PAPER 201 – LEARNING AND TEACHING

UNIT 1 : Learning, Motivation and Cognition

 CONCEPT OF LEARNING
Generally,learning is defined as a process of behaviour modification through experiences,
exercise and efforts.
The definitions of learning given by various psychologists/educationists:
Hurlock (1942) : Learning is development that comes from exercise and effort. Through
learning, children acquire competence in using their hereditary resources.
Hilgard, Atkinson and Atkinson (1979): Learning may be defined as a relatively
permanent change in behaviour that occurs as the result of prior experience.
Murphy (1968) : The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet
environmental requirements.
Woodworth (1945) : Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual
(in any respect, good or bad) and makes him alter behaviour and experiences different from
what they would otherwise have been.
Every creature, including human beings, is born with certain capabilities. e.g.: a human baby
can suck milk from its mother’s breast as soon as it is born. These capabilities are known as
instinctive behaviour. As an individual grows s/he has to make certain adjustments in
various situations of life. Therefore, s/he has to acquire various habits, knowledge, attitudes
and skills, etc. The acquisition of Understanding Learning all these things is called
‘learning’. It means that:
• Learning is not acquired by birth, but it is the process of acquiring competence by
using hereditary resources.
• Temporary change in behaviour is not learning.
• Not only the modification of behaviour by acquiring good things as per the social
norms is learning but even behaviour modification by acquiring bad things comes
under ‘learning’. In other words, learning leads to change in behaviour but this does
not necessarily mean that these changes always bring about improvement or positive
development.

According to Smith (1962),‘learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the

strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience’.
It means, instead of change in existing behaviour or acquisition of new behaviour, learning
may also result in discontinuance or abandonment of existing behaviour.
This ‘unlearning’ is also learning in itself.

According to Fagin (1958), learning is a sequence of mental events or conditions

leading to changes in learner.
  CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
Learning is a Continuous and Universal Process :
After birth, the child acquires skill from experiences obtained from the environment. Hence,
leaning goes on throughout life. Learning can be formal or informal and it may be direct or
indirect. In human beings it is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or culture. When
a learner learns he develop, knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes, and aptitudes.

Learning is Change in behavior :

The result of the Learning process can be measured as behavioral changes. This change can
be in any form. It can be desirable or undesirable. But in desirable form, i.e. these changes
should occur in a positive direction. Learning includes all three aspects of human behavior.
So, it includes cognitive, affective and conative aspects of mental process.
Learning is Purposive and Goal-oriented :
Learning is always has a purpose. It is goal-oriented in the sense that the teacher always has
learning objectives in mind while teaching. If we don’t have any aim and goal, then the
process of learning will not show any effect. Through the process of learning, we can move
towards pre-determined learning objectives. As the learner learn, he/she move towards a pre-
determined goal.
Learning is a process of progress and Development :
Learning can occur in any direction. Theses directions can be desirable or undesirable. We
want to bring the individual’s development in a desirable direction through learning. We do
not want a child to learn in undesirable directions like stealing or pick-pocketing. So learning
should bring progressive changes in the behavior of the learner.
Learning is the Organisation of Experiences :
New learning experiences evolve as a result of past experiences acquired by the learner.
Learning involves all those experience and training of an individual (right from birth) which
help her/him to produce changes in behaviour. It is not mere addition to knowledge or mere
acquisition of facts. It is the reorganization of experience which may also include unlearning.
Learning occurs due to Activity and Environment :
Interaction with the environment is very essential for the learning process. The more children
interact with their environment, the more they learn. The absence of activity and interaction
hampers the quality of learning in the child. These interactions provide experience to the
children. Due to these interactions changes occur in the behavior of the children.
Learning Helps in Achieving Teaching-learning Objectives :
Teaching and learning situations have different goals, aims, and objectives. Process of
learning helps in achieving the objectives of teaching. With learning, we expect a change in
the behavior of the individuals. This change happens with the development of knowledge,
insight, interests, skills, and attitudes. So, for achieving teaching-learning objectives, the
learning process plays an important role.
Learning is the Relationship between stimulus and Response:
Learning is generally, a relationship between stimulus and response. A person is considered
as a learned-person if he reacts according to the task to be learned. Through learning, a
person learns reactions according to the stimuli associated with the environment and other
aspects of life.
Learning is transferable:
The learning acquired in one situation is capable of transfer to some other situation. The
knowledge acquired in one situation proves helpful in acquiring knowledge in other
situation. This is known as the transfer of learning. The learner should be careful not to let
previously gained knowledge interfere in acquiring new knowledge and experiences.
Learning prepares for adjustment: Learning helps the individual to adjust herself/himself
adequately and adapt to the changes that may be necessary to the new situations. We meet
with new situations which demand solutions. Repeated efforts are required react to them
effectively. These experiences leave behind some effects in the mental structure and modify
our behaviour.

 FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

Physiological Factors
Among the organic factors considered to cause learning problems are genetics, brain injury,
biochemical imbalances, intake of toxic substances like lead, oxygen deprivation, infectious
diseases, drug intoxication, malnutrition and cogenital defects. While considering these as
factors influencing learning, it may be mentioned that attempts to correlate specific
physiological factors with learning problems are not successful.
Ability to see printed words is obviously a prerequisite to reading, especially when the
children are taught by 'look-and-say' method. Auditory defects influence learning more
seriously when the phonetic method is used. Even a small degree of farsightedness or
aniseikonia (a difference in size or shape between the images formed by the two eyes) may
cause discomfort and increased difficulty in reading. Such a child, if not attended to, may
withdraw from the learning situation.
Another important factor that affects learning is maturation. Unless the body is
physiologically mature and ready, academic learning cannot take place. To quote a simple
example, a new born can't be expected to take in the details of an object for his vision is
unfocussed. Further, physiological maturation is one of the major factors affecting memory
span of a human being. The ability to remember thing of course a pre-requisite to any
learning.

Psychological Factors
Several psychological factors such as intelligence, personality, attitude, interest, and aptitude
have considerable influence on the learning of a child. Apart from these, motivation, self-
concept, readiness is a necessity, often learns to read with little instruction.
Whereas, seriously retarded readers tend to be aggressive or to withdraw, to feel insecure and
apprehensive. A child's learning is influenced by his/her concept of himself/herself. If he/she
puts no value on himself/herself or thinks of himself/herself as a failure, he/she is generally
not interested in learning. Ability to pay attention is also basic to learning. Children learn the
habit of sustained attention by persisting at things that interest them. A child's attention
cannot be demanded. It is said to be a by-product of interest and maturity.
Socio-emotional Factors
The family the child belongs to has a considerable influence on the learning. Family factors
such as child-rearing practices, reward and punishment, scope for freedom and independence
in activities, play and study facilities, ambitiousness of the parents, disorganization and
discord among members, degree of maturity expected of the boy or the girl child, birth
position such as eldest, youngest or single child have their definite influence on learning.
Regardless of basic motivation, the anxiety aroused by disturbed family background shows
itself in thinking difficulties, viz, day dreaming, inattentiveness and difficulty in
concentration.
A subtle but powerful influence on the growing child arises from his/her position among the
children in the family. The parents of the first-born expect the child to act like miniature
adults and hence the first-born are found to encounter a variety of expectation and stress.
Whereas, parents tend to be more relaxed in their "dos" and "don'ts" with the last-born.
Factors like traumatic events at home, separation or death can also precipitate learning
problems in an otherwise normal child.
A child who comes from a very poor family and never had any intellectual stimulation at
home remains dull and unresponsive in the class. In some cultures, there is a strong sex role
bias. Girls are directly or indirectly told that education is not meant for them. In a similar
way, some caste groups in our country have hidden messages like 'education is not meant for
us' or 'our children cannot study'. This apathy to education may pose problems for the child
in learning.
Educational Factors
Learning problems may occur because of inadequate or inappropriate teaching. The child
pay have difficulty in learning because the teacher does not provide adequate -or appropriate
instruction. Aspects such as repetition and their frequency, continuity and rest in learning,
complexity and meaningfulness of the material being learnt also influence learning. If the
teacher is a poor communicator or uses monotonous and uninteresting methods, the children
are put at a disadvantage.
Overcrowding classrooms is another contributing factor. In some big cities, houses are
converted into English medium schools. In small rooms, sixty to seventy children are made
to sit and are unable to benefit from a highly verbal instruction. In rural areas, the problem is
one of the adequate facilities such as classrooms, blackboards, and sometimes even teachers.
Bilingualism and multilingualism is also a factor influencing learning.

Environmental Factors
The condition of the setting where the learning process takes place, can also enhance or
interfere in intake of information. If the rooms are not well ventilated, the lighting poor, the
space cramped, the environment excessively noisy or surroundings polluted (e.g., due to
smoke from a nearby factory), then there will be interference in the child learning, for the
body will be more concerned with protecting itself then procuring more knowledge.
In the school and at the home, the conditions for learning must be favourable and adequate if
teaching is to produce the desired results.
  MOTIVATION

Motivation has been mainly termed as a factor that drives or pushes one in a certain direction
or to behave in a certain way. Motivation can be termed as a driving force or it can also be
stated as a process that starts and drives various activities, whether physical or psychological
(Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2006). The term motivation has been derived from a Latin word
‘movere’, which means ‘to move’. It can thus be described in terms of drive, force, desires,
needs and wishes that may lead to individuals behaving in a certain manner.
A desire to get praise from the teacher may motivate a student to perform well in a class
activity. A wish to gain more knowledge about a certain subject may motivate an individual
to take up an educational programme in that subject. A hunger drive may prompt an
individual to buy biscuits or snacks. A desire to spend time with his/ her parents, may
encourage a person to travel long distance. Thus any human behaviour can be said to be as a
result of some kind of motivation.

Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from outside an individual. The
motivating factors are external, or outside, rewards such as money or grades. These rewards
provide satisfaction and pleasure that the task itself may not provide.
Extrinsic motivation does not mean, however, that a person will not get any pleasure from
working on or completing a task. It just means that the pleasure they anticipate from some
external reward will continue to be a motivator even when the task to be done holds little or
no interest. An extrinsically motivated student, for example, may dislike an assignment, may
find it boring, or may have no interest in the subject, but the possibility of a good grade will
be enough to keep the student motivated in order for him or her to put forth the effort to do
well on a task.
Extrinsic motivation is likely to involve the concept of rewarded behaviour. Thus, by
engaging in a particular type of activity or behaving in a particular manner, you are
“rewarded” by a desired end result.

Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from inside an individual rather than
from any external or outside rewards, such as money or grades.
The motivation comes from the pleasure one gets from the task itself or from the sense of
satisfaction in completing or even working on a task.
Intrinsic motivation does not mean, however, that a person will not seek rewards. It just
means that such external rewards are not enough to keep a person motivated. An intrinsically
motivated student, for example, may want to get a good grade on an assignment, but if the
assignment does not interest that student, the possibility of a good grade is not enough to
maintain that student’s motivation to put any effort into the project.
Intrinsic motivation is the opposite of extrinsic motivation. That latter type of motivation
comes from outside of you. But intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual.
  APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION
Behavioral approach considers role of external rewards and punishment in motivation in
classroom. According to this approach, role of positive and negative stimuli as incentives is
very important in encouraging or discouraging a particular behavior. Role of reinforcement
is also considered important in teaching and learning. This approach promotes use of grades,
stars, rewards, certification, appreciation, etc., for enhancing motivation of learners.
Humanist approach laid emphasis upon learners’ capacity for personal growth, freedom to
choose their options for future and positive outlook. This approach advocates that intrinsic
sources like sense of competence, self-esteem, autonomy, and self-actualization are the
factors which encourage a person to act. Maslow’s Need hierarchy is a good explanation of
this approach.
Cognitivists are of the view that motivation occurs due to learners’ thoughts. They do not
have faith in role of extrinsic motivation for learning. They believe that learners’ internal
motivation to learn, their attribution (ability of an individual to explain, justify and excuse)
and their belief to control their environment contributes to motivation. Learners are viewed
as active and curious individuals who are searching information to solve their problems by
themselves.
Social perspective believes that need of affiliation, appreciation and recognition in the social
group motivates a learner. When a learner spends time with peers, makes close relations with
peers, parents and relatives, wants to get recognition of their work in socio-cultural
environment, s/he gets motivated. It emphasizes on participation, identities and interpersonal
relationships within the community for various practices.

 MEANING OF COGNITION
Cognition refers to a broad spectrum of activities, such as, thinking, conceiving, reasoning,
knowing, understanding, establishing relationship etc. A number of psychologists have used
the term cognition to refer to intellectual behaviours in which the underlying characteristics
are of abstract nature. Broadly, cognition is understood as a general concept embracing all
forms of knowing. It includes perceiving, imaging, reasoning, judging etc. Cognition is
differentiated from conation and affection.

 ROLE OF COGNITION IN LEARNING

Increases confidence

As you no longer memorise things, you know how to handle workplace challenges. With an
in-depth understanding of your new skills, you can approach the work confidently.

Ensures faster learning

Through cognitive learning, you can build upon your previous knowledge and ideas. Every
new piece of information you learn gets added to your previous knowledge, increasing your
storehouse of information. This ensures you learn and retain new concepts faster.
Promotes comprehensive learning

As cognitive learning focuses on a hands-on learning approach instead of memorisation, it

promotes immersive learning and promotes your comprehension of acquiring new concepts.
It helps you understand the learning material.

Enhances problem-solving skills

In an organisation, problem-solving skills are a must because you may encounter unique
challenges each day. That is where cognitive learning comes helpful. It helps in sharpening
your problem-solving skills and lets you apply them in your job. As this core skill is
mandatory for leadership, you can become a better leader with cognitive learning.

Fosters innovation

Cognitive learning is about perception and concept formation. It teaches employees novel
concepts and helps in interpreting complex information. Once concepts are clear, it leads to
creativity, which eventually fosters innovation at the workplace.

 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING COGNITION & LEARNING

Family Structure
Diversity in family structure also affects the learner’s learning. For example, the learners
who belong to nuclear families may have lower learning outcomes. It is assumed that in
nuclear families, increased responsibilities on learners such as childcare roles, domestic
duties impede in the time available for school work and the parents also have less time to
spend with their children and to supervise their school work. As a result, they may show low
learning performances. Whereas in a joint family, parents spend more time with their
children as they have helping hands in their family. So the learners who belong to joint
family may show higher learning performances.

Type of School
Apart from the family structure, type of school also influences the learner’s learning
outcome. A private school has a number of learners from high class families whereas a
government school has a number of learners from middle and low class families. Private
schools select learners with high academic abilities and they also have financial support. The
learning environment in a private school is also quite different from a government school.
Due to greater financial support in a private school, the classrooms and laboratory are well-
furnished and well equipped with new technologies, while in government schools the
classrooms are not well equipped. As a result of lack of appropriate learning environment,
learning outcome of learners in government schools is sometimes lower than the private
schools.
Geographical Location
Geographical location also affects the learning outcome. Due to lack of appropriate learning
facilities in the rural and remote areas such as cost, transport facilities, low family income,
new technologies such as computer, mobile, internet etc., the learners from these areas
remain disadvantaged. We may say that learners who belong to non-metropolitan areas may
have lower learning outcome in comparison to the learners from metropolitan areas.
Socio-economic Status
The socio-economic status of family also plays a crucial role in the learning of a learner. A
learner who belongs to a family of lower socioeconomic status, does not get intellectual
stimulus from his family and as a result, he remains lazy and inactive in the classroom. On
the other side, the learner who belongs to a family of medium socioeconomic status, gets full
motivation from his family, has high level of aspirations and as a result he remains active in
classroom. We may say that his/her learning outcome is may be higher than the learner who
belongs to lower socio-economic status.
Cultural Background
Learner’s cultural background has an impact on learning. Learners from different cultural
backgrounds learn in a different manner. Cultural backgrounds impact the way the learner
participates in various activities of school. A learner from collectivist cultural background
prefers to learn in cooperation with others, while a learner from individualist cultural
background prefers to learn independently. The important aspect for the teacher is that s/he
should be aware about the differences between the school environment and cultural
background of a learner.
Language
The linguistic diversity also affects a learner’s learning outcomes. In our classrooms we have
diverse learners including many non-Hindi or non-English speaking learners. Learners who
belong to those families whose language do not match with the medium of instruction of the
school find themselves disadvantaged. Linguistically diverse learners sometimes show lower
learning outcome and higher dropout rates. To ensure educational equity, we may appoint
qualified teachers to reach the linguistically diverse learners. As a teacher, we should start
language programmes for the learners with specific languages and during parent teacher
meetings, we should try to present all the information in the parent’s native language.

Environment
Environment plays a key role in influencing the cognitive development of an individual. To
ensure proper cognitive development in children, a motivating and encouraging environment
is necessary. Lucurto (1990) observed that a child’s intelligence increased when they were
surrounded by an encouraging and positive environment. A child’s home environment can
also affect their cognitive development. If a child is exposed to early learning experiences,
their intellectual functioning quickens and therefore, they are able to have a relatively faster
cognitive development.

Heredity
Heredity refers to the transmission of physical, emotional, cognitive, and other
characteristics from parents to children. Heredity is responsible for determining when a
child’s cognitive senses are ready and mature to develop cognitive skills.
UNIT 2 : Learner, Learning Types and Transfer of Learning
 LEARNER
The use of the term learner as a synonym for student has grown in popularity among
educators in recent years. students learn in schools, they sit in classrooms, they are taught by
teachers, they are passive recipients of taught knowledge, etc.
• A learner is someone who is learning about a particular subject or how to do something.
• someone (especially a child) who learns (as from a teacher) ortakes up knowledge or
beliefs.

 CHANGING NATURE OF LEARNER

Adult learning has undergone dramatic changes and during the 21st century more profound
changes are likely to occur in the increasingly complex, diverse, and dynamic society. The
information age has permanently changed how we think of time, ourselves, and the world,
which has grown to be a smaller place due to technology. A backlash is occurring that is a
result of the pressures of time and demand to learn more, faster. Each person has their own
learning style. Some learn best from listening, some from doing things, and some visually.
Human development is the dynamic process of change that occurs in the physical,
psychological, social, spiritual and emotional constitution and make up of an individual
which starts from CONCEPTION to DEATH.
Some important aspects of nature of learner are:
• Dependency Versus Self-Direction: As a person matures, they naturally move from
dependency to an increasing level of self-direction. The rate of this process varies with each
person and at the different levels in life, i.e. young adult, middle-age, and older adult.
• Life Experience: The second important implication is “life experience.” As people grow
and develop they accumulate an ever increasing amount of experience that serves as an
important resource for learning, both for themselves and others.
• Time to Learn: A majority of adult learners participate in learning due to a trigger event in
their life. Just preceding or immediately after the trigger event, the adult learner is often
ready to learn in order to cope with the event, cope with life’s tasks and problems, and
possibly find a relationship between the learning and the trigger event.
• Practical Reasons for Learning: Most adults have a practical reason for learning.
Combined with this reason is the desire to be able to immediately apply the learned
information. Individuals learn something, use it in a manner that applies to their life, reflect
on the results, refine the learning or discard it, and repeat the process. The learner is then
using their skills and knowledge to self-educate, develop independence, and personally
construct their knowledge.
  CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE LEARNER
Some people seem to be natural learners; they answer all of the questions in class, they
consistently receive high marks, and they just seem to ‘get it’. Most often though, these
students are not just naturally capable. More likely than not, they have put in hard, well-
focused work behind the scenes which no one else knows about. Before understanding what
they’re supposed to know and do specifically in each subject, they have learned the
characteristics that will enable them to acquire new knowledge and skills more generally.
The good news is, these characteristics can be developed in almost anyone; you don’t have to
be born with them. But you do have to intentionally seek to develop them. In each newsletter
this semester, I will introduce characteristics of good learners that parents and students may
wish to ponder. It may be a worthwhile exercise to set each characteristic as a challenge for
your son over the fortnight between newsletters.

• Autonomous - Is able to self organise with a developing sense of independent thought and
individual decision making.
• Balanced - Values and maintains all aspects of life bringing school, family and world
together, respecting the whole person. Approaches learning in a balanced intellectual,
physical, emotional, spiritual and recreational manner.
• Collaborative - Can problem solve through sharing ideas and resources while being
respectful of others. Is capable of challenging others and accepts feedback with an open
mind. Is focused on the common goal and while appreciating the importance of humour,
stays on task.
• Compassionate - Has empathy for others by showing care and respect. Values a strong
sense of justice and fairness.
• Courageous - Is not afraid of uncertainty and is prepared to take risks. Understands that
making mistakes is part of the learning process. Is resilient, mentally tough and persistent in
the face of challenges.
• Creative - Is prepared to try things out, generate new ideas or improve on old ideas. Can
develop new ways to solve problems.
• Curious - Engages in tasks with an inquiring mind. Is enthusiastic about questioning,
researching and gaining a deeper understanding. Has a love of learning and is persistent in
efforts to discover.
• Passionate - Is enthusiastic about their learning and is engaged in discussion and activities.
Is focused and brings energy to what needs to be done.
• Reflective - Takes time to consider the effectiveness of the learning journey and what
needs to be done next. Seeks clarification. Identifies the strengths and weaknesses of their
learning. Acknowledges progress and effort rather than just the product. Considers how
learning connects with other knowledge.
  GUIDING PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE NATURE OF THE LEARNER
TO MAKE TEACHING LEARNING EFFECTIVE AND PRODUCTIVE

1. The teacher must regard the learner not as a passive recipient of the wisdom of the ages
but as an active, thinking, feeling human being who needs to be stimulated, directed, and
guided toward the realization of all his inherent potentialities, thereby becoming a worthy
member of a democratic society. Educational aims and techniques must be geared to the
ability, needs, and interests of the learner.

2. The teacher must make the nature of the learner the basis of the science of teaching and
the principles of learning. The learner’s original nature must be made the starting point in his
education. Teaching is effective when it is based on the psychology of learning, making the
learner as the center of educative process.

3. The teacher must consider that the growth and development of the child is orderly and
unified. He must work with the whole child, not just on his mental or emotional development
alone. Growth is intellectual in nature as well as physical and emotional. Rather than mastery
of subject-matter, emphasis must be made on child growth and development.

4. The teacher must keep in mind that mental growth and development do not follow a
similar pattern for all learners or students. The classroom teachers, supervisors, and
administrators mu keep this fact in mind as they plan the courses of study, devise methods
and techniques of instruction, and other instructional materials and devices.

5. The teacher needs to understand the distinctive ,growth patterns and developmental
characteristics of each learner and their effect upon his behaviour. The teacher should be
conscious of the fact that each pupil is the product of his own peculiar heredity and
environment, and he must realize that pupils frequently respond in different ways to the same
stimulus. Each learner must thus be provided for in special ways, not only as to single,
immediate needs, but as to total future needs.

6. The teacher must bear in mind that there is close relationship or high correlation between
mental and physical growth as measured on the basis of chronological age. Growth is
continuous in all areas of mental and physical activities. This fact must be taken into
consideration in selecting and organizing educational activities and projects.

7. The teacher must know the learner as an individual and as a member of the group. This
understanding helps the teachers, supervisors, and administrators in planning and imple-
menting growth programs, and in evaluating the outcomes. Some pupils can be stimulated to
move along at a more rapid rate than others, since there are variations in all-around maturity
from pupil to pupil.

8. The teacher must utilize the innate tendencies as drives or powers for schoolwork and as
stimuli to learning. Some innate tendencies can also be utilized to stimulate group activities
and to establish a sound spirit of true sportsmanship and fair play.
9. The teacher must utilize and direct the useful innate tendencies in such a way that they
will produce activities that will lead to further activities. The teacher, likewise, must redirect
or modify all tendencies to action which would result in undesirable activities.

10. The teacher must select and organize the subject-matter, methods or procedures, stages of
education, and means of guidance to anticipate the natural growth and development of the
inborn tendencies of the learner so that he may progress along desirable lines.

11. The teacher must utilize the natural tendencies of the learner in developing or building
new habits. Habit makes the process more effective in its results and thus it saves time. Habit
is the basis of progress and a source of great economy in life.

12. The teacher must consider the nature of the pupils in the formulation of ultimate and
immediate aims of education. If the aim of education is to let the learner grow in terms of
knowledge, abilities, habits, skills, and attitudes, his original nature should be the starting
point in the endeavor to accomplish his growth.

13. The teacher must bear in mind that the nature of the learner rather than the nature of
subject-matter should determine the nature of teaching. Likewise, the type of teaching to be
used is also determined by the type of learning involved. Different types of learning call for
different methods of teaching.

14. The teacher must consider that each pupil differs greatly within himself in his potentiality
to learn. This psychological concepts is based on the principle of trait differences. The
teacher should not expect the learner to achieve equally in all school subjects and activities.
Ability grouping as practiced in some schools is a violation of the principle of trait
differences, unless such grouping is done separately for each subject.

15. The teacher must keep in mind that the learner is endowed with the tendency to create;
hence, capable of creativeness in his expression. All pupils possess creative ability, but to
different degrees. Creativeness can be developed among the pupils if freedom is present in
the classroom. Pupils can be creative if they are free from preconceived standards or criteria.
The school curriculum must be so organized to encourage creativeness.
  CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

Reading Skills
• Poor decoding skills
• Poor reading fluency
• Slow reading rate
• Lack of self-monitoring reading skills
• Poor comprehension and/or retention
• Difficulty identifying important ideas in context
• Extreme difficulty building ideas and images
• Difficulty integrating new ideas to existing knowledge
• Weak vocabulary skills
• Extreme difficulty understanding words or grammar
• Difficulty recognizing high frequency words
• Oral comprehension is noticeably stronger than reading comprehension
• Extreme difficulty focusing attention on the printed marks
• Difficulty controlling eye movements across the page

Spelling Skills

• Phonological awareness is noticeably stronger than spelling ability

• Frequent spelling errors of high frequency words
• Extreme difficulty with homonyms and/or regular spelling patterns
• No understanding of the relationship of phonics to written language
• No understanding of common spelling rules
• Inadequate understanding of phonics even with instruction

Written Expression Skills

• Poor writing fluency

• Unable to compose complete, grammatical sentences
• Difficulty organizing written information
• Poor handwriting
• Extremely poor alignment
• Inability to take notes or copy information from a book or the board
• Oral expression is noticeably stronger than written expression
• Extremely weak proofreading skills

Oral Language Skills

• Inability to hear small differences between sounds, not attributable to a hearing loss,
particularly vowel sounds
• Difficulty articulating thoughts or ideas orally
• Difficulty pronouncing words
• Inability to blend sounds together to form words
• Difficulty listening and responding to a series of directions
• Disorganized recall of facts or details
Memory Skills
• Extremely weak ability to store and retrieve information efficiently
• Extremely weak ability to hold information for immediate use

Mathematical Skills

• Poor mathematical fluency

• Difficulty memorizing multiplication tables
• Difficulty identifying multiples and/or factors
• Poor basic calculation skills
• Difficulty understanding word or application problems
• Poor understanding of mathematical concepts
• Difficulty sorting out irrelevant information
• Lower visual perceptual and visual-spatial ability
• Inability to transfer basic mathematical concepts to solve problems with unpredictable
information
• Inability to use basic facts within more complex calculations

Reasoning Skills

• Extremely weak ability to solve problems, particularly when information or procedure

is unfamiliar
• Extreme difficulty recognizing, transforming, or using specific information to reach
general conclusions

LEARNING TYPES
 NON-ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

Non-associative learning is a change in the strength of the response to a single stimulus that
occurs with repeated exposure to the stimulus. Non-associative learning occurs in all animals
and is considered to be the simplest form of learning. The two types of non-associative
learning are habituation and sensitization. Habituation is a decreased response with repeated
exposure to the stimulus. Sensitization is an increasingly strong response with repeated
exposure to the stimulus.

Non-associative learning usually involves exposure to a single stimulus or event, in contrast

to associative learning, which relates multiple stimuli or events. Non-associative learning
occurs via sensory and sensorimotor nerve pathways. It is an important mechanism for
suppressing or amplifying the sensory information that reaches the higher brain or other
organs.

Deficits or overexpression of habituation or sensitization have been implicated in some

mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, autism, and attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD). They also may contribute to cognitive defects in neurodegenerative disorders such
as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.
Habituation
Habituation is an eventual decline or discontinuation of a response to a highly repetitive
stimulus; thus, habituation is learning to ignore innocuous stimuli that have no meaning.
Humans are habituated to many types of stimuli such as common background noises.
Habituation is the best-studied type of learning because it can be readily measured in babies
or animals. Fetal habituation was first reported in 1925, when fetal movements in the womb
were shown to decline after repeated exposure to a car horn. The orienting response is often
used to measure habituation in infants: when presented with a new visual stimulus, an infant
will turn to look at it, but with repeated presentations, the infant will look at it for shorter and
shorter periods of time. Habituation can also reveal whether a baby or animal distinguishes
between two types of stimuli. For example, a baby who becomes habituated to a toy becomes
bored and looks for a new toy or other stimulus. However, if the old and new toys are very
similar, the habituation may carry over to the new toy. Habituation is specific for the
stimulus and does not generalize to other stimuli unless they are similar. Habituation
increases with increasing repetitions of the stimulus and decreases with more intense
stimulation.

There are two types of habituation—short-term and long-term. Short intervals between
repetition of the stimulus (the inter-stimulus interval or ISI), such as 15 seconds, are better at
producing short-term habituation: the habituation occurs faster, with response to the stimulus
rapidly decreasing, but lasts only a few minutes or hours before the response strength
recovers. Long ISIs are better at producing long-term habituation. Long-term habituation
occurs with repeated short-term habituation training, with periods of several hours or days
between training sessions. Long-term habituation lasts for days or weeks, but is generally
weaker than short-term habituation.

Sensitization
Sensitization is an increase in responsiveness or behavior caused by exposure to a noxious or
painful stimulus. Whereas habituation occurs with a weak, repeated stimulus, sensitization
occurs with a strong or painful sensory stimulus. It may only require one exposure and may
intensify responses to all stimuli. Sensitization is believed to occur through a general arousal
process. An example of sensitization in rats is an increased startle response to a tone after a
sensitizing event such as an electric shock. An example of a strong sensitizing stimulus in
humans is a sudden blackout on a well-lit street that results in a potentiated (increased)
startle response to car lights or footsteps. An example of a weak sensitizing stimulus is the
sound of a dripping faucet while trying to fall asleep— a sound that becomes increasingly
hard to ignore.

Repetition of noxious stimuli or a stronger stimulus creates more sensitization. A longer

interval between sensitization training results in longer-lasting sensitization.

Sensitization differs from dishabituation, because an event can cause dishabituation without
causing sensitization to other stimuli. Likewise, sensitization does not necessarily cause
dishabituation to other stimuli. Sensitization can underlie both adaptive and maladaptive
forms of learning.
  LEARNING THROUGH ASSOCIATION- CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
This is the simplest form of conditioning, described Pavlov, a Russian Psychologist.
Conditioning is a term used to describe the process by which neutral stimulus gains the
power to elicit a specific conditioned response. This is explained through the experiments
done by Pavlov. He associated the presentation of food to the dog with another stimulus as
sound of the bell. After giving some trials in which bell preceded the presentation of food,
the dog started salivating at the sound of the bell. To explain this phenomenon, some
technical terms are used.
Food : Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Salivation elicited for food : Unconditioned Response (UR)
Sound of bell : Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Salivation to bell : Response (CR)
The diagram below explains the conditioning procedure:
Innate Stimulus-Response Connection
[US] Food ____________________________________________[UR] Salivation
Learned Stimulus-Response Connection
[CS] Bell ____________________________________________ [CR] Salivation

The acquisition of a conditioned response is gradual and becomes stronger with repeated
trials. There are some aspects of classical conditioning which require consideration.
i) Acquisition
For acquisition each paired presentation of the CS (Sound of bell) and the US (Food) should
be presented a number of times and the interval between CS and US should be short.
ii) Stimulus Substitution
With conditioning a link a bond is formed between the CS and US and as a result of this CS
(bell) becomes equivalent to US (food) in eliciting a response. We mean thereby that an
association between CS and US enables one to substitute CS for US in evoking a response.
iii) Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization: When conditioning has occurred or when the conditioned
response to a stimulus has been acquired, then other similar stimuli can also elicit the same
response. This is known as stimulus generalization. In Pavlov’s experience the dog gave CR
(salivation) to a slightly different bell also.
Stimulus Discrimination: Stimulus Discrimination is to make one response to one stimulus
and different response or no response to another. In experiments it is demonstrated by using
two different tones (SCI) (bell). On one trial CS (1) is paired with US (food) and on the other
trial CS (2) given without US (food). The s learns to respond only to CS (I).
iv) Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Repetition of the conditioned stimulus (Bell) without unconditioned stimulus repeatedly
gradually diminishes the response. This is called Extinction. A response that has been
extinguished, does come-up later on its own, this is called spontaneous recovery. At this
stage, if reinforcement (US) is not presented with CS, the response extinguishes
permanently.
  LEARNING THROUGH CONSEQUENCES- OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning is another approach to the study of associative learning. The term
coined by B.F. Skinner means that the likelihood of a behaviour depends on the significance
of the event immediately following it to person showing the behaviour. If the event
following the behaviour is positively reinforcing or rewarding, then it will recur. If it is not
reinforced or is punished, then it is less likely to recur and eventually stops completely a
process known as ‘extinction’.
Behaviour Positive Recurrence of behaviour
Consequences (Positive reinforcement)
Behaviour No reward of Behaviour disappears
punishment (extinction)
It is a powerful method for teaching new behaviour patterns both to humans and animals.
The basics of operant conditioning are reinforcement and punishment. In children the most
common form of positive reinforcement is social, children are likely to repeat behaviour
which gives pleasure to those whom they are fond of.
Usually, but not necessarily, their parents, teachers are the most important positively
reinforcing figures, but as they get older, other children increasingly take on this role. If a
teacher pays gratifying attention to bad behaviour (even if the attention takes form of
shouting at the child), then bad behaviour will recur. Material rewards, such as money,
sweets, chocolates, other favourite foods, watching television are also used.
i) Reinforcement
The basic principles of operant conditioning is that when a behaviour occurs and is followed
by a reinforcement, it is more likely to occur again in the future. A great deal of our
behaviour has been learned because it has been rewarded. For example you study because
you may find it reinforcing in terms of marks attained, praise from your colleagues. Many
responses can be made to occur more frequently by following it with reinforcement. The
behaviour can be shaped and moulded by appropriate arrangements of responses and
reinforcers.
ii) Punishment
When we wish to eliminate an un adaptive behaviour, punishment tends to decreases the
likelihood of occurrence of the responses. Any unpleasant consequence of behaviour which
makes that behaviour less likely to occur can be seen as punishing. Physical punishment by
parents is the most frequently used, but many children do not respond to it by a reduction in
their undesirable behaviour. Probably the attention they get when they are punished has a
positive reinforcing rewarding effect, and this result overrides negative experiences of
physical pain. The experience of negative emotional states ---- anxiety, expression and a
sense of failure is, by contrast strongly punishing. In other words punishment decrease the
frequency of a response, stops the behaviour leading to it. Some of the common methods
based on principle of punishment are time out from reinforcement over correction and
response cost. These methods if used consistently and systematically, have been found to be
very effective in modifying problem behaviour in children.
  LEARNING BY OBSERVATION - OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
The main proponent of observational learning was Albert Bandura. Unlike classical
conditioning and operant conditioning, according to observational learning the cognitive
processes plays important role in learning behaviour. Based on his work with phobic patients
and the famous Bobo doll experiment (1963), Bandura propounded ‘Social Learning
Theory’. According to social learning theory, learning occurs in a social setting by observing
others behaviour and its outcome.
This observational learning can occur in two ways: (i) direct observation, and (ii) indirect
observation.
In direct observation, you learn behaviour by observing others (called as a model), directly,
while in indirect observation you learn by observing or hearing others experiences. This kind
of indirect learning is known as vicarious learning. Suppose you wanted to go on a trip to the
North eastern states of India. One of your friends who recently came back from his trip of
north-east suggests you to carry an umbrella or raincoat, as it can rain anytime. What will
you do? There are very high chances that you will listen to his experience and carry an
umbrella. This kind of learning is an example of vicarious learning.

Now, we will discuss the famous bobo-doll experiment to have an in-depth understanding of
observational learning. Bandura and his colleagues conducted an experiment on children to
investigate the role of observational and imitation in learning social behaviour, such as
aggression. They selected 72 children between the age group of three to six years. Children
were randomly assigned to three groups: one control and two experimental conditions. In
one group of experiment condition, children were shown a movie with an aggressive model,
beating, hitting and abusing a bobo doll. In another experimental condition, a non-aggressive
model was shown playing peacefully and in a friendly way with a Bobo doll. Whereas, in
control condition children were not shown any movie. Later, all groups of children were
placed in a room full of varieties of toys. It was observed that children who were exposed to
the aggressive model imitated the model’s behaviour. They also punched, hit, and used
abusive words for Bobo dolls. In contrast, the children of the second experimental group,
who were exposed to non-aggressive model, did not demonstrate any aggression with bobo
doll. This was one of the landmark studies in psychology. It suggested that observation and
imitation play a crucial role in learning.

Process Involved in Observational Learning

Attention: In order to learn, one needs to focus his or her attention on a model. This process
is influenced by the characteristics of the model as well as characteristics of the observer.
Retention: It is important to remember the observed behaviour for future reproduction. This
process depends on one’s ability to rehearse and mentally represent the observed behaviour.
Production: In the third step, learned behaviour is produced by the observer. However,
production of a retained behaviour depends on the capability to perform it, i.e., whether the
observer possesses the required skills or not.
Motivation: An observed behaviour will be performed only when there is an appropriate
motivation or reason to do so.
  TRANSFER OF LEARNING
One of the important characteristics of learning is that the acquisition of skills, habits,
knowledge and attitudes, influences the acquisition of new learning due to some kind of
carry-over effect. The carrying over of feelings, habits, skills, and knowledge from one
learning area to another is called transfer of training or learning.
In simple way transfer may be defined as “the partial or total application or carryover of
knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes from one situation to another situation”.

According to Crow and Crow: “The carry over of habits of thinking, feelings or working of
knowledge or skills from one learning areas to another is usually referred to as Transfer of
learning”
According to Sorenson: “ Transfer is refers to the transfer of knowledge, training and habits
acquired in one situation to another situation”
Acoording to Judd : “ Transfer is a form of generalization”
According to Guthrie: “ Transfer may be defined as a process of extending and applying
behaviour”

 LEVELS OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Positive Transfer
When learning in one context improves learning or performance in another context this is
called positive transfer. For example, if someone learning a new database package has
background knowledge of databases or has used a different database package they are likely
to benefit in terms of time taken to learn the new package. Or, for example, the previous
experience of learning algebra facilitates learning statistics.

Negative Transfer
Negative transfer occurs when previous learning or experience inhibits or interferes with
learning or performance in a new context. For instance, a person for whom schooling was an
unpleasant experience may avoid ‘classroom’ situations. It is common for tourists
accustomed to driving on the right hand side of the road to experience difficulty adjusting to
driving on the left hand side in New Zealand and Australia. Bransford, Brown and Cocking
(2000) suggest that previous experiences or learning can hinder the learning of new concepts.
They provide the example of where the prior experience of learning to walk upright, on what
appears to be a flat earth, hinders the learning of concepts in physics and astronomy

Simple Versus Complex Transfer

Simple transfer happens when little or no effort is required to apply what has been learned in
one situation to a new situation. In class, students are taught how to use a spreadsheet to
create a budget. Later they need to create a budget for a club trip, and set up a spreadsheet
for this. This is an example of simple transfer. However, if the same students were engaged
in gathering data for a research project and thought about the ways in which the
spreadsheeting program could assist with the data management and analysis, this would be
an example of more complex transfer.
Near And Far Transfer
Another distinction used is between near and far transfer. Usually these terms distinguish the
closeness or distance between the original learning and the transfer task, for example,
learning to shift gears in a truck is an example of near transfer for someone who has already
learned to shift gears in a car. Near transfer has also been seen as the transfer of learning
within the school context, or between a school task and a very similar task. For example,
when students answer similar questions in tests to those they have practised in class. Far
transfer is used to refer to the transfer of learning from the school context to a non-school
context. For example, skills learned in mathematics such as taking care and checking all
alternatives, when used in making investment decisions is an example of far transfer.

Automatic And Mindful Transfer

When an individual responds spontaneously within a transfer situation, which is very similar
to the learning situation then this is automatic transfer. For instance, learning to read English
in one class, results in the learner automatically reading English language in another context.
Perkins and Salomon (1996b) use the terms low and high road transfer to differentiate the
mechanisms of automatic and mindful transfer. Gradually, with time and practice, the
automatic transfer effect will extend or ‘reach out’ over the low road. For example, the
school student who is reading and writing in diverse subjects is slowly and gradually gaining
expertise in reading English. In contrast, mindful, high road transfer is deliberate and
involves conscious thought and intellectual effort, and occurs in situations where there are
significant gaps or differences between the original and the transfer situations.
In an education or training course participants learn about a process in a controlled
environment. The problems encountered in the educational setting tend to be well defined. In
the workplace it may not always be obvious when, or even desirable to use the procedure.
For example, there tend to be lengthy delays when a key person is absent, and a substantial
backlog of work. The surface question is what could be done to speed up the process, and to
automate it as much as possible. However, in real life other problems could arise: the staff
member is proud of their existing system; the existing system is not documented; does the
operating system used by the company support the software required; what about the
compatibility between branches; what about staff training; is there money in the budget and
will a transition period be required?

 IMPORTANCE OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING

• Help students correlate and detect similarity between previous and new. Eg. How
atmospheric pressure helps to predict rain.
• Use variety of examples. Eg. In algebra along with x and y, use other alphabets as unknowns
also.
• Relate learning to real-life situations. Eg. While teaching democracy, elect students' council
through free and fair means.
• Make students look for relationships for future usefulness. Eg. In languages, explain new words
with respect to their original roots — then they will learn to apply this technique in future.
• Stop faulty study habits in the bud before they transfer to the future. Eg. Adding numbers by
counting on fingers.
• Pay attention to intelligence, environment and individual differences too. Eg. On an average, a
child who has learnt an instrument may pick up musical notes more quickly than others.
UNIT 3: Teacher and Teaching as a Profession
 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER
1. Prepared
The most effective teachers come to class each day ready to teach that day’s lesson. They:
• Jump right into the lesson with enthusiasm.
• Avoid wasting instructional time. They start class on time, teach for the entire class
period, and time flies in their classes.
2. Positive
The most effective teachers have optimistic attitudes about teaching and their students. They
always:
• Look on the bright side of every situation.
• Communicate with students about their progress.
• Praise and recognize students for hard work.
• Help students act kindly toward one another.
3. Hold High Expectations
The most effective teachers believe every student can be successful. They:
• Hold students to the highest standards.
• Consistently challenge their students to realize their potential.
• Build students’ confidence and teach them to believe in themselves.
4. Creative
The most effective teachers are resourceful and inventive in their teaching methods. They:
• Might wear a clown suit if the class reaches its academic goal.
• Agree to participate in the school talent show.
• Use technology effectively in the classroom.
5. Fair
The most effective teachers handle students and grading fairly. They:
• Allow all students equal opportunities and privileges.
• Provide clear requirements.
• Recognize that “fair” means giving every student an opportunity to succeed.
• Understand that not all students learn in the same way and at the same rate.
6. Display a Personal Touch
The most effective teachers are approachable and friendly. They:
• Connect with students personally.
• Are genuinely interested in who their students are as people.
• Visit the students’ world. For instance, they sit with them in the cafeteria; they attend
sporting events, plays, and other events outside normal school hours.
7. Cultivate a Sense of Belonging
The most effective teachers have a way of making students feel welcome and comfortable in
their classrooms.
• Have a warm, welcoming attitude that helps students know they belong in your
classroom.
• Communicate how much they love teaching and prefer it to other occupations.
8. Compassionate
The most effective teachers are concerned about students’ personal problems and can relate
to them. Numerous stories established how the sensitivity and compassion of caring teachers
affected them in profound and lasting ways. They:
• Understand when students are having a difficult time and act accordingly.
• Remember that students are people with lives outside of the classroom, just like
teachers.
9. Have a Sense of Humor
The most effective teachers do not take everything seriously and make learning fun. They:
• Use humor to break the ice in difficult situations.
• Bring humor into the everyday classroom.
• Laugh with the class but never at the expense of any particular student.
10. Respect Students
The most effective teachers do not deliberately embarrass students. Teachers who give the
highest respect get the highest respect. They:
• Respect students’ privacy when returning test papers.
• Speak to students in private concerning grades or conduct.
• Always avoid situations that unnecessarily embarrass students.
11. Forgiving
The most effective teachers do not hold grudges. They:
• Forgive the students.
• Start each day with a clean slate.
• Understand that disruptive or antisocial behavior can quickly turn a teacher against a
student, but that refusing to give up on a difficult student can produce success.
12. Admit Mistakes
The most effective teachers are quick to admit it when they’re wrong. They:
• Apologize to mistakenly accused students.
• Make adjustments when students point out errors and oversights.
  ROLE OF TERACHER IN TEACHING-LEARNING SITUATIONS
Teaching-learning situations form the heart of any School education, instructions and
students‘‘ development programme. These teaching-learning situations will be socio-
emotional in their nature. In spite of this the school and the education system will run
according to the societal demands. This is like a triangle with three vertices. Teacher, student
and the subject matter are the three apex bodies of this triangle.
In olden days, teacher occupied the pivotal position in an education system. The
subject/topic to be taught, curriculum and teaching-everything was decided by the teacher.
Teachers were just transmitting the knowledge to the students. Even now, the teacher is
considered as fund of knowledge. The instructional design will be decided by the teacher and
the student‘s role be just accepting whatever the teacher delivers as the knowledge
transmission. Almost the student‘s role was passive. Here the teachers used to impart the
knowledge to the student. Their age, experience and knowledge helped them to perform the
role of a knowledge transmitter. But as the time passed, there appeared an inevitability to
change the role of a traditional role of a teacher. Because of this emphasis, the teacher‘s role
changed to facilitator, negotiator and co-learner. This unit will present the detailed
information regarding the above aspects.
Teacher As A Transmitter Of Knowledge
When a teacher performs the role of a knowledge transmitter the whole classroom
environment will be dominated by the teacher. For example, lecture method, lecture-cum-
demonstration method. Apparently the students may appear here as passive participants but
they will be silently listening.
In order to understand the role of a teacher as a transmitter, we should examine his/her role
in traditional educational setup, where followings are expected from a teacher:
i) A teacher introduces a lesson.
ii) A teacher explains a concept.
iii) A teacher clarifies doubts of students with suitable illustration.
iv) A teacher draws a diagram while explaining.
v) A teacher asks questions to learners.
In all the above situations, a teacher is a participant in the teaching-learning process, a part of
the stimuli provided to learners to bring about learning. The other inputs are the content that
gets transacted across learners, mode of transaction used by a teacher and other audio-visual
aids used by the teacher to promote effective learning.
Teacher As A Co-Learner
Teachers need to become aware of novel methods and approaches of teaching and practice it.
Teacher becoming a ―co-learner is one of such novel ideas. One of the major feature of a
co-learner is, making students as responsible for their own learning, exploration of
knowledge and evaluation. While executing this task a teacher will become automatically a
co-learner. Students will participate actively, understand the concepts and express their
meaningful learning. In this way the whole environment will be charged with ―LEARNING
and appear as an illustration of ―LIFELONG LEARNING. Summing we can say the day
has come to say good bye to ―Talk and Chalk method. Teaching-learning has become a
joint venture now in which both the teacher and the taught will learn.
Teacher As A Facilitator
To facilitate means to promote, to help forward, or to make easy. Therefore, in the context of
instruction, a teacher’s role would be to promote learning, to help learners to develop more
and more by learning by providing them a conducive environment to interact within order to
bring about learning and further development. In this role as a facilitator of learning,
learner’s role of interacting and moving forward is emphasized, and the teacher’s role is in
the background as a guide and a facilitator different from what we have already seen in as a
transmitter of knowledge.
There are different methods of promoting learning. Some are learner-centered – like library
work, project work, experimentation, home assignment, etc. where major focus is on how
learners organize their steps of learning by interacting with different environmental
components like printed matter, natural realities etc. In all such methods, teacher guides
learners as to how to go about learning sequences, thus facilitating their learning. In other
words in all learner- centered methods teacher is a facilitator and not a participant.

Teacher As A Negotiator
Negotiation is a process by which two or more parties each with its own goals and
perspectives co-ordinate areas of interest through concessions and compromise to reach an
agreement and take the joint decision about areas of common concerns in a situation in
which neither side has nor wants to use power.
Hence negotiation is a positive process. When the demand for resources will be more but the
availability of resources is less, then the process of negotiation will help in dispersal of
resources or gives the opportunity of making use of resources judiciously to all the aspirants.
This could be seen in education system with respect to sharing of library, laboratory,
language laboratory, material as well as human resources and special/precious/valuable
reference books. For this to happen the teacher‘s role is very important. Here the teacher‘s
role will be like a negotiator.

Sometimes in education negotiation means, images of tense and adversarial exchanges-

teachers contracts, strikes, conflict resolutions or union grievances, to name a few. Generally
it is referred with solving complex problems that require the co-operation of others.
Negotiation could be positive, constructive and generative. It is simply what we do when you
can‘t achieve your goals completely on your own. Conflicts may creep in between two
individuals, two group of students, student and the institutions etc. This is quite natural.
Frustration, conflicts and stress are so common in adolescents. Their identity crisis, non-
cooperation with the society, rebellion nature, and disobedience with the elders-all such facts
will add up to the problems. In this context teachers can play a very significant role. Apart
from parents, teachers are the one who can understand students comprehensively. There
negotiating skill can enhance the peace, balance and self-regulation among students.
  CONCEPT OF TEACHING

According to Oxford Dictionary ‘Teaching’ means “impart knowledge or skill, give

instruction or lessons, instill and inspire with”. By analyzing this meaning, we can say
that teaching is an activity that facilitates learning. Teacher is a facilitator who tries to satisfy
the educational needs of the learners in such a manner that they play important and positive
role for the upliftment of society. Thus, a great responsibility lies on the shoulders of
teachers—the future of any society. They have to justify their profession. The role of a
teacher is full of diversity. The learners look up to them as their ideal, model, guide, mentor,
supervisor and much more. The overall personality development i.e. physical, mental,
emotional, social, moral, etc. of a learner lies in the teaching of a teacher.

 TEACHING AS A COMPLEX ACTIVITY

Teaching is a challenging job which involves numerous dimensions like:

• Being intelligent with good IQ
• Knowledgeable enough to satisfy learners’ quest
• Logical preparation and presentation with clear objectives and goals
• Strength, both physical and mental, able to face stress and criticism
• Expressive with ideas and thoughts without fear and apprehensions
• Fervent and ardent i.e. enthusiastic and zealous towards his work
• Warmth and empathy in order to bond with class
• Sensitive towards learners who face problem
• Simultaneously upgrading and updating oneself with new discoveries
• Orienting oneself by continuous short term courses or workshops
• Evaluating oneself and learners
• Be updated with curriculum and content
• Using innovative strategies in and out of class settings
• Other miscellaneous work other than class teaching
All the activities have to be performed keeping in mind the level of school (govt., private,
public, convent, rural, urban etc) and children (their interest, ability, attitude, background
etc). Usually the teachers who undergo teacher training are somewhat prepared for the real
teaching job. During teaching they are trained in many of the aspects discussed above but
sometimes the real life situation takes a toll on the new teacher. The teacher has to face many
challenges during the job period. Some learn gradually and some succumb and leave the job.
Thus trained teacher must be made aware and oriented accordingly to face the practicality of
the teaching job. It is better that trained teachers pass out confident enough to face the
teaching job full with complexities. The future of many learners is in the hands of a teacher
therefore keeping in view the individual difference among learners has to be tackled. Also
the teacher has to strive for the holistic development of learners. Not only this, learners as
well as teachers performance is evaluated which specifies their progress. Thus we can see
that teaching is a multi-faceted activity. After evaluation step the feedback has to be
collected so that the teaching can be modified into better activity. The weak learners should
be tackled in such a manner that they do not feel inferior. Teacher in herself is a learner who
adapts daily to the new situation. With so many roles to play teaching is surely a complex
activity.
  PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

a) Simple to complex: It is the psychology of a child that he wants the content in simplified
form. Therefore the teacher must move from simple facts and then take learners towards a
little more difficult state.
b) Known to unknown: When the teaching starts from previous knowledge to new content
to be taught, the learner does not find difficulty in moving from known to unknown.
c) Concrete to abstract: This is based on the principles of psychology. When a learner
percepts anything or event in its real and physical form he connects to it easily. Then he can
be driven towards more immaterial and intangible facts or events.
d) Direct to indirect: Whatever is to be taught cannot be put straightaway before the
learner? It should be connected to the facts already known to him.
e.g. If topic ‘Acid’ is to be taught then learners should asked about sourness, sour fruits,
cause for sourness, citric acid and then we can teach them about mineral acids.
e) Particular to general: Specific facts are presented before the learners and
these are joined in organized manner to reach a generalized statement.
f) Analysis to synthesis: It is based on the principles of associative psychology. Whenever
we come across new theory, we try to analyze it and then assimilate it into one. For eg- In
biology we learn about cell and then tissues and organs later. In the end, we study about the
whole body composed of different organs.
g) Empirical to rational: The first-hand knowledge given to the learners is real and
pragmatic which he gets from his own experiences and then it moves on to more balanced
and sensible content.
h) Psychological to logical: It is considered during the pre-active phase of teaching where
the content is arranged in such a manner where the priority is the learner’s psychology (like
interest, ability etc.) and then real teaching comes in logical manner from simple to more
complex.
i) Whole to part: As insight theory states that any object or incident should be viewed as a
whole and then it is considered in parts. A teacher when presents a content or topic to the
learners as a whole then it is broken into small units and then dealt with them
j) Indefinite to definite: The content to be taught in the class may be definite for teachers
but may not be so for the learners. Therefore the teaching style should be such that the
learners are able to get direct knowledge which is possible only when they are familiarized
with it.

 DIVERSE TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR DIVERSE LEARNERS

Peer Tutoring
Classes are great places to implement “peer buddies” or “peer tutoring”. Children can be
paired by matching their physical, cognitive and social needs. You may pair a child who is
very active with someone who is less active. Some guiding principles for you to use peer
tutoring are:
 • You need to clearly establish the goal (what exact activity the pair would do);
• Use a peer as tutor that you think has mastery of the concept or skill to be taught;
• You must talk to the tutors about the kinds of questioning, prompts, feedback, or any
special adaptations a child (classmate) might need;
• Last but not the least, you must monitor the progress systematically;
• Please remember that you may come across occasions where the peer who is being
taught can have certain abilities in him/her that can be learning for other students in
class. Spot the talent and use the special skills of the child with special need to reach
to others. Here he/she can become the tutor and is not always a peer learner.
Explicit Instruction
It is a systematic, direct way of engaging and is success oriented. It has been shown to
promote achievement for all students. The instruction focuses on critical contents by
analyzing the skills, strategies, vocabulary, concepts that students would develop and then
lessons are sequentially and logically arranged for effective teaching- learning process.
Frequent responses of students are elicited and student performance is carefully monitored.
Immediate affirmative and corrective feedback is provided.
Co-operative Learning
Cooperative learning is the cornerstone of inclusive education because it can accommodate
children of varied skill abilities. Each child can help to complete the necessary task that calls
for his or her particular talent, skill, or learning style, while contributing to the success of the
group. Over time, it is important for children to function in various roles that not only call for
their natural abilities but also help them to develop additional skills. Cooperative learning is
advantageous for all culturally diverse children. The cooperative learning strategies make
learning more acceptable and less threatening for many children. A mixture of different
abilities, ethnic backgrounds, learning styles, and personal interest’s works best resulting in
productive teams.
Project Based Learning Approach
Project based learning (PBL) as a pedagogy is a great vehicle for meaningful inclusion
because each of its project design elements and teaching practices are geared towards
creating the kind of engagement and dynamic learning environments that are also known to
best serve students with a wide range of disabilities (Uliasz, 2016). In PBL, either you or
your students devise projects that support content in a way that will help students go deeper
or further. For example: making a model of an insect and labelling it or creating a play on
some historical event. You need to reinforce content retention and there are lots of multi-
sensory instructions involved in PBL.
Problem Based Approach
It is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject through the
experience of solving an open ended problem. In PBA, learning experiences are organized in
small group situations focusing on a given issue/problem. Each student takes on a role within
the group that may be formal or informal and their roles often rotate. It is focused on the
student’s reflection and reasoning to construct their own learning. The processes involved
are: brainstorming, structuring and hypothesizing, learning objectives, independent study and
synthesis. In short, it is identifying what they already know, what they need to know and
how and where to access new information that may lead to the resolution of the problem.
  TEACHING AS A PROFESSION
During Vedic period when “Guru” and his teachings were deeply revered. The pure and
unselfish bonding between Guru-shishya was prevalent at that time. His position was
considered above the God because he showed the path to reach the divine power.
But today the conditions have changed a lot. It is now the last opted profession. Those who
go in for teacher training courses do so to get a government job. There are very few people
who really want to do teaching with nobility. Besides, there has been mushrooming of
coaching institutes around us. The teachers lure or force learners to join their coaching
institutes as the salary packages in private institutions are less. They all are responsible for
changing this noble profession into a money raising business. The various creative and
innovative ways to teach learnt during training classes are rarely followed when actual
teaching occurs. They don’t want to take the pains or waste time and energy on these
activities instead just try to wind up the course allotted. This is the reason respect for a
teacher is at its minimum and empathy for learners is no more there. This is just cheating the
small children who look up to their teachers as their role models or ideals.
Teaching like any other profession must be given the same respect. Engineers, Doctors,
Architects, Officers etc get good salary package which private teachers do not get. The salary
and working conditions in school need revamping. This profession will get its due when all
of us work for its upliftment as a profession. Teaching is in need of its well-deserved
position in society. Teachers should be given role to take part in professional decisions,
diagnosing related needs, planning instructional programmes and evaluation policies.
Meaning of Profession
A profession can be defined as an occupation which requires some specialized study and
training, and the purpose of which is generally to provide skilled services and guidance in
lieu of a definite fee or remuneration. However, some professionals may provide services
without asking for payment.
Any professional person provides professional service for a limited period of time when
his/her clientele are in an institution or within the institutional framework; for example, a
teacher who is a professional person renders his/her service for a period of time when
students (clientele) are in educational institutions and within the institutional framework; of a
school, college or university. A profession can be practiced independently or within an
institution or both. This means if teaching is accepted as a profession, a teacher can teach
either independently to students or within a school along with a team of teachers.

Characteristics of a Profession
A profession indicates certain specific characteristics. They are:
a. A profession demands possession of a body of specialized knowledge and extended
practical training.
b. A profession renders an essential social service.
c. A profession demands continuous in-service training of its members.
d. A profession has a clearly defined membership of a particular group, with a view to
safe-guarding the interests of the profession.
e. A profession involves a code of ethics.
f. A profession assures its members a professional career.
Characteristics of Teaching Profession
i) It essentially involves an intellectual operation
Teaching, it has been said, is not mere talking. This is so because teaching requires conscious
organization of learning activities, deliberate creation of a conducive and supportive learning
environment. While providing learning experiences a teacher has to constantly analyze and
evaluate classroom climate and evolve a suitable plan of action to achieve the pre-specified
desirable change in the behaviour of a group of learners who are constantly varying with
respect to their interest and pace of learning. All such operations, which are to be carried out
by a teacher, are intellectual operations.
ii) It draws material from science
Teaching is not only an art but also a science. On the basis of this assumption, a teacher can
be trained. The moment it is accepted as a science, it has definite steps which are followed in
training a teacher.
iii) It transforms raw material into a practical and definite end
In teaching profession, the learners constitute the raw material. These learners are prepared
to teach in a continuously evolving society which has varied expectations. Learners are
trained into a practical and definite end by means of providing practical training in teaching
and other pedagogical activities.
iv) It possesses an educationally communicable technique
As teaching is a science, teaching techniques are systematic and have definite steps to be
followed. It is easily communicable.
v) It tends towards self-organization
It is self-organized in the sense that the personnels who are engaged in teaching profession
are sensitive towards growth and development. They evolve a definite mechanism to sustain
and promote the standards of teaching profession.
vi) It essentially performs a social service
Teaching is a social service. It has generally been accepted that education is potent tool to
bring about changes in any nation. The obvious evidences of such a statement are the
developed nations like U.S.A., Russia etc. These and other nations have been able to
constantly develop because of high rates of literacy. It is through teaching that a society
develops.
vii) It has a lengthy period of study and training
Teaching cannot be learnt in a year or so. A person willing to take up this profession has to
study for a number of years and acquire a mastery over the contents of the subject matter.
After this he/she has to undergo training in teaching.
viii) It has a high degree of autonomy
There is a high degree of autonomy in teaching profession right from curriculum
development, planning activities of a year, identifying instructional objectives, deciding
upon the method of teaching, deciding upon the use of media, identifying evaluation criteria,
using appropriate evaluation techniques to deciding upon the admission and promotion rules,
and autonomy in planning and execution of co-curricular activities. Ultimately, all these
activities are planned keeping in mind the goals of education which are to be achieved in a
limited period of time.
ix) It is based upon a systematic body of knowledge
Teaching profession is based upon a systematic body of knowledge which has been derived
from social, psychological, historical, political and economic spheres of life. It is also
influenced by the religious and spiritual beliefs of a society.
x) It generates in-service growth
In teaching profession, the teacher is learning at all the stages of teaching. This leads to
growth of a teacher while in-service.

 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS OF THE TEACHERS

The code of ethics for teachers is designed to protect the rights of the students. Teachers are
expected to be fair to all their students and not take advantage of their position in any way.
For example, you can’t accept expensive gifts from students because it might appear to bias
you. You can’t push your personal beliefs on students because they are a “captive audience”.
You need to have a professional relationship with all students and not let it get too casual and
familiar. The main thing is not to abuse the power that your position gives you over your
students.
The code of professional ethics for teachers provides a framework of principles to
guide them in discharging their duties towards students, parents, colleagues and community.
Increased awareness of the ethical principles governing the teaching profession is essential to
ensure ‘professionalism’ among teachers. The present code of professional ethics for school
teachers (as developed by NCERT) is an attempt to provide direction and guidance to the
teachers in enhancing the dignity of their professional work.

Duties towards Students:

• Treats all students with love and affection.
• The value of being just and impartial to all students irrespective of their caste, creed,
religion, sex, economic status, disability, language and place of birth.
• Facilitates students’ physical, social, intellectual, emotional, and moral development.
• Respect for basic human dignity of the child in all aspects of school life.
• Makes planned and systematic efforts to facilitate the child to actualize his/her
potential and talent.
• Transacts the curriculum in conformity with the values enshrined in the Constitution
of India.
• Adapts his/her teaching according to the individual needs of the students.
• Maintains the confidentiality of the information concerning students and dispenses
such information only to those who are legitimately entitled to it.
• Refrains from subjecting any child to fear, trauma, anxiety, physical punishment,
sexual abuse, mental and emotional harassment.
• Keeps a dignified demeanour commensurate to the expectations from a teacher as a
role model.
Duties towards Parents, Community and Society:
• Establishes a relationship of trust with parents/guardians in the interest of all round
development of students.
• Desists from doing anything which is derogatory to the respect of the child or his/her
parents/guardians.
 • Strives to develop respect for the composite culture of India among students.
• Keeps the country uppermost in mind, refrains from taking part in activities that may
spread feelings of hatred among different communities, religious or linguistic groups.

Duties towards the Profession and Colleagues:

• Strives for his/her continuous professional development.
• Creates a culture that encourages purposeful collaboration and dialogue among
colleagues and stakeholders.
• Takes pride in the teaching profession and treats other members of the profession with
respect and dignity.
• Refrains from engaging himself/herself in private tuition or private teaching activity.
• Refrains from accepting any gift or favour that might impair or appear to influence
professional decisions or actions.
• Refrains from making unsubstantiated allegations against colleagues or higher
authorities.
• Avoids making derogatory statements about colleagues, especially in the presence of
pupils, teachers, parents.
• Maintains confidentiality of information concerning colleagues and dispenses such
information only when authorized to do so.

 ROLE OF TEACHER TRAINING IN DEVELOPING PROFESSIONALISM IN TEACHER

Teacher Training helps in -
• Creating appropriate learning situation after clearly understanding the learning
process.
• Keeping in mind the fact that knowledge takes forms through its individual experience
and not through external realities of text books.
• Responding sensibly to social, professional and administrative contexts of the work
they are doing.
• Developing not only the ability to have awareness about above said situations but also
to create such situations.
• Acquiring fundamental knowledge in languages and acquiring expertise in using them.
• Recognizing personal aspirations, cognitions, abilities, interests, attitudes and
inclinations.
• As a teacher, trying to formulate one‘s thinking relating to one‘s profession in specific
situations.
• Considering critical thinking as a continuous process of education.
• Developing interest in fine arts and aesthetic sense in children studying fine arts.
• Satisfying all the needs of children including disabled (Challenged) children and
socially marginalize children.
• Following an integrated model in bringing about professionalism among teachers in
the changing contexts of society.
• Developing required counselor‘s skills and competencies in teachers so that they can
suggest and advise about solution for the educational (learning), personal and social
problems of children in their daily life to utilize productivities as a medium for
acquisition of knowledge, development of values and skills.
UNIT 4: Learning Styles and Learning Environment
 DIFFERENT LEARNING STYLES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS
An individual’s learning style refers to the preferential way in which the learner absorbs
processes, comprehends and retains information. Different learners learn in a variety of
ways, by seeing and hearing, working alone and in groups, reasoning logically and
intuitively and sometimes by memorizing or visualizing. Thus, since, everyone is different, it
is important for teachers to understand the differences in learners’ learning styles, so that
they can implement best practice strategies into their daily activities, curriculum and
assessments.
Fleming’s VARK model of learning is a very commonly accepted model. VARK is an
acronym that refers to the four types of learning styles: Visual, Auditory, Reading/Writing
Preference and Kinesthetic.

1. Visual Learners:
“Visual learners are those that learn best things seeing them” (Fleming, 2011). These
are those learners who discover by seeing and watching. In order to enhance their level of
knowledge they prefer to observe things such as snaps, films, demonstrations, painting,
charts and graphics. By and large their learning comes to pass through their dominant sense
‘sight’. Stash (2007) convoluted visual learners as people who favor pictographic
illustration. Learners having visual aptitude are characteristically affluent with
imagination and are liable to be creative and inventive (Piping 2005).

Implications:
Teachers in order to culture visual learners can bring into play subsequent tools and
techniques;
• Graphical material to enhance their learning.
• Use of color coding can be imperative in adding them to organize notes.
• Highlighter to make the points prominent in texts and other study materials.
• To draw concepts through images on the frame of mind rather than writing down.
• Drawing for conceptual clarity.
• Word searching, matching activities and puzzles can be effective for such learners.
• Use of visual is essential for teaching lessons i.e. images, maps, pictures and diagrams.

2. Auditory Learners
.They acquire knowledge through hearing the things. They jump at the ideas and
concepts when hear those things. They can grasp by listening tapes, audio discussion or
lectures. Moreover, they can easily commit to memory and retain when information are
presented before them in the form of melody, poem or a song. Such learners at times fell
unease with boring reading because they are unable to visualize well. Aural students
become skilled at something by listening (Drago & Wagner 2004). Acoustic learners
thrash out on answers or by listening to recording over the assessment topics (Murphy et
al. 2004). Students who gain knowledge by this mode are easily interrupted by noise (Drago
& Wagner 2004).
Implications:
Instructors so as to renovate auditory learners can make use of consequent devices and skills;
• Grouping in small or larger magnitude can be beneficial for their enhanced learning.
• Motivation to learn autonomously can be a handy tactic.
• Inculcate beats, melodies, songs and rhythms into curriculum to teach skills.
• Encourage to conceive information.
• Arrange discussion among learners.
• Let them the freedom for queries and promote group discussion.
• Make possible audio streaming.
• Foster activities such as brainstorming, jingles, songs, jokes and tales.
3.Kinesthetic Learners
They learn through moving, touching and doing. Their expression is always based on bodily
movement. They best understand information through tactile representation of information.
They learn best through figuring things out by hand. For that intent they have exceptional
balance and eye-hand collaboration. Usually such learners are active and can’t sit idle
for a longer period of time. Further, they express their emotions through dance and
bodily movements. In this regards miming, acting, performing, crafting and composing are
the exceptional tools and techniques for better and fertile learning.
Implications:
Educationalists with the aim to facilitate kinesthetic pupils can draw on successive gears and
methods;
• Arrange activities such as dance, athletics, drawing, sculpting and drafting.
• Inculcate role playing drill, field trips and other physical activities.
• Utilize skimming, drilling and memorizing strategies.
• Illustrate information by means of diagrams.
• Focus on practical work rather than theory.
• Use card games and board.
4.Read/Write Learners
It is a style of leaning that centered round repetition of written words. Such learners learn
and retain information well by having notes of the material in their mind. They preferred on
the display of words and signs. Those who are able to read and write well they opt for
this learning style. These students are familiar to organize lecture notes into draft form,
restate classroom notes and cram multiple choice exam (MCQS) questions (Murphy et al.
2004). Besides that, according to Drago and Wagner (2004), “these students are note
takers”. Learners with a strong reading/writing preference learn best through words.
These learners are able to translate abstract concepts into words and essays.
Implications
Tutors with the intention to cultivate read/write learners can resort to following mechanism;
• Use of PowerPoint presentations.
• Use of reading textbook method.
• Develop habit of note writing.
• Promote textbook culture.
• Need to incorporate activities such as reading, reflecting, displaying and doing.
  UNDERSTANDING PROCESSES THAT FACILITATES CONTRUCTION OF
KNOWLEDGE
1. Experiential Learning And Reflection
Meaning of Experiential Learning

Experiential learning is denoted to the process in which the learner learns through practical
knowledge by doing experiments. Cognitive learning includes academic knowledge
experiential learning includes applied knowledge. Experiential learning attends to the needs
and desires of the learner. Rogers believes that experiential learning is initiated by the self,
involves personal interest and development, knowledge is evaluated by the learner, and it
impacts the learner positively.

Meaning of Reflection Process

Reflection process includes the learning and knowledge acquired by the learner which he or
she has learnt through practical knowledge and experiential learning. The reflection of
knowledge can vary as per the learning environment and thought process during the process.

Experiential Learning and Reflection in Construction of Knowledge

The experiential learning through reflection process plays an important role in constructing
cognitive development and knowledge. These processes plays different imperative roles. The
experiential learning in reflection and construction of learning should take place as follows:

 Positive learning environment

The teacher must create a positive learning environment to facilitate self-initiated learning
among children.
 Clearing the purposes
Learners must be aware of the goals they can achieve through learning and teachers must be
able to give them a purpose to learn new knowledge.
 Availability of learning resources
There should be adequate learning resources in the classroom so that the learning process can
be organized and students can feel motivated.
 Balanced learning
There should be a balance between emotional and intellectual components for organized
learning.
 Sharing thoughts and feelings
Teachers should not dominate the learners and they should be encouraged to share their
thoughts and feelings.
 New and modern Curriculum
The use of traditional curriculum must be eliminated and a new curriculum must be
implemented.
 Teacher must be an active listener
It is essential for the teacher to be an active listener so that he or she can guide the learners
properly.
2. Social Mediation
Social mediation is the process of mediating between conflicts to resolve problems between
learners and foster a better and healthier classroom environment. Construction of knowledge
is a process that occurs through a lot of social engagement and social interaction. Teachers
and learners need to interact with one another so that learning can take place and new
knowledge can be constructed with reference to the past experiences of the learners. All the
knowledge that is constructed in the classroom is done with regard to the previous or existing
knowledge of learners.

Importance of Social Mediation In Construction of Knowledge

Social mediation helps in understanding the process of knowledge construction in the
following ways:

 Conflict Resolution
In a classroom environment, conflicts between learners are inevitable. Social mediation by
the instructor is helpful because it helps resolve these conflicts.
 Promotes Harmony
A classroom where learners are constantly fighting one another is unhealthy. A proper
classroom is characterized by peace and harmony which is promoted by social mediation so
that construction of knowledge can occur.
 Encourages Mutual Respect
Mutual respect is important among learners. Teachers need to mediate and encourage
learners to develop respect for another and foster knowledge construction.
 Encourages Diversity
Educational institutions are becoming diverse and this leads instructors to mediate and
encourage learners to appreciate people from every community. This provides room for
better construction of knowledge.
 Reduces Discrimination
When there is diversity, discrimination can occur in the classroom which can be avoided
through social mediation by the teacher. It encourages the enhancement of knowledge
construction.
 Promotes Equality
By avoiding discrimination through social mediation, one can bring equality, peace, and
harmony in the classroom which is highly helpful for the construction of knowledge.
 Facilitates Classroom Unity
Proper construction of knowledge takes place when there is unity in the classroom. This can
be facilitated by social mediation as it avoids discrimination and promotes peace, harmony,
and unity.
3. Cognitive Negotiability
Cognitive negotiability, or cognitive capacity to negotiate, is the ability to use, understand
and act upon information in a way that enables one to make rational decisions. It is an
important aspect of human intelligence that enables people to engage in effective
negotiations. It is the ability to communicate with others effectively, comprehend
information, and analyze and use the information in order to reach agreements or solve
problems.
One of the most common beliefs associated with knowledge is that it is constructed rather
than acquired. This construction is influenced by certain environmental factors and the
experiences of an individual. A learner, therefore, constructs new knowledge based on his or
her experiences of life and through their cognitive negotiability level. Negotiation is highly
associated with the construction of knowledge as it forms an association and a bond between
emotional intelligence and cognitive ability.
Cognitive Negotiability Factors
Cognitive negotiability in the construction of knowledge involves four major factors which
are the following.
 Information Acquisition
The construction of knowledge takes place through the acquisition of new information.
Based on the previous experiences of a learner, instructors impart new information to them
so that new knowledge can be constructed. Hence, it included the acquisition of new
knowledge, skills, behaviors, understanding, preferences, moral values, and attitudes.
 Decision Making
Decision-making is referred to as a cognitive process that leads to the choice of a belief or an
action that is chosen amongst various other options. Decision-making can be rational or it
can be irrational. Decision-making is done through collecting information and assessing the
various options that are available. This encourages the construction of knowledge and
involves cognitive negotiability.
 Choice of Strategies
The strategies and tactics one applies when involved in tactical knowledge is also a form of
knowledge construction. Coming up with strategies requires a lot of thought, planning,
research, and cognitive negotiability due to which boosts the construction of knowledge.
 Ability To Influence Emotions
One of the most important forms of cognitive negotiability is to have the ability to influence
the emotions of other people and enable them to act in a certain way or take a certain
decision that may benefit the individual. For instance, business owners are constantly trying
to influence the shopping behavior of their customers. This is a form of cognitive
negotiability that adds to the construction of knowledge. The construction of knowledge
takes place throughout life and through various means. Therefore, it is safe to say that
cognitive negotiability contributes significantly to the construction of knowledge.
4. Situated Cognition and Cognitive Apprenticeship
Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship refer to a model of teaching and learning
procedure that is used for clinical skills in a learning environment that is authentic and rich in
technology. Situated cognition is a theoretical approach and emphasizes the belief that
learning takes place when the learner is involved in performing an activity. It is known to be
an alternative for information processing theory.
Cognitive apprenticeship refers to the theory that emphasizes the significance of the learning
and teaching process that involves a master of learning who imparts the skills he or she has
expertise in, to an apprentice. The theory of cognitive apprenticeship is the result of
constructivist approaches to human learning.

Situated Cognition and Cognitive Apprenticeship Implications for Classroom Learning

The implications of situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship in learning are as

follows.
 Focuses on Social Engagement:
According to situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship, knowledge is transferred from
privacy to sharing through social engagement, discourse, and shared activity.
 Eliminates Individualist Perspective:
In today’s education system, the individualist perspective is quite prevalent which focuses in
individual accomplishments without external support. Situated cognition and cognitive
apprenticeship focus on group work.
 Focuses on Goal-oriented Learning:
Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship also encourage self-motivated learning
rather than artificial learning. For instance, computation exercises are encouraged.
 Encourages Problem Solving:
Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship also encourage problem-solving and
therefore, instil and enhance these skills among learners.
 Focuses on Technological Environment:
Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship focus on conducting the teaching and
learning procedure in a technical environment so that learning can be fostered in a socially
rich atmosphere.
 More Focused On Clinical Skills:
Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship are learning theories that are more apt for
teaching and improving clinical skills among learners.
 Promotes Authentic Learning:
In situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship learning theory, authentic learning rather
than artificial learning is emphasised even more.
5. Metacognition
Metacognition refers to how individuals think and how they learn. It involves self-reflective
questions which give an insight into the process of the learner’s thinking such as how they
learn, how they think, and where they want to be. Metacognition fosters self-awareness,
problem-solving and enables learners to have control over their learning. Metacognition
enables learners to be strategic in their approach to learning. Through metacognition,
learners will be able to acknowledge what they already know, what they need to work on,
and what is the best approach they can adopt to gain new learning and knowledge.
Effective Metacognitive Teaching Strategies to Facilitate Learning
The most effective strategies that facilitate learning are as follows.
 Use Previous Knowledge
Learners can go through a lesson before it is taught in the classroom to test what they already
know about the topic. It will help them learn about the questions and doubts about the topic
as well.
 Ask questions
Learners need to go through the topic that is being taught and ask self-reflective questions so
that they can comprehend the lesson that is being better.
 Be Introspective
Learners need to be introspective when they are learning a new topic and put up queries so
that they can gain more knowledge about the topic that is being taught.
 Write More
Writing is extremely crucial for organizing one’s thoughts and this can help learners to
assess their knowledge. This enables learners to identify the things they know and the things
they don’t.
 Think Aloud
Learners can interact more with their friends, classmates, and even their teachers about a
topic they are interested in and learn more about it. When you think the information aloud, it
will help you to remember it better.
 Preview Your Syllabus
Ahead of attending lessons in the classroom, learners can preview the syllabus materials and
go through the topics they will be dealing with.
 Test Yourself
Instead of waiting for exams to arrive, learners need to do some self-assessment and take a
self-test to analyze how much they have progressed.
  CREATING A FACILITATIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Despite the fact that socio-economic conditions, gender and culture influence students’
learning for good or bad, teachers can play a vital role in creating a positive classroom
environment and enhancing the performance of students.
Physical and socio-cultural environments affect students’ learning for better or worse. It is in
the hands of an effective teacher to turn environmental disadvantages into advantages.
However adverse the physical, social and cultural environment may be, teachers can make a
substantial difference in creating a conducive learning environment in the classroom for all
children.
Often equipped with adequate physical environment, schools in the country, except may be
those corporate schools targeting the super- rich, find themselves in the lurch when teachers
also fail in creating a conducive atmosphere for learning in classrooms. To enhance the
learning of students, improve the quality of education and produce vibrant minds of high-
level proficiency, what we need today are dedicated and motivated teachers who can change
the course of traditional classroom setup and promote conducive environments of learning .

• Teachers' Attitudes
A good education system can flourish if two conditions are satisfied. First is the constant
updating and refinement in knowledge and skills of existing/serving teachers and second one
is equipping upcoming/prospective-teachers with positive attitude towards their profession.
Attitudes towards profession are usually related with enjoying the profession, complete
dedication to their profession, and being aware that profession is socially useful and
believing that they need to improve the profession.
An individual’s attitude towards his/her occupation may affect the end product. Someone
who does not enjoy his/her occupation will not be able to succeed in that occupation. A good
teacher with proper attitude, behaviour and personality traits can motivate, inspire and make
students lost in his/her teaching. A teacher with a positive attitude towards teaching is
considered better and becomes popular figure among students. Therefore, it is very important
to study the attitudes of the prospective-teachers who are going to serve this noble profession
of teaching. Positive attitudes not only promote learning but also create the climate which
stimulates effective learning. Therefore, prospective-teachers must develop proper and
positive attitudes towards their profession so that they can bring about a positive change in
the life of their students.
• Teacher Expectations
Although it is widely accepted that teacher’s expectations affect students’ achievement,
recent classroom observations have led some researchers to conclude that expectancy effects
are more complex than previously thought. Claude Goldenberg, University of California/Los
Angeles, believes that teachers and students affect one another in more complicated and
reciprocal ways that are not easy to predict or to change. The relationship between
expectancy and achievement appears to be partly the result of students’ effects on teachers.
Student behaviors, such as motivation and academic focus, help shape teachers’
expectations. Some researchers suggest that teachers’ expectations may predict students’
performance, not simply because their expectations create self-fulling prophecies, but
because they are accurate reflections of student behaviors that are critical for academic
success.
 • Enhancing Motivation
The best lessons, books, and materials in the world won’t get students excited about learning
and willing to work hard if they’re not motivated.
Motivation, both intrinsic and extrinsic, is a key factor in the success of students at all stages
of their education, and teachers can play a pivotal role in providing and encouraging that
motivation in their students. Of course that’s much easier said than done, as all students are
motivated differently and it takes time and a lot of effort to learn to get a classroom full of
kids enthusiastic about learning, working hard, and pushing themselves to excel.
The following techniques that can be applied for enhancing learner’s motivation are-
Child-centred approach: It is the child who has to learn. So that child should be judged
according to their ability, interest, capacity and previous experience of the child. The
learning materials and experiences should be assigned according to the needs, interests and
abilities of the child.
Linking the new learning to the past: The child is easily motivated to learn the new
materials if he thinks that he knows all that which is required as a base for the new learning.
So, it is the duty of the teacher to think his present teaching upon the previous experience
acquired by the students.
Use of effective methods, aids and devices in teaching: A new novel method helps in
creating interest and motivation leading to the learner. The traditional method creates
boredom and dislike towards the subject and kill the interest of the learner. So, the teacher
should make use of suitable methods, devices, aids and materials in his teaching for effective
motivation.
Definiteness of the purpose and goals: Definiteness of the aims and goals makes the learner
interested and sets him to work in a desirable direction. So it is the primary duty of the
teacher to tell the students about the purpose of acquiring a new skill or experience. So that a
clear perception of the goal may motivate them.
Knowledge of result or progress: Knowledge of the result is found to be a strong incentive
in learning and extremely effective ways of motivation. It provides sufficient feedback to the
learner. So teachers should make provisions for acquainting the students well with their
progress.
Rewards and Punishment: Rewards and punishment bring the same result as praise and
blame. Both of these are powerful incentives and try to influence the future conduct or
learning of an organism favourably. While punishment as a negative motive is based on the
fears of failure, losing prestige, insult on rejection, physical pain and so on; the reward as a
positive motive seeks to influence conduct favourably by associating a pleasant feeling with
the desired act.
Competition and co-operation: Competition as a source of motivation is universally
recognized. Nowadays we found too much competition in all walks of life. In the field of
education, this spirit can be used as a powerful motivating force. The teacher can create a
hearing situation where students engage in a healthy competition but should be very careful
about the use of competition sometimes it give birth to bitter criticism, improper rivalry,
enmity and conflict. So it is suggested to use co-operation as a remedial measure.
Appropriate learning situation and environment: The situation and the environment, in
which the learning is to be made by the learner, influences the learning process. A well-
equipped, healthy classroom environment proves a motivating force. The child likes to read,
write or listen to the teacher carefully if he finds a favourable environment and appropriate
learning situation. The suitability of the school building, the seating arrangement and other
physical facilities available and affection he gets from his teachers etc all influence and
motivate the learning behaviour of the child.
Provide opportunities for success.
Students, even the best ones, can become frustrated and demotivated when they feel like
they’re struggling or not getting the recognition that other students are. Make sure that all
students get a chance to play to their strengths and feel included and valued. It can make a
world of difference in their motivation.
Make things fun.
Not all class work needs to be a game or a good time, but students who see school as a place
where they can have fun will be more motivated to pay attention and do the work that’s
required of them than those who regard it as a chore. Adding fun activities into your school
day can help students who struggle to stay engaged and make the classroom a much more
friendly place for all students.

• Positive Emotion
Positive emotion is not just about ‘happiness’, it is also about joy, affection, love, hope,
gratitude, kindness, care, dignity, delight, interest, etc. It means the individual’s experience
of positive mood and feelings which are comforting and uplifting. Cultivating positive
emotions helps in individuals’ wellbeing and flourishing as these helps to build different
resources such as physical, psychological, emotional, and social which in turn makes
individuals resilient and improves their overall wellbeing. Working on building up positive
emotions intentionally helps individuals to improve their automatic thinking pattern and
behaviour which helps them to discover, appreciate and assimilate these positive emotions in
their day-to-day life.
Positive emotions in classroom
In the classroom the research findings imply that positive emotions can have profoundly
positive effects on students’ learning. However, this need not be true for all positive
emotions. Specifically, positive task-related emotions, such as enjoyment of learning, focus
students’ attention on learning, promote their motivation to learn, and facilitate use of deep
learning strategies and self-regulation of learning. Overall, you can expect these emotions to
have positive effects on students’ achievement. By contrast, positive emotions that do not
relate to learning can draw attention away and lower performance, such as a student falling
in love reducing his/her academic effort. Similarly, deactivating positive emotions, such as
relief and relaxation, do not necessarily have positive effects. Therefore, you can help
students develop their motivation and acquire competencies by promoting their task-related
positive emotions. Teachers should make an effort to promote students’ enjoyment of
learning and excitement about learning materials, but do not rely on triggering positive
emotions that do not relate to learning. It may not be sufficient that students just experience
good feelings; rather, positive emotional experience needs to be linked to the task of solving
cognitive problems and studying learning materials.
 • Self Efficacy
In social-cognitive approach, the perceived ability of a person to deal with a specific
situation.
Teacher self-efficacy has considerable implications for instructional planning and
development, as it affects the establishment of objectives and goals by the teachers, the
activities and evaluation methods they apply (Bandura, 1997), and the effort they are willing
to make in trying to achieve them. Thus, teachers with a high sense of self efficacy will tend
to think that their students’ difficulties can be resolved with the appropriate support,
activities and evaluation methods, which means that their involvement and persistence will
be greater. On the other hand, teachers with lower self efficacy will tend to believe that they
can have less influence on their students, which means they will show less involvement,
reducing the probability of obtaining satisfactory results.

• Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning is a teaching-learning technique, which creates an environment where
the learners work in collaboration with other learners to achieve a common learning goal.
Collaborative learning is considered an umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches
involving joint intellectual effort by students, or students and teachers together.
According to Smith and MacGregor, in the collaborative learning environment, learners
receive a stimulus to engage and converse with their peers. They are exposed to different
viewpoints. In such an environment, learners begin to create their own learning frameworks
rather than relying solely on what has been told to them by the teacher or what is written in
the textbooks. Thus, in a collaborative learning setting, learners can converse with peers,
present and defend ideas, exchange diverse beliefs, question other conceptual frameworks,
and be actively engaged.
If collaborative learning method is designed in such a way that students are interdependent
and work as a team to achieve the desired goals, it results in desirable learning outcomes
such as skills of critical thinking, precise writing, clear argumentation, and competency in
oral presentations. Thus, the specific pedagogical benefits of collaborative learning include
development of critical thinking skills, co-creation of knowledge and meaning, reflection,
and transformative learning. Other benefits include the development of interpersonal skills
and organizational skills.

• Self-Regulated Learning
Self-regulated learning (SRL) is one of the domains of self-regulation, and is aligned most
closely with educational aims. Broadly speaking, it refers to learning that is guided
by metacognition (thinking about one's thinking), strategic action (planning, monitoring, and
evaluating personal progress against a standard), and motivation to learn. A self-regulated
learner "monitors, directs, and regulates actions toward goals of information acquisition,
expanding expertise, and self-improvement”. In particular, self-regulated learners are
cognizant of their academic strengths and weaknesses, and they have a repertoire of
strategies they appropriately apply to tackle the day-to-day challenges of academic tasks.
These learners hold incremental beliefs about intelligence (as opposed to entity, or fixed
views of intelligence) and attribute their successes or failures to factors (e.g., effort expended
on a task, effective use of strategies) within their control.
Prepared By- SHASHI KUMAR, B.Ed. (2021-23), CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF JHARKHAND