UNIT V EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Fungal diseases in forests and agricultural crops due to climatic fluctuations - Growing
energy needs - effect of climate change due to non-renewable energy resources. Renewable
energy resources in the prevention of climatic changes- Effect of climatic changes in ground
water table, garments, monuments, buildings, consumption of energy, agriculture and in electric
power sector - Carbon credit - carbon footprint - disaster management -Role of an individual to
reduce climate change.
Fungal diseases in forests and agricultural crops due to climatic fluctuations
In Forest tree diseases are often caused by infectious pathogens such as fungi and bacteria.
Changing climate conditions can influence the spread of infectious diseases and their carriers,
and add stresses to trees, making them more prone to diseases.
We can see more about these climate-disease interactions
Introduction
Tree diseases occur everywhere that forest trees grow. Infectious diseases caused by biotic
pathogens develop over time from interaction of these pathogens with a favorable environment
and susceptible host plants
 Environmental factors that cause plant stress, especially from moisture deficit caused by
drought, commonly predispose trees to forest pathogen attack. Some diseases are species-
specific, while others affect multiple host species. Pathogens that stimulate tree diseases
include fungi, bacteria, viruses, parasitic plants, nematodes and other microorganisms.
Insects can play a major role in disease development by serving as vectors, providing
wounds that allow pathogen ingress, and other functions
 Non-infectious forest diseases are caused by abiotic factors that are directly damaging to
tree health, such as freezing temperatures and air pollutants
 Changes in climatic conditions may impact the prevalence and severity of these non-
infectious diseases. With respect to infectious diseases, altered climatic conditions may
dramatically affect the outcome of pathogen - host - insect interactions in forest
environments.
 Direct damage to host tissues occurs in affected trees and can lead to tree mortality.
Climate and tree disease relationships whith greater understanding is required are:
 Effects of pathogenic and decay fungi on the forest carbon cycle which impact forest
carbon stocks and fluxes.
 Development and impact of tree pathogen and associated insect - host interactions under
varying temperature and precipitation regimes.
 Beneficial changes due to changing climate effects on tree diseases and tree susceptibility
in relation to forest species diversity and forest structure.
Pathogens, such as the chestnut blight fungus and white pine blister rust, caused extensive
damage to forests in the past century. Thus, studies of both native and exotic invasive pathogens
are needed. Understanding how the severity and distribution of tree diseases are affected by
seasonal changes in temperature, moisture conditions (precipitation, relative humidity, and soil
water availability), tree phenology, and tree physiological stress is also important in forecasting
the direction of change expected under predicted climate scenarios.
Likely Changes
Predictions of changes in impact caused by forest diseases have been made under both "warmer
and wetter" and "warmer and drier" scenarios.
For diseases where temperature and moisture more directly affect host susceptibility to infection
and disease development, "warmer and drier" climate will favor disease increase.
In general, root and canker diseases fall within this category.
As a specific example, Armillaria root disease in the western states is predicted to increase in
severity and impact under this climate scenario.
Climate warming accompanied by increasing drought events (warmer/drier) also can lead to
increases in "decline disease" frequency and severity.
Such diseases typically involve sequential and additive effects of site conditions, drought, and
insect and pathogen build-up on stressed hosts.
With warming temperatures, some forest tree diseases may be able to occur further north and/or
at higher elevations. Opportunistic pathogens may also be favored by such changes.
Diseases where temperature and moisture directly affect the causal organism’s reproduction,
spread, infection and survival are predicted to increase under warmer/wetter conditions.
In general, foliar and rust diseases fall within this category. Predictions based on warmer/wetter
projections have been made for specific diseases such as sudden oak death, Phytophthora root rot
and Swiss needle cast.
Seasonal shifts in precipitation pattern alone can lead to increasingly severe occurrences of tree
diseases. For example red band needle blight on pine.
Changes in precipitation timing, intensity will vary, further contributing to the complexity of
disease prediction.
Even microclimate differences can profoundly affect disease severity. However, some general
principles can be helpful in predicting responses of forest tree diseases to changing climatic
conditions:
 Prediction of disease outbreaks will be more difficult in periods of rapidly changing
climate and unstable weather.
 Host resistance to pathogens may be overcome as trees become stressed or as pathogens'
evolution accelerates more quickly than their long-lived hosts.
 Warmer winters will contribute to greater overwintering success of pathogens and/or
associated insects, leading to increasing disease occurrence and severity.
The rate and pattern of wood decay in forests changes due to influence of changing moisture and
temperature regimes on decay fungi. Thus, carbon cyling rates may increase or decrease
depending on the direction of future climate changes.
Options for Management
Monitoring, forecasting, planning and mitigation strategies are needed to prevent and to
adaptively manage tree diseases at various geographic scales.
Monitoring - Early detection of tree diseases can increase the potential for successful disease
management. Thus, continued and improved surveillance of forests for tree health problems is
required. Follow-up investigations of identified problems and "at-risk" forests are also required.
Forecasting - Climate change scenarios have been used to estimate future risks for several tree
diseases. However, uncertainties generated by forecasting must be sufficiently characterized and
additional species need to be addressed.
Planning and Mitigation Strategies - Increasing the capacity of an ecosystem to absorb
disturbance without shifting to a qualitatively different state (ecological resilience) is required to
mitigate effects of climate change

Fungi
Three chief characteristics of fungi:

 basic structural unit is almost always hypha (a, b)

 reproductive propagule almost always spore (c, usually single-celled)
 nutrition is heterotrophic and absorptive (they secrete enzymes that break down organic
matter, then absorb soluble products)
Fungi are overwhelmingly the most important pathogens of trees. In order to understand the
diseases they cause, how the disease spreads, etc., you have to understand the fungi themselves
to some extent.

Major Groups of Fungi

Phyla, subgroups, and some major genera of fungi important in tree diseases.
Phylum Subgroup Some major genera

Oomycota Oomycetes Phytophthora, Pythium (water molds and downy mildews)

Glomeromycot Glomeromycetes Acaulospora, Gigaspora, Glomus (arbuscular/endomycorrhizal fung

a

Zygomycota Endogonales Endogone (ectomycorrhizal fungi, saprobes)

Mucorales Mucor, Rhizopus (mostly common saprobes)

Ascomycota Classification of the Ascomycota is so complex, it is better for the beginning student to focu

naked asci Taphrina
 Phylum Subgroup Some major genera

perithecia Nectria, Ceratocystis, Ophiostoma, Valsa

cleistothecia Microsphaera

apothecia Peziza, Rhizina, Rhytisma (saprobes, root pathogens, ectomycorrhiz

pseudothecia Apiosporina, Phaeocryptopus

Asexual forms of Ascomycota

simple conidiophores Verticillium
Penicillium

coremium Graphium

sporodochium Fusarium

acervulus Gloeosporium
Marssonina

pycnidium Sphaeropsis
Cytospora

Basidiomycota Agaricales Mushrooms (Armillaria), puffballs and bird's nest fungi (Lycoperdo

Boletales Poroid mushrooms (Boletus), gasteroid fungi (Pisolithus, Scleroderm

Corticiales A small residual group of mostly corticioid fungi; not important in f

Hymenochaetales Polypores (Inonotus, Onnia, Oxyporus, Phellinus, Trichaptum) and

Polyporales Polypores (Fomitopsis, Ganoderma, Oligoporus, Phaeolus, Polypor

Russulales Polypores (Albatrellus, Bondarzewia, Heterobasidion), tooth fun

Stereum) and mushrooms (Lactarius, Russula)

Pucciniomycetes Cronartium (rusts), Helicobasidium
Above includes mostly groups with important tree pathogens and others that forest pathologists
should be at least minimally familiar with. This classification is based on a new higher-level
phylogenetic classification of the fungi.

ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy Sources
The most primitive source of energy is firewood, which is replaced by coal. Coal is the dominant
source of energy, contributing to about 65 %.
Types of Energy Resources
1. Renewable energy resources: always available and can be regenerated. Eg. Wind, sun
2.Non-renewarble energy sources: are limited in availability and cannot be regenerated. Eg.
Coal, oil
i) Fossil fuels: they are formed from organic matter(plants and animals) buried million of years
ago. They are mainly hydrocarbon in nature. The burning of fossil fuels leads to global warming
(emission of CO2).
Eg. coal, oil, natural gas
1. Coal: Various types of coal includes peat, lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite. 75% of
electricity is produced from coal. By gasification, coal is converted into diesel or petrol.
2. Petroleum: Petroleum obtained from underground, is refined and separated by fractional
distillation. The leading producer is Saudi Arabia.
LPG(liquefied petroleum gas) composed of methane, isopropane and n-butane is obtained from
petroleum by fractional distillation.
ii) Nuclear energy: It is obtained from the nucleus of an atom. Two types are:
(a) Nuclear fission: Splitting of heavier nucleus into two or more nuclei by bombardment
with neutrons. The process eventually giving rise to a chain reaction releasing huge
amount of energy. Each of the 3 neutrons strikes another U235 nucleus causing 3 x 3 = 9
subsequent reactions. These 9 reactions again give rise to 9 x 3 = 27 reactions. This kind
of propagation of reaction is known as chain reaction. The nuclear fission reaction can be
carried out in a controlled way in a nuclear reactor. The major undesirable effect of
nuclear reactors is thermal pollution.

b. Nuclear fusion: This is a process by which two nuclei join together to form a heavier
nucleus. The
fusion of light elements takes place at extremely high temperature (1 billion ° C) to form heavier
nucleus and a large amount of energy is released. So far, no commercially viable fusion reactor
has been built.
Nuclear power in India: Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Tarapur (Maharastra), Ranapratap Sagar
(Rajasthan) and Narora (U.P).

RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES (or) NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

RESOURCES
1. Solar energy: The energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy.
(i) Solar heat collectors: Solar heat collectors are natural materials like stones, bricks etc. or
material like glass which absorb heat during the day time and release it slowly at night. Active
solar heat collectors pump a heat absorbing medium (air or water) through a small collector
which is normally placed on the top of the building.
(ii) Solar cells: They are also called as photovoltaic cells or PV cells. They are made of
semiconducting materials like Si or Ge doped with gallium arsenide, cadmium sulphide or boron.
When light fall on them, a potential difference is produced causing flow of electrons (electricity).
A single PV cell of 4 cm2 size produces 0.4 – 0.5V and 60 mA current.
Applications:
1. Calculators, electronic watches, traffic signals, artificial satellites.
(iii) Solar pump: A group of solar cells joined together in a definite pattern form a solar panel
which can harness a large amount of solar energy and can produce electricity enough to run
street-light, irrigation water pump etc.
(iv) Solar cooker: It makes use of solar heat by reflecting the radiations using a mirror directly
onto the glass sheet which helps to cook the raw food in a black insulating box.
Advantage
1. Food cooked is more nutritious due to slow heating.
Disadvantages
1. Cannot be used at night or on cloudy days.
(v) Solar water heater: It consists of an insulated box painted black from inside and having a
glass lid to receive and store solar heat. Inside the box it has black painted copper coil through
which cold water is made to flow in, which gets heated and flows out into a storage tank.
(vi) Solar furnace: Here thousands of small plane mirrors are arranged in concave reflectors, all
of which collect the solar heat and produce as high a temperature as 3000° C.
(vii) Solar Power plant: Solar energy is harnessed on a large scale by using concave reflectors
which cause boiling of water to produce steam. The steam turbine drives a generator to produce
electricity. A solar power plant (50 KW) has been installed at Gurgaon, Haryana.
Advantages
1. It is a non-depletable fuel (atleast for another five billion years) and a pollution-free source of
energy.
2. The electricity produced can be stored in batteries and used to supply power to remote
villages.
Disadvantages
1. Sunlight is not available at all times.
2.Affected during cloudy and rainy days and also at night.
3. expensive

2. Wind energy: The wind is a source of energy and windmills are used to harness wind power.
Here, the mechanical energy is converted into electricity. The minimum wind speed required for
satisfactory working of a wind generator is 15 km/hr. The largest wind farm our country is near
Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu generating 380 MW electricity.
Advantages
1. Farms are tourist attraction place to see
2. Land beneath can also be used for farming
3. Pollution-free and eco-friendly source of energy
4. Cost-effective
Disadvantages
1. Winds are unpredictable
2.Energy fluctuation
3.land area required may be expensive

3. Tidal energy: Harnessing of energy from the rise and fall of water in oceans is tidal energy.
The gravitational forces of the sun and the moon stimulate high and low tides (rise and fall). A
barrage or dam is built across an estuary and when tides go in and out, the water flowing through
the tunnels in the dam can be used to rotate a turbine and produce electricity. The largest tidal
power station is in Northern France
Advantages
1. Tides are predictable.
2. They are fuel-free and no waste is generated.
3. The maintenance cost is low.
Disadvantages
1. Tidal energy can provide power for only about 10 hours a day.

4. Hydroelectric energy: It is simply water power. In a dam, the water is allowed to flow
through tunnels
and as it gains momentum due to the fall, it turns the turbines to produce electricity.
Advantages
1. It does not cause any pollution
2. It is renewable and normally the hydropower projects are multipurpose projects (irrigation,
navigation, flood control)
Disadvantages
1. Environmental impacts affecting flora and fauna

5.Geothermal energy: It is the harnessing of heat energy from the interior of the earth. As we
descend every 36 m into the earth, the temperature rises by 1° C. Drilling of deep holes and
pumping hot water and steam drive turbines to produce electrical energy. Volcanic regions are an
important source of geothermal energy.
Impacts
1. Hazardous gases are pumped out from underground reservoirs.
2. Health issues
6.Biomass energy: This includes biomatter like agricultural residues, woods, industrial waste,
etc. Large scale biomass can be produced from energy plantations.
i) Energy plantation: Plants like sugarcane, sweet sorphum, cottonwood can be burnt directly.
ii) Petro crops: Plants rich in hydrocarbons like the jatropha plant which yields an oily residue
may be mixed with diesel to conserve crude oil fuels.
iii) Biogas: Solid biomass when gasified yields biogas. The animal faeces release methane by the
action of anaerobic bacteria.
There are two types of biogas
1. Floating biogas
2. Fixed dome type

7. Hydrogen fuel energy: Splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen by photolysis or by
catalytic process. It has the highest energy content per unit of weight compared to any fuel.. It is
difficult to store and transport.

Effect of climatic changes in ground water table

Groundwater is an essential part of the hydrological cycle and is a valuable natural resource
providing the primary source of water for agriculture, domestic, and industrial uses in many
countries.
Groundwater is now a significant source of water for human consumption, supplying nearly half
of all drinking water in the world and around 43 percent of all water effectively consumed in
irrigation.
Ground water also is important for sustaining streams, lakes, wetlands, and ecosystems in many
countries. The use of groundwater has particular relevance to the availability of many potable
water supplies because groundwater has a capacity to balance large swings in precipitation and
associated increased demands during drought and when surface water resources reach the limits
of sustainability.
During extended droughts the utilization of groundwater for irrigation is expected to
increase, including the intensified use of non- renewable groundwater resources, which
may impact the sustainability of the resource.
However, global groundwater resources may be threatened by human activities and the
uncertain consequences of climate change. Changes in global climate are expected to affect the
hydrological cycle, altering surface water levels and groundwater recharge to aquifers with
various other associated impacts on natural ecosystems and human activities.
Also ground-water discharge, storage, saltwater intrusion, biogeochemical reactions, and
chemical fate and transport may be modified by climate change. Although the most
noticeable impacts of climate change could be changes in surface water levels and quality, there
are potential effects on the quantity and quality of groundwater.
While recognizing that groundwater is a major source of water across much of the world,
particularly in rural areas in arid and semi- arid regions, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change reports state that there has been very little research on the potential effects of
climate change. Recent research has been focused predominantly on surface- water systems,
due to their visibility, accessibility and more obvious recognition of surface waters being
affected by global change.
It is important to mention that in the past ten years the groundwater and climate change
has increased considerably. Recently, importance were given to the role of groundwater
resources in meeting the demands for drinking water, agricultural, industrial activities,
sustaining ecosystems and mitigation of the impacts of climate change by human activities.
There are urgent and ongoing needs to address the expected coupled effects of human activities
and climate change on global groundwater resources.
To address these concerns UNESCO initiated the GRAPHIC project (Groundwater
Resources Assessment under the Pressures of Humanity and Climate Change) in 2004.
GRAPHIC seeks to improve our understanding of how groundwater interacts within the
global water cycle, supports ecosystems and humankind and, in turn, responds to
complex and coupled pressures of human activities and climate change. GRAPHIC outlines
areas of desired international investigations covering major geographical regions, groundwater
resource topics, and methods to help advance the com-bined knowledge needed to address
scientific and social aspects (UNESCO 2008).The GRAPHIC project was designed with
the understanding that groundwater resources can have nonlinear responses to
atmospheric conditions associated with climate change and surface conditions associated
with human activities.

The structure of the GRAPHIC project has been divided into subjects, methods, and
regions. The subjects include
(i) groundwater quantity (recharge, discharge, and storage),
(ii) (ii) quality, and
(iii) (iii) management aspects.
A variety of scientific methods and tools are being applied in the framework of GRAPHIC,
including analysis of field data, geophysics, geochemistry, paleohydrology, remote sensing (in
particular GRACE satellite gravimetry), information systems, modelling, and simulation. The
management of groundwater resources under the coupled pressures of climate change and
human activities is a challenge.

HOW CLIMATE CHANGE WILL AFFECT THE GARMENTS THAT WE WEAR

How climate change is beginning to alter our apparel.

You can buy climate-conscious garments made of harvested bamboo and a man-made fiber spun
from 100 percent renewable resources.
Dressmaking designers, in particular, are making use of earth-friendly fibers.
"In the future,'smart clothing' that monitors and adjusts to body temperature may help us reduce
our need for air conditioning and heating."Factors that influenced the respondents' clothing
selection were grouped into physical, aesthetic, psycho-social, and economic factors. Colour,
fashion, affordability, durability and religion were factors that influenced respondents' clothing
selection the most.

From the moment of purchase, clothes are subject to wear and tear caused by nature, manmade
chemicals and....human mishandling.
Just the act of wearing clothes is enough for gradual erosion.
Some bodily functions aren’t too kind on certain fabrics. Sweat - made of trace amounts of
minerals, lactic acid and urea - may seem harmless. But when combined with bacteria, it can
weaken and discolour clothes over time.
And if you think this is something you can remedy with an antiperspirant, you’ll just make
matters worse.
The chemicals in deodorants and antiperspirants leads to yellowish stains that don’t yield to
multiple wash cycles or scrubbing sessions. Linen, rayon, cotton and synthetic blends are
especially vulnerable.
Add to that, sun exposure. Though a reliable dryer and disinfectant, the UV radiation from the
sun causes clothes to fade. You needn’t even dry your clothes out in the sun; walking outside on
a sunny day is enough for your clothes to gradually fade.
And then there’s what we do to our clothes when we’re not wearing them - ignoring labels,
forgetting to segregate while washing and maintaining improper storage habits. You think you
know how to hang a sweater? Not if you hang it just like all your shirts - gravity stretches out the
neck and shoulders of heavier clothing. Shielding your clothes by leaving them in the dry-
cleaning bag? You just trapped them in humidity and foul odour. Fabrics need to breathe, so they
shouldn’t be languishing in plastic bags. Tossing workout clothes into the laundry bag first thing
after returning home? It’s why the odour stays. Excessive moisture boosts fungal growth, so
these clothes need to be hung out to dry first. Every day, a whole host of such actions unleash
immense wear and tear on our clothes.
Clothes encounter maximum resistance in the wash; it’s the biggest factor behind premature
degeneration of clothes. Wash sessions that don’t adhere to the rules of fabric care have a harsh
impact on clothes. For starters, extra effort often backfires. Using more detergent than is
indicated may seem reasonable for a tub full of soiled clothes, but it actually adds to their
erosion. Aggressive scrubbing, too, is counterproductive as it worsens stains. And most clothes
can be worn a few times before being put in the wash, unless of course they are sweat-soaked
gym clothes. Daily washing of regulars exposes them to too much friction, hastening their wear
and tear.
Different fabrics react differently to these abrasive agents. Natural fabrics include cotton, wool,
silk and linen and each has distinct care requirements. Synthetic fabrics, on the other hand, are
sensitive to heat and oil.
The sun can also cause fabrics to fade. Very few fabrics have built-in repellents or protection.
For natural fabrics, consider cotton and wool, along with wool blends. Fabrics blended with
acrylic, polyester, and nylon are generally less likely to fade. High end fabrics like linen and silk
are notorious for fading quickly (as you may have discovered with once-favorite linen placemats
or silk scarves). Also consider the fade-ability of the colors you select. Dark colors will fade
much more rapidly than lighter ones. Proper cleaning will extend the life of all your clothes.

How to treat cotton fabrics

 Treat strains quickly to avoid permenant straining
 Cold wash only (clothing shrinks in hot water)
 Iron with cotting setting in Iron box (over drying worsen wrinkles)

How to treat silk fabrics

 Use mild detergent
  Dry clean once in a while
 Choose a gentle cold water cycle
 Do not wring (Roll in a towel and keep it until it dries)
 Segregate white before washing
 Store in a porous bag with moth repellent
 Iron clothes inside to remove wrinkles
 Be careful when perfuming (Alcohol causes decolouration)

How to treat synthetic fabrics

 Never wash in hot water
 Add fabric softener to reduce static electricity
 Dry indoor (Don’t use driers and hangers)
 Iron by placing a damp cloth between plate and fabric.

How to treat woolen fabrics

 Deal with strains immediately
 Brush to get rid of pills
 Don’t use wire hangers (Use padded hangers)
 Don’t over dry clean (life is shortned)
 Dry your woolen clothes thoroughly before storing (otherwise it get moulded)
 Spread your woolen cloth on a drying rack instead of hanging

Monuments
Climate Change & Monuments
Now move on to the specific subject of the climate change effect in the deterioration of
monuments.
There are several factors which are directly responsible for the deterioration of heritage
monuments, some of which are related to the changing environment.
A small change in temperature directly results in a change in RH (relative humidity). RH and
temperature are extremely important when it comes to the deterioration of stone and ceramic,
which contain salts- since a slight change may result in salts crystallizing, and hence weathering
occurs.
Biological activity also changes; it may increase or decrease, hence changing the rate of
deterioration; the biological film may then change completely, changing a monument's aesthetic
qualities and especially its colour (black, green, yellow etc.).
Increased temperatures result in increased dryness, causing droughts and possibly fires, which
can be especially destructive for organic materials and several non-organic ones.
As a result of snow melt, sea levels also increase, submerging and destroying sites close to the
coastline.
The change of the average temperature may bring cold areas located in high altitudes or extreme
latitudes into higher temperatures, which will then with the seasons oscillate more often between
frost and thaw. This oscillation is destructive for all materials.
Finally, climate change can also create an unstable environment; hence environmental
phenomena are expected to increase, such as earthquakes, storms and hurricanes, which may
result in flooding and destruction of heritage sites, museums.
Threats
Monuments can be affected both by natural and/or anthropogenic factors, and often by the
combination of more than one factor.  The threats can affect monuments locally, regionally or
globally. It is obvious that climate change plays a direct role in some of these threats,
consequently affecting the preservation of the monuments of the geographical area affected by
the change of the climate.
Direct effects
Direct effects of climate change in creating alteration, or decay and deterioration, which may be
at a local or regional level, are produced by:
1.Variation in soil/ moisture and/or desertification
2.Flooding and surface runoff
3.Extreme weather events ( floods, surges, hurricanes, storms)
4.Coastal erosion
5.Freeze and thaw- glacier variation
6.Formation of salts
7.Quality & typology of the biological environment of the area and its flora/fauna
8.Variation in temperature
9.CO2 emissions
10.Corrosion and earth recession
Decay
As decay of a monument we would define any chemical or physical modification of its
component materials that lead to a loss of value or to the impairment of its use. When a
monument undergoes changes in character and deterioration due to chemical or mechanical
process by exposure to weather, we tend to call it weathering.
Although monuments suffered from several deterioration factors in the past, the climate change
came to enhance this process and put monuments at greater risk. It is observed that climatatic
changes during the last decades have caused more problems to the monuments than all the
previous centuries or even millennia of their existence.
Whether climate changes are responsible directly or indirectly for the deterioration of mankind's
tangible creations, their effects are evident and a series of monuments can provide us with
characteristic examples to prove it.

Buildings and Infrastructure Changes in Response to Climate Change

Buildings
Buildings can be vulnerable to climate change. In the future there may be an increase in the risk
of collapse, declining health and significant loss of value as a result of more storms, snow or
subsidence damage, water encroachment, deteriorating indoor climate and reduced building
lifetime. In the short term stronger storms are the greatest challenge. 

Storms will constitute a safety risk in those parts of existing buildings that do not meet the
building code's safety requirements. In the longer term, more and longer-lasting heat waves
could have health-related consequences
Climate Factors There are different climate factors that must be considered in civil operations,
building constructions and building designs. The most significant climate factors are as follows:
weather temperature, soil temperature, angle and intensity of sunlight, relative humidity,
direction and wind speed, rainfall and sunlight. Climate factors cannot be reduced in these items.

Weather temperature is the most important climate factor affecting the buildings. The intended
dimensions in designing various points of a building and also the material in use are determined
by the maximum and the minimum temperature of the region. Therefore, the quantity and quality
for constructing a building are different depending on the type of the region: tropical, cold and
moderate. Glacial region would require taking special decisions on the choice of materials. In
order to prevent energy dissipation in tropical and cold regions in summer and winter time, body
insulation of the buildings must be considered whereas this issue might not be of priority in
moderate regions.
Sunshine The rate of receiving sunshine is a function of several factors which include: latitude
(angle of sunshine), the amount of cloud, and sunshine hours. The less the latitude, the less the
angle of the stretch of sunshine with the vertical line to horizon and the more the receiving
sunshine. Sunshine hour is irrelevant with the amount of cloud, when one increases the other
decreases. In areas where the rate of receiving sunshine by the earth surface is high, temperature
is high too.
The more the rate of relative humidity, the more the possibility for the formation of water drops
on physical objects on the earth surface (including buildings and other constructions such as
bridges, streets,etc.). This means the acceleration of the effect of humidity on equipment and
their rust chemically (corrosion of metals, oxidation of metals, etc.) and physically (freezing
water and causing crack in building design. In the regions where there is more relative humidity
of weather such as coastal areas and islands, designing and construction of the buildings take
place according to high adverse effects of water. They must be designed and constructed in a
way that physical and chemical adverse effects of water decrease to the minimum level or even
zero. This need is met through the selection of water and corrosion-resist materials and
equipment.
Wind Direction and Speed Wind direction is a way from which it is blowing. Knowing about the
wind direction of each region, bearing the most frequency from that direction (prevailing wind),
is an important factor in setting the direction of building construction aerodynamically so that in
the state of heavy winds, light buildings wouldn’t be hit. In ancient times, in order to design the
direction of wind wards especially in tropical regions, the length of wind ward vents was built in
the direction of prevailing wind so that wind could be used in the best way possible to cool the
building.
Rain Fall The amount of rainfall is one of the most determining factors that shall be considered
in building design, especially ceiling design. In rain areas, the ceiling of buildings must be
designed as gable roof so that water erosion is reduced, due damages are minimized and there
would be no water left on the roof. Otherwise, adverse effects of rain and its penetration into
buildings would rise. Knowing about the rate of rainfall, especially for designing structures like
dams is necessary so we can determine spillway dimension, etc.

For the first time in human history, atmospheric CO2 levels surpassed 400ppm.Thus, we have
increased planetary temperatures 1.5°C above preindustrial levels as we head toward
temperatures that will set off runaway climate destabilization.
As parts of the global society wake up to the reality of climate change, some in the architecture,
engineering and construction (AEC) industry are looking to what they can do to make our
buildings and infrastructure more ecologically sustainable, thus reducing the greenhouse gases
(GHGs) thereby protecting the structures against extreme weather.
Energy consumption
The world is dependent on energy both for human wellbeing and society's continued
development. Energy use is however also one of the human systems that is most directly
influenced by changes in climate, which makes it crucial to gain insight into the impacts of
climate change on energy demand.

The authors did a global analysis using temperature projections from 21 climate models, and
population and economy projections for five socioeconomic scenarios.
The findings indicate that, compared to baseline scenarios in which energy demand is driven by
population and income growth alone, climate change increases the global demand for energy
around 2050 by 11-27% with modest warming, and 25-58% with vigorous warming. Large areas
of the tropics, as well as southern Europe, China, and the USA, are likely to experience the
highest increases. The largest changes in demand are due to electricity needed for cooling.
"An important way in which society will adapt to rising temperatures from climate change is by
increasing cooling during hot seasons and decreasing heating during cold seasons. Changes in
space conditioning directly impact energy systems, as firms and households demand less natural
gas, petroleum, and electricity to meet lower heating needs, and more electricity to satisfy higher
cooling needs,"
According to the authors, an important qualification is that the study's findings represent the
initial impacts of global warming. They do not account for the additional adjustments in fuel
supplies and prices, and subsequent substitution responses by producers and consumers across
the world that impacts will trigger. While these forces are likely to lead to ultimate changes in
energy consumption that are less extreme, they also incur adaptation costs that will affect the
broader economy and household incomes.
"The lower the level of income per person, the larger the share of income that families need to
spend to adapt to a given increase in energy demand," says Bas van Ruijven, a researcher with
the IIASA Energy Program and lead author of the study. "Some scenarios in our study assume
continued population growth and in those cases temperature increases by 2050 could expose half
a billion people in the lowest-income countries in the Middle-East and Africa to increases in
energy demand of 25% or higher. The poor face challenges to adaptation that are not only
financial -- in areas that have unreliable electricity supplies, or lack grid connections altogether,
increased exposure to hot days increases the risk of heat-related illnesses and mortality."
Impact of climate change on agriculture
Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place on a global
scale. Global warming affects agriculture in a number of ways, including through changes
in average temperatures, rainfall, and climate extremes (e.g., heat waves); changes
in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-
level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods and changes in sea
level.
Climate change is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the
world. Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low
latitude countries, while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative.
Agriculture contributes to climate change both by man made emissions of greenhouse gases and
by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land. In 2010,
agriculture, forestry and land-use change were estimated to contribute 20–25% of global annual
emissions.
A range of policies can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture and
greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector.
Impact of climate change on agriculture

For each plant variety, there is an optimal temperature for vegetative growth, with growth
dropping off as temperatures increase or decrease. Similarly, there is a range of temperatures at
which a plant will produce seed. Outside of this range, the plant will not reproduce. For
example maize will fail to reproduce at temperatures above 35 °C and soybean above 38.8 °C.
Despite technological advances, such as improved varieties, genetically modified organisms,
and irrigation systems, weather is still a key factor in agricultural productivity, as well
as soil properties and natural communities. The Earth's average surface temperature has
increased by 0.83 °C since 1880.
On the other hand, agricultural trade has grown in recent years, and now provides significant
amounts of food, on a national level to major importing countries, as well as
comfortable income to exporting ones.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change  Reports, published in 2001, concluded that
the poorest countries would be hardest hit, with reductions in crop yields in most tropical and
sub-tropical regions due to decreased water availability, and new or changed insect pest
incidence. In Africa and Latin America many rainfed crops are near their maximum temperature
tolerance, so that yields are likely to fall sharply for even small climate changes; falls in
agricultural productivity of up to 30% over the 21st century are projected.
In the long run, the climatic change could affect agriculture in several ways :

 productivity, in terms of quantity and quality of crops

 agricultural practices, through changes of water use (irrigation) and agricultural inputs such
as herbicides, insecticides and fertilizers
 environmental effects, in particular in relation of frequency and intensity of
soil drainage (leading to nitrogen leaching), soil erosion, reduction of crop diversity
 rural space, through the loss and gain of cultivated lands, land speculation, land
renunciation, and hydraulic amenities.
 adaptation, organisms may become more or less competitive, as well as humans may
develop urgency to develop more competitive organisms, such as flood resistant or salt
resistant varieties of rice.
If change is gradual, there may be enough time for biota adjustment. Rapid climate change,
however, could harm agriculture in many countries, especially those that are already suffering
from rather poor soil and climate conditions, because there is less time for optimum natural
selection and adaption.
 In some cases, it seems that even minor droughts have big impacts on food security (such as
what happened in Ethiopia in the early 1980s where a minor drought triggered a
massive famine), One such study has identified US maize (corn) production as particularly
vulnerable to climate change because it is expected to be exposed to worse droughts. 
Pest insects and climate change
 Global warming could lead to an increase in pest insect populations, harming yields of
staple crops like wheat, soybeans, and corn. 
 While warmer temperatures create longer growing seasons, and faster growth rates for
plants, it also increases the metabolic rate and number of breeding cycles of insect
populations.
 Insects that previously had only two breeding cycles per year could gain an additional
cycle if warm growing seasons extend, causing a population boom.
 Temperate places and higher latitudes are more likely to experience a dramatic change in
insect populations.
Plant diseases and climate change
Research has shown that climate change may alter the developmental stages of pathogens that
can affect crops.
The biggest consequence of climate change on the dispersal of pathogens is that the geographical
distribution of hosts and pathogens could shift, which would result in more crop losses. 
This could affect competition and recovery from disturbances of plants.
It has been predicted that the effect of climate change will add a level of complexity to figuring
out how to maintain sustainable agriculture.
Droughts have been occurring because of increased water demand, population growth, urban
expansion, and environmental protection efforts in many areas.
Droughts result in crop failures and the loss of pasture grazing land for livestock.

CARBON FOOTPRINT
The total amount of greenhouse gases produced to directly and indirectly support human
activities, usually expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide (CO2).
 Your carbon footprint is the sum of all emissions of CO2 (carbon dioxide), which were induced
by your activities in a given time frame. Usually a carbon footprint is calculated for the time
period of a year. Everyone’s carbon footprint is different depending on their location, habits and
personal choice. 

The best way is to calculate the carbon dioxide emissions based on the fuel consumption. In the
next step you can add the CO2 emission to your carbon footprint. Below is a table for the most
common used fuels:

CO2 emitted per

fuel type unit
unit
Petrol 1 liter 2.3 kg
Diesel 1 liter 2.7 kg
Oil 1 liter 3 kg
(heating)
 If your car consumes 7.5 liter diesel per 100 km, then a drive of 300 km distance consumes 3 x
7.5 = 22.5 liter diesel, which adds 22.5 x 2.7 kg = 60.75 kg CO 2 to your personal carbon
footprint.

Carbon dioxide is a so called greenhouse gas causing global warming . Other greenhouse gases
which might be emitted as a result of your activities are e.g. methane and ozone. These
greenhouse gases are normally also taken into account for the carbon footprint. They are
converted into the amount of CO2 that would cause the same effects on global warming.

Each of us contributes to the greenhouse gas emissions either by the way we travel, the food we
eat, the amount of electricity we consume and many more.

Main Contributors to Carbon Footprint

 Energy – Here, carbon footprint emissions are collective, coming from a variety of sources,
namely industrial processes, transport and electricity and fuel emissions.

 Industrialization – Since the industrial revolution began during the middle of the twentieth
century, CO2 has continued to rise unchecked and at alarming rates.

 Agriculture – Most agricultural processes within developed and developing nations are still
being carried out commercially with the result that mass production of livestock has led to large
levels of methane gas being released into the atmosphere.

 Waste – No matter which process or activity is being carried out, the waste from these is
excessive. It is also having a harmful impact on the earth’s natural resources (flora, fauna and the
oceans).
 Human action (and inaction) – Ultimately, the way humankind has become accustomed to
doing things every day, keeping pace with the need to do things more quickly and with more
convenience, has contributed towards the exponential increase in carbon footprints on an annual
basis.
Ways to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint
 Driving – When driving, motorists should avoid heavily congested road networks. How well
they drive also makes an impact on reducing their carbon footprint.
 Instead of driving – The popular and healthy advice is to walk instead of driving. Those who
have too far to travel can also use rapid bus transport networks and urban rail networks.
 Less red meat – Vegetarians are already off to a good start because most of their consumptive
waste can be recycled easily. However the greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural produce
such as cattle and poultry are large. Where there is less demand surely emissions can be reduced.
 Buy local – Adding to the above remark, buying local, organic produce effectively counters
mass-produced agricultural outcomes. There is a dramatic reduction in the amount of plastic
being used to package products and fuel usage during long road transits is also reduced.
 Energy efficiency at home – All appliances that are not being used must be switched off
immediately. And all electrical outlets not in use must also be switched off. Hot-water geysers
should be switched off for the entire day and only turned on when needed. These are simple, yet
practical lifestyle habits which are easy to adopt.
 Buy green energy – It is quite possible to power your own home with environmentally-
sustainable alternatives of energy production without compromising your lifestyle and waiting
for national grids to be connected via green energy supply sources. For instance, technology is
now available for you to install your own solar power panels.
 Recycle and re-use – Vegetable produce can be converted into compost (or manure) for
gardens, even vegetable gardens. Instead of buying more food containers, plastic containers
sourced from the supermarket can be refashioned as ideal kitchen utensils. Also, where plastic
waste is no longer required, seek out recycling depots rather than relying on your supplied
garbage disposal units.
 Purchase Carbon Credits – For some companies or private individuals, some emissions are
unavoidable. For those, purchasing carbon credits is a worthwhile option. This is done by
purchasing these carbon credits from companies who will invest those dollars on their behalf on
some renewable energy and energy efficiencyprojects.
 Plant a Tree – One of the best way to give it back to the environment is to plant trees. Plants
absorb CO2 and release oxygen that is then used by humans and animals. According to the
Urban Forestry Network, a single young tree absorbs 13 pounds of carbon dioxide each year.

Carbon credit
What are Carbon Credits
A “carbon credit” is a tradable certificate. More specifically, it is a permit that gives the holder
the right to emit, over a certain period, carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases (e.g.
methane, nitrous oxide or hydrofluorocarbons).
The carbon credit limits the emission to one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another
greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) corresponding to one tonne of carbon
dioxide. In other words, 1 carbon credit corresponds to 1 metric tonne of carbon dioxide
prevented from entering the atmosphere.
Origins of Carbon Credits
Carbon Credits were created as an answer to the need for controlling emissions (global
carbon-dioxide emissions in 2016 were about 36 billion metric tonnes), and as an attempt to
reduce the emission of greenhouse and harmful gases coming from industrial activity (industries
as power, steel, textile, fertilizer, etc. using all fossil fuels – such as coal, oil and natural gas –
that are the major responsible for greenhouse gas emissions).
The Carbon Credits system was officially formalised in the Kyoto Protocol, while the
mechanisms that regulate the Carbon Credits market were established in the Marrakesh Accords.
Who Issues Carbon Credits
The Kyoto Protocol establishes the quotas of greenhouse gases (denominated in individual
units) that each developed country can emit. These so-called Assigned Amount Units (AAUs)
correspond to an allowance to emit one metric tonne of CO 2 or equivalent greenhouse gas. Each
country then divides its quotas assigning them to local businesses and organizations, setting in
this way a limit on the emissions of CO2 for each of them.
Any government or other regulating body willing to limit the carbon dioxide emissions can issue
Carbon Credits. Carbon trading follows the principle of an emissions trading (or cap and trade)
approach, i.e. a market-based approach in which economic incentives are given to encourage
reductions in the emissions of pollutants. One of the positive aspects of this approach is that
organisations can decide to use the emissions trading schemes in a flexible way, finding the
best option to meet policy targets.
Who Buys Carbon Credits
Carbon Credits are bought, on a voluntary basis, by any country or company interested in
lowering its carbon footprint.
The Kyoto Protocol divides countries into two groups according to the level of their economy:
industrialised and developing economies. The first group operates in an emissions trading
market, assigning to each country a certain emissions standard to meet. If, for example, a country
emits less than its target amount of CO2, then it can sell the surplus credits to other countries that
do not meet their emissions level goals established by the Kyoto Protocol. This buying and
selling of Carbon Credits is regulated by a legal contract called ERPA (Emission Reduction
Purchase Agreement). There is also another mechanism, called Clean Development
Mechanism and specifically addressed to developing countries, that issues Carbon Credits for
supporting sustainable development initiatives (those Carbon Credits are called Certified
Emission Reduction, or CER).
How Do Carbon Credits Work
To better understand how Carbon Credits work, let’s consider this example:
Company A emits less than its target amount of CO2; this means that Company A has a surplus
of Carbon Credits. Company B, on the other hand, emits more than its target amount of
hydrocarbon, so either Company B pays a fine or tries to buy Carbon Credits from another
company. At this point, Company A and Company B get to an agreement and trade Carbon
Credits: Company A sells its surplus to Company B, getting money and a positive image
feedback, while Company B buying Carbon Credits from Company A avoids paying a fine.
Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade, which is like a stock exchange
for carbon credits. In some cases though, it can happen that it is more economic to pay a fine
than to buy Carbon Credits due to their high price.
Where do the Carbon Credits Go
Carbon Credits are stirring up a lot of interest. Among the private sector, there is a growing
awareness of the true value and the real importance of natural capital (a stable climate, a
prosperous ecosystem, use or renewable energies, etc.) and companies are increasingly adopting
tools or technologies to lessen the impact on the environment and be more eco-friendly.
As it always happens, there are those who see positively the acceleration of the carbon market
after years of slow growth, and those who openly criticise them, saying that carbon trading is
a false solution to the climate change.
DISASTERS management
Natural disasters
Any sudden natural hazard which causes large scale damage to property,
infrastructure, human life, the economy and the environment is called a disaster.

Earthquakes
Causes of earthquakes
Natural effects, like those listed below, cause earthquakes.
1. Volcanic eruptions
2. Movement of rock layers
3. Percolation of water deep in the earth’s crust
Man-made activities also cause earthquakes.
1. Nuclear testing in underground regions
2. Disposal of waste in deep wells
Effect of earthquakes
Earthquakes can have a serious effect on human life, building and dams. If an earthquake
occurs in the deep seas, it will produce a train of water waves called a Tsunami; a
tsunami can travel at speeds in the range 950 - 1000 km per hour. When they reach the
coastal areas, these waves can normally rise to heights of around 50 m; sometimes they
can rise even up to 100 - 200 m. Coastal areas suffer the brunt of a Tsunami.
Earthquake control measures
The effect of earthquakes on life and property can be controlled to some extent by
the construction of buildings that can absorb the shocks due to earthquakes, especially in
the earthquake-prone areas. Japan, which faces earthquake frequents has mastered the art
of building ‘earthquake-safe’ structures.

Landslides
The sudden downward movement of rock, soil masses, mud and debris due to
gravity is called landslide.

Causes of landslides
Water causes slow weathering of rocky terrain and therefore makes it prone to
landslides. Vegetation retards the flow of water and binds the soil with its roots. Lack of
vegetation will result in frequent landslides.
Many natural and man-made activities influence landslides. The major sources are
- Forest fires, mining operations, deforestation, earthquakes, intense rainfall
- Floods, loss in ground water, destruction of rocks with explosives.
Effects of landslides
Landslides have many serious effects.
1. Human beings are killed due to landslides.
2. It affects vegetation in hilly areas.
3. Rivers may be blocked, resulting in flooding of neighbouring land.
4. Roads can get blocked due to landslides and disrupt transportation.
Control of landslides
It is very difficult to control landslides. However, they can be minimised by
1. Preventing deforestation
2. Growing more plants on the hill slopes
3. Avoiding the construction of roads, dams and buildings in landslide prone areas
4. Frequent clearance of stagnant waters by pumping it out
5. Constructing buildings with concrete supports

Floods
Floods are caused due to intense rainfall and sudden melting of snow. If dams,
lakes, ponds and other water channels overflow, then flash floods may occur.
Causes of floods
Even though floods are natural occurrence, human activity could increase the intensity
of floods. Construction of residential areas, buildings, roads, etc. in low-lying areas
and along the banks of rivers, streams or other water bodies came fl oods. Deforestation
is also another major cause of floods. Roads and parking areas prevent the infiltration of
water into the soil; and will speed up the flow of water.
The natural causes of floods include heavy rainfall and excessive melting of snow.
Effects of floods
Floods cause threat to human and animal lives and public and private property and
is a heavy strain on the economy. The after effects of floods are also be very serious. The
contamination of water causes serious health problems and infectious diseases. Agricultural
lands, crops and other vegetations will be damaged.

Control of floods
The effects of floods may be minimised by avoiding construction of buildings on
flood plains. Restoring wetlands and building dams are useful in flood control.

Cyclones
Cyclones are also known as typhoons or hurricanes. Cyclones are large, closed
circulation systems in the atmosphere that result from a combination of low pressure and
strong winds. According to meteorological studies, cyclones operate in an anti-clockwise
direction in the northern hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the southern
hemisphere.
The term ‘cyclone’ is used mainly in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific regions;
the Western Atlantic and Eastern Pacific regions refer to it as ‘hurricane’ while in the
Western Pacific regions it is called a ‘typhoon’.
Cyclones generally originate from a central area with low pressure. Heavy rains
and high tides in the sea usually accompany cyclonic storms.
Effects of cyclones
The effects of cyclones are highly devastating compared with floods.
1. Because of the stormy conditions during a cyclone, many human lives are lost,
especially in coastal areas, where high tides will also occur.
2. Livestock population may also be affected due to the heavy rainfall and windy
conditions that prevail during a cyclone, particularly in the coastal regions.
3. Cyclones often result in floods.
4. The sea level may also increase due to cyclones affecting the coastal regions.
5. Crops and other vegetation and even agricultural land could get extensively
damaged depending upon the severity of the cyclone.
6. Cyclones are also responsible for beaches getting completely eroded.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Natural disaster management involves the following major steps.
1. Relief measures
Relief measures should be implemented immediately for the victims of a disaster.
The worst affected areas should be given priority in remedial and relief measures.
Rescue tools, heavy machines to remove debris, water pumps, communication equipments,
cement and technicians are more important to rescue affected people. After that
medicines and doctors should arrive to take care of the health of the people.
2. Education
Disaster education plays a significant role in disaster management. It arouses
awareness about the hazards of disasters, and the way to act when a disaster occurs. This
also helps the people to improve the standard of constructions to avoid the disaster.
3. Disaster predictions
Predictions can be made from the past history of the areas prone to a particular type
of disaster. The environmental changes occurring in these areas have to be monitored
regularly.
4. Disaster research
This includes the identification of terrain risk areas on the basis of remote sensing,
engineering and electronic techniques.

Role of an individual to reduce climate change.

1. Get an energy audit. Your utility company can perform an energy audit to determine
where you’re overusing energy.
2. Recycle everything you can. Find out how you can start recycling paper, plastic, glass,
aluminum, ink cartridges and cardboard.
3. Reuse whatever you can. Cardboard boxes and other packing materials are a great place
to start.
4. Reduce paper use. Print double-sided, reuse printed paper for scrap paper, and think
before you print.
5. Buy local. When possible, source your products from local distributors or producers to
reduce fossil fuel use.
6. Go digital. Switch to digital bill payment, invoicing, banking and ordering. You can also
send email rather than printed memos or offer downloadable employee handbooks. Use
an eFax service instead of a paper machine.
7. Get rid of Styrofoam. Styrofoam is one of the least environmentally friendly products
you can use. Find alternatives to Styrofoam for everything from cups to packing peanuts,
both in what you sell and in what you use in the warehouse.
8. Eliminate disposables in the break room. Reusable cups, plates and utensils may come
at a small up-front investment, but they pay for themselves quickly — the average
employee uses 500 disposable cups per year!
9. Reduce energy use in the restrooms. Install low-flow toilets and urinals, and fix leaky
sinks or toilets promptly. Install air dryers rather than offering paper towels. And lower
the thermostat on hot water heaters to 115 degrees.
10. Switch to eco-friendly cleaning products. 
11. Buy Energy Star-certified equipment and maintain it properly. 
12. Adjust your thermostat. Keep the thermostat on 68 in the winter, and 78 in the summer,
and program it to automatically reduce energy use overnight.
13. Insulate the building(s). Use weather stripping and caulking to reduce energy
consumption. Insulate hot water pipes to reduce heat loss.
14. Recycle or donate the old equipment.  choose an certified recycler to ensure that your
equipment will be recycled in earth-friendly ways.
15. Use natural lighting when possible, and switch to compact fluorescent light (CFL)
bulbs. CFLs can save up to $40 per year per bulb in energy costs over incandescents, and
can last 13 times longer! Also, make sure all lights are turned out when everyone’s gone
for the day.
16. Use Green Packaging. Educate yourself on the impact that your green packaging
choices may have on the environment.
17. Give recognition to employees who use green practices. People like being recognized
for their efforts, and you’ll begin to create a company culture that values sustainability.
18. Offer incentives for walking, biking, bus riding or carpooling to work. These may be
financial rewards, or allowing employees to leave early on days they don’t drive.
19. Put a compost bin in the break room. Believe it or not, throwing break room food
matter such as fruit peels, old bread and eggshells into the trash contributes more to
global warming than does material that can’t be broken down. This is because the
anaerobic decomposition in landfills produces significant quantities of methane, whereas
composting food — an aerobic process — produces no methane.
20. Reduce use of bags. Encourage your customers to bring their own bags by offering a
discount to customers who do.
21. Sell reusable bags by the registers. Make it easy for customers to use reusable bags by
selling them at cost when customers check out. And rather than asking, “Would you like
a bag for that?” have cashiers ask, “Do you have reusable bags with you?”
22. Participate in a carbon offset program. If you offer online orders, offer carbon-neutral
shipping or give customers the option to add a carbon offset to their order.

Once you’ve implemented the earth-friendly measures discussed here that make sense for
your business, get another energy audit. You may be amazed how much of a difference a
few changes can make — and you’ll be proud that you’re doing your part to prevent
climate change!