑣𝐶2 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
∴ 𝐼𝑛 − 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =−
𝑣 1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸

Differential gain (|𝒗𝟏 | = −|𝒗𝟐 | = |𝒗|)

 91

1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
𝑣𝐶2 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ( )𝑣
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
𝑣𝐶
∴ 2 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 and
𝑣
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = = 1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝑛 − 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

(Disregard the – sign as we are interested only in the

magnitude)
According to the above expression CMRR increases
with RE provided gm is constant. For given supply
voltages, the currents (IE and IC) in the circuit,
however, decrease with RE.
The value of gm is also a function of IC and it decreases
with the decrease of collector current. It is mainly
ℎ𝑓𝑒
due to the reduction of hfe of the transistor (𝑔𝑚 = )
ℎ𝑖𝑒
with the decrease of collector current (see figure
below)
 92

This fact is also apparent from the IC versus VBE

characteristic shown above. The above facts indicate
that, any attempt to increase the RE in a differential
amplifier circuit using passive resistors will invariably
lead to the reduction in collector and emitter currents.
Hence the required improvement in CMRR cannot be
obtained by employing large passive resistances in the
emitter circuit. This will be discussed further in the
lesson 7.

Exercises
(1) When a differential amplifier is to be used with a single
output, it is customary to use the second output as the
output terminal. Write down an expression for the output
voltage in terms of relevant parameters when the
noninverting input is grounded.

(2)
In the circuit shown below VCC=+15 V and VEE = -15 V.
 93

VCC

RC RC
Output 1 Output 2

Input 1 RE Input 2

- VEE

Both transistors are identical and a current of 3 mA is passed

through the transistors. The amplifier is designed so that the
emitter is at zero potential.
(a) What is the current through RE?
(b) Calculate the value of the resistance RE.
(c) If gm = 0.12S, calculate CMRR value
(d) If the CMRR is to be raised to 104 while keeping gm
constant, find the value of RE needed. Discuss the
difficulty in achieving this with a passive resister.

(3) Consider the circuit shown below.

(a) Identify the two transistors (pnp or npn ?) Assume that
they are identical.
(b) Considering the transistor Q2 and the emitter resister,
write down the value of 𝑣𝐸 . Assume that 𝑣𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑠 0.7 𝑉
and α for the transistor is 1.
(c) What is the conducting state of the transistor Q1?
Justify your answer.
(d) Find 𝑣𝑐1 , and 𝑣𝑐2 .
(Answers to 𝑣𝐸 , 𝑣𝑐1 , and 𝑣𝑐2 values are+0.7, -5 V and
– 0.7 V respectively)
 94

(4)

Lesson 7
Constant current sources and current mirrors

In the previous lesson we have seen that the common

mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of a differential
amplifier cannot be improved by increasing the value
of passive emitter resistor.
This drawback can be eliminated by using an active
resistor in the form of a constant current source.

Concept of a constant current source

 95

Constant current source is a circuit which provides a

constant current to a load irrespective of the magnitude
of the load. Such a property can be attributed to a
current source only if its internal resistance is very
much greater than the load resistance itself. This
internal resistance, in the case of an ideal constant
current source, is infinite.
A simple constant current source constructed of a
voltage source and a large resistor (R0), is shown
below. It is expected to provide a constant current
irrespective of the value of RL provided 𝑅0 ≫ 𝑅𝐿 .

A major drawback in the above passive constant

current source is its inability to produce a significant
current at least in milliampere order for satisfactory
operation at a low value of the supply voltage V while
keeping a large internal resistance R0 suitable for an
integrated circuit.
 96

Therefore, passive current sources are not suitable for

differential amplifiers.

Transistor as a constant current source

Consider the following circuit made of a npn
transistor.

Suppose the base potential VB is kept fixed

irrespective of the base current IB by setting the current
(I) through the potential divider R1/R2 so that it is
much greater than IB. Under this condition, I is almost
constant (independent of IB), and such a potential
divider is called a “stiff potential divider”.
 97

Under this situation, the base potential VB is fixed at

𝑅2 𝑉𝐸𝐸
above the negative supply rail VEE, and it is
𝑅1 +𝑅2
constant.
Furthermore, emitter potential, 𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉
and emitter current, 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐸 = 𝐵 𝐵𝐸
𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸
If the transistor operates in the active mode, then the
collector current,
(𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 )
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐸 = 𝛼
𝑅𝐸
It can be seen from the above relationships, that IC
depends only on 𝛼, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 , 𝑅𝐸 , 𝑉𝐸𝐸 , 𝑅1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅2 , and once
they are kept constant, IC becomes constant, and
depends only on those parameters. For example, under
this situation IC is independent of VCE. (i.e. ΔIC/ΔVCE=
0, the reciprocal of which indicates that the resistance
is infinite) Hence under this situation the circuit
behaves as a constant current source. The set of
 98

output characteristic curves shown below for constant

IB values also justifies the same behavior.

The above circuit can therefore be able to act as a large

(active) emitter resistor for the differential amplifier
while providing a necessary current for its transistors.
Note that IC can be set independently of the value of
this collector-emitter resistance.
This circuit, however, is not suitable to use in an IC
because of too many resistors in the circuit, which are
difficult to be implemented in IC form. The following
circuit improves the situation. Note that the two
transistors used here are identical, and one resistor
is replaced with a transistor which is diode
connected, and VBE is same for both transistors
(matched base-emitter biasing).
 99

Let us find an expression for 𝑰𝑪𝟐 .

Since ∑ 𝐼 at X is zero,
𝑉0 −𝑉𝐵𝐸
− 𝐼𝐵1 − 𝐼𝐵2 − 𝐼𝐶1 = 0
𝑅0
Assume that the physical properties of T1 and T2 are
practically the same. (Transistors having similar
physical properties can be produced by fabricating
both transistors adjacent to each other in a tiny region
of the semiconductor material using IC technology.
Physical properties of the material in such a tiny region
cannot vary significantly).

∴ 𝐼𝐵1 = 𝐼𝐵2 & 𝐼𝐶1 = 𝐼𝐶2

Now the above equation can be written as,
 100

𝑉0 −𝑉𝐵𝐸
− 2𝐼𝐵2 − 𝐼𝐶2 = 0
𝑅0

But 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵2

𝑉0 −𝑉𝐵𝐸 2
∴ = 𝐼𝐶2 (1 + )
𝑅0 𝛽
𝑉0 −𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝛽
∴ 𝐼𝐶2 = (𝛽+2)
𝑅0

𝛽
Since ≃1
𝛽+2

𝑉0 −𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐶2 ≃
𝑅0
In this expression, V0, the supply voltage, and VBE can
be considered constants. Therefore 𝑰𝑪𝟐 depends only
on R0. Thus, the collector current (𝐼𝐶2 ) through the
transistor T2 can be programmed by using the resistor
R0 which is attached to the primary circuit (primary
current source) consisting of T1 and R0.

Concept of current mirrors

The techniques of matched base-emitter biasing, and

the programming of currents using a primary
circuit can be used to construct what is called current
mirrors. Purpose of current mirrors is to produce
 101

several constant current sources with known

currents using a single primary current source. The
primary current source is programmed to produce the
required current.

Primary current source (with a pnp transistor)

The primary current IP is set (programmed) by means

of R0.
Now if another transistor (identical) is connected to
the circuit as shown below, it will act as a secondary
current source producing the same current IP. Note
that this secondary current source, sources (release)
current to the load.
 102

This technique can be extended to construct several

constant current sources, all of which are programmed
by the same primary source
 103

These types of current sources are extensively used in

integrated circuits for various purposes. The entire
circuit needs only one resistor which can even be kept
externally.

Constant current sources giving different magnitudes

of currents can be obtained by connecting their outputs
together in the following manner.

In principle, currents from individual constant current

sources should not be changed when their outputs are
connected as shown above (why?).

The following arrangement shows how a current

smaller than the programmed current (IP) can be
obtained from a programmed source.
 104

Note that the primary programming circuit consists of

two diode-connected transistors, and VBE is set in such
a way that each primary transistor produces a current
𝐼
of 𝑃.
2

Current mirrors with npn transistors

 105

Note that Current sources with npn transistors act as

current sinks (absorb currents).

As mentioned above the operational amplifiers use

constant current sources at various places of their
circuits. The figure below shows how the emitter
resistor of the first differential stage is replaced with a
constant current source producing a current of 1 mA.
The value of R0 used in the circuit is 5.3 kΩ.
106
 107

Voltage Level Shifter

It is a network which allows coupling of two stages of
an amplifier using a resistor and a constant current
source without affecting their dc biasing voltages.
When coupling amplifier stages, it is usually done
using coupling capacitors, but in the case of ICs this
method is practically not possible.
 108

The technique used in the coupling of amplifier stages

in ICs is shown in the above diagram.
In the above circuit, the output of the amplifying stage
2 which is at + 3.3 V is connected to the input of the
stage 3 which is at – 5.3 V using a voltage level
 109

shifting network consisting of a resistor R and a

constant current source producing a constant current I.

A constant current I is setup in the network so that it

produces a potential difference, VAB of 8.6 V (i.e. 3.3
V – (-) 5.3 V) between the points A and B (See figure).
The value of the resistor needed to setup this current is
given by the equation
VAB = IR
This constant current starts from the point A and flows
to the current source. Now if there is a signal current
(time varying) at the point A in addition to the dc
voltage (3.3 V), that signal will flow through the
resistor R, but will not go to the constant current
source as it will accept only constant current. (Note:
Constant current sources will impart an infinite
resistance to time varying signals). Therefore, the
signal will divert from B to the third stage of the
amplifier.

Exercises
(1) In the following circuit the base current IB is of the order
of 50µA. Estimate a Value for R1+R2 which makes the
divider current I, 200 times greater than IB. (Then the
divider can be considered as a “Stiff potential divider”).
 110

(2)
The power supply VEE in the following circuit is -15 V,
and the transistor is made of silicon. Calculate a suitable
value for R0 which produces a primary current IP of 2mA.

VEE
VBE

IP
R0

(3) The circuit given in (2) with IP = 2mA is to be used as a

primary circuit to construct current mirror consisting of
two current sources producing 0.5 mA and 0.15 mA. Show
how you would achieve this.

(4) Collector which is at 5 V dc must be direct coupled to the

base of the amplifier 2 using a level shifter. If you are
 111

provided with constant current sources of 1 mA each,

design the circuit.

Lesson 8

Output circuit of the op amp

The following is an extract from the circuit diagram

of the op amp shown above which shows the output
circuit of a typical operational amplifier.
 112

It contains a npn/pnp combination wired as a push-

pull amplifier. Basically, it is a modified version of a
common collector amplifier.

Common collector amplifier has a distinctive

advantage of having a low output impedance, a
desirable property for an output circuit.
 113

A circuit diagram of a basic common collector

amplifier is shown below.

This is a class A type amplifier circuit and has a

significant power dissipation in the circuit irrespective
of whether a signal is present or not. Therefore, it is
not suitable to be implement in the IC form.

The power dissipation in the circuit, however, can be

reduced by completely removing the dc biasing
network, and using part of the signal itself to bias the
transistor. Amplifiers operating in this mode, i.e.
without a fixed bias, are known as class B
amplifiers.
 114

Since npn transistor is not capable in amplifying

negative half cycles, they are absent in the output
waveform. See the above figure.
To receive both half cycles at the output, a pnp
transistor must also be coupled to the circuit as shown
below.
 115

In this circuit, when 𝑣𝑠 = 0 emitter base junctions of

both transistors are not forward biased, and no current
flows through circuit. When 𝑣𝑠 becomes positive and
more than 0.7 V (for example a positive half cycle of
a sinusoid), only the transistor T1 will conduct and
positive half cycle will appear at the output. In this part
of the operating cycle, the combination of T1 and RE
act as an emitter follower, providing low output
impedance. Since the emitter junction of T2 is reverse
 116

biased under these conditions, it may be regarded as

an open circuit.

When 𝑣𝑠 becomes negative (for example a negative

half cycle of a sinusoid) and its voltage is less than 0.7
V, only T2 will conduct, and the negative half cycle of
the input will appear at the output. It is important to
realize that up to 0.7 V of the input signal is utilized to
put the transistor into conduction and that part will not
be seen fully in the output signal. This will lead to a
dead space in the input-output characteristic, and to
distortion in the output signal as shown.

However, the situation can be improved by the

modifications shown below. The idea of this modified
circuit is to apply a small constant dc forward
voltage to the emitter junctions of both transistors.
 117

This forward voltage is obtained through the addition

of two diodes and two current sources, as shown.

The values of the current sources are set so that in the

absence of signal, the voltage across each diode, and
hence VBE is about 0.5 V. Such small forward voltages
are not quite sufficient to turn on the transistors, and
little currents flows in the absence of signal.

Exercise
 118

(1) What information about the diodes would you require to

set the current in the constant current source?