Module 4 (Week 7-8)

Psychoanalysis, Rational Choice and Institutionalism

Introduction

A school of thought developed by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis refers to a theory of

the mind and its direct connection to personality and behavior. The basic premise of
psychoanalysis is that the human mind has an unconscious state. There are thoughts,
memories, emotions, and feelings that are hidden from a person's conscious mind, which,
without him or her knowing, affects the way he or she thinks, feels, and acts. There are also
drives and desires in a person's unconscious mind that influence his or her view of the world
and how he or she decides to go about his or her daily life.

Freud's theory states that most unconscious desires originate from childhood
experiences that people have long forgotten or repressed. Although repressed and buried deep
within a person's thoughts, these desires and urges propel one to function in society. The
practice of psychoanalysis comes into play when these unconscious desires hinder the individual
to function in society. Psychoanalytic practice is the method by which the troubling unconscious
material, such as memories and desires, is brought to the level of the conscious mind so that
the individual could better understand himself or herself better.

Specifically, Freud developed a personality theory called psychosexual development of

personality, which posits that at different stages of growth, the individual derives pleasure from
different parts of the body-thus the term psychosexual, relating to pleasure and the human
body. The central idea in this theory is how the mind relates to the body and the pleasure
derived from the activities of the body. An important term in this personality theory is called
libido, which is defined as the natural mental energy that operates the mechanisms of the mind.
For Freud, an unaddressed fixation in any stage of psychosexual development results in a
personality disorder that could manifest later in adult life.

The first stage is the oral stage, which manifests from birth to approximately 18 months
of age. During this period, the child is totally dependent on others to provide for his or her
needs. Pleasure is derived from the use of the mouth in activities such as sucking, chewing, and
biting. The personality developed in this stage is dependence.

The second stage is the anal stage, which begins at 18 months and lasts until 3 years
when the child is being toilet-trained. The personality developed in this stage is independence,
self-control, and sense of accomplishment.

The third stage is the phallic stage, which takes place from 3 to 6 years of age. During
this period, the child develops an attraction to their parent of the opposite sex and sees a
jealous and rivalrous relationship with his or her parent of the same sex. This is what Freud
termed as the Oedipus complex for boys and the Electra complex for girls.

The fourth stage is the latency stage, which is manifested from 6 to 12 years of age.
Personality traits developed in this stage are associated with social skills and social interactions.

Finally, the fifth stage is the genital stage. This stage manifests from 12 years of age
onward, or from puberty to adulthood. The personality developed in this stage is sexual
maturity.

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 Lesson and Coverage

Week 7-9 Lesson Competencies (MELC) Activities

October 12-16, Pre assessment
2020 Psychoanalysis, Analyze the basic Activity 1.Define
Rational Choice and concepts and principles of Activity 2.What have I
Institutionalism the major social science learned so far
ideas:
 Psychoanalysis
 Rational Choice
 Institutionalism

October 19-
23,2020 Activity3.Rational
Choice
Activity4.Institutionalism
Post Assessment

Expected Skills:

1. Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science ideas:

• Psychoanalysis

• Rational Choice

• Institutionalism

Module Map

Psychoanalysis

Rational
Institutionalism
Choice

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 PRE- ASSESSMENT

I. True or False
Direction: Write true if the statement is correct and write false if the statement is
incorrect. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

___________1.Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and is known as the Father of

Psychoanalysis.

___________2.Stephen Krasner (born 1942) is an American professor of international relations.

___________3.Gary Becker (1930-2014) was an American economist who expanded the study
of economies to the realm of sociology and the other social sciences.

___________4.William Stanley Jevons 18351882 was an English economist who applied the
principles of rational choice theory in political economy.

___________5.Jean Monnet (1888-1979) was a French political economist and diplomat. As

one of the originators of the European Union, he saw how the needs of the state are to be
achieved through the principle of supranationality.

___________6.Louis Althusser (1918–1990) was a French Marxist philosopher who used

psychoanalytic theory to form and support his philosophy.

___________7.Institutional actors refer to the people who make up society, whose actions are
controlled and regulated by institutions.

___________8.Psychoanalysis refers to a theory of the mind and its direct connection to

personality and behavior.

___________9.The rational choice theory explains that human action and behavior are products
of choice.

___________10.Carl Jung (1875–1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist. He

founded the school of thought called analytic psychology, which departed from Freud's
traditional psychoanalysis.

EXPLORE

Activity 1.” Define”

Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper.

1. What is psychoanalysis?
2. Give two examples of psychoanalytical theory.

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Key Concepts in Psychoanalysis

Id, Ego, Superego

Freud's psychoanalytic personality theory provides three levels of awareness: conscious,

preconscious, and unconscious. The conscious level of the mind is the accessible information,
memories, and thoughts that an individual has. The preconscious is the level where accessible
and retrievable information are situated, but are not currently in the conscious level. The A
scions is the inaccessible memories, thoughts, emotions, and feelings that are most populated
by childhood events. The popular saying "You only see the tip of the icebergs a stable analogy
for the three levels of the mind. The tip is the conscious level, the part right below the sea line
is the preconscious and the major portion beneath the sea is the unconscious.

The id, ego, and superego are the parts that are constitutive of personality that occupy
these three levels of the mind.

The first part to develop is the id, which occupies the unconscious level. Because the id
is the biological aspect (instincts and basic urges) of personality, it only seeks pleasure and
demands instant gratification. It does not take reality into account as it only demands what it
wants without reason or logic.

Second to develop is the ego, which resides in the conscious and preconscious levels of
the mind. Because the ego is considered as the center of logic and reason, it is also described
as the decision-maker.

The superego is the third to develop and it resides in all three levels of the mind. As the
moral and social aspect of personality, it is considered as a person's conscience. The superego
demands strict adherence to the laws of Society and conformity to social norms. It makes a
person Feel guilty. Like the id, it does not take reality into account as it merely asserts and
demands moral perfection.

FIRM UP

Activity 2. What Have I Learned So Far?

Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper.

1 What are the three levels of awareness?

2. What is the difference between the conscious level and the unconscious level?

3. How can the iceberg be a representation of human consciousness?

4. Why is the ego a balance between the id and superego?

5. How do the three types of consciousness interact with each other?

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Important Theorists

Sigmund Freud

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Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and is known as the Father of

Psychoanalysis. Freud's theory states that behavior and personality are driven by past events,
which are mostly inaccessible to an individual's consciousness,

Psychoanalysis involves methods through which an individual is guided to understand

himself or herself better. Through a treatment called psychotherapy, the originating event or

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circumstance which hinders an individual to live a healthy life is brought to the surface of
consciousness. The method of psychotherapy is mostly interpretative. The psychoanalyst would
interpret the patient's problem and allow the subject to directly come to terms with his or her
problem. One technique used in psychotherapy is called free association, a technique that
allows the patient to have an inner dialog with oneself by saying freely the words that he or she
associates with a thing, person, or an event. By having an inner dialog, the unconscious reveals
itself and the words associated with an object would gradually lead to the originating event
which caused a mental problem to the patient Freud relates free association to what is now
known as the commits a Freudian slip (or unintentionally saying something as opposed to what
he or she wanted to actually say), he or she reveals his or her innermost thoughts.

Freud's psychoanalysis has been criticized because its beginnings and many of its
followers have adopted, changed, and developed it to suit their particular needs. Psychology
and psychiatry today have almost abandoned psychoanalysis as a form of treatment, but mc of
its concepts-including the unconscious are still being used.

Carl Jung

Carl Jung (1875–1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist. He founded the
school of thought called analytic psychology, which departed from Freud's traditional
psychoanalysis. For Jung, a healthy mental life is achieved through a balanced and a well
understood personality. Jung's theory of personality has been modified and changed over time,
but what survived over the years are his concepts of extroversion and introversion.

Today, psychologists still use the terms extrovert and introvert in describing personality.
However, popular culture has given these terms a different definition as to what Jung originally
proposed. Popular culture describes an extrovert as a person who goes to parties or who is
more adventurous, while an introvert is a person who chooses to stay at home, alone and quiet.
While these descriptions could be a possible behavior of extroverts and introverts, these do not
encompass their true meanings.

Extroversion, in Jungian psychology, is the personality which is motivated by outside

stimuli or factors. The focus of the individual tends toward outside objects, things, and other
people. Introversion, on the other hand, is the personality which is motivated by inner
necessity. The focus of the individual tends toward the self.

Thus, in the context of Jung's ideas, an extrovert person relies on statistical data to
come up with an analysis and conclusion, while an introvert person derives analysis and
conclusion on how statistical data make an impression upon his or her thoughts and ideas, Both
individuals with extrovert and introvert personalities may do the same thing, but what
distinguishes one from the other is the way by which the individual processes the activity
Because extroverts rely on the outside world when forming ideas and tend to focus their mental
energy outward, they can quickly adapt to environmental and social changes. Hence, they are
thought to be more social and outgoing. However, due to their heavy reliance on outside
stimuli, extroverts are potentially at risk of going with the crowd even when it is wrong.

On the other hand, introverts would find difficulty in quickly adapting to environmental
and social changes as they would be very subjective in the way they form ideas. That is why
introverts are thought to be loners or antisocial as they tend to focus their mental energy
inward. However, due to their heavy reliance on personal and subjective thoughts, introverts
are more likely to go against the crowd even when it is correa. It must be noted, nonetheless,
that human beings are not simply introvert or extrovert. Jung's psychology operates on the
premise that every personality has within its opposite and that humans are both extroverts and

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introverts at the same time, but the dominance of one over the other categories us into either
type.

Jacques Lacan

Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) was a French psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. In his

development of Freud's psychoanalytic thought, Lacan incorporated the ideas of Saussure's
linguistics, Levi-Strauss's anthropology, Kant's idealism, Marx's communist theory, and
Aristotelian logic, among other thoughts and thinkers. Lacan said that psychotherapy requires a
communication between the patient and the specialist because the medium by which
psychoanalysis operates is through language; as such, Lacan's psychoanalytic theory centered
on language.

Compared to Freud's treatment of language as a device to ascertain unconscious truths

of the subject, Lacan claimed that language has the structure and function of the unconscious
itself. For Lacan, desire is something unattainable in the sense that once it has been fulfilled,
there will automatically be another object of desire. Similarly, language functions in the same
way as words can never encapsulate an idea or thought. Lacan describes this function as
metonymy, which is a figure of speech wherein an object is understood not for what it actually
means, but for the associations that the object possesses. For example, a simple tree could be
understood by observers differently as they associate varying meanings to the tree, making it
more than a tree for some. As such, metonymy is related to and is supported by Freud's
concept of free association.

The development of the Lacanian subject (pertaining to the person) superimposes itself
on that of Freud's. His first major paper in a psychoanalytic conference talked about what he
called mirror stage. The mirror stage can be associated with Freud's development of the
superego and the phallic stage of development. A child is said to be in the mirror stage upon
seeing himself or herself in the mirror for the first time and establishes a relationship with the
image he or she sees. This mirror could be theoretical; it can be either an actual mirror or a
person, usually the mother. What the child sees in the mirror is a fully formed self, a body,
something whole and complete. However, the child still feels incomplete—having no ability to
control his or her own body and still struggling to stand walk around, and eat. The child en
imagines himself or herself to be whole and complete, and able to move his or her body with
complete control. What this image represents is an ideal child or what is called ego ideal: what
is formed in this relationship with the image is what Lacan calls divided subject. The subject
becomes split into what actually is and what the subject imagines it to be. As such, the
Lacanian subject is neither truly formed nor is it ever whole there is always a conflict between
itself and what it imagines it to be.

Eric Fromm

Eric Fromm 19001980 was a German sociologist, psychologist, and psychoanalyst,

among others. Like Jung, he developed a distinct type of psychoanalysis which he called
humanistic psychoanalysis. This type of psychoanalysis uses historical, anthropological, and
psychological perspectives to approach an individual. Fromm's psychoanalytic theory assumes
that humans have lost their ties with nature and are now left with no instincts capable to adapt
to the ever-changing world. But since humans developed the ability to reason, they can
rationalize their isolated existence or condition. Fromm called this rationalization human
dilemma.

A dilemma is a problem. The human dilemma is the problem of reuniting with nature, in
a manner similar to the union of our prehistoric ancestors and their relationship with the
environment. However, the second part of the problem is that a complete going back or a

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complete reunion to our prehistoric relationship with nature is unattainable. Hence, human
society has, over the course of history, developed away from nature to the point that it is quite
impossible to go back to such a state of things.

Fromm's psychotherapy helps the individual realize how to achieve human needs and to
be productive members of society. An unhealthy mind is one which has chosen the negative
components of human needs.

Louis Althusser

Louis Althusser (1918–1990) was a French Marxist philosopher who used psychoanalytic
theory to form and support his philosophy. Central to Althusser's philosophy is his reinvention of
what Marx termed as ideology. In a Marxist perspective, ideology is the false consciousness
perpetuated by capital industrialists to further control the working class. For Althusser,
however, ideology is a reflection or misrepresentation of our already imaginary understanding
of the world. In this sense, ideology becomes the ideology of our already imaginary worldview
and of our imaginary relationship with other individuals. As such, ideology is a mere
representation of our imaginary perspective of reality, society, and culture. What Althusser
created in his philosophy is the idea that an individual is turned into a subject and a member of
society through ideology. Ideology is constitutive of the self, or in other terms, the self is an
ideological concept in and of itself.

Erich Fromm

Eric Fromm 1900-1980 was a German sociologist, psychologist, and psychoanalyst,

among others. Like Jung, he developed a distinct type of psychoanalysis which he called
humanistic psychoanalysis. This type of psychoanalysis uses historical, anthropological, and
psychological perspectives to approach an individual. Fromm's psychoanalytic theory assumes
that humans have lost their ties with nature and are now left with no instincts capable to adapt
to the ever-changing world. But since humans developed the ability to reason, they can
rationalize their isolated existence or condition. Fromm called this rationalization human
dilemma.

A dilemma is a problem. The human dilemma is the problem of reuniting with nature, in
a manner similar to the union of our prehistoric ancestors and their relationship with the
environment. However, the second part of the problem is that a complete going back or a
complete reunion to our prehistoric relationship with nature is unattainable. Hence, human
society has, over the course of history, developed away from nature to the point that it is quite
impossible to go back to such a state of things.

Fromm's psychotherapy helps the individual realize how to achieve human needs and to
be productive members of society. An unhealthy mind is one which has chosen the negative
components of human needs.

Louis Althusser

Louis Althusser (1918–1990) was a French Marxist philosopher who used psychoanalytic
theory to form and support his philosophy. Central to Althusser's philosophy is his reinvention of
what Marx termed as ideology. In a Marxist perspective, ideology is the false consciousness
perpetuated by capital industrialists to further control the working class. For Althusser,
however, ideology is a reflection or misrepresentation of our already imaginary understanding
of the world. In this sense, ideology becomes the ideology of our already imaginary worldview
and of our imaginary relationship with other individuals. As such, ideology is a mere
representation of our imaginary perspective of reality, society, and culture.

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 What Althusser created in his philosophy is the idea that an individual is turned into a
subject and a member of society through ideology. Ideology is constitutive of the self, or in
other terms, the self is an ideological concept in and of itself.

Criticisms and Limitations

Psychoanalysis is mainly criticized as unscientific or, even at times, a pseudoscience.

Critics argue that psychoanalysis takes a phenomenological approach instead of a positivistic
approach in investigating the mind. This phenomenological approach is characterized by the
lack of quantitative and experimental research in its theory and practice. Psychoanalytic theory
is also allegedly untestable and is not falsifiable. It is also argued that it lacks scientific basis
and at times is associated with the mystical practices of witch doctors. Because most of the
psychoanalytic theories are based on case studies, their applicability is questioned to be limited
only to the specific cases studied and not to the general public.

Extend Your Knowledge

The Web site http://www.psychoanalysis.columbia.edu/patients/children-and-teens/

psychoanalysis-children-and-teens (last accessed on 27 February 2016) leads you to a
discussion on the application and various methods of psychoanalysis for children and teens. You
will also be informed of the different mental illnesses that they encounter.

ESSENTIAL LEARNING

The field of psychoanalysis has been heavily influenced by the works of Sigmund Freud. While
routinely questioned and criticized, its approach in understanding human behavior remains
relevant today, especially for the treatment of deep-seated mental illnesses. As part of the
social sciences, psychoanalysis provides an alternative lens in understanding the complexity of
human behavior through the context of personality, consciousness, and ideology.

Rational Choice
The rational choice theory explains that human action and behavior are products of
choice. Individuals rationalize their situations by processing between the most beneficial choice
and the lesser individual cost. In the rational choice theory, cost-benefit analysis is always
performed in every given situation and is considered an instinctual response of every human.
Cost is something disadvantageous to or what is lost by an individual, while benefit is that
which is gained by or advantageous to the individual after making the choice. Some of the
questions commonly asked during a cost-benefit analysis are the following:

 Will this benefit me?

 How will this benefit me?
 What will benefit me most?
 How far am I willing to negotiate?
 What will I have to sacrifice?
 How much will it cost me?

For example, Sebastian has two classmates whom he wants to be friends with: Ethan, a
social outcast but has the newest action game, and Alyster, the most popular in the class but
does not like to play action games. Sebastian's first level of cost-benefit analysis is choosing
between having the chance to play the newest action game or not. His second level of cost
level analysis is choosing whether he would like to be associated with a social outcast or with
the most popular student in class. The rational choice for Sebastian would then be dependent

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on which is more important to him—to play the game or to be associated with the popular
crowd. This example provides the basic principle of rational choice theory wherein preference
plays an important role in decision-making, while the individual rationalizes the burdens and
benefits of the available choices. This example also highlights the basic assumptions of rational
choice theory which are the following:

1. Individuals act purely on self-interest.

2. Individuals understand their interests enough to rationally categorize them according for
what they most prefer.

3 Preferences are transitive in nature. This means that choices have a hierarchical order and
that the highest preference will always be favored.

A famous example of rational choice theory is the prisoner's dilemma. Two recently
released convicts committed a crime. However, investigators of the case lack sufficient evidence
to prove their guilt. As a scheme, the investigators had the two suspects held in separate rooms
where they were told that if they tell on the other, they would be freed. This condition allows
one of them to go free, while the other faces incarceration. Since both will think that the one is
already betraying the other, both would indeed decide to betray the other, causing both of
them to be incarcerated. This example proves that individual self-interest weighs heavily in the
process of choice making.

The underlying structure of the rational choice theory is the incentive to do what is
beneficial to all; nevertheless, what weighs more heavily is the incentive to do what is beneficial
to the individual. This structure best explains how this theory is readily applied to social
phenomena and interactions.

DEEPEN

Activity 3. “Rational Choice”

Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper.

1. What is rational choice theory?

2. How does preference affect decision-making?

3. What are the basic assumptions of rational choice theory?

4. How does incentive affect individual behavior?

Key Concepts in Rational Choice Theory

Social Consequence of Scarcity-based Decision

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 Humanity's unlimited wants and perpetual desires drove civilizations to either their
prominence or destruction. With natural resources being finite and the requirements of human
ambition unending, the most rational choice is to conserve the limited resources and share
these with each other. However, the problem is that individuals only seek self-interest and
would end up deciding what benefits them the most.

Such is the structure of human nature when being described in the context of rational
choice theory. The tragedy of the commons further elaborates this structure. The tragedy of the
commons is a scenario wherein a common piece of land is shared for grazing by a community.
Because the grass that grows on the land is limited, farmers need to limit their herd when
grazing so that the land could keep up with the requirements of the community. The tragedy in
this scenario starts when a farmer lets his herd graze more than what is allotted, thinking that
such action would provide him with better profits. If the farmers would all think of the same,
the land will eventually become useless to the community. When the land is already unusable,
the farmer would just resort to letting his herd graze more because after all, there will be
nothing left.

Plato discussed in his The Republic this very notion of exploitation by the unchecked
freedoms of people. Without justice, people would consume as much as they like and would
eventually deplete the resources common to all. Thomas Hobbes philosophized that the only
thing that could prevent the pillaging of public or common goods is the absolute monarch,
which he calls Leviathan.

Important Theorists

William Stanley Jevons

William Stanley Jevons 1835-1882 was an English economist who applied the principles
of rational choice theory in political economy. Jevons was one of the first to advance the theory
of marginal utility, which sought application in determining and understanding consumer
behavior. This theory states that the utility of something decreases as more of it is consumed.
Utility, in this sense, can be substituted for the term value. A thing becomes less valuable when
there is more of it. This can be equated to the rarity of an item, the significance of first
experiences, and the value held over for things that have the so-called sentimental value.

Jevons also identified the concept called equation of change, which says that in order to
get the most utility, the ratio of marginal utility must be equal to the price of the commodity.
Marginal utility, in this sense, points to the line wherein the value for a certain object is still
within satisfactory levels.

Gary Becker

Gary Becker (1930-2014) was an American economist who expanded the study of
economies to the realm of sociology and the other social sciences. Suggesting that human
behavior is subject to economic analysis, Becker argued that individuals act to maximize their
own welfare, thereby taking the scope of economics beyond mere calculation of financial gains.
Like the other thinkers of rational choice theory, Becker ascribes to the principle that humans
behave according to their "perceived values and preferences.”

Becker first ventured to expand economy to social sciences topics in his discussion of
discrimination. He found in his research that discriminating employers lose out to competition
due to the discriminated applicant providing services to their competitors. If the discriminated
applicant was a productive and intelligent worker, a valuable asset is displaced only because of
skin color or shape of the eyes. Becker emphasized that nondiscriminating employers do not
lose competitiveness as they draw in a skilled worker in their company, in contrast to their

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discriminating counterpart. Thus, limiting the application pool to what has been left after a
discrimination screening also limits the talents that could have a potential influence in the
productivity of the company.

For Becker, it is detrimental to choose preferences outside the necessary skills and
talents required to complete the task. He said that if the purpose of human behavior is the
maximization of welfare, then discrimination in a corporate setting leads to an opposite effect.
Given that one of rational choice theory's assumptions is that preferences determine what is
rational for an individual, Becker added that preferences are also to be chosen based on
rational decisions. Thus, a "true rational choice" is having a clear understanding not only of the
situation and the given choices, but also of the factors that are imposed by the individual actors
in decision-making.

Criticisms and Limitations

Rational choice theory is heavily criticized for its neglect of ethical and moral standards.
The main philosophy of rational choice theory is the acquisition of personal interests, power,
and wealth. It is not strict with the method and the product of decision-making; rather, it
analyzes the outcome and the preferences based on what is optimal and ultimately beneficial
for the individual actor. The tragedy of the commons and others reflect today's society the
widening gap between the poor and the rich, rising global temperatures, and political
corruption. These events are but a few effects of weighing personal gain over the good of the
many.

ESSENTIAL LEARNING

Rational choice theory banks on the key idea that humans are actively calculating the
pros and cons of a particular choice, which affects the type of behaviors that they exhibit.
These choices are often determined by an individual's preferences and the extent by which he
or she perceives them as immediate needs or wants. This theory remains relevant today in
providing an analytical lens for understanding the choices that humans make, especially with
regard to deviant acts.

Institutionalism

In order to understand institutionalism, it is important to first define institutions in this

theoretical perspective. Institutions are patterns, routines, norms, rules, and schemes that
govern and direct social thought and action. Institutionalism, therefore, is an approach that
aims to understand and analyze how actions, thoughts, and meanings penetrate into the social
consciousness deeply enough to embed themselves into the social psyche. There are different
types of institutionalism, but their common concern is to find out the effects of these
institutions and determine how these affect the manner by which the society functions.
Institutionalism claims that institutions persist because of the reason that they came about in
the first place: social legitimacy and survival. An institution such as education persists because a
person would have a bleak future without it. Being educated means having the potential to
ascend social hierarchies and organizational structures, which in turn, affect the economic
prosperity of the person and survival in a capitalist market.

Institutions provide social legitimacy and survival through isomorphism. Isomorphism

refers to the similarity in form, shape, or structure. Institutions arise, change, and persist due to
their regulative, normative, and cognitive functions. These functions are isomorphic in nature as
they adopt in form, shape, or structure to provide social legitimacy, survival, or both.

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 The regulative function operates through coercive isomorphism, which places value on
expediency as an effect of compliance. Change either happens or not depending on external
factors such as rules and laws. The normative function operates through normative
isomorphism, which places value on complying with social obligations. Change either happens
or not depending on external factors such as accreditations and certifications. Finally, the
cognitive function operates through mimetic isomorphism, which places value on what is being
complied with by others. Change either happens or not depending on internal factors such as
uncertainty and prevalence of others' performance.

Institutionalism, at its core, studies how institutions achieve balance and stability as they
manipulate their different regulative, normative, and cognitive functions. The dynamics that
happen when these three functions try to meet or comply with environmental and
organizational structures is where institutionalism as a theory presents itself as a model for
research analysis.

Key Concepts in Institutionalism

Formal and Informal Institutions

Formal and Informal institutions can be distinguished by what rules, practices, and norms they
derive authority from. Formal institutions are codified rules, policies, and norms that are
considered official, origin from state laws, government, or organizations. Informal institutions,
on the other hand, are equally known rules and norms but are not commonly written down
Informal institutions are social practices that are been commonly viewed as acceptable and are
more persistent than codified laws like that of formal institutions.

One aspect of institutionalism studies how formal and informal institutions affect the
very society that created them and how this society behaves to other conform to or break
established rules, Institutionalism also studies conflict or congruence between formal and
informal institutions.

Institutional Actors

Institutional actors refer to the people who make up society, whose actions are
controlled and regulated by institutions. Institutional actors can be an individual, a group, an
organization, or a government that creates or follows rules. However, it must be noted that the
term "institutional actors" does not simply denote people or organizations in the perspective of
institutionalism. It also represents a series of underlying questions about perception,
individuality, identity, and self. It even represents interactions of multiple entities or in game
theory, players and is often referred to as the constellation of actors.

In political science, institutional actors and their relationship with one another is often
the subject of research. Local and international laws, and economic gains and fluctuations,
together with historical relationships, are but some of the elements that are used in political
institutionalism.

The rigid line that institutions provide us also constrains our ability for creativity,
individuality, spontaneity, and even reasoning. Institutions become constraints as they
predetermine actions, making them predictable, assumed, and expected.

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TRANSFER.

Activity 4. “Institutionalism”

Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of aper.

1 How is an informal institution different from a formal institution?

2. What are institutional actors?

3. What are the elements of political institutionalism?

4. How can institutions constrain us?

Important Theorists

David Mitrany

David Mitrany (1888-1975) was a Romanian-born British scholar, historian, and political
theorist. Mitrany is considered the father of functionalism in international relations, which is
classified under liberal institutionalism. Functionalism, as applied to the study of states,
proposes an alternative to territorialism, which is the foundation from which states derive their
power of authority from territory. Functionalism explains that a state's authority lies in functions
and needs, and the ability to provide for those needs. It sees scientific knowledge and
technological advancements as sources of authority from which the state can derive its power.
Territory then becomes negligible and focuses instead on expertise and the ability to produce
what is needed by the people or by other states. Take, for example, the island nation of
Singapore. Singapore is just a little bigger than the National Capital Region, but the former is
considered a First World country due to its economic prosperity and its technological and
scientific advancements.

Jean Monnet

Jean Monnet (1888-1979) was a French political economist and diplomat. As one of the
originators of the European Union, he saw how the needs of the state are to be achieved
through the principle of supranationality. As Mitrany argued against territory being the source of
authority, Monnet used the argument to erase country borderlines, During Monnet's time, coal
production was abundant in Germany, which was still under the sanctions imposed by the Allies'
victory after World War II. However, France at that time also needed some coal. Given the
situation, Germany needed some sanctions to be lifted so as to gain some economic growth,
while France needed coal to get back to its pre-war economic status. A series of events took
place and Monnet conceived the idea of breaking borders so that the need of both countries
and other European countries--would be provided. Thus the European Union was formed,
initially called European Coal and Steel Community in 1953, and after some years, European
Economic Community, before finally acquiring its present name.

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Stephen Krasner

Stephen Krasner (born 1942) is an American professor of international relations. Krasner

argues that the American government and nongovernment organizations should prioritize the
stabilization of weakened states so that American interests would be protected. In order to
address the continued deterioration of weaker states he suggests creation of institutions that
will allow the weaker states to enter a market democracy. Krasner sees the foreign policies and
other political objectives of America as a direct reflection of the U.S. president's agenda and
goals. Krasner also argues that the formal institutions of the U.S. come from decisions made by
the president, but bureaucratic processes convey the idea that many people decided on these
matters and not just the president. He holds that the president's power to control, manipulate,
and create policies is seemingly perceived as being dissipated by the bureaucratic machinery.

Criticisms and Limitations

Institutionalism has as many definitions as there are scholars who practice it.
Unsurprisingly, institutionalism has many forms, and as such, there is no central approach that
can define the method of institutionalism and that the predictability of outcome changes as
different researchers conduct their studies.

One criticism against institutionalism is that while it can describe and analyze differences
between institutions, it lacks the ability to analyze changes happening in a certain institution.
This criticism further argues that institutionalism is only capable of comparing institutions to one
another, but ks the ability to examine how certain behaviors, norms, and rules acquire their
status as institutions. Another criticism against institutionalism is the assessment of institutions
themselves. Since there are many approaches to institutionalism, there are also a variety of
ways by which institutions can be identified. The question then is how to judge whether an
institution is an institution—is it according to persistence, value, compliance, or outcome?

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 Post Assessment

I. Enumeration:
1. Who are the Importnt theorist in psychoanalysis?
2. Who are the important theorists in rational choice?
3. Who are the important teorists in institutionalism?

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References:

freud&bih=657&biw=1366&hl=en&sxsrf=ALeKk01p0UwVC7nbQcj2m_fGJiwySw3HkQ:16021367
76804&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-psychoanalysis-2795246#:~:text=Psychoanalysis%20is
%20defined%20as%20a,feelings%2C%20desires%2C%20and%20memories.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/rational-choice-theory.asp#:~:text=Rational%20choice
%20theory%20states%20that%20individuals%20rely%20on%20rational
%20calculations,interest%2C%20and%

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_institutionalism

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