Complete Report Except Conclusion

Regenerative Braking using Supercapacitors for Electric vehicles
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Dept. of EEE, NIE mysuru. Page 1

Introduction
1.1 General
One of the most important features of electric vehicles is that the kinetic energy of vehicle
mass in the braking process can be converted into other forms of energy and stored in the
storage devices. The stored energy can be converted into kinetic energy of the vehicle by
controllers when starting or accelerating again.
In order to improve the efficiency of energy conversion and increase the driving range of
electric vehicles, the regenerative energy captured during braking process is stored in the
energy storage devices and then will be reused.
Due to the high power density of the Supercapacitors, they are employed to withstand high
current in the short time and essentially capture more regenerative energy. The measuring
methods for regenerative energy and power should be investigated to estimate the efficiency
of the regenerative braking employed in the electric vehicle.
Energy storage is the key component for creating sustainable energy systems. Current
technologies, such as solar photovoltaics and wind turbines, can generate energy in a
sustainable and environmentally friendly manner; yet their intermittent nature still prevents
them from becoming a primary energy carrier. Energy storage technologies have the potential
to offset the intermittency problem of renewable energy sources by storing the generated
intermittent energy and then making it accessible upon demand. In addition to energy grid
applications, energy storage technologies also have the potential to transform the
transportation system. Functioning energy storage devices could replace the powertrain
systems of current transportation technologies from a chemical fuel-based powertrain into an
electricity-based powertrain. The electric car is a prime example of how energy storage
technologies can transform the transportation system into a more sustainable model.
Electronic devices, which have become ubiquitous in modern society, are also heavily reliant
on energy storage technologies. The breadth of products and industries which energy storage
affects shows how valuable advances and breakthroughs in this field will be in the future.
Currently, the dominating energy storage device remains the battery, particularly the lithium-
ion battery. Lithium-ion batteries power nearly every portable electronic device, as well as
almost every electric car, including the Tesla Model S and the Chevy Volt.
Batteries store energy electrochemically, where chemical reactions release electrical carriers
that can be extracted into a circuit. The charge and discharge process in batteries is a slow
process and can degrade the chemical compounds inside the battery over time. As a result,
batteries have a low power density and lose their ability to retain energy throughout their
lifetime due to material damage.
The supercapacitor uses a different storage mechanism. In the supercapacitor, energy is

stored electrostatically on the surface of the material, and does not involve chemical
reactions. Given their fundamental mechanism, Supercapacitors can be charged quickly,
leading to a very high power density, and do not lose their storage capabilities over time.

Supercapacitors can last for millions of charge/discharge cycles without losing energy storage
capability.
When a smart device becomes multi-functionalized, it consumes high power at peak

operation. Since these devices typically have limited space for a battery, there is an inherent
challenge in increasing power when needed. This imbalance between power supply and
demand will certainly continue as IOT becomes more ubiquitous. Electric trains, cars, and
other electric vehicles are powered by electric motors connected to batteries. When you're
driving along, energy flows from the batteries to the motors, turning the wheels and providing
you with the kinetic energy you need to move. When you stop and hit the brakes, the whole
process goes into reverse: electronic circuits cut the power to the motors. Now, your kinetic
energy and momentum makes the wheels turn the motors, so the motors work like generators
and start producing electricity instead of consuming it. Power flows back from these motor-
generators to the batteries, charging them up. So a good proportion of the energy you lose by
braking is returned to the batteries and can be reused when you start off again. In practice,
regenerative brakes take time to slow things down, so most vehicles that use them also have
ordinary (friction) brakes working alongside (that's also a good idea in case the regenerative
brakes fail). That's one reason why regenerative brakes don't save 100 percent of your
braking energy.

1.2 Literature survey
In the years following the energy crisis of the early 70’s numerous researchers have studied
the feasibility and practicality of implementing hybrid power trains incorporating
regenerative braking which have the potential to improve the fuel economy of vehicles
operating under urban driving conditions. The price increase of petroleum based fuel in the
past few years has also given rise to various research and development efforts for energy
conservation. However, reduced fuel consumption and therefore operating cost and reduced
gaseous emissions including primarily carbon dioxide (hence global warming) are the major
driving forces behind commercial considerations of such systems.[1]
Regenerative braking only promises significant gains in town driving since 62.5% of energy
is dissipated in the metropolitan cycle due to frequent braking. If all brake energy could be
regenerated with no loss in the regenerative system, fuel consumption would be improved by
33%. Alternative sources state that the addition of regenerative energy storage systems to
motor vehicles can achieve theoretical fuel savings of up to 23% in a 1600kg vehicle on a
level road urban driving schedule. This relative saving is reduced as the weight of the vehicle
reduces. A 1000kg vehicle can achieve theoretical savings of 15%. Research by Volkswagen
has shown that a hybrid drive with both electric drive and ICE offers potential fuel saving of
over 20% compared with just 5-6% from purely electric.[1]
Concerns over fuel economy, pollution and government regulations maintain the interest of
the automotive technical community in those alternative powertrain configurations.
In the early 1950s, General Electric engineers began experimenting with porous carbon
electrodes, in the design of capacitors, from the design of fuel cells and rechargeable
batteries. Activated charcoal is an electrical conductor that is an extremely porous "spongy"
form of carbon with a high specific surface area. In 1957 H. Becker developed a "Low
voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes". He believed that the energy was
stored as a charge in the carbon pores as in the pores of the etched foils of electrolytic
capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not known by him at the time, he wrote
in the patent: "It is not known exactly what is taking place in the component if it is used for
energy storage, but it leads to an extremely high capacity."[6]
General Electric did not immediately pursue this work. In 1966 researchers at Standard Oil of
Ohio (SOHIO) developed another version of the component as "electrical energy storage
apparatus", while working on experimental fuel cell designs. The nature of electrochemical
energy storage was not described in this patent. Even in 1970, the electrochemical capacitor
patented by Donald L. Boos was registered as an electrolytic capacitor with activated carbon
electrodes. [5]
Early electrochemical capacitors used two aluminum foils covered with activated carbon—
the electrodes—which were soaked in an electrolyte and separated by a thin porous insulator.
This design gave a capacitor with a capacitance on the order of one farad, significantly higher
than electrolytic capacitors of the same dimensions. This basic mechanical design remains the
basis of most electrochemical capacitors.[3]

Between 1975 and 1980 Brian Evans Conway conducted extensive fundamental and
development work on ruthenium oxide electrochemical capacitors. In 1991 he described the
difference between "Supercapacitor" and "Battery" behavior in electrochemical energy
storage. In 1999 he coined the term supercapacitor to explain the increased capacitance by
surface redox reactions with faradaic charge transfer between electrodes and ions. His
"supercapacitor" stored electrical charge partially in the Helmholtz double-layer and partially
as result of faradaic reactions with "pseudocapacitance" charge transfer of electrons and
protons between electrode and electrolyte. The working mechanisms of pseudocapacitors are
redox reactions, intercalation and electrosorption (adsorption onto a surface). With his
research, Conway greatly expanded the knowledge of electrochemical capacitors.[3]
Since capacitors' energy content increases with the square of the voltage, researchers were
looking for a way to increase the electrolyte's breakdown voltage. In 1994 using the anode of
a 200V high voltage tantalum electrolytic capacitor, David A. Evans developed an
"Electrolytic-Hybrid Electrochemical Capacitor". These capacitors combine features of
electrolytic and electrochemical capacitors. They combine the high dielectric strength of an
anode from an electrolytic capacitor with the high capacitance of a pseudocapacitive metal
oxide (ruthenium (IV) oxide) cathode from an electrochemical capacitor, yielding a hybrid
electrochemical capacitor. Evans' capacitors, coined Capattery, had an energy content about a
factor of 5 higher than a comparable tantalum electrolytic capacitor of the same size. Their
high costs limited them to specific military applications.[4]
Recent developments include lithium-ion capacitors. These hybrid capacitors were pioneered
by FDK in 2007. They combine an electrostatic carbon electrode with a pre-doped lithium-
ion electrochemical electrode. This combination increases the capacitance value.
Additionally, the pre-doping process lowers the anode potential and results in a high cell
output voltage, further increasing specific energy.
Research departments active in many companies and universities are working to improve
characteristics such as specific energy, specific power, and cycle stability and to reduce
production costs.
Due to the fast charging capacity and high power densities, the Supercapacitors are employed
in regenerative braking system, which enables them to capture the small amount of energy
which is available only for a short period of time. The regenerative braking system is gaining
importance over conventional mechanical braking system due to its various applications like
conservation of energy and reduction in friction involved during braking.[6]

1.3 Objective
 To develop the working model of regenerative braking system using

Supercapacitors for Electric Vehicles and to calculate the energy efficiency of the
system.
 Determine the performance of Regenerative Braking system using
Supercapacitors.

1.4 Organization of the report
Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction about the regenerative braking system and it also covers
the literature review of the system.
Chapter 2 explains how a regenerative braking system works in general. It consists of block
diagram of proposed model of the regenerative braking system. It gives a brief introduction
about Supercapacitors and their role in energy storage. It also contains the block diagram of
the Supercapacitor energy storage and its explanation.
Chapter 3 consists of the information of all the components used in the regenerative braking
system. It also explains the working of the hardware model. It also include the program for
control of relays and measurement of different parameters in the system.
Chapter 4 contains the table of all the measurements of voltage, current and power during the
time of experimentation.
Chapter 5 contains the conclusion.

CHAPTER 2
REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM &
SUPERCAPACITORS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Stop... start... stop... start. Driving a Car in the city traffic can be a loss of huge amount of
time and it’s also a waste of energy. What's less obvious is that it's also a waste of energy.
Getting a car moving needs a big input of power, and every time you hit the brakes all the
energy you've built up disappears again, wasted in the brake pads as heat. It would be great if
we could store this energy somehow and reuse it next time when we start to accelerate. That's
the basic concept of regenerative ("regen") brakes, which are widely used in electric trains
and the latest electric cars.
Figure 2.1: Pictorial representation of regenerative braking.
Figure 2.1 depicts the basic concept of a regenerative brake: it stores kinetic energy in a
battery (or an equivalent mechanical system) when a vehicle comes to a halt (red arrow); then
sends power back to the wheels when the vehicle starts moving again (green arrow).
If you get about town on a bicycle, it's very obvious that braking is a huge waste of energy.
You have to pedal to get yourself going, and each time you brake and come to a standstill you
waste all the momentum you've gained. Next time you want to move off, you have to start
from scratch all over again. Put your hands anywhere near the brake pads on a bicycle and
you'll know exactly where the energy goes: each time you brake and the rubber pads clamp
on the wheel, friction between rubber and metal converts the energy you had when you were
moving into heat, which disappears uselessly into the air, never to be seen again.
Car drivers are pretty much oblivious to the energy that braking wastes because driving
doesn't require any real, physical effort. Not only that, but car brakes are hidden out of sight,
inside the wheels, where you can't see the heat energy they're wasting. But the heat they
generate is extraordinary: the brakes in formula-1 race cars, for example, often heat up to
well over 500°C (1000°F).

This energy can be converted into electrical energy of suitable form that can be stored in an
energy storage device, which can later be reused.
Regenerative brakes:
Figure 2.2: Regenerative braking in a nutshell.

Figure 2.2 depicts the working of regenerative braking in a nutshell.
Top: When you drive an electric vehicle, energy flows from the batteries to the wheels via
the electric motor.
Bottom: When you brake, energy flows from the wheels to the batteries via the motor, which
works as an electric generator. Next time you switch on the power, you can reuse the energy
you stored during braking.
Electric trains, cars, and other electric vehicles are powered by electric motors connected to
batteries. When you're driving along, energy flows from the batteries to the motors, turning
the wheels and providing you with the kinetic energy you need to move. When you stop and
hit the brakes, the whole process goes into reverse: electronic circuits cut the power to the
motors. Now, your kinetic energy and momentum makes the wheels turn the motors, so the
motors work like generators and start producing electricity instead of consuming it. Power
flows back from these motor-generators to the batteries, charging them up. So a good
proportion of the energy you lose by braking is returned to the batteries and can be reused
when you start off again. In practice, regenerative brakes take time to slow things down, so
most vehicles that use them also have ordinary (friction) brakes working alongside (that's also
a good idea in case the regenerative brakes fail). That's one reason why regenerative brakes
don't save 100 percent of your braking energy.

The vehicles make use of regenerative braking system in different ways.
Electric cars and trains:
In electric and hybrid cars, the regenerative brakes charge the main battery pack, effectively
extending the vehicle's range between charges. Electric trains, which are powered by
overhead or trackside powerlines, work in a slightly different way. Instead of sending braking
energy into batteries, they return it to the powerline. A typical modern electric train can save
around 15–20 percent of its energy using regenerative brakes in this way. Some vehicles use
banks of Supercapacitors for storing energy instead of batteries.
Electric bicycles:
Most electric bicycles do not have regenerative braking and gain little or no benefit from
using it. Why? A bicycle is a low-mass, low-speed vehicle, so it wastes much less kinetic
energy in stopping and starting than a car or a train (a high-mass, high-speed vehicle). Not
only that, but cyclists quickly learn to be smarter in the way they stop and start. Most cyclists
use energy really efficiently by coasting or freewheeling to a standstill instead of jamming
hard on the brakes, whenever they can. Unless you're doing an awful lot of stopping and
starting and cycling at relatively high speeds (if you're a delivery worker, for example), the
energy you save with regenerative brakes on an electric bicycle is going to be minimal.
Indeed, regenerative brakes on bicycles can actually end up using more energy than they
save. To work effectively, vehicles with regenerative braking systems need to have their
electric motors (typically hub motors on electric bicycles) permanently engaged and working
as either motors or generators the whole time. That's fine for an electric car, but an electric
bicycle needs its motor on only part of the time: some of the time you can happily coast
along. Having the motor engaged all the time means the bicycle can end up using much more
energy overall, so regenerative brakes can actually end up using more energy than they save!
Elevators:
You might not think of elevators as electric vehicles, but they certainly are! Otis, a leading
maker, introduced the first regenerative elevator, ReGen™, in 2011, claiming to save up to
75 percent of the energy normally used. Where an ordinary elevator wastes braking energy as
heat, ReGen feeds it back into the building's power system.

2.2 Block diagram of the regenerative braking system.
Figure 2.3: Block diagram of the proposed model.

2.3 Supercapacitors
A Supercapacitor(SC) (also electric double-layer capacitor(EDLC), also called Supercap,

ultracapacitor or Goldcap) is a high-capacity capacitor with capacitance values much higher
than other capacitors (but lower voltage limits) that bridge the gap between electrolytic
capacitors and rechargeable batteries. They typically store 10 to 100 times more energy per
unit volume or mass than electrolytic capacitors, can accept and deliver charge much faster
than batteries, and tolerate many more charge and discharge cycles than rechargeable
batteries.
Supercapacitors are used in applications requiring many rapid charge/discharge cycles rather
than long term compact energy storage: within cars, buses, trains, cranes and elevators, where
they are used for regenerative braking, short-term energy storage or burst-mode power
delivery. Smaller units are used as memory backup for static random-access
memory (SRAM).
Unlike ordinary capacitors, Supercapacitors do not use the conventional solid dielectric, but
rather, they use electrostatic double-layer capacitance and electrochemical pseudo-
capacitance, both of which contribute to the total capacitance of the capacitor, with a few
differences:
 Electrostatic double-layer capacitors use carbon electrodes or derivatives with much

higher electrostatic double-layer capacitance than electrochemical pseudo-capacitance,
achieving separation of charge in a Helmholtz double layer at the interface between the
surface of a conductive electrode and an electrolyte. The separation of charge is of the
order of a few angstroms (0.3–0.8 nm), much smaller than in a conventional capacitor.
 Electrochemical pseudo-capacitors use metal oxide or conducting polymer electrodes
with a high amount of electrochemical pseudo-capacitance additional to the double-layer
capacitance. Pseudo-capacitance is achieved by Faradaic electron charge-transfer
with redox reactions, intercalation or electrosorption.
 Hybrid capacitors, such as the lithium-ion capacitor, use electrodes with differing
characteristics: one exhibiting mostly electrostatic capacitance and the other mostly
electrochemical capacitance.
The electrolyte forms an ionic conductive connection between the two electrodes which
distinguishes them from conventional electrolytic capacitors where a dielectric layer always
exists, and the so-called electrolyte (e.g. MnO2 or conducting polymer) is in fact part of the
second electrode (the cathode, or more correctly the positive electrode). Supercapacitors are
polarized by design with asymmetric electrodes, or, for symmetric electrodes, by a potential
applied during manufacture.

The following facts show why Supercapacitors are preferred over Batteries in Hybrid Energy
storage systems:
 Electrochemical energy-storage system was proved to be a promising technical means

to realize the energy regeneration in vehicles. If an electric vehicle runs at a high-
speed mode, the transient current due to braking feedback in the motor bus will
increase up to 200 A or more, and this current will cause enormous damage to
traditional batteries such as lead acid and lithium batteries. In contrast to the
traditional batteries, the Supercapacitors have higher power density, and it is more
reason- able for the large amount of braking energy to be quickly charged into
Supercapacitors by proper transformation from kinetic energy to electrical energy.
 Therefore, the Supercapacitors can greatly enhance energy savings and consequently
extend the driving range. On the other hand, Supercapacitors could output huge
current instantaneously and then reduce the power output of the batteries. Moreover,
the accelerating capability of electric vehicles and battery life will also be improved
accordingly.
 However, hybrid energy system with Supercapacitors is always complex and its
corresponding control strategy is difficult to be designed in applications. With the
development of supercapacitor technologies, it is possible to use them as vehicle’s
independent energy sources, especially for short-distance vehicles such as city buses,
tunnel trucks and terminal trucks. The main reason is that those vehicles with
Supercapacitors could qualify with fast-recharging capability.

2.4 Block diagram of Supercapacitor energy storage unit
Figure 2.4: Block diagram of Supercapacitor energy storage unit.

Working model of the supercapacitor energy storage unit:
Figure 2.5: Working model of Supercapacitor energy storage unit.

 The circuit uses Super capacitors, as opposed to batteries. Super capacitors are like
other capacitors only they have enormous power storage capabilities. Capacitors have
two storage variables: Maximum charging voltage and capacitance (Measured in
Farads). Capacitance is a measure of how much energy can be stored in a capacitor.
 We are going safely charge 3*100F capacitors in series up to 8.1V DC, and feed it to
a DC –DC booster to improve the flexibility of available voltage range for different
applications.
 We need a DC source of anywhere between 5VDC-20VDC for our charge. We are
employing a 12VDC @1A power supply. We can also employ a set of mini solar
panels.
 We have a 0.1uf capacitor and a 100uf capacitor in parallel with the input DC
line. We only really need these because this line is for the charging of the capacitor
bank, but we will be using this input line to power our digital display and we want to
make sure that this DC line is smooth and without extra noise. The 0.1uf capacitor
takes care of high frequency noise, or rather, lessens it (Decoupling capacitor). The
100uf capacitor acts to smooth the input DC. These two capacitors are not really
necessary but they are preferred.
 The LM317 is a variable DC-DC power supply. Using a 240 Ohm resistor in parallel
with the VOUT and the ADJ line, and a 5k ohm variable resistor from the ADJ line
and ground, we can vary the charge voltage from the charge voltage itself, down to
1.25v. For instance, if we have 8v at the input, we can vary the output anywhere
between 8v down to 1.25v. It is EXTREMELY important that your LM317 is
properly heat sinked, as it will get HOT.
 Since the super capacitors will literally suck up all the energy it is given until full
(With >0.01 Ohm ESR), we have to limit the current from the supply, or else we're
going to completely destroy our LM317 circuit.
We have two 2.2ohm, 5W power resistors.
 Two 1N4001 diodes are connected in series with the charging line. These are not used
for any type of rectification, but rather to allow DC charge to enter the capacitor bank,
but not allow for any DC to travel backwards through the circuit after the capacitor
bank is charged. If we didn't have these diodes here, follow the circuit
backwards. Regardless of whether the jumper is on or off, or whether the SPST is on
or off, there is a path back to the LM317, and there is a 240 Ohm resistor in a series
path with a 5k potentiometer and ground. If we stopped charging (without the
diodes), the charge on the caps would leak back through the circuit to ground, making
our batteries terribly inefficient. There are two diodes in parallel to share the current
along the line. If you have 1N4007s, or any 1N400X diodes, they will work just as
well if not better. There are factors such as thermal runaway that we could spend time
worrying about with these diodes in parallel, but the charge time from start to finish
for this circuit is literally 3 minutes or less.
 The capacitor bank with an effective capacitance of 33.33F gets charged to its full
value of 8.1V within a time duration of 3 minutes.
 The charging time is very less when compared to that of batteries. The batteries
normally take around minutes to charge to a full rated voltage.

 The output of the capacitor bank is given to the DC-DC booster to step up the voltage
to a higher value. The output voltage can be varied from 4V-34V, which can be used
for various applications.
 The equations used in this project are
1
Energy =2 𝐶𝑉 2
Thus total energy that can be stored in this model is around 1093.39J.
DC-DC booster equation:
Vo= DVs where D is the duty cycle.

Chapter 3
Development of prototype model of
Regenerative braking system

3.1 Components used
3.1.1 LM317 voltage regulator:
Figure 3.1: Pins of LM317 voltage regulator.

Working:
 The LM317 is an adjustable 3−terminal positive voltage regulator capable of

supplying in excess of 1.5 A over an output voltage range of 1.2 V to 37 V. This
voltage regulator is exceptionally easy to use and requires only two external resistors
to set the output voltage.
 The LM317 serves a wide variety of applications including local, on card regulation.
This device can also be used to make a programmable output regulator, or by
connecting a fixed resistor between the adjustment and output, the LM317 can be
used as a precision current regulator.
 Looking from the front of the voltage regulator, the first pin (on the left) is the
Adjustable Pin, the middle is Vout, and the last pin (on the right) is Vin.
 VIN is the pin which receives the incoming voltage which is to be regulated down to a
specified voltage. For example, the input voltage pin can be fed 12V, which the
regulator will regulate down to 10V. The input pin receives the incoming, unregulated
voltage.

The Adjustable pin (Adj) is the pin which allows for adjustable voltage output. To
adjust output, we swap out resistor R2 value for a different resistance. This creates
adjustable voltages. VOUT is the pin which outputs the regulated voltage.
Figure 3.2: LM317 voltage regulator circuit.
 Here we connect two resistors to the voltage regulator. These resistors determine the
voltage that the voltage regulator adjusts to and outputs.
 The voltage that the adjustable regulator outputs is determined by the equation below:
 Therefore, you can see based on this formula, that the more the value of resistor R2
increases, the greater the voltage output.
 The capacitors C1 and C2 are used to clean up the power line. C1 is optional and it's
used to clean up transient response. C2 is needed if the device is far from any filter
capacitors. These capacitors help smooth out the power supply line in case of abrupt
current spikes.

3.1.2 Filter capacitors:

We have a 0.1uf capacitor and a 100uf capacitor in parallel with the input DC line. We only
really need these because this line is for the charging of the capacitor bank, but we will be
using this input line to power our digital display and we want to make sure that this DC line
is smooth and without extra noise. The 0.1uf capacitor takes care of high frequency noise, or
rather, lessens it (Decoupling capacitor). The 100uf capacitor acts to smooth the input
DC. These two capacitors are not really necessary but they are preferred.
3.1.3 Power resistors:

Since the super capacitors will literally suck up all the energy it is given until full (With
>0.01 Ohm ESR), we have to limit the current from the supply, or else we're going to
completely destroy our LM317 circuit. As you can see, we have two 2.2 Ohm, 5W power
resistors.
3.1.4 1N4001 diodes:

We have two IN4001 diodes in series with the charge line. These are not used for any type of
rectification, but rather to allow DC charge to enter the capacitor bank, but not allow for any
DC to travel backwards through the circuit after the capacitor bank is charged. If we didn't
have these diodes here, follow the circuit backwards. Regardless of whether the jumper is on
or off, or whether the SPST is on or off, there is a path back to the LM317, and there is a 240
Ohm resistor in a series path with a 5k potentiometer and ground. If we stop charging
without the diodes, the charge on the caps would leak back through the circuit to ground,
making our batteries terribly inefficient. There are two diodes in parallel to share the current
along the line.
3.1.5 Capacitor bank:

The capacitor bank comprises of 3 capacitors rated 100F, 2.7v each connected in series. The
effective capacitance becomes 33.33F but providing a total voltage capacity of 8.1v.
3.1.6 DPDT switch:

The DPDT switch is connected in between the capacitor bank output and DC-DC booster
input. This will allow us to select 2 different voltage levels as input for DC booster. Position
1 will provide a voltage of about 8.1v (full rated value) and position 2 switching will provide
a voltage of about 5.4v (tapped from only 2 capacitors in series).

3.1.7 XL6009 DC-DC booster:
Figure 3.3: XL6009 DC-DC booster.

The XL6009 regulator is a wide input range, current mode, DC/DC converter which is
capable of generating either positive or negative output voltages. It can be configured as
either a boost, flyback, SEPIC or inverting converter. The XL6009 built in N-channel power
MOSFET and fixed frequency oscillator, current-mode architecture results in stable operation
over a wide range of supply and output voltages. The XL6009 regulator is special design for
portable electronic equipment applications.
Features:
 Wide input voltage 3V-32V, optimum operating voltage range is 5-32V.

 Wide Output voltage 5V-35V.
 Built-4A efficient MOSFET switches enable efficiency up to 94%.
 High switching frequency 400kHZ, can use a small-capacity filter capacitors that can
achieve very good results, the ripple is smaller. (LM2577 switching frequency is only
50kHz).
Technical specifications:
 Input voltage: 3.2-32V

 Output voltage: 4V-38V.

 Modules type: Non-isolated step-up (boost).
 Rectification: Non-synchronous rectification.
 Rated Output current: 3.0A.
 Peak output current: 4.0A.
 Conversion efficiency: up to 94%.
Pins:
 IN+ input positive.

 IN- input negative.
 OUT+ output positive.
 OUT- output negative.
Applications:
 EPC / Notebook Car Adapter.

 Automotive and Industrial Boost / Buck-Boost / Inverting Converters.
 Portable Electronic Equipment.

3.1.8 2 channel relay module:
Figure 3.4: 2 channel relay module.

The Arduino Relay module allows a wide range of microcontroller such as Arduino, AVR,
PIC, ARM with digital outputs to control larger loads and devices like AC or DC Motors,
electromagnets, solenoids, and incandescent light bulbs. This module is designed to be
integrated with 2 relays that it is capable of controlling .The relay shield use one QIANJI
JQC-3F high-quality relay with rated load 7A/240VAC,10A/125VAC,10A/28VDC.The relay
output state is individually indicated by a light-emitting diode.
3.1.9 ACS712 current sensor:
Figure 3.5: ACS712 current sensor.

A current sensor is place in the consumer load side to measure the current flowing through
the consumer load. Hall Effect type of current sensor is employed in this project. Hall Effect
is the production of a voltage difference (the hall voltage) across an electrical conductor,
transverse to an electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field perpendicular to the
current. By sensing the current provided to the consumer load and using the device’s applied

voltage as a sensor voltage it is possible to determine the power dissipated by the consumer
load. Based on this power, the ballast load is switched into service.
3.1.10 Voltage sensor:

Arduinos have built in voltage sensors, but they only support voltages of 0-5V. This module
allows us to measure voltages of 0-25V by presenting a lower voltage to the Arduino for
measuring. Plug + into 5V, - to ground and S into A0 pin of Arduino. The program written
allows us to calculate the value of voltage at the terminals of the DC machine connected at
the wheel assembly.
3.2 Hardware model
 The block diagram of the proposed model for regenerative braking system is shown in
figure 2.3 of chapter 2.
 The block diagram shows the proposed model of the regenerative braking system for
electric vehicles using Supercapacitors as energy storage unit instead of batteries.
 It has a wheel assembly which is driven by a 12V DC motor connected through a belt
drive.
 The wheel assembly also composes of a flywheel which would increase the inertia of
the wheel assembly.
 The motor is powered by a 12V dc battery through a 5V 2 channel relay. The relay acts
as a switch, which gets the signal for activation through Arduino.
 Channel 1 of the 2 channel relay is connected between battery and the DC motor.
 Channel 2 of the relay is connected between the motor and the XL6009 booster which
is further connected to supercapacitor energy storage unit.
 Relay 3 is connected between the DC machine of mechanical regenerative braking pad
and the booster, which is then connected to the supercapacitor energy storage unit.
 The activation signals for all the relays will be sent by the Arduino uno
microcontroller.
 Pin 11 of the Arduino digital output is connected to the activation input of the relay 1,
which acts as a switch for motoring operation.
 Pin 13 of the Arduino digital output is connected to the activation input of the relay 2,
which acts as a switch for regenerative braking operation.
 When channel 1 i/p receives a signal from the Arduino, it activates relay 1 and switches
it to NC mode thereby turning on the motor. The motor starts running in the forward
mode.
 During this period, the Arduino also sends a signal to Relay 3 which activates the relay.
If the mechanical braking is applied during this period, it will generate electricity
which can be stored using the supercapacitor energy storage unit.
 The motor is made to run for different intervals of time period after which the arduino s

Figure 3.6: Hardware Model

 ends a signal to channel 2 i/p of the relay module and turns off the signal to channel 1
i/p and also to relay 3. This switches the channel 2 relay to NC mode and switches both
relay 1 and relay 3 to NO mode.
 This will disconnect the motor from the dc battery and it will run for few seconds in the
generating mode.
 It is found that the motor will run for around 10 seconds with the inertia force stored in
the wheels. This will generate a considerable amount of electric energy which is
available only for a short duration of time.
 This intermittent energy available for only few seconds can be stored in the
supercapacitor energy storage unit which can capture the energy available only for a
short period of time.
 The inertia of the wheels will make the motor to run in generating mode for 10 -12
seconds which will generate a variable dc voltage of varying in the range of 4V-10V.
 This variable voltage can be stepped up using a dc-dc booster to a value of 12V, which
can be used as a input to the supercapacitor energy storage unit.
 The availability of 12V at the input terminals of the supercapacitor storage unit for
10seconds will charge the unit by 0.5V-0.8V.
 The voltage in the Supercapacitors can be stepped up to a value of 12.5V-13V using
another XL6009 dc-dc booster, which can be used to charge the 12V dc battery which
is used as a source. This will return a considerable amount of energy back to the source
thereby conserving energy.
 The stored energy in the Supercapacitors can also be used for lighting applications in
the electric vehicle.
3.3 Program for measurements and control of relays used in the system.
#include <Wire.h>
int val11;
float val2;
const int analogIn1=A1;
int RELAY1 = 11;
int RELAY2 = 13;
int RELAY3 = 9;
const int analogIn = A0;
double mVperAmp = 100; // use 100 for 20A Module and 66 for 30A Module
double RawValue= 0;

double ACSoffset = 2500;
double Voltage = 0;
double Amps = 0;
int i;
double Pin=0;
double Pout=0;
double P1T=0;
double P2T=0;
double P1av=0;
double P2av=0;
int delayValue = 20000;
void setup()
pinMode(RELAY1, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(RELAY1, HIGH);
Serial.begin(9600);
Serial.println("voltage and current");
Serial.println("Voltage: ");

Serial.print("V");
void loop()
delay(10000);
for(i=0;i<20;i++)
digitalWrite(RELAY1, LOW);
RawValue = analogRead(analogIn);
Voltage = (RawValue / 1024.0) * 5000;
Amps = ((Voltage - ACSoffset) / mVperAmp);
Serial.print("Amps = ");
Serial.println(Amps,2);
float temp;
val11=analogRead(analogIn1);
temp=val11/4.092;
val2=(temp/10);
Serial.print("volt = ");
Serial.println(val2);
Pin=Amps*val2;

Serial.print("powe = ");
Serial.println(Pin,2);
P1T=P1T+Pin;
delay(1000);
P1av=P1T/20;
Serial.print("powA = ");
Serial.println(P1av,2);
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
RawValue = analogRead(analogIn);
Voltage = (RawValue / 1024.0) * 5000;
Amps = ((Voltage - ACSoffset) / mVperAmp);
Serial.print("Amps = ");
Serial.println(Amps,2);
float temp;
val11=analogRead(analogIn1);
temp=val11/4.092;
val2=(temp/10);

Serial.print("voltage = ");
Serial.println(val2);
Pout=Amps*val2;
Serial.print("power = ");
Serial.println(Pout,2);
P2T=P2T+Pout;
delay(1000);
P2av=P2T/10;
Serial.print("powA = ");
Serial.println(P2av,2);
 The program is written using the Arduino IDE. It basically performs the function of
automatic turning on and off of the relays employed in the system.
 It has the logic to measure the value of the voltage across the terminals of the DC
machine.
 It also performs the function of measuring the value of the current that is flowing
through the line of the DC machine during both the running and generating condition.
 The program performs the function of calculating the power taken by the motor for
running in the forward condition and also the power generated by the DC machine
during the regenerative braking condition.
 The measurements are taken for each second and the average power is calculated
during each mode of operation.
 P1T calculates the sum of all the values of power measured for each second during
the motoring operation period.

 P1av calculates the average value of the power consumed by the motor during the
motoring operation.
 P2T calculates the sum of all the values of power measured for each second while
running in the regenerative mode.
 P2av calculated the average value of the power developed during the regenerative
braking mode. Thus calculating the total power developed during regenerative mode.
 The difference between P1av and P2av gives the net value of the power that is
conserved during the entire period of operation.
 The output power (Power generated by the motor during the regenerative braking
mode) divided by the power input (power taken by the motor during forward running
mode) will give an efficiency of about 14%. This implies that the motor will return
about 14% of the power back to the source during regenerative braking mode.

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

4.1 RESULTS:
Case A: For motoring period of 20 seconds.
 The motor is allowed to run in the forward motoring mode for duration of 20 seconds.
Refer Table 4.1 for measurements during this period.
 In this case, the average power required by the motor to run in the forward direction is
12.47W.
 The average power generated by the motor when a mechanical brake is applied during
the running period of 20 seconds is 0.64W. Refer Table 4.2 for measurements during
this period.
 The average power developed by the motor during the regenerative braking period is
1.2W. Refer Table 4.3 for measurements during this period.
 The total power conserved in this case is 1.84W.
 This will return around 14.75% of the power back to the source.
 The supercapacitor gets charged to a voltage 2.94v from its initial value 2.74v.
Case A:
During running time: Speed: 1024 rpm.
Table 4.1: Measurements for motoring operation.
Time( sec ) Voltage across Current in the Power(W)

machine terminals of P=V*I
terminals(V) machine(A)
1 0 0.1 0
2 11.73 1.81 21.23
3 11.90 1.17 13.92
4 11.90 1.27 15.11
5 12.05 0.93 11.20
6 12.12 0.68 8.24
7 12.15 0.63 7.65
8 12.19 0.54 6.58
9 12.19 0.54 6.58
10 12.19 0.63 7.67
11 12.22 0.54 6.58
12 12.24 0.59 7.22
13 12.24 0.49 5.99
14 12.24 0.44 5.38
15 12.22 0.59 7.20
16 12.99 0.49 5.98
17 12.22 0.59 7.20

18 12.22 0.44 5.37

19 12.22 0.54 6.66
20 12.12 0.59 7.15
During mechanical braking operation while running:
Table 4.2: Measurements for mechanical braking operation.
Sl.no Time Voltage at dc Currents Power Voltage across

(sec) machine (amps) (watts) supercapacitor
terminal (volts)
(volts)
1 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.74
2 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.74
3 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.74
4 4 2.88 0.00 0.00 2.74
5 5 2.96 0.54 1.59 2.76
6 6 2.88 0.39 1.13 2.77
7 7 2.96 0.34 1.00 2.77
8 8 2.88 0.29 0.84 2.78
9 9 2.91 0.29 0.85 2.78
10 10 2.88 0.29 0.84 2.79
11 11 2.88 0.44 1.29 2.80
12 12 2.88 0.34 1.00 2.81
13 13 2.86 0.20 0.56 2.81
14 14 2.86 0.05 0.14 2.81
15 15 2.88 0.15 0.42 2.82
16 16 2.93 0.54 0.58 2.83
17 17 2.86 0.10 0.28 2.83
18 18 2.88 0.24 0.70 2.84
19 19 2.88 0.39 1.13 2.86
20 20 2.86 0.20 0.54 2.86

During regenerative braking mode:
Table 4.3: Measurements for regenerative braking operation.
Time (sec) Voltage(Volts) Current(amps) Power(watts) Voltage across

supercapacitor
(volts)
1 8.99 -0.44 3.95 2.86
2 7.21 -0.34 2.45 2.88
3 5.55 -0.24 1.33 2.90
4 4.91 -0.39 1.91 2.91
5 2.86 -0.39 1.11 2.92
6 2.32 -0.20 0.46 2.93
7 1.71 -0.15 0.25 2.94
8 1.20 -0.20 0.24 2.94
9 0.42 -0.15 0.06 2.94
10 0 -0.10 0.00 2.94
Case B: For motoring period of 30seconds.
 The time period of running is set to 30 seconds and the readings are noted down.
It is found that the motor will take 13.50W of power to run in the forward running
mode. Refer Table 4.4 for measurements during this period.
this period.
 The motor will develop a power of about 1.3W during regenerative braking mode.
 The total power generated during this case is 2.04W.
 The voltage across the supercapacitor terminals rises its value from 2.94V to 3.20V.

Case B:
During motoring period:
Table 4.4: Measurements motoring operation.
Sl.no Time (sec) Voltage at dc Currents Power

machine (amps) (watts)
terminal(volts)
1 1 0 0 0
2 2 11.61 2.44 28.34
3 3 12.02 1.81 21.72
4 4 12.02 1.37 16.71
5 5 12.50 1.17 14.32
6 6 11.96 1.22 14.92
7 7 12.04 0.98 12.05
8 8 12.02 0.88 10.78
9 9 12.40 1.17 14.26
10 10 12.40 1.17 14.35
11 11 12.50 1.22 15.04
12 12 12.06 1.03 12.55
13 13 11.98 1.07 13.15
14 14 12.02 1.07 13.23
15 15 12.02 0.98 12.00
16 16 12.02 1.07 13.20
17 17 12.02 1.03 12.55
18 18 11.98 0.98 12.00
19 19 12.42 0.98 12.00
20 20 12.42 0.98 12.03
21 21 12.42 1.07 13.20
22 22 12.50 1.22 13.18
23 23 12.28 1.12 13.72
24 24 12.18 0.98 12.00
25 25 12.18 0.98 11.96
26 26 12.02 1.07 13.20
27 27 12.02 1.17 14.26
28 28 12.02 1.17 14.35
29 29 12.02 1.22 15.04
30 30 12.02 1.03 12.55

During mechanical braking while running:

terminal(volts) (volts)
1 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.94
2 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.94
3 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.94
4 4 2.88 0.00 0.00 2.94
5 5 2.96 0.54 1.59 2.97
6 6 2.88 0.39 1.13 2.98
7 7 2.93 0.34 1.00 2.99
8 8 2.88 0.29 0.84 3.00
9 9 2.91 0.29 0.85 3.00
10 10 2.88 0.29 0.84 3.00
11 11 2.88 0.44 1.27 3.02
12 12 2.88 0.34 0.99 3.03
13 13 2.86 0.20 0.54 3.03
14 14 2.86 0.05 0.14 3.03
15 15 2.88 0.15 0.42 3.03
16 16 2.93 0.54 1.58 3.04
17 17 2.86 0.10 0.28 3.04
18 18 2.88 0.24 0.70 3.04
19 19 2.88 0.39 1.13 3.06
20 20 2.86 0.20 0.54 3.06
21 21 2.89 0.30 0.86 3.06
22 22 2.86 0.15 0.42 3.06
23 23 2.93 0.26 0.76 3.08
24 24 2.86 0.54 1.54 3.09
25 25 2.91 0.24 0.69 3.11
26 26 2.85 0.34 1.00 3.12
27 27 2.86 0.15 0.42 3.12
28 28 2.91 0.25 0.72 3.14
29 29 2.93 0.15 0.43 3.14
30 30 2.88 0.26 0.74 3.16

Sl.no Time (sec) Voltage at dc Currents Power Voltage across

machine (amps) (watts) supercapacitor
1 1 9.10 -0.44 -3.95 3.16
2 2 7.21 -0.34 -2.45 3.18
3 3 6.50 -0.24 -2.21 3.18
4 4 5.12 -0.35 -1.72 3.18
5 5 2.91 -0.49 -1.42 3.19
6 6 2.83 -0.20 -0.55 3.19
7 7 1.93 -0.20 -0.38 3.19
8 8 1.05 -0.34 -0.36 3.20
9 9 0.00 -0.34 0.00 3.20
10 10 0.00 -0.34 0.00 3.21
Case C: For motoring period of 40Seconds.
 The time period of running is set to 40 seconds and the readings are noted down.
 It is found that the motor will take 13.50W of power to run in the forward running
mode. Refer Table 4.7 for measurements during this period.
this period.
 The motor will develop a power of about 1.3W during regenerative braking mode.
 The total power generated in this case is 2.105W.
 The voltage across the supercapacitor terminals rises its value from 3.21V to 3.50V.

Case C:
During motoring operation:
Sl.no Time (sec) Voltage at dc Currents Power

machine (amps) (watts)
terminal(volts)
1 1 0.00 0.00 0.00
2 2 11.61 2.44 28.34
3 3 12.02 1.81 21.72
4 4 12.02 1.37 16.71
5 5 12.50 1.17 14.32
6 6 11.96 1.22 14.92
7 7 12.04 0.98 12.05
8 8 12.02 0.88 10.78
9 9 12.40 1.17 14.26
10 10 12.40 1.17 14.35
11 11 12.50 1.22 15.04
12 12 12.06 1.03 12.55
13 13 11.98 1.07 13.15
14 14 12.02 1.07 13.23
15 15 12.02 0.98 12.00
16 16 12.02 1.07 13.20
17 17 12.02 1.03 12.55
18 18 11.98 0.98 12.00
19 19 12.42 0.98 12.00
20 20 12.42 0.98 12..03
21 21 12.42 1.07 13.20
22 22 12.50 1.22 13.18
23 23 12.28 1.12 13.72
24 24 12.18 0.98 12.00
25 25 12.18 0.98 11.96
26 26 12.02 1.07 13.20
27 27 12.02 1.17 14.26
28 28 12.02 1.17 14.35
29 29 12.02 1.22 15.04
30 30 12.02 1.03 12.55
31 31 12.04 1.17 14.35
32 32 12.02 1.22 15.04
33 33 12.06 1.03 12.55
34 34 12.15 1.07 13.15
35 35 12.12 1.07 13.23
36 36 12.05 0.98 12.00
37 37 12.05 1.07 13.20
38 38 12.15 1.03 12.55
39 39 12.08 0.98 12.00
40 40 12.14 0.98 12.00

During mechanical braking operation while running:
Table 4.8: Measurements for mechanical braking operation

1 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.21
2 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.21
3 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.21
4 4 2.88 0.00 0.00 3.21
5 5 2.96 0.54 1.59 3.23
6 6 2.88 0.39 1.13 3.25
7 7 2.93 0.34 1.00 3.27
8 8 2.88 0.29 0.84 3.27
9 9 2.91 0.29 0.85 3.28
10 10 2.88 0.29 0.84 3.28
11 11 2.88 0.44 1.27 3.28
12 12 2.88 0.34 0.99 3.29
13 13 2.86 0.20 0.54 3.29
14 14 2.86 0.05 0.14 3.29
15 15 2.88 0.15 0.42 3.30
16 16 2.93 0.54 1.58 3.32
17 17 2.86 0.10 0.28 3.32
18 18 2.88 0.24 0.70 3.33
19 19 2.88 0.39 1.13 3.35
20 20 2.86 0.20 0.54 3.35
21 21 2.89 0.30 0.86 3.36
22 22 2.86 0.15 0.42 3.36
23 23 2.93 0.26 0.76 3.37
24 24 2.86 0.54 1.54 3.39
25 25 2.91 0.24 0.69 3.39
26 26 2.85 0.34 1.00 3.40
27 27 2.86 0.15 0.42 3.40
28 28 2.91 0.25 0.72 3.42
29 29 2.93 0.15 0.43 3.42
30 30 2.88 0.26 0.74 3.44
31 31 2.88 0.26 0.74 3.44
32 32 2.91 0.54 1.57 3.46
33 33 2.88 0.28 0.80 3.46
34 34 2.86 0.15 0.42 3.46
35 35 2.91 0.45 1.30 3.46
36 36 2.84 0.35 1.00 3.47
37 37 2.91 0.45 1.30 3.48
38 38 2.88 0.36 1.03 3.48
39 39 2.88 0.45 1.30 3.49
40 40 2.88 0.46 1.32 3.51

Time Voltage at dc Currents Power Voltage across

Sl.no (sec) machine (amps) (watts) supercapacitor
1 1 9.10 -0.44 -3.95 3.51

2 2 7.21 -0.34 -2.45 3.52
3 3 6.50 -0.24 -2.21 3.53
4 4 5.12 -0.35 -1.72 3.56
5 5 2.91 -0.49 -1.42 3.56
6 6 2.83 -0.20 -0.55 3.57
7 7 1.93 -0.20 -0.38 3.58
8 8 1.05 -0.34 -0.36 3.59
9 9 0.00 -0.34 0.00 3.59
10 10 0.00 -0.34 0.00 3.60
Table 4.10: comparison between different cases
Cases Motor Motor Power Energy stored in

Power Power conserved supercapacitor(J)
input output In 𝟏/𝟐 ∗ 𝑪 ∗ 𝑽𝟐
(watts) (watts) percentage
A 12.47 1.84 14.75% 0.666
B 13.50 2.04 15.11% 1.214
C 14.90 2.39 16.04% 2.534
Similarly, the measurements are taken by increasing the motor speed to a new
vale of 1600rpm the tabulations are done in the same procedure. One such tabular column
for the forward running time period of 20seconds is shown in Table 4.11.
The comparison of different cases of running periods is done in Table 4.14 and it clearly
indicates that the energy stored in the Supercapacitors increases with the increase in the time
period of running of the motor.
Time duration of running is 20 seconds.

During motoring condition: N=1600rpm
Sl.no Time Voltage at dc Current Power

(sec) machine (amps) (watts)
terminals(volts)
1 1 0.02 0.01 0.81

2 2 16.91 4.20 71.01
3 3 19.09 2.58 54.98
4 4 19.50 2.20 42.85
5 5 20.16 2.05 41.35
6 6 20.36 1.61 32.80
7 7 19.43 1.81 35.10
8 8 20.55 1.56 32.11
9 9 19.43 1.71 33.20
10 10 20.55 1.76 36.13
11 11 20.63 1.71 35.25
12 12 20.50 1.66 34.04
13 13 20.43 1.66 33.92
14 14 20.48 1.56 32.00
15 15 20.36 1.56 31.81
16 16 20.38 1.51 30.85
17 17 20.43 1.61 32.92
18 18 20.11 1.66 33.39
19 19 20.28 1.61 32.68
20 20 20.36 1.86 37.77

Sl.no Time Voltage at dc Current Power Voltage across

terminals (voltage)
(volts)
1 1 0.02 0.29 0.01 3.20
2 2 0.02 1.03 0.03 3.20

3 3 0.02 1.03 0.03 3.20
4 4 2.59 0.83 2.15 3.22
5 5 2.86 0.68 1.95 3.23

6 6 3.13 0.44 1.37 3.24
7 7 2.86 0.78 2.23 3.24

8 8 3.01 0.54 1.64 3.24
9 9 3.08 0.20 0.60 3.24
10 10 3.10 0.59 1.82 3.25

11 11 2.69 0.78 2.10 3.26
12 12 2.83 0.88 2.49 3.28
13 13 3.03 0.24 0.74 3.28

14 14 2.98 0.05 0.19 3.29
15 15 3.03 0.20 0.59 3.29
16 16 2.86 0.68 1.95 3.30

17 17 3.13 0.44 1.37 3.31
18 18 2.86 0.78 2.23 3.33

19 19 3.01 0.54 1.61 3.34
20 20 3.08 0.20 0.6 3.34

During regenerative braking condition:
Sl.no Time Voltage at dc Current Power Voltage across

terminals (voltage)
(volts)
1 1 11.59 -0.54 -6.25 3.35
2 2 10.25 -0.43 -4.40 3.36
3 3 9.35 -0.34 -3.17 3.37
4 4 8.88 -0.46 -4.08 3.38
5 5 7.02 -0.51 -3.55 3.38
6 6 6.12 -0.40 -2.44 3.38
7 7 3.50 -0.43 -1.50 3.39
8 8 1.05 -0.34 -0.35 3.39
9 9 0.00 -0.38 0.00 3.39
10 10 0.00 -0.34 0.00 3.39
Table 4.14: comparison of Different Cases
Cases Motor Motor Power Energy stored in

Power Power conserved supercapacitor
input output In 𝟏/𝟐 ∗ 𝑪 ∗ 𝑽𝟐
(watts) (watts) percentage
A 13.12 2.02 15.39 0.601
B 14.20 2.28 16.05 1.040
C 15.01 2.73 18.18 2.150

 The tabular column shows the measurement of voltage, current and power taken by
voltage and current sensor employed in the circuit. It takes measurements after every
second.
 The power can be calculated by using the formula P=V*I.
 During running mode, the motor consumes power to run in the forward mode. The
average power taken by the motor to run in the forward mode is calculated by using
∑20
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖
the Equation = , where i is time in seconds, t is the time period of motor
𝑡
operation in forward running mode.
The average power consumed during this period of motoring is 8.50W.
 During mechanical braking mode, the motor is allowed to run in the forward motoring
mode and the mechanical braking is applied with the help of a braking pad. The time
period of running of the motor is varied and the measurements are taken. The power
developed by the motor connected to the braking pedal is measured and the average
value of the power is taken for this interval.
 During regenerative braking mode, the motor runs in the generating mode generating
some power. The average power during this mode can be calculated using the
∑10
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖
Equation 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = , where i is time in seconds, t’ is the time period of motor
𝑡′
operation in the regenerative braking mode.

4.2 Applications:
 One theoretical application of regenerative braking would be in a manufacturing plant

that moves material from one workstation plant that moves material from one
workstation to another on a conveyer system that stops at each point.
 RBSs are installed along the drive train or fitted to the drive wheels of a vehicle where
they inhibit the motion of the wheels using magnetic fields or mechanical torque.
These methods of motion inhibition allow energy to be generated under braking, as
opposed to friction brakes which simply waste away energy to slow the vehicle by
turning the kinetic energy into thermal energy.
 Modern hybrid and electric cars both utilize an electric engine to power the car which
makes applying regenerative braking very simple and efficient. In the vast majority of
these cars, the transmission of the car is set up such that when the driver applies the
brakes, the electric motor reverses itself and applies a resistance to the wheels rather
than power.
 Regenerative braking is used in some elevator and crane hoist motors.
 Regenerative braking systems are also used in electric railway vehicle (London
Underground & Virgin Trains).
Advantages of Regenerative braking systems:
 Improved performance.
 Improved fuel economy- dependant on duty cycles, power train design, control
strategy and the efficiency of individual components.
 Reduction in engine wears.
 Reduction in Brake Wear- reducing cost of replacement brake linings, cost of labour
to install them and vehicle down time.
 Emissions reduction- engine emissions reduced by engine decoupling, reducing total
engine revolutions and total time of engine operation.
Limitations of Regenerative braking systems:
 The main limitation of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes is
the need to closely match the electricity generated with the supply. With DC supply
this requires the voltage to be closely controlled and it is only with the development
of power electronics that it has been possible with AC supplies where the supply
frequency must also be matched.
 Regenerative braking is necessarily limited when the batteries are fully charged.
Because the additional charge from regenerative braking would cause the voltage of a
full battery to rise above a safe level.
 Deploying regenerative braking in the electric vehicle would increase the total weight
of vehicle by around 25-30 kilograms in the real world.

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Conclusions:
 The prototype model of Regenerative Braking System is successfully developed and

is experimented under varying time periods of running.
 The intermittent energy available for only few seconds can be stored in the
supercapacitor energy storage unit which has a high rate of charging.
 The inertia of the wheels will make the motor to run in generating mode for 10 -12
seconds which will generate a variable dc voltage of varying in the range of 4V-10V.
 It can be concluded from the readings taken for different cases of time period that the
power generated during the regenerative braking mode and the power developed by
the mechanical braking operation depends on the time period of operation of the
motor in the forward running mode.
The total power developed by the motor during both mechanical braking period and
regenerative braking period depends on the speed of the motor during forward
running mode, the time period of operation of the motor in the forward running mode
and the inertia of the wheel assembly.
 The comparison between different cases shows that the power conserved in the
system increases with the increase in the speed of the motor. Refer table 4.10, table
4.14.
 During mechanical braking mode, the power generated by the motor attached to the
mechanical braking pedal is proportional to the time of running of the motor.
 The energy stored in the Supercapacitors during the braking period also depends on
the time period of running of the motor in the forward motoring mode. It is evident
from the Table 4.10, Table 4.14.
 The charging of the Supercapacitors also depends on the time period of running of the
motor in the forward mode. If the running time is longer, then the voltage rise on the
Supercapacitors is also high. Refer Table 4.2-Table 4.9.
 Since the charging rate of batteries is much slower than that of Supercapacitors, it is
evident that the Supercapacitors energy storage unit cannot be connected back to the
battery in the system. So the system is operated in the open loop condition itself.
 The discharging rate of the Supercapacitors is so high, that it cannot maintain output
voltage greater than 12V for longer duration so as the batteries get charged to full
rated value. So it cannot be connected across the battery terminals.

5.2 Scope for future work:
Regenerative braking systems require further research to develop a better system that
captures more energy and stops faster. As the time passes, designers and engineers will
perfect regenerative braking systems, so these systems will become more and more common.
All vehicles in motion can benefit from these systems by recapturing energy that would have
been lost during braking process. Future technologies in regenerative brakes will include new
types of motors which will be more efficient as generators, new drive train designs which will
be built with regenerative braking in mind, and electric systems which will be less prone to
energy losses. The proposed model can be made more efficient with the application of AC
motors and the application of advanced Power electronic Techniques. It can be made to store
more energy with the application of more Supercapacitors.

Bibliography:
1. Smt.Sija Gopinathan, Akshara I P, Meenu Gibi, Muhammad Jmshad C, Sadique V P,

“Electrical Vehicle with Regenerative Braking system by using Super capacitors”,
Vol.3, International Journal of Electrical and Electronics Research, April-June
2015,PP(118-121).
2. Juan W. Dixon & Micah E. Ortixar, “Ultracapacitors + DC-DC converters in
Regenerative Braking system.
3. Adrian Schneuwly, Roland Gallay, “Properties and applications of Supercapacitors”,
Montena components SA.PCIM 2000.
4. Andrew Burke, Hengbing Zhao, “Present and Future applications of Supercapacitors
in Electric and Hybrid Vehciles”, December 2014. EVC2014.
5. Monzer Al Sakka, Hamid Gualous “Batteries and Supercapacitors for electric
vehicles”
6. Meet Gidwani, Anand Bhagwani, Nikhil Rohra, “Supercapacitors: the near future of
Batteries”. International Journal of Engineering Inventions, e-ISSN:2278-7461, p-
ISSN: 2319-6491, volume 4, Issue 5(October 2014), PP:22-27.

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Regenerative Braking using Supercapacitors for Electric vehicles

Dept. of EEE, NIE mysuru. Page 1

The supercapacitor uses a different storage mechanism. In the supercapacitor, energy is

Dept. of EEE, NIE mysuru. Page 2

When a smart device becomes multi-functionalized, it consumes high power at peak

Dept. of EEE, NIE mysuru. Page 3

1.2 Literature survey

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 To develop the working model of regenerative braking system using

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1.4 Organization of the report

Chapter 5 contains the conclusion.

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Figure 2.1: Pictorial representation of regenerative braking.

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Figure 2.2: Regenerative braking in a nutshell.

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The vehicles make use of regenerative braking system in different ways.

Electric cars and trains:

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2.2 Block diagram of the regenerative braking system.

Figure 2.3: Block diagram of the proposed model.

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A Supercapacitor(SC) (also electric double-layer capacitor(EDLC), also called Supercap,

 Electrostatic double-layer capacitors use carbon electrodes or derivatives with much

Dept. of EEE, NIE mysuru. Page 13

 Electrochemical energy-storage system was proved to be a promising technical means

Dept. of EEE, NIE mysuru. Page 14

2.4 Block diagram of Supercapacitor energy storage unit

Figure 2.4: Block diagram of Supercapacitor energy storage unit.

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Working model of the supercapacitor energy storage unit:

Figure 2.5: Working model of Supercapacitor energy storage unit.

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3.1 Components used

3.1.1 LM317 voltage regulator:

Figure 3.1: Pins of LM317 voltage regulator.

 The LM317 is an adjustable 3−terminal positive voltage regulator capable of

Dept. of EEE, NIE mysuru. Page 20

Figure 3.2: LM317 voltage regulator circuit.

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3.1.2 Filter capacitors:

3.1.3 Power resistors:

3.1.4 1N4001 diodes:

3.1.5 Capacitor bank:

3.1.6 DPDT switch:

Dept. of EEE, NIE mysuru. Page 22

3.1.7 XL6009 DC-DC booster:

Figure 3.3: XL6009 DC-DC booster.

 Wide input voltage 3V-32V, optimum operating voltage range is 5-32V.

 Input voltage: 3.2-32V

Dept. of EEE, NIE mysuru. Page 23

 Output voltage: 4V-38V.

 IN+ input positive.

 EPC / Notebook Car Adapter.

Dept. of EEE, NIE mysuru. Page 24

3.1.8 2 channel relay module:

Figure 3.4: 2 channel relay module.