ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF MA THEMA TICS

Supplement Volume I
ENCYCLOP AEDIA
OF
MATHEMATICS
Supplement Volume I

..
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Dordrecht / Boston / London
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 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF MATHEMATICS

Managing Editor

M. Hazewinkel

List of Authors

M. Ablowitz, L. Accardi, P. N. Agrawal, R. Aharoni, F. Altomare, S. S. Antman, P. L. Antonelli,

F. Argoul, A. Arneodo, H. Attouch, T. Aubin, W. Auzinger, D. Aze, G. Bachman, E. Bach,
N. Balakrishnan, A. Banyaga, A. Baragar, V. Barbu, O. E. Barndorff-Nielsen, L. M. Barreira,
Ph. Barry, N. L. Bassily, K. J. Bathe, L. M. Batten, W. Beckner, A. Bejancu, D. Benson,
W. Benz, E. E. M. van Berkum, A. J. Berrick, F. Beukers, A. Bialostocki, H. Bieri, K. Binder,
N. H. Bingham, Ch. Birkenhake, P. Bhesild, T. S. Blyth, I. M. Bomze, C. Bonotto, C. de Boor,
P. Borwein, A. Bottcher, F. Bouchut, N. Bouleau, O. 1. Boxma, F. Brackx, P. Brandi, A. Brandstadt,
M. Braverman, E. Briem, R. W. Bruggeman, N. G. de Bruijn, B. Buchberger, F. Buekenhout, P. Bullen,
A. Bundy, G. Buskes, M. Campanino, L. M. B. C. Campos, C. Cannings, J. Carlson, J. M. F. Castillo,
C. Y. Chan, G. Chaudhuri, Qingming Cheng, A. Childs, K. Ciesielski, C. J. S. Clarke, A. M. Cohen,
M. Coornaert, C. Corduneanu, G. Crombez, M. Cwikel, A. Davydov, A. S. Deif, W. J. M. Dekkers,
F. M. Dekking, M. Denker, J. Desarmenien, H. Diamond, Y. Diers, K. Doets, H. Doss, R. M. Dudley,
R. Duduchava, R. Eddy, J. H. J. Einmahl, E. F. Eisele, P. C. Eklof, U. Elias, R. L. Ellis, H. Endo,
T. Erdelyi, F. H. L. Essler, B. Fine, P. C. Fishburn, R. W. Fitzgerald, Ph. Flajolet, G. B. Folland,
A. T. Fomenko, E. Formanek, J. E. Fornress, R. Frank, A. E. Frazho, R. Fritsch, L. Fuchs, M. Fujii,
J. Galambos, A. Garcia-Olivares, M. Gasca, M. O. Gebuhrer, A. Geroldinger, A. A. Giannopoulos,
A. P. Godbole, I. Gohberg, R. Goldblatt, S. W. Golomb, R. Gompf, D. H. Gottlieb, J. Grandell,
B. Green, B. Grigelionis, L. Gross, K. Gustafson, H. Gzyl, W. J. Haboush, Y. O. Harnidoune,
M. E. Harris, H. Hauser, M. Hazewinkel, H. J. A. M. Heijmans, L. Heinrich, J. L. van Hemmen,
B. M. Herbst, W. A. Hereman, C. Herrmann, A. Herzer, K. Hess, C. C. Heyde, T. Hida, A. Hildebrand,
T. Hill, J. Hinz, J. W. P. Hirschfeld, W. van der Hoek, K. H. Hofmann, H. Holden, C. S. Hoo,
C. B. Huijsmans, W. W. J. Hulsbergen, J. Hurrelbrink, D. Iagolnitzer, N. H. Ibragimov, M. Ikle,
A. Hehman, J. R. Isbell, A. N. Iusem, A. O. Ivanov, K. R. Jackson, B. Jansen, G. W. Johnson,
N. J. Johnson, D. Jungnickel, P. E. Jupp, D. V. Juriev (D. V. Yur'ev), M. A. Kaashoek, J.-P. Kahane,
V. A. Kaimanovich, V. Kalashnikov, W. C. M. Kallenberg, PI. Kannappan, H. G. Kaper, H. Kargupta,
G. Karpilovsky, K. Keimel, R. Kerman, M. Kibler, T. Kimura, A. U. Klimyk, H.-B. Knoop,
S. O. Kochman, H. T. Koelink, J. N. Kok, Yu. S. Kolesov, V. Kolmanovskil, M. Kolster,
T. H. Koornwinder, V. M. Kopytov, V. E. Korepin, V. S. Korolyuk, Y. Kosmann-Schwarzbach,
A. M. Krall, A. M. Krasnosel'skil, M. A. Krasnosel'skil, A. Krebsz, E Kreimer, E-V. Kuhlmann,
S. Kuhlmann, Yu. A. Kuznetsov, I. S. Labouriau, J. C. Lagarias, E. R. Lamken, E. Lanckau,
E. Landvogt, S. Lang, M. A. A. van Leeuwen, K. S. Lim, J. H. van Lint, G. L. Litvinov, E. K. Lloyd,
G. Longo, J. D. Louck, E. Lutwak, W. Luxemburg, S. N. MacEachern, J. Madden, J. Magnen,
M. Mahowald, S. Majid, E. Malkowsky, M. Masumoto, A. Mateescu, S. V. Matveev, G. A. Maugin,
T. D. Mavridou, J. C. van der Meer, G. Melan~on, A. Micali, Ch. Micchelli, H. Mikawa, J. S. Milne,
M. Mitrea, I. M. Mladenov, P. van Moerbeke, J. M. M~ller, O. Moreno, A. Muravitsky, O. R. Musin,
C. Nash, J. van Neerven, V. Nesterov, R. Nest, I. Netuka, Siu-Ah Ng, E Nielson, H. R. Nielson,
R. Nishii, R. Norberg, E. Novak, K. Nowak, D. Nualart, S. Ochanine, G. J. Olsder, P. Orlik, L. Ornea,
J. O'Rourke, T. W. Palmer, A. Papadopoulos, P. M. Pardalos, R. G. Parker, K. R. Parthasarathy,
A. Pasini, V. D. Pathak, I. R. Petersen, R. Phelps, A. Pietsch, A. Pillay, I. Pinelis, Z. Piotrowski,
V. Pless, A. V. Pokrovskil, L. Polkowski, A. J. van der Poorten, A. Pott, B. L. S. Prakasa-
Rao, E. Previato, G. Priest, K. Przeslawski, D. Przeworska-Rolewicz, Gh. Paun, J. M. Rassias,
B. D. Reddy, R. A. Renaut, E. Renshaw, J. W. Rice, P. Richetti, M. de Rijke, G. R. Robinson,
A. C. M. van Rooy, M. R~rdam, I. Ro~ca, W. Roth, J. Rovnyak, R. Roychoudhury, A. L. Rukhin,
A. M. Rushdi, E Ruskey, D. Saari, A. Salomaa, N. W. Sauer, M. Scafati Tallini, A. R. Schep,
Ch. Schlindwein, C. P. Schnorr, B. S. W. Schroder, W. Schwarz, B. Schweizer, S.-Y. Shaw,
L. A. Shepp, R. T. Shield, B. K. Shivamoggi, T. A. K. Sinha, A. Sklar, N. J. A. Sloane, J. Slominska,
P. Sole, B. Solomon, A. J. Sommese, G. Starke, W.-H. Steeb, F. W. Steutel, H. Stichtenoth, M. Stoll,
P. Stovicek, E. Straume, S. van Strien, S. J. Summers, L. Takacs, D. Talay, T. Tanino, R. Tolimieri,
A. A. Tuzhilin, C. Udri~te, R. G. Underwood, A. S. Ustiinel, M. van de Vel, A. Venkov, J. Verwer,
R. Viertl, P. Vopenka, W. R. Wade, M. Waldschmidt, W. D. Wallis, E. Wattel, G. Weaver, H. Wehlan,
R. Weiner, D. West, J. Wiegerinck, S. D. R. Wilson, W. S. Wilson, J. A. Winn, H. J. Woerdeman,
M. Yor, A. E. Zalesskil, W. Zelazko, R. Zivaljevic
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST SUPPLEMENT VOLUME

The present volume of the ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF MATHEMATICS is the first of several (planned are
three) supplementary volumes.
In the prefaces to the original first ten volumes I wrote:

'Ideally, an encyclopaedia should be complete up to a certain more-or-Iess well defined

level of detail. In the present case I would like to aim at a completeness level whereby
every theorem, concept, definition, lemma, construction, which has a more-or-Iess
constant and accepted name by which it is referred to by a recognizable group of
mathematicians occurs somewhere and can be found via the index.'

With these three supplementary volumes we go some steps further in this direction. I will try to say
a few words about how much further.
The first source of (titles of) articles was the collective of users of the original 10 volume ENCY-
CLOPAEDIA OF MATHEMATICS. Many users transmitted suggestions for additional material to be covered.
These suggestions were taken seriously and checked against the 3.5M keyword list of the FIZISTN
database MATH in Karlsruhe. If the hit rate was 10 or better, the suggestion was usually accepted.
For the second source I checked the index of volumes 1-9 against that same key phrase list (normal-
ized). Everything with a hit frequency in the normalized list of 40 or better was checked and, if not really
present-a casual mention did not suffice-resulted in an invitation to an expert to contribute something
on it.
This 'top 40' supplementary list already involves more articles than would fit in a single volume
alone and the simple expedient was followed of processing first what came in first (while being carefull
about groups of articles that refer heavily to each other and other matters such as timelyness). However,
the three supplementary volumes together will surely cover the whole 'top 40' and actually go one step
deeper, roughly to the level of the 'top 20' .
For the final (as far as I can see at the moment only electronic) version of the ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF
MATHEMATICS (WEB and CDROM both) I hope and expect to go as far as the 'top 6'. This means
an estimated 32000 articles and an 120K standard key phrase list, a four-fold increase over the printed
13-volume version. It should be noted that if one actually checks one of these 'top 6' standard key
phrases in the database MATH, the number of hits is likely to be quite a bit higher; such a search will
also pick mentions in title and abstract (and not only those in the key-phrase field).
The present volume has its own index. This index is structured exactly like Volume 10, the index to
Volumes 1-9. For details I refer to the Introduction to that index volume.
The number of authors involved in this volume is substantial and in a sense this ENCYCLOPAEDIA
is more and more a community effort of the whole mathematical world. These authors are listed
collectively on one of the preliminary pages, and individually below their contributions in the main body

vii
PRERFACE TO THE SUPPLEMENT VOLUME

of this volume. I thank all of them most cordially for their considerable efforts. The final responsability
for what to include and what not, etc., however, is mine.
The steps from electronic file to printed copy can involve more work than is sometimes realized. For
one important step in this process we used to rely on Teun de Graaf of KAP. Regretfully he died a few
months ago, just before he was to retire. I thank him gratefully for his work.
As is clear from the above, I have made heavy use of that invaluable resource the FIZiSTN MATH
database in Karlsruhe. I thank that institution, in particular Dr. Olaf Ninnemann and the 'MATH group',
for their assistance and the facilities put at my disposal. As in the case of the original 10 volumes, this
one would not have existed without the very considerable efforts of Rob Hoksbergen, who took care of
all coordination and administration, and an awful lot of other detail work besides.

Bussum, May 1997

PROF. DR. MICHIEL HAZEWINKEL

email: mich@cwi.nl
CWI
P.O.Box 94079
1090GB Amsterdam
The Netherlands
Telephone: +31 - 20 - 5924204
Fax: +31 - 20 - 5924199

viii
________ A ________

A PRIORI AND A POSTERIORI BOUNDS IN MA- which implies that under the conditions IIA- 18AII < 1,
TRIX COMPUTATIONS - Three sources of errors are
behind the lack of accuracy in numerical computations: 118xll < IIA- 18AII + IIAI~:lfbll
data errors associated with the physical model, trun- (4)
Ilxll - 1 - IIA- 18AII
cation errors when series are truncated to a number
of terms, and rounding errors resulting from finite ma- Setting k(A) IIA -lIIIIAII, from Ilbll :::; IIAllllxl1 one
chine precision. Therefore, for the equation f (a, x) = 0 finds
in which a is a parameter, if an error occurs in a, the al-
8x k(A) (118AII 118bll )
gorithm returns x and not x. How much the computed W : :; 1 - k(A) 11.lAII lfAlI + lIblI' (5)
solution x differs from x is an indication of the com- IIAII
putational accuracy of the result. Since x is unknown, which measures the relative error in the solution x re-
the norm Ix - xl, taken as an indication of the accu- sulting from the errors 8A and 8b in the data. Thus,
racy, cannot be calculated, and numerical analysts have the factor k(A), called the condition number of A is the
devised bounds for the latter in terms of the variation main factor affecting computational accuracy, since by
8a in a. These bounds are of two types: a priori bounds
setting 118AII :::; EIIAII, 118bll :::; Ellbll, where E is the rela-
and a posteriori bounds. The first are applied prior to tive error in the data, it follows that
computation and are usually poor in nature, whereas
the second use information extracted from a computa- k(A) = lim ~ 118xll (6)
tion, and are more indicative. In this article, attention €-tO E Ilxll '
is focussed on the most widely available bounds which
i.e., representing the sensitivity of the solution to rel-
can be implemented to estimate the accuracy of results
ative changes E in either A or b, that is, 118xll Illxll ~
and to check the stability of numerical algorithms (cf.
E' k(A). So, if k(A) = lOP and E = 5· lO- t , where t is
also Stability of a computational process).
the machine mantissa, the number of significant digits
Linear matrix equations Ax = b, A E Rnxn,
in x becomes t - p.
det(A) =I- O. Assuming that the computed solution x
The above analysis lacks accuracy, for the error in
is equal to x + 8x, where x = A-I band 8x is the error
IIAII is not equal to EIIAII, since other factors intervene,
in the solution resulting from a perturbation 8A in A
one of which is the growth factor in the elements as-
and 8b in b, the perturbed problem
sociated with the interchange strategy as well as the
size of IIAII, yet it provides an a priori estimate for the
(A + 8A)(x + 8x) = b + 8b (1)
expected accuracy. Before the late J. Wilkinson it was
thought that rounding errors can ruin the solution com-
implies, by cancelling equal terms,
pletely; he showed than an upper bound exists for 118AII
and that fear of obtaining poor results is unwarranted
8x = A- 1 ( -8Ax - 8A8x + 8b). (2)
[14].
On the contrary, one can also reach total machine
It follows that for a consistent matrix-vector norm [4]
accuracy. Consider, for example, the matrix

+ IIA-18A11118xll + IIA- 18b ll

118xll :::; IIA-18Allllxll '
(3) A = (1 00 10-0)
5
5 '
A PRIORI AND A POSTERIORI BOUNDS IN MATRIX COMPUTATIONS

IIAII = 105 , IIA-lil = 105 , and k(A) = 1010, so one c) x new = X - 8x, re-do from a).
expects to loose all significant digits on a lO-digit ma-
The algorithm converges very rapidly and x -+ x.
chine, contrary to the fact that for any right-hand side
Finally, accuracy of x is not the only issue which mat-
b, full accuracy in this situation is reached. This led R.
ters to users. There is also the question of stability of the
Skeel [10] to consider componentwise estimates of 8x.
algorithms. By the stability of x one means that it sat-
For 18AI ~ EIAI, 18bl ~ Elbl, where 1·1 stands for the
isfies the perturbed problem
modulus of the vector taken componentwise, one obtains
from (2): (A+8A)x=b+8b, (13)
18xl ~ IA-18Allxl + IA-18A118xl + IA-18bl ' (7)
in which 8A and 8b are of the order of the machine al-
giving for p(IA- 1 8AI) < 1, where p is the spectral ra- lowed uncertainty. An algorithm which returns x such
dius, that that its backward errors 8A and 8b are larger than what
18xl ~ (I -IA- 18AI)-1 (IA- 18All x l + IA- 18b l)· (8) is anticipated in terms of the machine eps, is unstable.
This is checked using the Oettli-Prager criterion [9]
For relative perturbations E in A and b, this implies that
I8x_1I < _2_EIc...,:II,--,-A_-l..:.,.;1Ic.. .,.A-,--,:I~I
_I 1 lAx - bl ~ ~A Ixl + ~b, (14)
(9)
Ilxll - 1 - Ell lA-II lAlli'
which has been derived for interval equations [A ±
giving
~A]x = [b ± ~b] but is also suitable for systems subject
k(A) = IliA-II lAlli, (10) to uncertainties of the form ~A = EIAI and ~b = Elbl.
which is a better sensitivity criterion. For the above Thus follows the stability criterion Irl ~ E(IAllxl +Ibl); a
(2 x 2)-matrix one has k(A) = 1, as expected. result implemented in most available packages by what
However, a practical bound for the error in x re- is called a performance index. (For instance, in the IMSL
lies on information extracted from computation, since it is given by
it shows the true state of affairs. If r = Ax - b is
the residual error of the true solution, then by writing (15)
p = l:S,:Sn
max BN + A N· "L..Jj=l
,n IXj I'
r = A(x + 8x) - b = A8x one finds ISx = A-lr, hence
A

the a posteriori bound

where BN = maxl:Si:Sn Ibil, AN = maxl:Si,j:Sn laijl.)
Illf~:1 ~ IIA -111 :11:1111 ~ k(A) ::~:: . (11)
If p < machine eps, the solution is stable [2]. The back-
ward error can be given by 8A = -H ·IAI·diag(sgn(xi)),
This shows that k(A) intervenes also here and that Ilrll 8b = H . Ibl, where H is a diagonal matrix and h ii =
can be found very small, yet x is totally inaccurate as a r;j(IAllxl + Ibl)i, with Ihiil < machine eps.
result of the large k( A), [2]. The above bound can still Linear equations Ax = b, A E Rmxn. Independent of
be improved by noticing that since A-I is unknown and whether the equations have a unique solution (as in the
only an approximate inverse matrix B of A is known, it previous section), more than one solution or no solution
can be written in the practical form (only a least-squares solution), the general solution x is
118xll = IIA- l B- 1 Brll = (12) given by

= II(I - (I - BA))-lBrll < (16)

< IIBrl1
- 1 - III - BAil' where c is an arbitrary vector and A + is the Penrose-
Moore inverse of A, satisfying AA+ A = A, A+ AA+ =
provided that III - BAil < 1.
A +, (A + A) T = A + A and (AA +) T = AA +. For a consis-
Although scientists have elaborated on various
tent set of equations the residual Ax - b = (AA + - I)b =
bounds for estimating the accuracy of their results, the
0, is a special case. The minimal least-squares solution
situation is not so bleak, for the above bounds are not
becomes, therefore, x = A + b. Unlike in the previous
the end of the story. After all, x can be ameliorated by
section, if A undergoes a perturbation EAll in general
a technique called the method of iterative refinement,
(A + EAd+ cannot be expanded into a Taylor series in
very similar to Newton's method for solving non-linear
E; it does have a Laurent expansion [2]. For acute per-
equations (cf. Newton method). Today it is an avail-
turbations (rank(A) = rank(A + EA l )), from [13] one
able facility in most packages (Linpack, Lapack, etc.)
finds that
and runs as follows:
a) compute r = Ax - b; (17)
b) solve A8x = r;

2
 A PRIORI AND A POSTERIORI BOUNDS IN MATRIX COMPUTATIONS

if c) A;t"ew = B - 8A+.

II (A + 8A)+ 112 = ar(A ~ 8A)' The algorithm converges and B --+ (AT A)-lAT.
The eigenvalue problem Ax = AX, A E Rnxn. Un-

IIA+112 = ar~A)' like in the previous sections, a perturbation 8A in A af-

fects both the eigenvalue A and its corresponding eigen-
ai(A) - al(8A) ::::: ai(A + 8A) ::::: ai(A) + ai(8A), vector x. One of the earliest a priori bounds for I). - AI,
i = 1, ... ,r, where)' is the eigenvalue of A + 8A, is the Bauer-Fike
theorem [1]. It states that the eigenvalues of A + 8A lie
with al ~ ... ~ a r the singular values of A. P. Wedin
in the union of the discs
also showed that for any A and 8A,
Mi = {z: Iz - Ail::::: IIT- l IIIITIII18AII}, (23)
(18) i = 1, ... ,n,
where J-l has tabulated values for various cases of where T is the modal matrix of A (T- l AT = A) as-
rank(A) in relation to m and n. It therefore follows that suming A to be non-defective. The bound follows upon
the bound for the relative error in A + is given by noticing that since

II(A + 8A)+ - A+II <

k(A) IIMI12
IIAI12 ).1 - A - 8A = ().1 - A) [I - ().1 - A)-18A]
(19)
IIA+112 -J-l1_k(A)~'
IIAI12 is singular, one has 11()'1 - A)-18AII > 1. Writing
where k(A) = IIA11211A+112 is the spectral condition num- ().1 - A)-l = T()'1 - A)-IT-I,
ber, which measures the sensitivity of A+ to acute per-
one finds that
turbations in A. To obtain a bound for 118xll/llxli one
starts with x + 8x = (A + 8A)+(b + 8b) to find that 1 ::::: IIT()'1 - A)-lT- 18AII :::::
8x= [(A+8A)+-A+]b+(A+8A)+8b. (20)
::::: IITII liT-III 118AII . ~ ,
Using a decomposition theorem [13] for (A+8A)+ -A+, mIni IA - Ail
one finds that [8] which implies (23). The condition number to the prob-
lem is therefore of the order of k(T) = IITIIIIT-lil. In-
l:f:rI~2 : : : k [(2 + 17k)a + (J,] , (21) deed, if the above discs are isolated, then mini I). - Ai I =
18Ail and 18Ail ::::: k(T)118AII. However, unless A is a nor-
where
mal matrix (11T112 = IIT- 1 11 2 = 1), the bound in (23) is
known to yield pessimistic results. A more realistic cri-
terion can be obtained. As 1- ().1 - A)-18A is singular,
then for a vector z =I- 0,

z::::: I().1 - A)-11IT- 1 118AIITll z l ,

Note that the error is dominated by k2 (A), unlike the
bound in (19), which is dominated by k(A) only. For implying that [3]
the special case rank(A) = n < m the above expression
becomes k[(l + 17k)a + (J,]. For rank(A) = m < n it
min I). - Ail::::: p(IT- 1118AIITI), (24)

becomes k(2a + (J). Finally, for rank(A) = m = n it
reduces to k(a + (J), which is the situation of the previ-
ous section. It should be noted that the above bounds
are valid for acute perturbations and that the situation
worsens if 8A increases the rank of A, in which case the
accuracy of A + deteriorates further as
Again one can follow an iterative scheme of refinement
similar to the one mentioned in the previous section to
improve on A +. It runs as follows for the full rank situ-
ation:
a) R = AT - AT AB;
b) 8A+ = -BBT R;
which is tighter than (23) for non-normal matrices.
Moreover, (24) is scale-invariant under the transforma-
tion A = DBD- l , where D is diagonal.
Both the Bauer-Fike bound and the above are valid
for the whole spectrum; thus, a group of ill-conditioned
eigenvalues affects the bound for the well-conditioned
ones. This led Wilkinson to introduce his II Si factors,
measuring the sensitivity of the ith eigenvalue alone.
From first-order perturbation theory one finds, [4],
(25)
where xi and yi' are the eigenvector and eigenrow asso-
ciated with a simple Ai. So, normalizing both of them,
1/1 y i' xii becomes the Wilkinson factor and is equal

3
A PRIORI AND A POSTERIORI BOUNDS IN MATRIX COMPUTATIONS

to IJAi IIIIJAII· However, for a big IIJAII (25) does not A, has a Puiseux expansion (cf. Puiseux series) in f in
bound the true shift in Ai. For this one uses a second powers of 11m, where m is the multiplicity of A, namely
Bauer~Fike theorem: If [4],
u
S:A <-mm
1 . IAi - Ak I
. ,X, = A + fIlm Al + f2/m A2 + ... . (31)
- n k#i IIEil1 + IIEkll·
For an eigenvalue with index r (the index is the size of
where Ei is the eigenprojection of A (i.e., Ei = xiyi*), the largest Jordan block) a bound for the shift in A is
then [1] given by [5]
IJAi I < IIEi IIIIJAII
- 1 _ IIJAII '" . IIEi II +IIEk II
.
(26)
min I,X, - Ai I ::; max{r7f;, rl/r 7f;l/r}. (32)
L.k#, IAi~Akl
Other bounds. Modifications of the above cases are
It follows that II Ei II represents the sensitivity of Ai to often encountered. For instance, the Sylvester equation
changes in A. One can also show that [5]
AX +XB =C (33)
Ilxi - xi II 7f;
<
"'----c-----:-:-:---"- (2 7) and its special case B = AT, famous in control theory,
Ilxili - minj#i IAi - Ajl - 27f;'
can be transformed to the case of the first section by
where 7f; bounds the shifts in the eigenvalues. So,
considering
the shift in xi is dependent on the separation of the
ith eigenvalue from the nearest Aj. Therefore, a ma- (A (9 I + 1(9 BT) vec(X) = vec(C), (34)
trix A has an ill-conditioned eigenvalue problem if
and a relative perturbation f in A, B, C yields X with
min#i IAi - Aj I < 27f; or if the discs containing 'x'i'
an error [6]
i = 1, ... ,n, intersect as a result of poor separation.
To obtain an a posteriori bound for the error in _IIJ_X_II < f . k(A, B)
IIXII - -l---f-',' k:--:('--:-A--':B=)'
:, (35)
A in terms of the residual one forms r = Ax - ,X,x.
where (,\, x) is an approximate elgenpalr. Then x = where k(A, B) is the condition number for the problem.
T(A - 'x'I)~lT~lr, implying Also, transforming the eigenvalue problem
(AnAn + An~lAn~l + ... + Ao)x = 0, (36)
Ilxll ::; IITIIIIT~lllllrll . ~ ,
mmi IA - Ail in which Ai E Rnxn, i = 0, ... ,n -1, into a generalized
and [14] eigenvalue problem Cu = ABu, where C is the com-
panion matrix for (36), while using the decomposition
(28) ('x'B - C)~l = P('x'I - A)~lQ, [4], one obtains [5]
For symmetric matrices k2(T) = 1; thus, these have well- ,X, - AI < IIPIIIIQII(IAIIIJBII + IIJClI) (37)
I
conditioned eigenproblems. For the non-symmetric case - 1 - IIPIIIIQIIIIJBII '
a powerful technique of H. Wielandt [4] can update x which generalizes (23).
by solving iteratively the linear equations Many bounds exist for various matrix functions, for
= x(i), instance [4]
(A - ,X,I)x(i+l) i = 1, ... ,n, (29)
Ile A +8A - eA II ::; k(T) . IIWII , (38)
where
and xCi) --+ x very rapidly.
To check the stability of the solution which satisfies Wij = [(e Ai - eAj)/(Ai - Aj)] (yi, JAxj).
(A + JA)x = 'x'x, i.e., Ax - ,X,X = -JAx, one uses the For a general matrix function F(A) approximated by
criterion another one G(A) it can be shown that [7]
(30) IIF(A) - G(A)II ::; (39)
which asserts that the system is backward stable and If(r)(Ai) - g(r)(Ai)1
::; k(T) max mi,
there exists a matrix JA = -ri;* Illxll~ such that (,\, x) l:S;r:S;m~l,l:S;i:S;p r!
is an exact eigenpair of A + JA. One can also con- where f and 9 are scalar functions applied to Ai in the
struct the backwards error in the form JA = -H· IAI . sense that if F(A) = e A , then f(A) = eA, where mi is the
diag(sgn(x;)), where Ihiil ::; machine eps, satisfying ex- size of the largest Jordan block associated with f(Ai),
actly (A + JA)x = 'x'x by letting r = H· IAI . Ixl. The and f(r)(A) is the r-th derivative of f(A).
above theory is valid for semi-simple eigenvalues only. References
The case when A is defective (cf. Defective value) [1] BAUER, F., AND FIKE, C.: 'Norms and exclusion theorems',
is more complicated, since ,X, , for a perturbation fAI in Numer. Math. 2 (1960), 137~141.

4

[2J DEIF, A.: Sensitivity analysis in linear systems, Springer,
1986.
[3J DEIF, A.: 'Realistic a priori and a posteriori bounds for com-
puted eigenvalues', IMA J. Numer. Anal. 9 (1990),323-329.
[4J DEIF, A.: Advanced matrix theory for scientists and engi-
neers, second ed., Gordon&Breach, 1991.
[5J DEIF, A.: 'Rigorous perturbation bounds for eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of a matrix', J. Comput. Appl. Math. 57 (1995),
403-412.
[6J DEIF, A., SElF, N., AND HUSSEIN, S.: 'Sylvester's equation:
accuracy and computational stability', J. Comput. Appl.
Math. 61 (1995), 1-11.
[7J GOLUB, G., AND LOAN, C. VAN: Matrix computations, John
Hopkins Univ. Press, 1983.
[8J LAWSON, C., AND HANSON, R.: Solving least-squares prob-
lems, Prentice-Hall, 1974.
[9J OETTLI, W., AND PRAGER, W.: 'Compatibility of approxi-
mate solution of linear equations with given error bounds for
coefficients and right hand sides', Numer. Math. 6 (1964),
405-409.
[10J SKEEL, R.: 'Scaling for numerical stability in Gaussian elim-
ination', J. Assoc. Comput. Mach. 26 (1979),494-526.
[11J STEWART, G.: Introduction to matrix computations, Acad.
Press, 1973.
[12J STEWART, G., AND SUN, J.: Matrix perturbation theory, Acad.
Press, 1990.
[13J WEDIN, P.: 'Perturbation theory for pseudo-inverses', BIT
13 (1973), 217-232.
[14J WILKINSON, J.: The algebraic eigenvalue problem, Clarendon
Press, 1965.
A.S. Dei!
MSC 1991: 65Fxx
ABELIAN DIFFERENCE SET - Let G be a group
of order v and D <;;: G with IDI = k. Then D is called a
(v, k, A)-difference set of order n = k-A in G if every el-
ement 9 i- 1 in G has exactly A different representations
9 = d·d'-l with d,d' E D, see [1]. For instance, {1,2,4}
is a (7,3, 1)-difference set in the cyclic group of order 7.
If G is Abelian (cyclic, non-Abelian), the difference set is
called Abelian (cyclic, non-Abelian). Two difference sets
Dl and D2 in G are equivalent if there is a group au-
tomorphism cp such that cp(Dr) = D 2g. The existence
of a (v, k, A)-difference set is equivalent to the existence
of a symmetric (v, k, A)-design with G acting as a reg-
ular automorphism group (cf. also Difference set). If
two difference sets correspond to isomorphic designs, the
difference sets are called isomorphic. Given certain pa-
rameters v, k and A and a group G, the problem is to
construct a difference set with those parameters or prove
non-existence. To prove non-existence of Abelian differ-
ence sets, results from algebraic number theory are
required: The existence of the difference set implies the
existence of an algebraic integer of absolute value n in
some cyclotomic field. In several cases one can prove
that no such element exists, see [5]. Another approach
for non-existence results uses multipliers: A multiplier
of an Abelian difference set in G is an automorphism cp
ABELIAN NUMBER FIELD
of G such that cp(D) = Dg. A statement that certain
group automorphisms have to be multipliers of putative
difference sets is called a multiplier theorem. It is known,
for instance, that the mapping 9 1-7 gt is a multiplier of
an Abelian difference set provided that: i) t divides the
order n; ii) t is relatively prime to v; and iii) t > A.
Several generalizations of this theorem are known, see
[1].
On the existence side, some families of Abelian dif-
ference sets are known, see [3].
Examples. The most popular examples are as follows.
d+ ' I d 1 d- 1 1 )
• Cyclic ( q q_~ , qq-=-l ' q q_~ -difference sets, q a
prime power. The classical construction of these dif-
ference sets (elements in the multiplicative group of
GF(qd+l) whose trace is 0) corresponds to the classi-
cal point-hyperplane designs of a finite projective space.
For non-equivalent cyclic examples with the same pa-
rameters, see [5].
• Quadratic residues in GF(q), q == 3 (mod 4) (Pa-
ley difference sets). Some other cyclotomic classes yield
difference sets too, see [1].
• (4m 2 ,2m 2 - m, m 2 - m)-difference sets, m =
2a 3 b u 2 , where u is a product of odd prime numbers
(Hadamard difference sets, [2]). If m = 2a , it is known
that an Abelian Hadamard difference set exists if and
only if the exponent of G is at most 2a +2 , see [4].
• (4 m
2n. m2n_l
m2_1,m m+l
1)
2n-l. (2(m 2n _l) +
'
( m2n _ m 2n - 1 m 2n - 1
+l)_difference sets where m =
).
m+l '
q2 (q an odd prime power) or m = 3t or m = 2 (gener-
alized Hadamard difference sets, [2]).
• (qd+l (1 + qd+l_
q-l'
1) qd. qd+l_ 1 qd. qd_ 1 )_
q-l' q-l
difference sets, q a prime power (McFarland difference
sets) .
References
[lJ BETH, T., JUNGNICKEL, D., AND LENZ, H.: Design theory,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986.
[2J CHEN, Y.Q.: 'On the existence of abelian Hadamard differ-
ence sets and generalized Hadamard difference sets', Finite
Fields and Appl. (to appear).
[3J JUNGNICKEL, D., AND POTT, A.: 'Difference sets: Abelian', in
CH.J. COLBOURN AND J.H. DINITZ (eds.): CRC Handbook of
Combinatorial Designs, CRC Press, 1996, pp. 297-307.
[4J KRAEMER, R.G.: 'Proof of a conjecture on Hadamard 2-
groups', J. Combinatorial Th. A 63 (1993), 1-10.
[5J POTT, A.: Finite geometry and character theory, Vol. 1601
of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1995.
A. Patt
MSC 1991: 05B10, llB13, 20K01
ABELIAN NUMBER FIELD - An Abelian extension
of the field of rational numbers Q, i.e. a Galois exten-
sion K of Q such that the Galois group Gal(K \ Q)
is Abelian. See Class field theory; Extension of a
field; Galois group.
5
ABELIAN NUMBER FIELD
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: llR20
ABELIAN SURFACE - An Abelian variety of di-
mension two, i.e. a complete connected group variety of
dimension two over a field k. The group law is commu-
tative. In the sequel, k is assumed to be algebraically
closed (cf. Algebraically closed field).
In the classification of algebraic surfaces, Abelian sur-
faces are exactly the smooth complete surfaces A with
Kodaira dimension ", = 0, geometric genus Pg =
h 2(A,OA) = 1 and irregularity q = hl(A,OA) = 2.
For an Abelian surface A, the dual Abelian variety
..4 = Pico(A) is again an Abelian surface. An invertible
sheaf L on A defines the homomorphism (PL: A --+ ..4,
a t--t t~ L ® L -1. The homomorphism (PL depends only on
the algebraic equivalence class of L. The invertible sheaf
L is ample (cf. Ample sheaf) if and only if <P L is an
isogeny (i.e., <PL is surjective and has finite kernel) and
hO(A,L) -I- O. In this case, deg<pL = d2 with a positive
integer d and the Riemann-Roch theorem says that
hO(A, L) = ~(L2) = d,
where (L2) denotes the self-intersection number. Every
Abelian surface admits an ample invertible sheaf and
hence is projective (cf. Projective scheme).
A polarization A on A is the algebraic equivalence
class [L] of an ample invertible sheaf L. The degree deg A
of A is by definition d = v'deg <PL. An Abelian surface
A together with a polarization A is a polarized Abelian
surface. A principal polarization is a polarization of de-
gree 1. A principally polarized Abelian surface (A, A) is
either the Jacobi variety J(H) of a smooth projective
curve H of genus 2, and A = 0 is the class of the theta di-
visor, or A is the product of two elliptic curves (Abelian
varieties of dimension one, cf. also Elliptic curve) with
A the product polarization.
If the degree of A = [L] is prime to char (k), then A is
said to be a separable polarization and the kernel of <P L
is isomorphic to the group (Zjdl Z)2 x (Zjd 2Z)2, where
d l and d 2 are positive integers such that d l divides d 2
and d l d 2 = deg A. The pair (d l , d 2 ) is the type of the
polarized Abelian surface (A, A).
A polarization A = [L] of type (dl , d2 ) on A defines
a polarization X= [L] on the dual Abelian surface A.
The polarization Xis again of type (db d 2 ) and it is
characterized by each of the following two equivalent
properties:
<Pi.X = dl d2 A {::=} <Pf,<PL = dl d2 idA.
For a polarized Abelian surface (A, A = [L]) of
type (d l ,d2 ), the assignment A 3 a t--t {u E
HO(A, L): u(a) = O} c HO(A, L) defines a rational
6
mapping from A into the projective space of hyperplanes
in HO(A,L):
CPL: A --+ P(Ho(A, L)*) ~ p~ld2-l.
If d l ~ 2, then cP L is everywhere defined. The Lefschetz
theorem says that for d l ~ 3 the morphism cP L is an
embedding. Suppose d l = 2; then A = 2p, with a polar-
ization p, = [M] of type (1, d2 j2). If the linear system
IMI has no fixed components, then CPL is an embedding.
Complex Abelian surfaces. An Abelian surface over
the field C of complex numbers is a complex torus
(with a lattice A ~ Z4 in C 2 ) admitting a polariza-
tion. A polarization A on A can be considered as a non-
degenerate alternating form A x A --+ Z, the elementary
divisors of which are given by the type (d l , d2 ) of A.
In the sequel, the field k is assumed to be C, although
some of the following results are also valid for arbitrary
algebraically closed fields.
Suppose (A, A = [L]) is of type (1, d) and the linear
system ILl has no fixed components. The Reider theo-
rem states that for d ~ 5 the invertible sheaf L is very
ample if and only if there is no elliptic curve E on A
with (E· L) = 2 (see [14] and [8]). For arbitrary d ~ 1
there exist finitely many isogenies f: (A, A) --+ (B,O)
of degree d onto principally polarized Abelian surfaces
(cf. also Isogeny). Suppose 0 = [8] with a symmet-
ric invertible sheaf 8 (i.e., (-1)'A8 ~ 8) and let H be
the unique divisor in the linear system 181. The divi-
sor C = f- l (H) on A defines a symmetric invertible
sheaf L = 0 A (C) with class [L] = A and the covering
fie: C -+ H is etale of degree d. One distinguishes two
cases: i) H is smooth of genus 2, B = J(H) and C is
smooth of genus d+ 1; and ii) H is the sum El +E2 of two
elliptic curves with intersection number (El . E 2) = 1,
B = El X E2 and C is the sum Fl + F2 of two elliptic
curves with (Fl' F 2 ) = d.
In the following list, (A, A = [L]) is a polarized
Abelian surface of type (db d 2 ) such that ILl admits
no fixed components
Type (1,2)) The linear system ILl has exactly 4 base
points. The blow-up A of A in these points admits a
morphism /PL: A -+ p l induced by CPL. The general fi-
bre of /PL is a smooth curve of genus 3. The curve C on
A defining L as above is double elliptic: C ~ E with
an elliptic curve E, and A is isomorphic to J(C)jE (see
[3]).
Type (1,3)) L defines a 6-fold covering CPL: A --+ p2
ramified along a curve R C p 2 of degree 18. The gen-
eral divisor in the linear system ILl is a smooth curve
of genus 4. There are 4 isogenies f: (A, A) -+ (B, 0) of
degree 3 onto principally polarized Abelian surfaces. In

case i) the smooth genus-4 curve CElLI is double ellip-
tic: C ~ E, and the embedding of E into the Jacobian
J( C) induces an exact sequence
o ---t E x E --+ J(C) --+ A --+ O.
The etale 3-fold covering fie: C --+ H induces a
morphism f*: J(H) --+ J(C) with image .4, the dual
Abelian surface of A (see [6]).
Type (1,4)) There are 24 isogenies f: (A, >.) --+ (B,8)
of degree 4 onto principally polarized Abelian surfaces.
If the curves C and H do not admit elliptic involutions
compatible with f, then 'P L : A ---» "if C p3 is a bira-
tional morphism onto a singular octic A. In the excep-
tional case, 'P L: A ---» "if C p3 is a double covering of
a singular quartic "if, which is birational to an elliptic
scroll. In the first case the octic "if is smooth outside the
four coordinate planes of p3 and touches the coordinate
planes in curves D i , i = 1, ... ,4, of degree 4. Each of
the curves Di has 3 double points and passes through
12 pinch points of A. The octic is a 8 : 1 covering of
a Kummer surface: p: "if ---» K C p3 (see also Type
(2,2) below). The restrictions plDi are 4-fold coverings
of four double conics of K lying on a coordinate tetra-
hedron. The three double points of Di map to three
double points of K on the conic p(Di) and the 12 pinch
points on Di map to the other three double points on
the double conic p(Di) (see [7]).
Type (1,5)) The invertible sheaf L is very ample, i.e.
'P L: A --+ p4 is an embedding if and only if the curves
C and H do not admit elliptic involutions compatible
with f. In the exceptional case 'P L is a double covering
of an elliptic scroll (see [13] and [10]). If L is very ample,
'P L (A) is a smooth surface of degree 10 in p4. It is the
zero locus of a section of the Horrocks-Mumford bundle
F (see [9]). Conversely, the zero set {(J = O} C p4 of a
general section (J E HO (p4, F) is an Abelian surface of
degree 10, i.e. of type (1,5).
Type (2,2)) >. is twice a principal polarization on A.
The morphism 'PL: A ---» KA C p3 is a double covering
of the Kummer surface KA associated with A. It is
isomorphic to A/( -1)A.
Type (2,4)) The ideal sheaf I A / P 7 of the image of the
embedding 'PL: A'--t p7 is generated by 6 quadrics (see
[3]).
Type (2,6)) Suppose L is very ample and let KA =
A/( -1)A be the associated Kummer surface. The sub-
vector space HO(A, L)- ~ HO(A, L) of odd sections in-
duces an embedding of KA, the blow-up of KA in the
16 double points, as a smooth quartic surface into p3.
KA C p3 is invariant under the action of the level-
2 Heisenberg group (cf. also Heisenberg representa-
tion) H(2,2). The 16 blown-up double points become
skew lines on the quartic surface. Any H(2, 2)-invariant
ABELIAN SURFACE
quartic surface in p3 with 16 skew lines comes from a
polarized Abelian surface (A, >.) of type (2, 6) in this way
(see [5], [11] and [12]).
Type (3,3)) >. is three times a principal polarization
and 'PL: A '--t p8 is an embedding. If (A, >.) is not a
product, then the quadrics Q E HO(p8,IA/ p s(2)) van-
ishing on A generate the ideal sheaf IA/ps. In the prod-
uct case, IA/ps is generated by quadrics and cubics (see
[4]).
Algebraic completely integrable systems. An al-
gebraic completely integrable system in the sense of
M. Adler and P. van Moerbeke is a completely inte-
grable polynomial Hamiltonian system on eN (with
Casimir functions HI,'" ,Hk : eN --+ e and m = (N-
k)/2 independent constants of motion Hk+l,'" ,Hk+m
in involution) such that:
a) for a general point c = t (CI , ... ,Ck+m) E k+m e
the invariant manifold A~ = n~1:k{Hi = Ci} c eN is
an open affine part of an Abelian variety Ac;
b) the flows of the integrable vector fields X Ui lin-
earize on the Abelian varieties Ac [2].
The divisor at infinity Dc = Ac - A~ defines
a polarization on Ac. In this way the mapping
(H b ... ,Hk+m): eN --+ e k+m defines a family of po-
larized Abelian varieties (cf. Moduli problem). Some
examples of 2-dimensional algebraic completely inte-
grable systems and their associated Abelian surfaces are:
• the three-body Toda lattice and the even, respec-
tively odd, master systems (cf. also Master equations
in cooperative and social phenomena) linearize on
principally polarized Abelian surfaces;
• the Kowalewski top, the Henon-Heiles system
and the Manakov geodesic flow on SO( 4) linearize on
Abelian surfaces of type (1,2) [1];
• the Garnier system linearizes on Abelian surfaces
of type (1,4) [15].
References
[1] ADLER, M., AND MOERBEKE, P. VAN: 'The Kowalewski and
Henon-Heiles motions as Manakov geodesic flows on SO(4):
a two-dimensional family of Lax pairs', Comm. Math. Phys.
113 (1988), 659-700.
[2] ADLER, M., AND MOERBEKE, P. VAN: 'The complex geome-
try of the Kowalewski-Painleve analysis', Invent. Math. 97
(1989), 3-51.
[3] BARTH, W.: 'Abelian surfaces with (1, 2)-polarization': Alge-
bmic Geometry, Sendai, 1985, Vol. 10 of Advanced Studies
in Pure Math., 1987, pp. 41-84.
[4] BARTH, W.: 'Quadratic equations for level-3 abelian sur-
faces': Abelian Varieties, Proc. Workshop Egloffstein 1993,
de Gruyter, 1995, pp. 1-18.
[5] BARTH, W., AND NIETO, I.: 'Abelian surfaces of type (1,3)
and quartic surfaces with 16 skew lines', J. Algebmic Geom-
etry 3 (1994), 173-222.
7
ABELIAN SURFACE
[6] BIRKENHAKE, CH., AND LANGE, H.: 'Moduli spaces of Abelian
surfaces wih isogeny': Geometry and Analysis, Bombay Col-
loquium 1992, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1995,
pp. 225-243.
l7J BIRKENHAKE, CH., LANGE, H., AND STRATEN, D. VAN:
'Abelian surfaces of type (1,4)', Math. Ann. 285 (1989),625-
646.
[8] H. LANGE, CH. BIRKENHAKE: Complex Abelian varieties,
Vol. 302 of Grundlehren, Springer, 1992.
[9] HORROCKS, G., AND MUMFORD, D.: 'A rank 2 vector bundle
on p4 with 15000 symmetries', Topol09Y 12 (1973),63-81.
[10] HULEK, K., AND LANGE, H.: 'Examples of abelian surfaces in
p4" J. Reine Angew. Math. 363 (1985),200-216.
[11] NARUKI, I.: 'On smooth quartic embeddings of Kummer sur-
faces', Pmc. Japan Acad. 67 A (1991), 223-224.
[12] NIKULIN, V. V.: 'On Kummer surfaces', Math USSR-Izv. 9
(1975),261-275. (Translated from the Russian.)
[13] RAMANAN, 5.: 'Ample divisors on abelian surfaces',
Pmc. London Math. Soc. 51 (1985),231-245.
[14] REIDER, I.: 'Vector bundles of rank 2 and linear systems on
algebraic surfaces', Ann. of Math. 127 (1988), 309-316.
[15] VANHAECKE, P.: 'A special case of the Garnier system, (1,4)-
polarized Abelian surfaces and their moduli', Compositio
Math. 92 (1994), 157-203.
Ch. Birkenhake
MSC 1991: 14Kxx, 58F07
ABSOLUTE CESARO SUMMABILITY - A se-
quence or series is said to be absolutely summable by
a given matrix summation method if the sequence
or series obtained by the transformation involved is ab-
solutely convergent. See Absolute summability.
Thus, one has absolute Cesaro summability, absolute
Euler summability, absolute Norlund summability, ab-
solute Riesz summability, absolute Voronoi' summability
(which is the same as absolute N6rlund summability),
and, more generally, absolute matrix summability.
See also Cesaro summation methods; Riesz
summation method; Summation methods;
Voronol summation method; Matrix summation
method.
References
[1] MOORE, C.H.: Summable series and convergence factors,
Dover, reprint, 1966.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 40Cxx
ABSOLUTE REGULARITY of stochastic processes
and fields - Mixing is a structural property of the prob-
ability law of a family of dependent random variables
(e.g., stochastic processes or fields; cf. Stochastic pro-
cess; Random field) which describes the degree of
(weak) dependence between subfamilies of random vari-
ables defined on distant parts of the index set. First, to
avoid confusion, one has to distinguish between mixing
properties of invariant (not necessarily finite or prob-
ability) measures used in ergodic theory and mixing
conditions in probability theory based on appropriate
8
mixing coefficients measuring the dependence between
a-algebras generated by random variables on disjoint in-
dex subsets. An essential feature of these coefficients is,
in contrast to ergodic theory, that they provide uniform
bounds of dependence over all events of the a-algebras;
see [2] for a survey. This is the main difficulty in ver-
ifying a specific mixing condition of a given stochastic
process. On the other hand, this uniformity is the key
to proving bounds of the covariances in terms of the
mixing coefficient and the moments of the marginal dis-
tributions. In turn, from these covariance estimates one
can obtain central limit theorems, other weak and strong
limit theorems for sums of random variables, functional
limit theorems, etc.
An important, and in many situations quite natu-
ral, measure of dependence between two arbitrary sub-a-
fields A, B c F is the absolute regularity (or fl -mixing
or weak Bernoulli) coefficient
fleA, B) = E sup IP(B I A) - P(B)I ,
BEB
which was first studied by V.A. Volkonski'i and Yu.A.
Rozanov [6], who attributed this measure of dependence
to A.N. Kolmogorov. As has been shown in [6], fleA, B)
can be described in a different way. Let P A<8IB be the
restriction to the product-a-field A 0 B of the mea-
sure on n x n induced by P and the diagonal mapping
w ~ (w,w), and let PA, PB denote, respectively, the
restrictions to A and B of P. Then
fleA, B) = sup IP A<8IB(C) - (PAX PB)(C)I =
CEA<8IB
1
= "2 sup L L
I J
IP(A i n B j ) - P(Ai)P(Bj)1 ,
i=l j=l
where the supremum is taken over all pairs of finite par-
titions {AI"" ,Ad and {B l , ... ,BJ } of n such that
Ai E A, i = 1, ... ,1, and B j E B, j = 1, ... ,J. Ab-
solute regularity of a stochastic process {Xt : t E Zl} is
then defined by lims-tCXl flx(s) = 0, where
flx(s) = supfl(a {Xu: u ~ t}, a {Xu: u ~ t + x}).
t
Here, a{ Xu: u E I} denotes the a-algebra generated by
the random variables between the braces. Note that fl-
mixing is one of the weakest mixing conditions, but is
indeed slightly stronger than a-mixing; see [1] and ref-
erences therein. There are a lot of examples of fl-mixing
random processes in discrete and continuous time; see
[1], [2]. Further examples are renewal processes (see [3]
and Renewal theory), and solutions of stochastic dif-
ferential equations (see [5] and Stochastic differential
equation). Various versions of the central limit the-
orem for fl-mixing random variables were proved under
 ABSORBING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

a certain rate of decay of (3x (s) as s --+ 00 and the exis- 00) if there is a constant c 2: 0 such that
tence of EIXt I2 +8 for some J > 0, see [7J. Roughly speak-
ing, the asymptotic theory of {3-mixing random variables
is quite similar to that of a-mixing random variables.
It should be mentioned that absolute regularity of
random fields {Xz: z E Zd} (like other strong mix-
ing properties) is very distinct from absolute regularity
of random processes, see [2J. It is not adequate to re-
quire that the {3-mixing coefficient tends to zero when
whenever Xl, ... ,X n E X and n = 1,2, .... Here, (Xk, a)
two half-spaces of index sets are separated by a dis-
denotes the value of the linear functional a E X' (the
tance tending to infinity. This is only the case for m-
Banach dual of X, cf. Adjoint space) at the element
dependent fields (cf. m-dependent process). At least
X k EX. The set of such operators, denoted by IIp (X, Y),
one of the index sets must be bounded and the content of
becomes a Banach space under the norm 7r p (T) = inf c,
its boundary is important in order to derive limit theo-
and IIp = Ux,yllp(X, Y) is a Banach operator ideal. If
rems for random fields. A central limit theorem is proved
1 ::::; p < q < 00, then IIp C llq.
in [4J. There are many examples of spacial random struc-
The prototype of an absolutely p-summing operator
tures in stochastic geometry, such as point processes,
is the canonical mapping Id: C(K) --+ Lp(K, p,), where
germ-grain models, or random tesselations, which could
p, is a Borel measure on a compact Hausdorff space
be shown to be {3-mixing. In other words, for random
K. In this case, 7rp (Id: C(K) --+ Lp(K,p,)) = p,(K)l/p.
fields associated with such random sets, sharp bounds
The famous Grothendieck theorem says that all oper-
of the corresponding (3-mixing coefficients are available,
ators from Ll (K, p,) into any Hilbert space are abso-
see [4J.
lutely I-summing.
References Absolutely p-summing operators are weakly compact
[1] BRADLEY, R.C.: 'Basic properties of strong mixing condi- but may fail to be compact (cf. also Compact opera-
tions', in E. EBERLEIN AND M.S. TAQQU (eds.): Dependence tor). For a Hilbert space H it turns out that IIp(H, H) is
in Probability and Statistics, Birkhiiuser, 1986, pp. 165-192. just the set of Hilbert-Schmidt operators (cf. Hilbert-
[2] DOUKHAN, P.: Mixing, Vol. 85 of Lecture Notes in Statistics, Schmidt operator). Nuclear operators (cf. Nuclear
Springer, 1995.
operator) are absolutely p-summing. Conversely, the
[3] HEINRICH, L.: 'Bounds for the absolute regularity coefficient
of a stationary renewal process', Yokohama Math. J. 40 product of 2n absolutely p-summing operators is nu-
(1992), 25-33. clear, hence compact, if 2n 2: p. This implies that the
[4] HEINRICH, L.: 'Normal approximation for some mean-value identity mapping of a Banach space X is absolutely p-
estimates of absolutely regular tesselations', Methods Math. summing if and only if dim(X) < 00 (the Dvoretzky-
Statist. 3 (1994), 1-24.
Rogers theorem).
[5] VERETENNIKOV, A.Yu.: 'Bounds for the mixing rate in the
theory of stochastic equations', Th. Prob. Appl. 32 (1987), References
273-281. [1] DIESTEL, J., JARCHOW, H., AND TONGE, A.: Absolutely sum-
[6] VOLKONSKIl, V.A., AND ROZANOV, YU.A.: 'Some limit the- ming operators, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995.
orems for random functions 1', Th. Prob. Appl. 4 (1959), [2] JAMESON, G.J.O.: Summing and nuclear norms in Banach
178-197. space theory, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987.
[7] YOSHIHARA, K.-I.: 'Limiting behaviour of U-statistics for sta- [3] PIETSCH, A.: Operator ideals, North-Holland, 1980.
tionary absolutely regular processes', Z. Wahrscheinlichkeit-
sth. verw. Gebiete 35 (1976), 237-252. A. Pietsch
MSC 1991: 47BI0

ABSORBING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

L. Heinrich
Boundary procedures that are applied at the artifi-
cial numerical boundaries of a computational domain
to miminize or eliminate the spurious reflections at
MSC 1991: 60Fxx, 60Kxx, 60G60, 60D05, 60AlO,
these boundaries which occur in the simulations of wave
28Dxx
propagation phenomena. They may also be called non-
reflecting boundary conditions or radiating boundary
ABSOLUTELY SUMMING OPERATOR - A linear conditions. There are different ways to design appropri-
operator T acting from a Banach space X into a Ba- ate boundary procedures; below, only one approach is
nach space Y is called absolutely p-summing (1 ::::; p < considered. References to other procedures are given.

9
ABSORBING BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Suppose that the solution of the acoustic wave equa-
tion,
on an unbounded domain is desired. The solutions of this
equation are plane waves, u = u(x, y, t) = ei (wt+e x +1JY) ,
where w is the frequency and t; and TJ are the spatial
wave numbers, which travel in all directions. Compu-
tationally, the domain is of finite size and boundaries
are introduced. Therefore, waves incident at the bound-
ary will allow for non-physical reflections back into the
domain. These reflections are to be minimized. A tech-
nique that has proven successful is the application of
absorbing boundary conditions which have been derived
from approximations to a one-way wave equation at the
boundary [3], [5], [6], [9], [10].
For (1), a wave with wave numbers t;, TJ travels at the
velocity
(c x, c)
y
= c (-{
w' _1) =
w c(-cos8 " -sin8)
where 8 is the angle measured counterclockwise from
the negative x-axis; waves with 181 < 90 0 travel to the
left, C x < 0, and waves with 181 > 90 0 travel to the right,
C x > o. At an artificial numerical boundary x = 0, waves
should travel to the left, C x :::; 0, or, equivalently, t; and
ware of the same sign. However, solutions of (1) satisfy
the dispersion relation
w2 = c2 (e + TJ2),
and t; and ware related by
For the positive root, t; and ware of the same sign
and waves travel to the left only. Therefore, (3) with
the positive sign represents the dispersion relation for
the appropriate boundary condition. This dispersion re-
lation, however, corresponds to a pseudo-differential
operator. To obtain a partial differential equation for
waves which travel only to the left it is necessary to ap-
proximate the square root in (3). The resulting equation
is called a one-way wave equation. B. Engquist and A.
Majda [4] designed the paraxial one-way wave equations,
based on Pade approximation to v'"f=S2, s = TJc/w.
For simple Pade approximation, 1- (1/2)s2, the one-way
wave equation used as a boundary condition at x = 0 is
1 2
CUxt = Utt - "2c U YY .
A general reference on the derivation of one-way wave
equations using rational approximants r( s) is given in
[5]. E.L. Lindman [6] adopted a similar approach, which
yields a system of equations at the boundary that can
very easily be augmented to allow for approximations of
higher order.
10
The potential effectiveness of the one-way wave equa-
tion is measured by its reflection coefficient
(1) I ~I
R(s) = Ir(s) - vI - s21 ' s E [-1,1]. (4)
r(s) + v'"f=S2
For minimal reflection R( s) « 1 is desirable. The imple-
mentation of the boundary condition cannot ensure that
the reflection is minimal unless an appropriate numer-
ical approximation can be determined. In particular, a
stable finite difference approximation to the one-way
wave equation is also required (cf. also Stability; Dif-
ference scheme). R.A. Renaut [10] provides a stan-
dard approach by which the differential equation at the
boundary can be discretized and gives a stable imple-
mentation. Numerical implementations for the solution
of the acoustic wave equation and the reflection coeffi-
cients are studied in [10]. For electromagnetics the stan-
dard approach uses the Mur boundary conditions, [7].
In [12] high-order boundary conditions are tested for
the numerical solution of the Maxwell equations.
Finite-difference solutions of partial differential equa-
tions are usually local in space because only a few grid
points on the computational grid are employed to derive
approximations to the underlying partial derivatives in
the equation. To obtain more accurate solutions either
higher-order approximations can be derived or global
(2) solution techniques can be considered. The higher-order
finite-difference approximations tend to make the de-
sign of boundary conditions more difficult because grid
points near the boundary are not automatically defined.
(3)
To absorb incident waves at the computational bound-
ary one approach uses a damping region. In this case
the computational domain is increased in size but the
solution is accepted only on the smaller domain. Within
the damping region the wave is progressively damped
to zero, [11]. The method is successful but suffers from
the disadvantage of a computational overhead induced
by the damping region, which is considerable for three
dimensions.
Global approximations for partial differential equa-
tions as in pseudo-spectral methods are increasingly pop-
ular. Pseudo-spectral methods use global interpolation
to approximate the unknown function and its deriva-
tives on the computational domain. Implementation of
boundary operators is not immediate, although damp-
ing regions have been used successfully, [2]. Recently, ab-
sorbing boundary conditions derived from the one-way
wave equations have also been successfully implemented
for pseudo-spectral methods, [8].
The perfectly matched layer introduced by J.P.
Berenger, [1], for Maxwell's equations involves the ap-
plication of a non-physical absorbing material adjacent

to the computational boundary. The method is imple-
mented by splitting certain field components in the per-
fectly matched layer region into subcomponents which
can be perfectly absorbed by the perfectly matched layer
material. Numerical tests report that this approach is
superior to the use of one-way wave equations for elec-
tromagnetics.
References
[1] BERENGER, J.P.: 'A perfectly matched layer for the absorp-
tion of electromagnetic waves', J. Compo Phys. 114 (1994),
185-200.
[2] CERJAN, C., KOSLOFF, D., KOSLOFF, R., AND RESHEF, M.: 'A
non-reflecting boundary condition for discrete acoustic and
elastic wave equations', Geophysics 50 (1985), 705-708.
[3] CLAYTON, R.W., AND ENGQUIST, B.: 'Absorbing boundary
conditions for acoustic and elastic wave equations', Bull. Seis.
Soc. Amer. 67 (1977), 1529-1540.
[4] ENGQUIST, B., AND MAJDA, A.: 'Radiation boundary condi-
tions for acoustic and elastic wave calculations', ClJmm. Pure
Appl. Math. 32 (1979), 313-357.
[5] HALPERN, L., AND TREFETHEN, L.N.: 'Wide-angle one-way
wave equations', J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 84 (1988), 1397-1404.
[6] LINDMAN, E.L.: 'Free space boundary conditions for the time
dependent wave equation', J. Compo Phys. 18 (1975),66-78.
[7] MUR, G.: 'Absorbing boundary conditions for the finite-
difference approximation of the time-domain electromag-
netic field equations', IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 23
(1981), 377-382.
[8] RENAUT, R.A., AND FROHLICH, J.: 'A pseudospectral Cheby-
chev method for the 2D wave equation with domain stetching
and absorbing boundary conditions', J. Compo Physics 124
(1996), 324-336.
[9] RENAUT, R.A., AND PETERSON, J.: 'Stability of wide-angle
absorbing boundary conditions for the wave equation', Geo-
physics 54 (1989), 1153-1163.
[10] RENAUT, R. A.: 'Absorbing boundary conditions, difference
operators and stability', J. Camp. Phys. 102 (1992), 236-
25l.
[11] REYNOLDS, A.C.: 'Boundary conditions for the numerical so-
lution of wave propagation problems', Geophysics 43 (1978),
1099-1110.
[12] TIRKAS, P.A., BALANIS, C.A., AND RENAUT, R.A.: 'Higher
order absorbing boundary conditions for the finite-difference
time-domain method', IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propaga-
tion 40, no. 10 (1992), 1215-1222.
R.A. Renaut
MSC 1991: 65M05, 65MlO, 86-08
ABSTRACT ALGEBRA - Basically the same as al-
gebra. The phrase frequently occurs in the title of gen-
eral texts on modules, rings, fields, vector spaces, etc.
MSC 1991: OOAxx
ABSTRACT APPROXIMATION THEORY
Classical approximation theory deals with the ap-
proximation of real-valued functions defined on real
intervals by certain basic functions like ordinary or
trigonometric polynomials (cf. also Trigonometric
polynomial), splines (see Spline approximation),
ABSTRACT APPROXIMATION THEORY
etc. An approximation may be obtained through coinci-
dence on a given subset of the domain (interpolation
and trigonometric interpolation) or through more
general constructive or non-constructive methods. The
quality of an approximation is usually evaluated by a
measure for the deviation of two functions (see Ap-
proximation of functions, measure of). These ap-
proaches may be suitably transferred to more general
settings.
Interpolation. A general formulation of an interpola-
tion problem in normed spaces is due to L. Asimow [2].
Let K be a closed linear subspace in a normed linear
space L. Given a bounded closed convex neighbourhood
V of 0 in L and a bounded closed convex set U contain-
ing 0, their polars VO and UO in the adjoint space L'
of L (cf. also (the editorial comments to) Polar), one
defines on L the functionalspu(x) = sup{J.l(x): J.l E UO}
and PVK(X) = sup{J.l(x): J.l E VO nKO}. For Xo E Lone
looks for an element x E L satisfying:
1) x - Xo E K;
2a) pu(x) = PVK(XO) (exact solution); respectively,
2b) pu(x) -::; PVK(XO) + E (approximate solution).
In the classical situation, L stands for a space C(X)
of continuous functions on a compact space X endowed
with the supremum norm, and K for all functions van-
ishing on a compact subset Y of X. Further, U is the
class of functions used for the interpolation. Condition
1) means that x and Xo coincide on Y, whereas 2a) (re-
spectively, 2b)) impose further restrictions on the in-
terpolating element x. Classical results on this problem
include the Urysohn and Rudin-Carleson theorems for
function spaces. The general case requires technical con-
ditions involving the dual space of L.
Approximation by linear operators. Approxima-
tion schemes may often be modelled by sequences (or
generalized sequences) oflinear operators (see Approx-
imation of functions, linear methods). For a se-
quence (Tn)nEN of positive linear operators on C([O, 1]),
Korovkin's theorem [4] states that Tn(J) converges uni-
formly to f for every f E C([O, 1]) whenever Tn(g) con-
verges to g for the three test functions g = 1, x, x2
(cf. also Korovkin theorems). This result was sub-
sequently generalized to different sets of test functions
g and various topological spaces X replacing the in-
terval [0, 1] (cf. also Korovkin-type approximation
theory). Classical examples include the Bernstein op-
erators (see Bernstein polynomials) and the Fejer
sums (cf. also Fejer sum), which provide approximation
schemes by polynomials and trigonometric polynomials,
respectively. Further generalizations investigate the con-
vergence of certain classes of linear operators on vari-
ous domains, such as positive operators on topological
11
ABSTRACT APPROXIMATION THEORY
vector lattices, contractive operators on normed spaces,
multiplicative operators on Banach algebras, monotone
operators on set-valued functions, monotone operators
with certain restricting properties on spaces of stochas-
tic processes, etc. (cf. [1] for a recent survey). Typically,
for a subset M ofthe domain L, one defines the Korovkin
closure K (M) of M as the set of all elements f E L
such that To(f) -+ f whenever (To)oEA is an equicon-
tinuous generalized sequence (cf. Equicontinuity) in
the restricted class of operators such that To (g) -+ 9
holds for all gEM. The main problem is to describe
the Korovkin closure as explicitly as possible.
A very general setting allowing a unified approach to
most of the above-mentioned cases is given by locally
convex cones [3], structures that generalize locally con-
vex ordered vector spaces (cf. Locally convex space;
Semi-ordered space) in the sense that scalar multi-
plication is only defined for non-negative real numbers;
neither the existence of negatives nor the validity of the
cancellation law is required. In spite of their generality,
locally convex cones allow a rich duality theory, includ-
ing Hahn-Banach-type extension and separation theo-
rems for continuous linear functionals. Various restric-
tions on classes of linear operator may be taken care of
by proper choices for the domains and their topologies
alone, and Korovkin closures may be characterized in
terms of the dual cone.
A complete description of Korovkin closures is avail-
able for positive linear operators on weighted spaces
of continuous functions [5], [6]: Given a locally com-
pact space X and an upward-directed family W of non-
negative upper semi-continuous real-valued weight func-
tions on X, one considers the space Cw(X) of all con-
tinuous real-valued functions f on X such that wf van-
ishes at infinity for all w E W. Endowed with the semi-
norms Pw(f) = sup{lwf(x)l: x E X} (cf. Semi-norm),
Cw(X) is a locally convex space. (The case W = {I},
for example, leads to Cw(X) = Co(X) with the topol-
ogy of uniform convergence; if W consists of the char-
acteristic functions of all compact subsets of X, then
Cw(X) = C(X) with the topology of compact con-
vergence.) For a subset M of Cw(X), a function f is
contained in the Korovkin closure K(M) if and only if
for all x E X such that w(x) > 0 for some w E W
one (and therefore both) of the following two equivalent
conditions hold:
a)
f(x) =
sup inf {g(x): 9 E span(M), wf ::::: wg + to} =
f>O;wEW
= inf sup {g(x): 9 E span(M), wg ::::: wf + to};
f>O;wEW
12
b) for every finite positive regular Borel measure J.L
on X and every wE W, JwgdJ.L = g(x) for all gEM
implies J wf dJ.L = f(x).
If K(M) = Cw(X), then b) shows that the vector sub-
lattice generated by M is dense in Cw(X). In this way
the preceding criterion leads to versions of the classical
Stone-Weierstrass theorem.
References
[1] ALTOMARE, F., AND CAMPITI, M.: Korovkin-type approxima-
tion theory and its applications, W. de Gruyter, 1994.
[2] ASIMOW, L., AND ELLIS, A.J.: Convexity theory and its ap-
plications in functional analysis, Acad. Press, 1980.
[3] KEIMEL, K., AND ROTH, W.: Ordered cones and approxima-
tion, Vol. 1517 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1992.
[4] KOROVKIN, P.P.: Linear operators and approximation the-
ory, Vol. III of Russian Monographs and Texts on advanced
Math., Gordon&Breach, 1960.
[5] PROLLA, J .B.: Approximation of vector valued functions,
North-Holland, 1977.
[6] ROTH, W.: 'A Korovkin type theorem for weighted spaces of
continuous functions', Bull. Austral. Math. Soc. 55 (1997),
239-248.
K. Keimel
W. Roth
MSC 1991: 41A65, 41A35, 41A36
ABSTRACT FAMILY OF LANGUAGES - Specific
families of languages have emerged in the classical the-
ory of formal languages as important and widely stud-
ied ones. Among such families are the families of regu-
lar, context-free, context-sensitive and recursively enu-
merable languages. (See Formal languages and au-
tomata.) In the theory of abstract families of languages,
briefly AFL-theory, one investigates common properties
of language families whose only defining property is clo-
sure under certain operations (the AFL operations):
whenever one of the operations is applied to languages
in the family (only unary or binary operations are con-
sidered here), then the resulting language is also in the
family.
By definition, a family of languages is a set of lan-
guages possessing a non-empty language. The size of
the alphabet of the individual languages in the family
may grow beyond all bounds, but for every language L
in the family there must exist a finite alphabet VT such
that L is a language over VT. A family of languages is
called a cone if it is closed under homomorphism, in-
verse homomorphism and intersection with regular lan-
guages. A cone that is closed under union, catenation
and catenation closure is a full AFL. An AFL is a fam-
ily of languages closed under each of the following oper-
ations: A-free homomorphism, inverse homomorphism,
intersection with regular languages, union, catenation,
and A-free catenation closure.

So, the definitional (axiomatic) closure properties of
each of the three types of families are as follows (the
operation 'intersection with regular languages' is abbre-
viated by n Reg).
Cone: homomorphism, Inverse homomorphism,
nReg.
Full AFL: homomorphism, inverse homomorphism,
n Reg, union, catenation, catenation closure.
AFL: A-free homomorphism, inverse homomorphism,
n REG, union, catenation, A-free catenation closure.
For the definition of the various operations, see For-
mal languages and automata and AFL operations.
The operations defining a cone are exactly the ones
defining rational transductions. The operations defin-
ing a full AFL are the regular ones and rational trans-
duct ions , since the latter can be expressed in terms of
homomorphisms, inverse homomorphisms and n REG.
This choice of terminology is a compromise between the
original American (see [2] and [1]) and French (see [4])
schools. The term 'AFL' comes from the Americans, the
term 'cone' (depicting closure under rational transduc-
tions) from the French. The American counterpart of a
cone is a 'full trio' (reflecting only the fact that three op-
erations are involved; see also Trio), whereas the French
use the name 'FAL' (for 'famille agreable de langages')
for a full AFL.
AFL-theory contains numerous results (see [1], [5],
[3]) about further closure and other properties of cones
and AFLs, as well as about possibilities of replacing the
definitional operations by some other ones. For instance,
the family of regular languages is contained in every
cone. According to the main theorem of AFL-theory,
the full AFL-closure of any language family .c is ob-
tained by first closing .c under rational transductions,
and then closing the resulting family under regular op-
erations.
The generative point of view provides another ap-
proach for the study of language families (see Gram-
mar form).
References
[1] GINSBURG, S.: Algebmic and automata-theoretic properties of
formal languages, North-Holland, 1975.
[2] GINSBURG, S., GREIBACH, S., AND HOPCROFT, J.: Studies in
abstmct families of languages, Vol. 87 of Memoirs, Amer.
Math. Soc., 1969.
[3] MATEESCU, A., AND SALOMAA, A.: 'Aspects of classical lan-
guage theory', in G. ROZENBERG AND A. SALOMAA (eds.):
Handbook of Formal Languages, Vol. 1, Springer, 1997,
pp. 175-251.
[4] NIVAT, M.: 'Transduction des langages de Chomsky', Ann.
Inst. Fourier Grenoble 18 (1968), 339-455.
[5] SALOMAA, A.: Formal languages, Acad. Press, 1973.
A. Mateescu
A. Salomaa
MSC 1991: 68S05, 68Q45
ABSTRACT VOLTERRA EQUATION
ABSTRACT VOLTERRA EQUATION - A func-
tional or functional-differential equation involving ab-
stract Volterra operators (cf. Abstract Volterra op-
erator). The equations are usually of the form x(t) =
(Vx)(t), on some interval [to, T), or x(t) = (Vx)(t), in
which case an initial value must be assigned: x(t o) = Xo.
A more natural initial condition would be: x(t) = xo(t)
on [to, tl)' x(h) = Xl, with xo(t) given. However, this
type of initial condition can be reduced to the first one
by suitably redefining the operator V. This procedure
does not pose any problem, at least with regard to gen-
eral existence theorems. For defining the stability con-
cepts one must rely on the second type of boundary
value problem.
Since L. Tonelli [13] proved an existence theorem
for the fundamental equation with an abstract Volterra
operator, a good deal of research has been conducted
in connection with these equations. A condition oc-
curring in almost all existence results is that of com-
pactness (or complete continuity, cf. also Completely-
continuous operator) of the abstract Volterra opera-
tor. For a functional-differential equation this compact-
ness condition is not necessary. A Lipschitz-type condi-
tion will assure the existence and uniqueness even for
Banach-space-valued functions.
For an introduction to this subject see [1], [3], [4], [5],
[7].
The class of abstract Volterra equations contains as
particular cases many classes of functional or functional-
differential equations encountered in the literature, such
as delay equations, integro-differential equations and
integro-partial-differential equations. A general theory
of dynamical processes with memory requires the further
development of the theory of functional equations with
abstract Volterra operators. Numerous applications of
abstract Volterra equations can be found in [2], [3], [8],
[9], [10].
The term 'abstract Volterra equation' may also re-
fer to equations involving classical integral operators
of Volterra type when the theory is framed in abstract
spaces, see [2], [9], [10]. For the case when the definition
is based on the fact that the spectrum of the operator
involved consists only of the zero point (which is related
to the linear case) see [6].
References
[1] AZBELEV, N.V., MAKSIMOV, V.P., AND RAKHMATULLINA,
L.F.: Introduction to the theory of functional differential
equations, Nauka, 1991. (In Russian.)
[2] BARBU, V.: Nonlinear semigroups and differential equations
in Banach spaces, Noordhoff, 1976.
[3] BUGHEIM, A.L.: Introduction to the theory of inverse prob-
lems, Nauka, 1988. (In Russian.)
[4] CORDUNEANU, C.: Integml equations and applications, Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1991.
13
ABSTRACT VOLTERRA EQUATION
[5] CORDUNEANU, C.: 'Equations with abstract Volterra opera-
tors and their control': Ordinary Differential Equations and
their Applications, Firenze-Bologna, 1995.
[6] GOKHBERG, I.e., AND KREIN, M.G.: Theory of Volterra op-
erators in Hilbert space and its applications, Nauka, 1967. (In
Russian.)
[7] GRIPENBERG, G., LONDEN, S.O., AND STAFFANS, 0.: Volterra
integral and functional equations, Cambridge Univ. Press,
1990.
[8] NEUSTADT, L.: Optimization (a theory of necessary condi-
tions), Princeton Univ. Press, 1976.
[9] PRUSS, J.: Evolutionary integral equations, Birkhiiuser, 1993.
[10] RENARDY, M., HRUSA, W.J., AND NOHEL, J.A.: Mathemati-
cal problems in viscoelasticity, Longman, 1987.
[11] SANDBERG, I.W.: 'Expansions for nonlinear systems, and
Volterra expansions for time-varying nonlinear systems', Bell
System Techn. J. 61 (1982), 159-225.
[12] SCHETZEN, M.: The Volterra and Wiener theories of nonlin-
ear systems, Wiley, 1980.
[13] TONELLI, L.: 'Sulle equazioni funzionali di Volterra', Bull.
Calcutta Math. Soc. 20 (1929).
[14] TYCHONOFF, A.N.: 'Sur les equations fonctionnelles de
Volterra et leurs applications a certains problemes de la
physique mathematique', Bull. Univ. Moscou Ser. Internat.
AI, no. 8 (1938).
[15] VOLTERRA, V.: Opere Matematiche, Vol. 1-3, Accad. Naz.
Lincei, 1954-1955.
C. Corduneanu
MSC 1991: 45D05,47Bxx
ABSTRACT VOLTERRA OPERATOR - An oper-
ator V acting between function spaces E([to, tr), S) and
F([to, tl)' T), such that x(s) = y(s) on to ::; s ::; t < tl
implies (Vx)(s) = (Vy)(s) on to ::; s ::; t < tl for any
t < h. If one deals with spaces of measurable func-
tions, then the equalities above must be satisfied al-
most everywhere. In the engineering literature such op-
erators are called causal operators or non-anticipative
operators. The classical Volterra integral operator (cf.
Volterra operator) is the example encountered most
often. These operators occur in the description of phe-
nomena or processes in which the future evolution is
influenced by the past. The idea of an abstract Volterra
operator appears in V. Volterra's work quite clearly,
even though a formal definition and results are missing.
The first paper on abstract Volterra operators was by
L. Tonelli [13], in which the idea was used to prove exis-
tence theorems for equations of the form x( t) = (V x)( t).
In [14] A.N. Tykhonov also considered this concept and
stressed its importance in applications. The first book
dealing with such operators was [8]. L. Neustadt has
shown the significance of these operators in control the-
ory [8].
A remarkable result concerning the connection be-
tween classical and abstract Volterra operators was
given by LW. Sandberg [11]. Under suitable conditions,
abstract Volterra operators can be approximated to any
degree of accuracy by means of Volterra series (i.e., by
14
means of classical Volterra operators in integral form).
The abstract Volterra operators on a given function
space can be organized as an algebra, since a sum or
product (superposition) of such operators is again an
abstract Volterra operator. The inverse, if it exists, is
not necessarily an abstract Volterra operator (a simple
example is given by (Vx)(t) = x(t/2) when the interval
of definition for the functions is the positive semi-axis).
Various properties of abstract Volterra operators and
their use in many branches of applied science can be
found in [1], [2], [3], [4], [8], [9], [7], [12]. The survey pa-
per [5] contains recent results on abstract Volterra oper-
ators and associated equations. However, a solid theory
of this kind of operator does not yet exist.
There are at least two more meanings of the term 'ab-
stract Volterra operator'. First, a linear operator on
an abstract space whose spectrum reduces to the unique
point zero is sometimes called an abstract Volterra op-
erator, see [6]. A second use of the term is when the
function spaces involved consist of functions taking val-
ues in an abstract (Banach or Hilbert) space. Such op-
erators are widely encountered in continuum mechanics.
In [10], problems in viscoelasticity leading to this type
of Volterra operators are studied.
References
[1] AZBELEV, N.V., MAKSIMOV, V.P., AND RAKHMATULLINA,
L. F .: Introduction to the theory of functional differential
equations, Nauka, 1991. (In Russian.)
[2] BARBU, V.: Nonlinear semigroups and differential equations
in Banach spaces, Noordhoff, 1976.
[3] BUGHEIM, A.L.: Introduction to the theory of inverse prob-
lems, Nauka, 1988. (In Russian.)
[4] CORDUNEANU, C.: Integral equations and applications, Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1991.
[5] CORDUNEANU, C.: 'Equations with abstract Volterra opera-
tors and their control': Ordinary Differential Equations and
their Applications, Firenze-Bologna, 1995.
[6] GOKHBERG, I.C., AND KREIN, M.G.: Theory of Volterra op-
erators in Hilbert space and its applications, Nauka, 1967. (In
Russian.)
[7] GRIPENBERG, G., LONDEN, S.O., AND STAFFANS, 0.: Volterra
integral and functional equations, Cambridge Univ. Press,
1990.
[8] NEUSTADT, L.: Optimization (a theory of necessary condi-
tions), Princeton Univ. Press, 1976.
[9] PRUSS, J.: Evolutionary integral equations, Birkhiiuser, 1993.
[10] RENARDY, M., HRUSA, W.J., AND NOHEL, J.A.: Mathemati-
cal problems in viscoelasticity, Longman, 1987.
[11] SANDBERG, I.W.: 'Expansions for nonlinear systems, and
Volterra expansions for time-varying nonlinear systems', Bell
System Techn. J. 61 (1982), 159-225.
[12] SCHETZEN, M.: The Volterra and Wiener theories of nonlin-
ear systems, Wiley, 1980.
[13] TONELLI, L.: 'Sulle equazioni funzionali di Volterra', Bull.
Calcutta Math. Soc. 20 (1929).
[14] TYCHONOFF, A.N.: 'Sur les equations fonctionnelles de
Volterra et leurs applications a certains problemes de la
 ACCELERATED LIFE TESTING

physique mathematique', Bull. Univ. Moscou Ser. Internat.
AI, no. 8 (1938).
[15] VOLTERRA, V.: Opere Matematiche, Vol. 1-3, Accad. Naz.
Lincei, 1954-1955.
C. Corduneanu
MSC 1991: 47Bxx, 93Axx, 93B28
ABSTRACT WITT RING - There are many defi-
nitions of an abstract Witt ring. They all seek to de-
fine a class of rings that includes Witt rings of fields
(of characteristic not two) and that is closed under fibre
products, extensions by groups of exponent two and cer-
tain quotients. The need for such a class of rings became
apparent early in the (still incomplete) classification of
Noetherian Witt rings of fields.
Two series of definitions, that of J. Kleinstein and
A. Rosenberg [1] and M. Marshall [2], led to the same
class of rings, which is now the most widely used. In this
sense, an abstract Witt ring is a pair (R, G R) where R
is a commutative ring with unit 1 and G R is a subgroup
of the multiplicative group R e which has exponent two,
contains -1 and generates R additively. Let IR denote
the ideal of R generated by elements of the form a + b,
with a, bE GR. It is further assumed that:
1) if a E G R , then a cf. IR;
2) if a, bE G R and a + bE I'A, then a + b = 0;
3) if a1 + ... + an = b1 + ... + bn , with n ~ 3 and all
ai, bi E G R, then there exist a, b, C3, ... ,Cn E G R such
that a2+· ··+an = a+c3+·· ·+cn and a1 +a = b1 +b.
When R is the Witt ring of a field P, then G R =
pe / p e2 and property 3) is a consequence of the Witt
cancellation theorem.
References
[1] KLEINSTEIN, J., AND ROSENBERG, A.: 'Succinct and represen-
tational Witt rings', Pacific J. Math. 86 (1980),99 - 137.
[2] MARSHALL, M.: Abstract Witt rings, Queen's Univ., 1980.
R. W. Fitzgerald
MSC 1991: llE81
ACCELERATED LIFE TESTING - Accelerated life
tests are used to obtain advance information on the dis-
tribution of the life-time, also called time to failure, of
engineering systems. Test units are subjected to higher
than usual levels of stress or stresses like temperature,
voltage, pressure, humidity, etc. The results from these
tests, i.e., the observed life-time data, are used to make
predictions about product life under more moderate
conditions of use, called use stress.
In the following the basic statistical concepts in ac-
celerated life testing are explained.
Stress dependence of life-time distributions. The
dependence of the cumulative distribution function
of a life-time on the applied stress 8 was modelled for
exponentially distributed life-times, i.e.,
P(t I 8) = 1 - exp [- 7/8)] , t ~ 0,
by the dependence of the parameter 7 on 8. For the re-
lationship between 8 and the parameter 7 certain func-
tions
7(8) = 1jJ(8, a, b, . .. )
were used with a known function 1jJ(.) and unknown con-
stants a, b, ... which have to be estimated from observed
life-time data.
It turned out that the assumption of exponential dis-
tribution is not always justified. Therefore more gen-
eral methods were needed and a non-parametric ap-
proach was developed. The formal relationship between
the cumulative distribution function P(· I 8 u ) of the
life-time under use stress 8 u and the cumulative distri-
bution function P(· I 8) of the life-time under acceler-
ating stress 8 >- 8 u is given using so-called acceleration
functions a(t) by
P(t 18) = P(a(t) 18u ), t ~ o. (1)
Important forms of acceleration functions are linear
acceleration functions
a(t) = a(8) . t, t ~ 0, (2)
and power-type acceleration functions
a(t) = a(8) . t{3(S) , t ~ o. (3)
The situation of Weibull distributions (cf. Weibull
distribution) with cumulative distribution function
t ~ 0,
and stress-dependent parameters 7(8) and (3(8) is cov-
ered by power-type acceleration functions.
Mathematical model. The model (1) can be applied
for a one-dimensional as well as a k-dimensional stress
8.
For linear acceleration functions and one-dimensional
stress a differential equation for the acceleration factors
a(8) can be derived. It turns out that the function a(8)
is determined by the relative acceleration constant a1,2
m
t ~ 0,
between two accelerating stress levels 8 1 -< 8 2 .
The life-time distribution under usual stress 8 u is re-
lated to P(· I 8) by
P(t I 8 u ) = P ( at8) I 8) , t ~ o.
For power-type acceleration functions, two differential
equations for a(8) and (3(8) are derived, and these func-
tions are determined by relative acceleration constants

15
ACCELERATED LIFE TESTING
between two accelerating stress levels. The life-time dis-
tribution under use stress Su is given here by
Is,
t ,11/3(5)1 ) vantages: the pivoting operation fills in zeros, the op-
F(tISu)=F ( [ a(S)J t ~
For parametric, as well as semi-parametric, models,
Bayesian methods are also applied.
Statistical inference. Based on life-time observations
on different accelerating stress levels, the following in-
ference methods are used.
For parametric models F(· I 8(S)), regression estima-
tors for the constants a, b, ... in the stress dependence
8(S) = 'lj;(S; a, b, ... ) of the parameter, as well as least-
squares estimators, were developed.
Also, Bayesian approaches (cf. Bayesian approach)
for estimating the life-time distribution under use stress
are possible. Special methods for parametric, as well as
for semi-parametric, accelerated life-testing models are
available (compare [3]).
Often, observations of life-times are not precise real
numbers, but more or less non-precise. This impreci-
sion is different from errors. Recently (1996), models for
describing non-precise life-times and methods for accel-
erated life testing based on this kind of data were pub-
lished (compare [5], [4]).
References
[1] MEEKER, W.Q., AND ESCOBAR, L.A.: 'A review of recent re-
search and current issues in accelerated testing', Int. Statist.
Rev. 61, no. 1 (1993).
[2] NELSON, W.: Accelerated testing: statistical models, test
plans, and data analyses, Wiley, 1990.
[3] VIERTL, R.: Statistical methods in accelerated life testing,
Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1988.
[4] VIERTL, R.: Statistical methods for non-precise data, CRC
Press, 1996.
[5] VIERTL, R., AND GURKER, W.: 'Reliability estimation based
on fuzzy life time data', in T. ONISAWA AND J. KACPRZYK
(eds.): Reliability and Safety Analyses under Fuzziness,
Physica-Verlag, 1995.
R. Viertl
MSC 1991: 62N05, 90B25
ACCELERATION METHODS - The theory and
techniques for increasing the speed of convergence in
the iterative solution of linear systems Ax = b. See Ac-
celeration of convergence and the references given
there.
The fundamental problem of linear algebra is the
solution of finite-dimensional linear algebraic systems
Ax =b
in which A is a given (nxm)-matrix. For simplicity, let A
be an (n x n )-matrix with real entries aij' The numerical
solution of very large systems (e.g., n = 100,000) is not
uncommon today (1996). Commonly, the saving grace
of such large systems is their sparseness: most aij are
16
zero (cf. Sparse matrix). The classical direct method
of solution, Gauss elimination, has at least three disad-
O. eration count is O(n 3 ), and the storage requirements
when building a classical triangular factorization of A
increases super linearly with n.
For these reasons, indirect iterative methods for the
solution of (1) have recently come to the fore. Iterative
methods may be roughly broken into two classes: split-
ting methods and gradient methods. Splitting methods
decompose A according to
A=M-N (2)
where M is non-singular (cf. Non-singular matrix).
The solution to (1) is then sought as the fixed point x*
of the equation
x -+ F(x) = M- 1 (Nx + b). (3)
Accordingly. one picks an initial guess Xo and forms the
iterates
(4)
Provided that the spectral radius p(M- 1 N) IS less
than one, the iteration (4) converges to the solution x*
of (1) for any initial guess Xo.
Gradient methods, on the other hand, form a varia-
tional problem from (1). For example, minimizing the
quadratic form
1
Q(x) = "2 (x, Ax) - (b, x) (5)
for A a symmetric positive-definite matrix, is equivalent
to the problem (1).
Just as for the classical direct methods of solution
of (1), the indirect iterative methods in their original
formulations are too slow for ever larger matrices A.
Therefore the original Jacobi iterative method (cf. Ja-
cobi method)
(6)
where A = L + D + U has been written in terms of its
lower-triangular, diagonal, and upper-triangular parts,
has been accelerated by the Gauss-Seidel method
(7)
which in turn has been accelerated by the successive
overrelaxation method
(1)
Xk+1 = (D + WL)-I(wb - ((1 - w)D - WU)Xk)' (8)
(Cf. also Hyperrelaxation method.) In (8), w IS a
free parameter which may be sought optimally. Gener-
ally, the error of a splitting iterative method is reduced
by each iteration by a factor bounded by p(M-l N).

In like vein, the original gradient iterative method,
steepest descent, in which the k-th residual error vector
(9)
being the negative ofthe gradient of Q(Xk) hence defines
the direction of steepest descent, converges more slowly
as one nears the bottom of the quadratic surface (cf.
also Steepest descent, method of). The convergence
also becomes slow when the condition number
K(A) = Amax (10)
Amin
of the matrix A is large. Here Amax and Amin denote the
largest and smallest eigenvalues of A for A symmetric
positive-definite, and may be replaced in (10) by their
absolute values or, more generally, by IIAII and IIA-III- I
for general matrices A. Therefore, the steepest descent
method has been accelerated by the conjugate-gradient
method. Both steepest descent and conjugate gradient
may be written as iterations
(11)
where Qk denotes an optimal magnitude of change in the
direction Pk. In steepest descent, Pk is the residual rk of
(9) and Qk is then chosen to minimize Q(Xk + Qkrk). In
conjugate gradient one takes Pk = rk + 13kPk-b where
13k is chosen so that Pk is conjugate to Pk-I, i.e.,
(12)
Then Qk is chosen to minimize Q(Xk + QkPk) as before.
Because the conjugate-gradient method may be seen to
choose a new dimension each iteration, in theory (i.e.,
in the absence of roundoff errors) it must converge in n
steps. In practice it usually converges even faster than
that.
The above acceleration methods, i.e., those based
upon splittings and those based upon gradients, respec-
tively, can be referred to as the classical acceleration
methods: relaxation methods and direction methods, re-
spectively. Recently (1996) these methods have been
sharpened in a number of ways. Two of the most impor-
tant sharpenings are Chebyshev acceleration and pre-
conditioning acceleration. Both methods often involve
polynomial iterations
(13)
where Pk is some polynomial chosen from some knowl-
edge or estimation of the eigenvalues of A. These meth-
ods therefore make use of results and techniques from
both approximation theory and spectral theory.
Chebyshev methods depend upon the property of the
Chebyshev polynomials of minimizing the maximum
error max Ip(t)1 for t in some interval [a, b]. For example,
ACCELERATION METHODS
for the conjugate-gradient method it may be shown that
(see [5])
(14)
where em is the Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind
of degree k, where TJ = Amin/(Amax - Amin), and where
IlxiiA = (Ax, X)I/2. A disadvantage of Chebyshev meth-
ods in practice is their dependence upon knowledge or
good estimates of the eigenvalues of A.
Preconditioning has recently become the most im-
portant acceleration method. There are several precon-
ditioning strategies, but the basic idea is to left or right
multiply A in (1) by some preconditioning matrix so that
the transformed system Ax = b is easier to solve. For
example, if M approximates A in some correct sense of
representing A's main invertibility features, i.e., so that
M-I approximates A-I in some good way, then (1) is
transformed by right preconditioning to the equivalent
system
(15)
Left preconditioning yields
(16)
Two-sided preconditioning by multiplicatively splitting
Minto M = MIM2 becomes
(17)
Because the convergence rate of iterative methods gen-
erally depends on the condition number K(A) of (10), a
rule of thumb has been to seek preconditioners M such
that the transformed system Ax = b has lower, hope-
fully much lower, condition number K(A).
There are roughly three generally successful theo-
ries for finding preconditioners: incomplete factoriza-
tions, Frobenius-norm methods and relaxation meth-
ods. The incomplete factorizations approximate A by
its approximate factorization into lower and upper tri-
angular factors, but insisting on sparse approximations
by dropping small elements. Then a conjugate-gradient
method or Krylov-space variant of it (e.g., schemes such
as ORTHOMIN or GMRES) may converge well. The
Frobenius-norm methods, roughly, seek a weight matrix
W such that the trace Tr(ATW A) is minimized. Of-
ten, an incomplete Cholesky factorization enters into
applications of this method. Relaxation methods have
been described above. Often, these are combined (see
[1]) with block Schur complement decompositions of A.
Relaxation methods such as (6), (7), (8) are used today
chiefly as preconditioners. Even the lowly Jacobi method
(6) can be a practical preconditioner on highly parallel
computers when appropriately implemented.
17
ACCELERATION METHODS
Acceleration methods are also used for the iterative
solution of the eigenvalue-eigenvector problem
Ax = Ax. (18)
(18) may be regarded as a special case of (1) in which
A -+ A - AI and b = O. However, one must approxi-
mate the eigenvalue A as one is approximating the eigen-
vector x. Both Chebyshev and preconditioning accelera-
tion methods enter into these (e.g., Arnoldi and Krylov)
methods for eigenvalue-eigenvector computation. An im-
portant preconditioning method somewhat special to
these problems is the so-called shift and invert method,
using inverted shifts (A - a I) -1 to more widely disperse
the eigenvalues (see [4]).
There are other useful variations on preconditioning
for accelerating convergence. Conjugate gradient can be
applied as a preconditioner for any of the relaxation
schemes. Other methods, such as multigrid schemes,
have been successfully used as preconditioners (see [3]).
Preconditioning strategies can be cast in terms of a new
theory of anti-eigenvalues It rather than the eigenvalue
condition number Ii (see [2] and Anti-eigenvalue).
Finding optimal preconditioners for an important spe-
cific application often usefully involves specific physical
details of that application. For this reason, in practice
preconditioning is sometimes labeled 'black magic'.
References
[1J AXELSSON, 0.: Itemtive solution methods, Cambridge, New
York, 1994.
[2J GUSTAFSON, K.: Lectures on computational fluid dynamics,
mathematical physics, and linear algebm, Kaigai & World
Sci., 1996/7.
[3J HAcKBuscH, W.: Itemtive solution of large sparse systems of
equations, Springer, 1994.
[4J SAAD, Y.: Numerical methods for large eigenvalue problems,
Halsted, 1992.
[5] SAAD, Y.: Itemtive methods for sparse linear systems, PWS
Publishing, 1996.
K. Gustafson
MSC 1991: 65FlO
ACCELERATION WAVE - In the mechanics of con-
tinuous media, the behaviour of a material body is de-
scribed by a number of field variables which are required
to satisfy a set of governing partial differential equations
arising from balance laws, and from kinematic and con-
stitutive considerations. The variables are generally as-
sumed to have the requisite degree of smoothness con-
sistent with the governing equations, except possibly on
surfaces in the body across which some of the variables
may suffer jump discontinuities (cf. also Smooth func-
tion).
Suppose that a material body occupies a region n in
Rd at time t = 0, and at some later time t occupies, in
its deformed state, a region nt . The motion of the body
18
is described by the function c/J: n -+ nt, x = c/J(X, t), in
which X denotes the position at time t = 0 of a material
particle, and x its position at time t. The function c/J is
assumed to be invertible, and both ¢ and its inverse are
assumed to be continuously differentiable with respect
to the spatial and temporal variables on which they de-
pend, except possibly on specified surfaces in the body.
A propagating smooth surface divides the body no or
nt into two regions, forming a common boundary be-
tween them. The unit normal n to the surface S(t) is
considered to be in the direction in which S(t) propa-
gates. The region ahead of the surface is denoted by nt
and the region behind the surface is denoted by no' Let
f(x, t) be an arbitrary scalar-, vector- or tensor-valued
function which is continuous in both nt and no' This
function has definite limits f+ and f- at a point on
S (t), as the point is approached from nt and no' The
jump of f at X E S(t) is defined by
(1)
The surface S(t) is called a singular surface with re-
spect to f at time t if [f] =1= O. A singular surface that
has a non-zero normal velocity called a wave. An ac-
celeration wave is a propagating singular surface across
which the motion c/J, velocity ¢(X, t) and (hence) the
deformation gradient F == grad c/J, are continuous; how-
ever, quantities involving second-order derivatives of the
motion, such as the acceleration a and the time rate
of deformation gradient F, are discontinuous. Various
kinematical and geometrical conditions of compatibility
involving the variables a and F, the normal n to the
surface, and the speed U of the surface, may be derived
with the aid of Hadamard's lemma (see, for example,
[2], [4]). These considerations lead to the propagation
condition
[T]n = -pUla], (2)
which is a statement of balance of linear momentum
across the surface; T is the Cauchy stress, p is the mass
density, and U is the intrinsic speed of the surface. To
make further progress it is necessary to introduce infor-
mation about the constitution of the material; in the
case of an elastic material, for example, (2) becomes the
eigenvalue problem
(3)
in which s is referred to as the amplitude vector of the
acceleration jump, and Q is the acoustic tensor. This
leads to the Fresnel-Hadamard theorem: The amplitude
s of an acceleration wave travelling in the direction n
must be an eigenvector of the acoustic tensor Q; the
corresponding eigenvalue is pU 2 • It follows that, for real
wave speeds to exist, Q must possess at least one real
 ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING PLAN FOR ATTRIBUTES
and positive eigenvalue. The acoustic tensor is symmet-
ric, and consequently its eigenvalues are real, if and only
if the material is hyperelastic. In addition, Q possesses
three positive eigenvalues if and only if it is positive def-
initej in the context of elasticity, positive definiteness of
Q implies that the material is strongly elliptic. Further
information on acceleration waves may be found in the
references cited.
References
[1] ERINGEN, A.C., AND SUHUBI, E.S.: Elastodynamics, Vol. I,
Acad. Press, 1975.
[2] HADAMARD, J.: Le1;ons sur la propagation des ondes et les
equations de l'hydrodynamique, Dunod, 1903.
[3] MCCARTHY, M.F.: 'Singular surfaces and waves', in A.C.
ERINGEN (ed.): Continuum Physics II: Continuum Mechan-
ics of Single Surface Bodies, Acad. Press, 1975.
[4] WANG, C.-C., AND TRUESDELL, C.: Introduction to rational
elasticity, Noordhof, 1973.
B.D. Reddy
MSC 1991: 73D40, 73Bxx, 73Cxx, 76D33, 73Dxx
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING - Acceptance sampling
is a major field of statistical quality controlj a key
reference on acceptance sampling is [1].
As a typical application, a company receives a ship-
ment (lot) from a producer. After a sample is taken, a
decision must be made regarding disposition (lot sen-
tencing), i.e., whether or not to accept the entire lot. It
is not the goal of acceptance sampling to estimate the
quality of the lot, or to provide a direct form of quality
control, but just to ensure that the output conforms to
requirements. Acceptance sampling is useful when 100%
or 0% inspection is infeasible due to cost considerations,
the destructibility of the product, the reputation of the
producer, etc. Acceptance sampling provides for a less
expensive alternative to exhaustive inspection, but there
is always the potential for error in the decision process.
An acceptance sampling plan is a statement of
the sample size to be used together with the accep-
tance/rejection criteria. Acceptance sampling plans are
classified by attributes or variables (cf. also Accep-
tance sampling plan for attributesj Acceptance
sampling plan for variables), and single, double,
multiple, or sequential sampling plans are possible.
In a single sampling plan, one sample is taken to base
the decision on, whereas decisions may be postponed
under the latter schemes if not enough information is
forthcoming from previous samples. In general, large,
homogeneous lots are of most use to the acceptance sam-
pling process. The units for inspection should be chosen
randomlyj at times, stratification is of use.
Various plans may be used, depending on the objec-
tives of the organization and the background and repu-
tation of the producer.
References
[1] MONTGOMERY, D.: Introduction to statistical quality control,
second ed., Wiley, 1991.
A.P. Godbole
MSC 1991: 62NlO
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING PLAN FOR AT-
TRIBUTES - A single-sample acceptance sampling
plan is based on the parameters (N, n, c)j in the case of
attributes, the lot is accepted if the number of defec-
tives in a sample of size n, taken from a lot of size N, is
no more than c. The operating characteristic curve (OC
curve) of the single sample plan is the probability of
lot acceptance, plotted as a function of the lot fraction
defective. Points on the operating characteristic curve
corresponding to the acceptable quality level (AQL) or
lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD) are obviously of
great interest. An important aspect is the behaviour of
the operating characteristic curve as nand c vary. One
important acceptance sampling procedure is the selec-
tion of a single sample plan with a specified operating
characteristic curvej one requires that the latter pass
through two designated points, usually the ones corre-
sponding to the acceptable quality level and the LTPD.
A nomograph (cf. also Nomography) or various statis-
tical software packages may then be used to create the
required plan. A single-sample plan assures high quality
for both the consumer and the producer. The practice
of rectifying inspection, i.e., 100% screening of rejected
lots, with removal of bad items, leads to an overall in-
crease in outgoing quality, to a level termed the average
outgoing quality (AOQ).
Extensions of single-sample plans for attributes in-
clude double-, multiple-, and sequential sampling plans.
A double-sample acceptance sampling plan accepts the
lot if the number of defectives d l in a first sample is no
more than Clj it rejects the lot if d l > C2. If CI < d l ~ C2,
a further sample of size n2 is taken (d2 is the correspond-
ing number of defectives) with the lot being accepted if
d l + d 2 ~ C2, and rejected if d l + d 2 > C2. A double-
sample plan usually (but not always) reduces the total
amount of inspection. The operating characteristic curve
is somewhat more complex, and the average sampling
number curve (ASN curve) is of great interest to the
quality engineer/statistician. The design of the double-
sample plan with two specified points on the operating
characteristic curve is detailed in [2], as is the extension
to multiple sample and sequential sampling plans.
Lot-sensitive compliance sampling plans (LTPD
plans) are useful when one wishes to assure quality no
worse than targeted, as may be the case in compli-
ance testing or sampling for safety-related characteris-
tics. The basic point is that the lot is rejected if any
19
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING PLAN FOR ATTRIBUTES
defectives are found in the sample (c = 0). The proce-
dure gives the proportion of the lot that must be sam-
pled so that the fraction of defectives in the lot is less
than 100(1 - a)% with probability 1 - {3. The above
plan should clearly be used only in a near zero-defect
environment.
The military standard 105D (MIL STD 105D) is the
most commonly used acceptance sampling system for
attributes. Civilian versions include ANSI/ ASQC Z1.4
and ISO 2859. The background of MIL STD 105D can
be found in [1]. MIL STD 105D involves three types
of sampling: single, double and multiple. Inspection in
each case may be normal, tightened or reduced, and the
focal point is the acceptable quality level, which makes
the procedure appropriate when one wishes to maintain
quality at a target. Details and tables may be found in
[2].
Other sampling plans include the Dodge sampling
plan and the Romig sampling plan, and are based ei-
ther on the lot-sensitive compliance sampling plans or
average outgoing quality level criteria. See [2] for more
details.
References
[1] KEEFE, G.: 'Attribute sampling - MIL-STD-lOS', Industrial
Quality Control (1963), 7-12.
[2] MONTGOMERY, D.: Introduction to statistical quality control,
second ed., Wiley, 1991.
A.P. Godbole
MSC 1991: 62N10
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING PLAN FOR VARI-
ABLES - Acceptance salllpling for variables requires
that one specifies the number of items to be sampled,
and the criteria for decision making (lot sentencing)
when data is collected on the quantity of interest. Usu-
ally a smaller sample size is needed than for an accep-
tance salllpling plan for attributes. Sampling plans
may control the lot percent fraction defective or con-
trol a lot parameter (usually the mean). The former are
typically based on the upper specification limit (USL)
or lower specification limit (LSL), on specific operating
characteristic curves or the military standard 414 (civil-
ian version ANSI/ ASQC Z1.9). Tables may be found in
[1].
References
[1] MONTGOMERY, D.: Introduction to statistical quality control,
second ed., Wiley, 1991.
A.P. Godbole
MSC 1991: 62N1O
ACCESSIBILITY in control theory - A state of a
control systelll has the accessibility property if the
positive orbit of this state has non-empty interior in
the phase space of the system, and it has the strong
20
accessibility property if for some T > 0 the set of states
being attainable from it at time T has non-empty in-
terior. For example, for the control system defined in
the (x, y)-plane by the two fields of admissible velocities
(1,0), (l,f(x,y)), where f(x,y) = 0 when x 2': 0 and
f(x,y) = exp(l/x) when x < 0, all points of the set
x < 0 have the (strong) accessibility property but no
point of the set x 2': 0 has it.
The control system itself has the (strong) accessi-
bility property if all of its states have this property.
The accessibility property is typical for control systems.
Namely, every control system defined on a smooth man-
ifold by a pair of smooth admissible vector fields has the
strong accessibility property if this pair belongs to some
open everywhere-dense subset of the space of pairs in
an appropriate topology (for example, in the fine CX_
topology).
Classical references for the notion of accessibility are
[3], [2], [4], [1].
References
[1] HERMES, H.: 'On local and global controllability', SIAM J.
Control 12. no. 2 (1974), 252-261.
[2] JURJE\'lC, V.: 'Certain controllability properties of analytic
control systems', SIAM J. Control 10, no. 2 (1972),354-360.
[3] LOBRY, C.: 'Dynamical polysystems and control theory', in
D.Q. MAYNE AND R.vV. BROCKETT (eds.): Geometric Meth-
ods in System Theory. Proc. NATO Advanced Study Insti-
tute, London, August 27-September 7, 1 g73, D. Reidel. 1973.
pp. 1-42.
[4] SUSSMANN, H.J., AND JURJEVIC, V.: 'Controllability of non-
linear systems', J. Differential Equations 12 (1972),95-116.
A. Davydov
MSC 1991: 93Bxx
ACCESSIBLE RANDOM VARIABLE - A key con-
cept in one of the mathematical models of the heuristic
idea of white noise.
White noise should be a family (XdtET of indepen-
dent identically distributed random variables. If the
parameter set T is the positive integers, there is no
problem with this; indeed, sequences of independent
identically distributed random variables appear repeat-
edly in probability and Illathelllatical statistics. If
T = [0,00), it would seem natural to try the same thing,
that is, to take (Xtk::o to be a family of independent
identically distributed random variables. However, the
independence means that X t gives no information about
Xs no matter how close s is to t. This suggests that the
process will be extremely irregular. Indeed, it can be
shown that there is no measurable stochastic process
of the type just described, see [5]. Thus, one must look
for other methods of modelling white noise in the case
of a continuous parameter.
The best known method IS instead to work with
Brownian Illotion, regarding it as the integral of white

noise. This is a beautiful, but highly technical, subject
involving Ito stochastic integrals (cf. also Stochastic
integral) and stochastic differential equations (cf. Sto-
chastic differential equation) as well as the theory
of continuous parameter semi-martingales (cf. Martin-
gale), see [3]. Another approach is to define white noise
as the derivative of Brownian motion. Since Brown-
ian paths are almost surely nowhere differentiable, the
derivatives are interpreted in the distributional sense (cf.
also Generalized function, derivative of a); see [2].
The starting point of the approach to white noise
involving accessible random variables is the closest to
what is observed physically (at least in filtering prob-
lems in engineering).
Let H be a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert
space over R and let P be the class of orthogonal pro-
jections on H with finite-dimensional range. For 7r E P,
let
C7r = {7r- l B: B E B(7rH)} ,
where B( 7r H) denotes the Borel subsets of 7r H. Sets in
C7r are called cylinder sets with base in 7r H. Let C be the
class of all cylinder sets in H, that is,
C= UC 7r •
7rEP
Each C7r is a a-field, but C is only a field. The
canonical Gaussian measure m on C can be de-
scribed as follows: Let C E C be given by C =
{h E H: ((h,ed, ... ,(h,en )) E B}, where n 2: 1,
{el, ... ,en} is an orthonormal set in Hand B E B(Rn).
Then
m(C) = (27r)-n/2 r exp (-~ t
} B ,=1
XJ) dXl ... dXn.
Note that the integrand above is the density function as-
°
sociated with n independent random variables, each dis-
tributed normally with mean and variance 1. Thus, the
canonical Gauss measure is a straightforward infinite-
dimensional analogue of the measure on R n obtained
by taking the product of n independent standard nor-
mal distributions on R. In fact, m is not actually a mea-
sure, since it is only finitely additive on C; it is, however,
count ably additive (cf. Countably-additive set func-
tion) on each C7r •
The 'measure' m provides a simple and appealing
starting point for an approach to Gaussian white noise,
but the lack of countable additivity raises questions
about the mathematical effectiveness of the model. This
issue can be got around to a large extent by associat-
ing a true probability space (D, A, P) with the space
(H, C, m) and making use of the countable additivity of
P. It is in this context that 'accessible random variables'
anse.
ACCESSIBLE RANDOM VARIABLE
A representation of m is a pair (L, P), where P is a
(count ably additive) probability measure on a mea-
surable space (D, A) and L is a mapping (actually, an
equivalence class of mappings, see [6]) from H into a
space of R-valued random variables on (D, A, P) such
that L is linear, and such that, for all C E C,
m(C) = P{w E D: (L(hd(w), ... ,L(hj)(w)) E B},
with hI, ... ,hj in Hand B E B(Rj). The mapping
L is linear in the sense that for any hI, h2 in Hand
aI, a2 E R, L(alhl + a2h2) = alL(hd + a2L(h2) P-
almost surely. A representation of m always exists, see
[6].
The following is an example of a representation: Take
H = L 2 [0, 00), D = Co [0, 00) (the continuous functions
on [0,00) that vanish at 0), A = B(Co[O, 00)), and let P
be Wiener measure on A. Finally, given ¢ E H, let
Jo
L(¢)(w) = oo ¢(t) dWt be the stochastic integral of ¢
with respect to the Wiener path Wt.
An accessible random variable will be defined in
terms of Borel cylinder functions, a special class of ac-
cessible random variables. A function f: H ---+ R is
called a Borel cylinder function if it can be written
as f(h) = g((h, hd, ... ,(h, h j )) for some j 2: 1 and
hI, ... ,hj in H, where g: Rj ---+ R is Borel measurable.
One defines Rf, the lifting of f, by the formula
R(f)(·) = g(L(hd(·),··· ,L(hj )(-)).
The space £O(H, m) will consist of the functions
f: H ---+ R satisfying the condition: For all 7r E P the
function f 0 7r is C7r -measurable, and for all sequences
{ 7r n} from P converging strongly to the identity, the se-
quence {R(f 07rn )} is Cauchy in P-probability. One can
show that all such sequences converge in P-probability
to the same limit, R(f), called the lifting of f. R(f) is
defined P-almost surely. Any f E £O(H, m) is called an
accessible random variable.
It is often desirable to put further restrictions on the
function f. £ 1 (H, m) is defined as an analogue of the
usual Ll space. Given two representations and corre-
sponding liftings, say (Ll' Pd with Rl and (L2' P 2 ) with
R 2, and f E £l(H, m), one has
l l
i f dm = Rd dP l = R2f dP 2·
Thus, the integral of f E £l(H,m) is independent of
the representation and the lifting; H, m and f are the
essential objects.
The situation just described is typical of much of the
theory. The straightforward connection with observation
is maintained through the role of (H, C, m), but one also
has the advantages of a countably additive probabil-
ity space. It should be said, however, that the theory
has its own technical difficulties and some frustrating
21
ACCESSIBLE RANDOM VARlABLE
open questions. For example, it is not always easy to
tell whether a function is accessible or not, and it is
unknown if .c1(H, m) is complete (cf. Complete topo-
logical space).
For a detailed discussion of white noise theory via the
canonical Gaussian measure and accessible random vari-
ables, and for applications of that theory to non-linear
filtering, see [6]. It contains many references to the ear-
lier literature, including references to the seminal work
of I. Segal and L. Gross. Some more recent papers mak-
ing use of the theory are [1], [4], [7].
References
[1] BUDHIRAJA, A., AND KALLIANPUR, G.: 'Multiple Ogawa in-
tegrals, multiple Stratonovich integrals and the generalized
Hu-Meyer formula', Techn. Report Dep. Stat. Univ. North
Carolina 442 (1994).
[2] HIDA, T., Kuo, H.H., POTTHOFF, J., AND STREIT, L.: White
noise. An infinite dimensional calculus, Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1993.
[3] IKEDA, N., AND WATANABE, S.: Stochastic differential equa-
tions and diffusion processes, second ed., North-Holland,
1989.
[4] JOHNSON, G.W., AND KALLIANPUR, G.: 'Homogeneous chaos,
p-forms, scaling and the Feynman integral', Trans. Amer.
Math. Soc. 340 (1993), 503-548.
[5] KALLIANPUR, G.: Stochastic filtering theory, Springer, 1980.
[6] KALLIANPUR, G., AND KARANDIKAR, R.L.: White noise the-
ory of prediction, filtering and smoothing, Gordon&Breach,
1988.
[7] KALLIANPUR, G., AND KARANDIKAR, R.L.: 'Nonlinear trans-
formations of the canonical Gauss measure on Hilbert space
and absolute continuity', Acta Math. Appl. 35 (1994), 63-
102.
G. W. Johnson
MSC 1991: 60Bll, 60H05, 60H07
ACCURACY, accuracy analysis A systematic
study of the precision and errors of numerical and sta-
tistical calculation and estimation procedures. See, e.g.,
Error; Errors, theory of.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 62-XX, 65-XX
ACTION POTENTIAL - An electrical disturbance
propagated as a wave along an axon (elongated part of
a nerve cell) that is considered as the way information is
transmitted in the nervous system of animals. Cardiac,
muscle and some endocrine cells also display action po-
tentials with similar properties.
An action potential is observed experimentally as a
displacement of voltage from its equilibrium value that
takes place in a limited part of the axon and that retains
its shape while it is propagated with constant speed. It
appears in response to a sufficiently large stimulus, sub-
threshold stimulation producing a transient departure
from equilibrium that is not propagated. After the pass-
ing of an action potential the axon apparently returns
22
to its equilibrium state but the threshold value is raised
for some time, the refractory period.
A special experimental setting, called a current
clamp, eliminates spatial variations and the voltage
curve in this case is called a stationary action potential.
Action potentials are described mathematically as
undamped travelling-wave solutions of the Hodgkin-
Huxley system.
References
[1] HODGKIN, A.L., AND HUXLEY, A. F.: 'A quantitative descrip-
tion of membrane current and its application to conduction
and excitation in nerve', J. Physiology 117 (1952), 500-544.
[2] RINZEL, J.: 'Electrical excitability of cells, theory and ex-
periment: review of the Hodgkin-Huxley foundation and an
update', Bull. Math. Biology 52 (1990), 5-23.
I.S. Labouriau
MSC 1991: 92C20
ACTIVATION ENERGY - A concept originating in
the theory of chemical reactions. It plays an important
role in combustion theory.
The evolution of a chemical reaction is determined by
its specific-reaction rate constant, usually denoted by k.
This quantity depends mainly on the temperature, T.
For a one-step chemical reaction, its functional depen-
dence is given empirically by the Arrhenius expression:
k = A exp( - E I (RT)). Here, R is the universal gas con-
stant, E the activation energy and A the frequency fac-
tor for the reaction step; E is independent of T, while A
may depend weakly (for example, polynomially) on T.
At the molecular level, a chemical reaction is a col-
lision process between reactant molecules, from which
reaction products emerge. The molecules move on a
potential-energy surface, whose shape is determined by
a solution of the Schrodinger equation. A configu-
ration of the reactant molecules corresponds to a local
minimum in one region, and a configuration of the re-
action products to a local minimum in another region,
where the two minima are generally separated by a bar-
rier in the potential-energy surface. At a saddle point
on the barrier, the height of the surface above the energy
of the reactant region assumes a minimum value. A col-
lision of the reactant molecules can produce products
only if the energy of the reactants (for example, their
kinetic energy) exceeds this minimum height. The min-
imum barrier height defines the activation energy, E. It
is the energy the reactants must acquire before they can
react. In practice, the activation energy is determined
experimentally, by measuring k at various values of T
and making a best straight-line fit through the data In k
versus liT.
Activation-energy asymptotics. Activation-energy
asymptotics play an important role in combustion
theory, in the study of diffusion flames.

A diffusion flame is a non-pre-mixed, quasi-steady,
nearly isobaric flame, where most of the reaction occurs
in a narrow zone. The structure of a diffusion flame,
especially in a multi-step reaction, is very complicated,
but can be analyzed in model problems by means of
activation-energy asymptotics.
The small parameter in activation-energy asymp-
totics is the reciprocal of the Zel'dovich number. The
Zel'dovich number, (3, is a non-dimensional measure of
the temperature sensitivity of the reaction rate:
El
(3 = a RTrX!'
where
Too - To
a=
Too
while To and Too denote the temperature far upstream
and far downstream of the moving flame, respectively,
and El is a reference energy. The graph of the reac-
tion rate has a single peak, which narrows and increases
in magnitude and whose location approaches the fully
burnt condition (Too) as (3 ---+ 00.
The governing equations for the temperature and the
concentration of the reaction-limiting component define
a singular perturbation problem (cf. also Perturbation
theory) as (3 ---+ 00. The regular (or outer) expansion
yields the temperature and concentration profiles in the
convective-diffusive zone outside the flame, and the 'sin-
gular' (or 'inner') expansion the profiles in the reactive-
diffusive zone inside the flame. The complete profiles
are then found by the method of matched asymptotic
expansions (cf. Perturbation theory).
Activation-energy asymptotics were first introduced
in combustion theory by Yu.B. Zel'dovich and D.A.
Frank-Kamenetskil [3]. The method was formalized in
[1]. Many results are summarized in [2].
References
[1] BUSH, W.B., AND FENDELL, F.E.: 'Asymptotic analysis of
laminar flame propagation for general Lewis numbers', Comb.
Sci. and Technol. 1 (1970), 421.
[2] ZEL'DOVICH, YA.B., BARENBLATT, G.!" LIBROVICH, V.B.,
AND MAKHVILADZE, G.M.: The mathematical theory of com-
bustion and explosions, Consultants Bureau, 1985. (Trans-
lated from the Russian.)
[3] ZEL'DOVICH, Y.B., AND FRANK-KAMENETSKII, D.A.: 'The
theory of thermal flame propagation', Zhur. Fiz. Khim. 12
(1938), 100. (In Russian.)
H.C. Kaper
MSC 1991: 35B25, 33K57, SOA25
ACTIVE CONSTRAINT - Let be given a con-
strained optimization problem
maximize f(x), x E Rn,
subject to gi(X) ::; 0, i = 1, ... ,m.
The ith constraint is said to be active (at a solution
y) if gi(Y) = o.
ACYCLIC GROUP
See also Passive constraint. For a selection of ref-
erences, see Mathematical programming.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 90C30
ACYCLIC GROUP - A group having the same con-
stant coefficient homology as the trivial group (cf. also
Homology). This means that its classifying space is
an acyclic space. In the literature the earliest examples
are Higman's four-generator four-relator group [16]
\XO,Xl,X2,X3 I Xi+lXiXi.~\ = x;, i E Z/4)
and others found in combinatorial group theory [3], [2],
[11]. Further examples arise in geometry ([13], [IS], [20],
[19], [14]) or as automorphism groups of large objects
([12]; for example, the group of all bijections of an infi-
nite set). Algebraically closed groups are acyclic.
Many proofs of acyclicity of infinitely generated
groups rely on the property that all binate groups are
acyclic [6] (cf. also Binate group). An important result
in the plus-construction approach to the higher alge-
braic K-theory of rings and operator algebras is that
the infinite general linear group of the cone of a ring
is acyclic [21], [4]. Topologically, the plus-construction of
a topological space is completely determined by a cer-
tain perfect, locally free, and hence acyclic, group [10].
Ubiquity results for acyclic groups include the follow-
ing:
• Every perfect group is the homomorphic image of
an acyclic group [15].
• Every group is a normal subgroup of a normal sub-
group of an acyclic group. This result has applications
to algebraic topology [17].
• Every Abelian group is the centre of an acyclic
group [2], [5].
In contrast to the above are results indicating that
acyclic groups have 'few' normal subgroups. Thus, the
following acyclic groups admit no non-trivial finite-
dimensional linear representations over any field:
• algebraically closed groups;
• Higman's group [16];
• torsion-generated acyclic groups [7];
• binate groups [1];
• the automorphisms groups of [12], see [S], [9].
Moreover, many of the above groups are simple modulo
the centre.
References
[1] ALPERIN, R.C., AND BERRICK, A.J.: 'Linear representations
of binate groups', J. Pure Appl. Algebm 94 (1994), 17-23.
[2] BAUMSLAG, G., DYER, E., AND HELLER, A.: 'The topology of
discrete groups', J. Pure Appl. Algebm 16 (1980), 1-47.
[3] BAUMSLAG, G., AND GRUENBERG, K.W.: 'Some reflections on
cohomological dimension and freeness', J. Algebm 6 (1967),
394-409.
23
ACYCLIC GROUP
[4) BERRICK, A.J.: An approach to algebraic K-theory, Pitman,
1982.
[5] BERRICK, A.J.: 'Two functors from abelian groups to perfect
groups', J. Pure Appl. Algebra 44 (1987), 35-43.
[6J BERRICK, A.J.: 'Universal groups, binate groups and acyclic-
ity': Proc. 1987 Singapore Group Theory Conf., W. de
Gruyter, 1989.
[7J BERRICK, A.J.: 'Remarks on the structure of acyclic groups',
Bull. London Math. Soc. 22 (1990), 227-232.
[8J BERRICK, A.J.: 'Groups with no nontrivial linear representa-
tions', Bull. Austral. Math. Soc. 50 (1994), 1-11.
[9) BERRICK, A.J.: 'Corrigenda: Groups with no nontrivial linear
representations', Bull. Austral. Math. Soc. 52 (1995), 345-
346.
[lOJ BERRICK, A.J., AND CASACUBERTA, C.: 'A universal space for
plus-constructions', Topology (to appear).
[11) BERRICK, A.J., AND MILLER, III, C.F.: 'Strongly torsion gen-
erated groups', Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 111 (1992),
219-229.
[12J HARPE, P. DE LA, AND McDUFF, D.: 'Acyclic groups of au-
tomorphisms', Comment. Math. Helv. 58 (1983), 48-7l.
[13J EpSTEIN, D.B.A.: 'A group with zero homology', Proc. Cam-
bridge Philos. Soc. 68 (1968), 599-601.
[14J GREENBERG, P., AND SERGIESCU, V.: 'An acyclic extension of
the braid group', Comment. Math. Helv. 66 (1991), 109-138.
[15J HELLER, A.: 'On the homotopy theory of topogenic groups
and groupoids', Illinois Math. J. 24 (1980), 576-605.
[16) HIGMAN, G.: 'A finitely generated infinite simple group',
J. London Math. Soc. 26 (1951),61-64.
[17) KAN, D.M., AND THURSTON, W.P.: 'Every connected space
has the homology of a K(-rr, 1)', Topology 15 (1976),253-258.
[18) MATHER, J.N.: 'The vanishing of the homology of certain
groups of homeomorphisms', Topology 10 (1971), 297-298.
[19J SANKARAN, P., AND VARADARAJAN, K.: 'Acyclicity of certain
homeomorphism groups', Canad. J. Math. 42 (1990),80-94.
[20J SEGAL, G.B.: 'Classifying spaces related to foliations', Topol-
ogy 17 (1978), 367-382.
[21J WAGONER, J.B.: 'Developping classifying spaces in algebraic
K-theory', Topology 11 (1972),349-370.
A.J. Berrick
MSC 1991: 20Jxx, 19Dxx
ACYCLIC ORIENTATION - An orientation (assign-
ment of direction) of each edge of a graph such that no
cycle in the graph is a cycle (consistently oriented) in
the resulting directed graph (cf. Graph, oriented).
An acyclic orientation of a graph G can be obtained
from a proper colouring f by orienting each edge uv from
u to v if f(u) < f(v) (cf. Graph colouring). Given an
acyclic orientation D of a connected graph G that is not
a forest (cf. also Graph, connectivity of a), let r(D)
r
be the maximum over all cycles in G of a / b1, where C
has a forward edges and b backward edges in D. G.J.
Minty [7] proved that X(G) ~ 1 + r(D) and that this
is best possible (equality holds for the acyclic orienta-
tion obtained above from an optimal colouring). Minty's
theorem implies the related Gallai-Roy theorem ([5], [9],
[14]) that l(D) 2: X(G) - 1 where l(D) is the maximum
length of a path in an orientation D of G (equality holds
for the orientation defined above).
24
R.P. Stanley [11] proved that the number of acyclic
orientations of a graph G is the value at k = -1 of the
chromatic polynomial X(G; k) (computing this number
is #P-complete [13]). More generally, suppose that D is
an acyclic orientation of an n-vertex graph G and that
f: V( G) --+ {I, ... , k} is a k-colouring of G. One says
that (D, f) is a compatible pair if uv E E(D) implies
f(u) ~ f(v). Stanley proved that the number of com-
patible pairs is (-l)nX(G; -k). This relationship is an
instance of combinatorial reciprocity. Stanley [12] fur-
ther generalized this to count acyclic orientations with
j sinks. C. Greene [6] proved that the acyclic orienta-
tions of a graph G are in one-to-one correspondence with
the regions of an associated arrangement of hyperplanes;
T. Zaslavsky [15] has generalized this to acyclic orien-
tations of signed graphs.
An edge in an acyclic orientation is dependent when
reversing it would create a cycle. The acyclic orientation
graph AO( G) is the graph whose vertices are the acyclic
orientations of G, with two vertices adjacent when they
differ by the reversal of an edge; the degree of a vertex
is its number of independent edges. Every acyclic ori-
entation of a connected n-vertex graph G has at least
n - 1 independent edges (deletion of dependent edges
does not disconnect G), and this is best possible (equal-
ity holds when the independent edges arise from a depth-
first search tree). Thus, the minimum degree of AO(G)
is n - 1. P.H. Edelman (see also [10]) proved that the
connectivity of AO( G) is n - 1.
When G has m edges, AO( G) is isomorphic to an
induced subgraph of the m-dimensional hypercube and
is thus bipartite (cf. Graph, bipartite). It is conjec-
tured that AO( G) is Hamiltonian when its two partite
sets have the same size. G. Pruesse and F. Ruskey [8]
proved that the Cartesian product AO(G) x K2 is al-
ways Hamiltonian. These Hamiltonicity questions relate
to the combinatorial Gray code problem (cf. Gray code)
of listing the acyclic orientations by reversing one edge
at a time.
When X( G) is less than the girth of G, the list of ver-
tex degrees in AO( G) includes all values from n -1 up to
the maximum degree [4]. It is unknown whether this is
true for all graphs. When X( G) < girth (G), there exist
acyclic orientations in which every edge is independent.
A graph has an acyclic orientation in which every
edge is independent if and only if it is a cover graph;
this acyclic orientation is the cover relation of a par-
tially ordered set (cf. Partial order). Recognition of
cover graphs is NP-complete. The smallest triangle-free
graph with chromatic number 4 (violating the condition
X( G) < girth( G)) is the 11-vertex Grotzsch graph, and
it is not a cover graph.

Other types of acyclic orientations characterize im-
portant families of graphs. An acyclic orientation D of a
simple graph is a transitive orientation if xy E E(D) and
yz E E(D) together imply xz E E(D). The graphs hav-
ing transitive orientations are the comparability graphs
of partially ordered sets. A graph is perfectly orderable
if it has a vertex ordering L such that greedily colour-
ing the vertices of any induced subgraph H in the order
specified by L uses only w(H) colours, where w(H) is the
size of the largest clique in H. V. Chvatal [3] proved that
G is perfectly orderable if and only if it has an acyclic
orientation having no induced 4-vertex path with both
end-edges oriented outward.
Let c( G) be the worst-case number of edges that
must be probed by an algorithm that finds an un-
known acyclic orientation of G. A graph is exhaustive
if c( G) = 1E (G) I. Graphs having an acyclic orientation
in which every edge is independent are exhaustive. For
bounds on c( G) in terms of the independence number
of G see [1]. N. Alon and ZS. Tuza [2] proved that for
the random graph with constant edge probability p, al-
most surely c(G) = 8(nlogn). Both papers also study
exhaustive graphs.
Acyclic orientations have computational applications
in percolation, network reliability, neural networks, par-
allel sorting, scheduling, etc.
References
[1] AIGNER, M., TRIESCH, E., AND TUZA, Zs.: 'Searching for
acyclic orientations of graphs', Discrete Math. 144 (1995),
3~1O.
[2] ALaN, N., AND TUZA, Zs.: 'The acyclic orientation game on
random graphs', Random Structures Algorithms 6 (1995),
261~268.
[3] CHVATAL, V.: 'Perfectly ordered graphs': Topics on perfect
graphs, Vol. 88 of North-Holland math. stud., North-Holland,
1984, pp. 63~65.
[4] FISHER, D.C., FRAUGHNAUGH, K., LANGLEY, L., AND WEST,
D.B.: 'The number of dependent edges in an acyclic orienta-
tion', J. Gomb. Theory Appl. (to appear).
[5] GALLAI, T.: 'On directed paths and circuits', in P. ERDOS
AND G. KATONA (eds.): Theory of Graphs (Proc. Tihany
1966), Acad. Press, 1968, pp. 115~118.
[6] GREENE, C.: 'Acyclic orientations', in M. AIGNER (ed.):
Higher combinatorics, Proc. NATO Adv. Study Inst. (1976),
Reidel, 1977, pp. 65~68.
[7] MINTY, G.J.: 'A theorem on n-coloring the points of a linear
graph', Amer. Math. Monthly 69 (1962), 623~624.
[8] PRUESSE, G., AND RUSKEY, F.: 'The prism of the acyclic
orientation graph is Hamiltonian', Electron. J. Gombin. 2
(1995).
[9] RoY, B.: 'Nombre chromatique et plus longs chemins
d'un graphe', Rev. Fran9aise Automat. Informat. Recherche
Operationelle Ser. Rouge 1 (1967), 127~132.
[10] SAVAGE, C.D., AND ZHANG, C.-Q.: 'A note on the connectiv-
ity of acyclic orientation graphs', Discrete Math. (to appear).
[11] STANLEY, R.P.: 'Acyclic orientations of graphs', Discrete
Math. 5 (1973), 171~178.
ADAMS-HILTON MODEL
[12] STANLEY, R.P.: 'A symmetric function generalization of the
chromatic polynomial of a graph', Adv. Math. 111 (1995),
166~194.
[13] VERTIGAN, D.L., AND WELSH, D.J.A.: 'The computational
complexity of the Tutte plane: the bipartite case', Gombin.
Probab. Gomput. 1 (1992), 181~187.
[14] VITAVER, L.M.: 'Determination of minimal coloring of ver-
tices of a graph by means of Boolean powers of the incidence
matrix', Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR 147 (1962), 758~759. (In
Russian.)
[15] ZASLAVSKY, T.: 'Orientation of signed graphs', European J.
Gombin. 12 (1991), 361~375.
D. West
MSC 1991: 05Cxx
ADAMS CONJECTURE - In [1], J.F. Adams was
studying the order of the image of the J-homomorphism
and related topics. He was led to the following con-
jecture: Let F be a real vector bundle over a finite
CW-complex X, let k be an integer and let 1j; be the
Adams operation (cf. Cohomology operation). Then
for some n, k n (1j;k F - F) is fibre homotopy trivial. In
[4], D.G. Quillen proposed an approach to this conjec-
ture which used some ideas from algebraic geome-
try and, in particular, etale homotopy theory. This
approach was completed by E. Friedlander [3]. In [5],
Quillen solved the conjecture by a different approach.
This approach lead to important results in algebraic
K -theory and lead to Quillen's definition of higher al-
gebraic K-groups. Another proof was discovered by J.
Becker and D. Gottlieb [2]. Their proof uses only tech-
niques from algebraic topology and so could be con-
sidered elementary. They introduced the transfer into
fibre bundle theory (cf. also Becker-Gottlieb trans-
fer). Previously, transfers required that the fibre be dis-
crete. This work, too, has had a lot of influence. The
Adams conjecture has generated a lot of very interest-
ing mathematics.
References
[1] ADAMS, J.F.: 'On the groups J(X). 1', Topology 2 (1963),
181~195.
[2] BECKER, J., AND GOTTLIEB, D.: 'The transfer map and fiber
bundles', Topology 14 (1975), 1~12.
[3] FRIEDLANDER, E.: 'Fibrations in etale homotopy theory',
IHES Publ. Math. 42 (1972).
[4] QUILLEN, D.G.: 'Some remarks on etale homotopy theory and
a conjecture of Adams', Topology 7 (1968), 111~116.
[5] QUILLEN, D.G.: 'The Adams conjecture', Topology 10 (1971),
67~80.
M. Mahowald
MSC 1991: 55Q20, 19L20
ADAMS-HILTON MODEL - The Pontryagin alge-
bra H.0.X (cf. also Pontryagin invariant; Pontrya-
gin class) of a topological space X is an important
homotopy invariant (cf. also Homotopy type). It
is, in general, quite difficult to calculate the homology
25
ADAMS-HILTON MODEL
H*O,X directly from the chain complex C*O,X. An algo-
rithm that associates to a space X a differential graded
algebra whose homulugy is relatively easy to calculate
and isomorphic as an algebra to H*O,X is therefore of
great value.
In 1955, J.F. Adams and P.J. Hilton invented such
an algorithm for the class of simply-connected CW-
complexes [1]. Presented here in a somewhat more mod-
ern incarnation, due to S. Halperin, Y. Felix and J.-C.
Thomas [5], the work of Adams and Hilton can be sum-
marized as follows.
Let X be a CW-complex such that X has exactly
one O-cell and no I-cells and such that every attaching
mapping is based with respect to the unique O-cell of
X. There exists a morphism of differential graded al-
gebras inducing an isomorphism on homology (a quasi-
isomorphism)
Ox: (TV, d) --+ C*O,X
such that Ox restricts to quasi-isomorphisms
(TV::;n' d) --+ C.O,Xn + 1 , where X n+1 denotes the (n+1)-
skeleton of X, TV denotes the free (tensor) algebra on a
free graded Z-module V, and O,X is the space of Moore
loops on X. The morphism Ox is called an Adams-
Hilton model of X and satisfies the following properties.
• (TV, d) is unique up to isomorphism;
• if X = * U UaEA e na +1 , then V has a degree-
homogeneous basis {va: a E A} such that deg Va = n a ;
• if fa: sna --+ Xna is the attaching mapping of the
cell e na +1 , then [O(dva)] = Kn a [fa]. Here, Kn a is defined
so that
commutes, where h denotes the Hurewicz homomor-
phism (cf. Homotopy group).
The Adams-Hilton model has proved to be a power-
ful tool for calculating the Pontryagin algebra of CW-
complexes. Many common spaces have Adams-Hilton
models that are relatively simple and thus well-adapted
to computations. For example, with respect to its usual
CW-decomposition, the Adams-Hilton model of cpn
is (T(al, ... ,an),d), where degai = 2i -1 and dai =
Ej+k=i-l ajak·
Given a cellular mapping f: X --+ Y between CW-
complexes, it is possible to use the Adams-Hilton model
to compute the induced homomorphism of Pontryagin
algebras. If Ox: (TV, d) --+ C*O,X and Oy: (TW, d) --+
C*O,Y are Adams-Hilton models, then there exists a
unique homotopy class of morphisms <p: (TV, d) --+
(TW, d) such that C*o'g 0 Ox is homotopic to Oy 0 <p.
26
Any representative <p of this homotopy class can be said
to be an Adams-Hilton model of g. In this context, 'ho-
motopy' means homotopy in the category of differential
graded algebras (see [2] or [5] for more details).
One can say, for example, that an Adams-Hilton
model of a cellular co-fibration of CW-complexes, i.e., an
inclusion of CW-complexes, is a free extension of differ-
ential graded algebras. Furthermore, the Adams-Hilton
model of the amalgamated sum of an inclusion of CW-
complexes, [, and any other cellular mapping 9 is given
by the amalgamated sum of the free extension modelling
[ and an Adams-Hilton model of g.
Examples of problems to which Adams-Hilton mod-
els have been applied to great advantage include the
study of the holonomy action in fibrations [4] and the
study of the effect on the Pontryagin algebra of the at-
tachment of a cell to a CW-complex [3], [6].
References
[1] ADAMS, J.F., AND HILTON, P.J.: 'On the chain algebra of a
loop space', Comment. Math. Helv. 30 (1955), 305-330.
[21 ANICK, D.J.: 'Hopfalgebrasup to homotopy', J. Amer. Math.
Soc. 2 (1989), 417-453.
[3] FELIX, Y., AND LEMAIRE, J.-M.: 'On the Pontrjagin algebra
of the loops on a space with a cell attached', Internat. J.
Math. 2 (1991).
[4] FELIX, Y .. AND THOMAS, J.-C.: 'Module d'holonomie d'une
fibration', Bull. Soc. Math. France 113 (1985),255-258.
[5] HALPERIN, S., FELIX, Y., AND THOMAS, J.-C.: Rational ho-
motopy theory, Univ. Toronto, 1996.
[6] HESS, K., AND J.-M-LEMAIRE: 'Nice and lazy cell attach-
ments', J. Pure and Applied Algebra 112 (1996), 29-39.
K. Hess
MSC 1991: 55Pxx
ADAPTIVE QUADRATURE - It is a common task
to compute an approximate value of an integral, the
simplest case being
1(1) = i b
f(x) dx.
If the integrand f is given by a Fortran-like expression,
then one can use symbolic methods, interval-methods
or numerical methods. If the integrand f is given by
function values, only numerical methods of the form
(1)
can be used. A method (1) is called non-adaptive if n
and the knots Xk are fixed in advance and do not depend
on f. One might hope that it is possible to learn about f
during the computation of f(xt}, ... ,f(Xk-l) in such a
way that one can choose the next knot Xk suitably to re-
duce the error. Therefore, one studies adaptive methods,
where the number n depends on f and the choice of Xk
may depend on the already computed function values.
In mathematical statistics, adaptive information is
 ADAPTIVE RUNGE-KUTTA METHOD

known as sequential design and non-adaptive informa- ADAPTIVE RUNGE-KUTTA METHOD, ARK
tion as non-sequential design. method - An s-stage adaptive Runge-Kutta method for
The use of adaptive algorithms is widespread. Often the computation of approximations U m for the solution
these methods are based on a way to estimate the er- y(t m ) of an initial-value problem
ror in different subintervals of [a, b]. One then adds new
knots in those intervals where a high error is expected.
y' = f(t,y), y(to) = Yo, t E [to,te],
See [1], [2], [4], [6] for detailed information concerning is given by
these strategies.
A non-adaptive method provides an immediate de-
composition for parallel computation. If adaptive infor-
mation is superior to non-adaptive information, then an
analysis of the trade-off between using adaptive or non-
adaptive information on a parallel computer should be
carried out. i = 2, ... ,s,
To prove any bounds for the error II(f) - In(f)I, one
U m +l = Ro(s+l) ( hT ) U m +
must have some a priori knowledge concerning f, such as
L
8

f E F, where F is a class of integrable functions. With- +h Bj(hT) [ f(t m + cjh, u m(j)+1) - (j) ]
TU m +1 .
out such assumptions on f, the error of any method (1) j=1
can be arbitrarily large. Much is known concerning the Here, T is an arbitrary matrix, for stability reasons usu-
power of adaption; [5] contains known results as well as
new results of the authors. See also the survey [3]. One
ally T ~ fy(t m , urn). For T = the method reduces °
to an explicit Runge--Kutta method. The Ci are real
can study the worst case as well as the average case and parameters and Rbi) (z), z E C, are rational approxima-
errors for randomized (Monte-Carlo) methods (cf. also
tions to e Z for z --+ 0. The rational matrix functions A ij ,
Monte-Carlo method). It may happen that adapt ion B j are defined by
does not help in the worst-case setting but helps signif-
Pi
icantly with respect to other settings. A ij ( z ) -- "'R(i) ( ) l+1di)
~ /+1 Ci Z Ci Alj'
Under certain assumptions, adaptive methods are not 1=0
better than non-adaptive ones. N.S. Bakhvalov (1971) Ps+l
proved, see [3], [5], that adaption does not help in the B J.( Z ) -- '~
" R(S+I)(
/+1
),(8+1)
Z Alj ,
worst-case setting if F is a symmetric and convex set 1=0
of functions. For some other natural classes adaption with A};) E Rand
helps significantly. In particular, adaption significantly
( i)
helps for certain classes of functions with singularities. R(i)( ) _ Ro (Z) - 1
1 Z - Z '
The power of adaption depends critically on a priori
( i)
knowledge concerning the problem being studied; even R(i) ( ) _ lRI (Z) - 1
a seemingly small change in the assumptions can lead 1+1 Z - Z

to a different answer. The computation of U m +1 requires the solution of lin-

References
[1] DAVIS, P.J., AND RABINOWITZ, P.: Methods of numerical in-
tegration, second ed., Acad. Press, 1984.
[2] KROMMER, A.R., AND UEBERHUBER, C.W.: Numerical inte-
gration on advanced computer systems, Vol. 848 of Lecture
Notes in Computer Science, Springer, 1994.
[3] NOVAK, E.: 'On the power of adaption', 1. Complexity 12
(1196), 199-237.
[4] PIESSENS, R., DONCKER-KAPENGA, E. DE, UBERHUBER,
C.W., AND KAHANER, D.K.: Quadpack, Springer, 1983.
[5] TRAUB, J.F., WASILKOWSKI, G.W., AND WOZNIAKOWSKI, R.:
Information-based complexity, Acad. Press, 1988.
[6] ZWILLINGER, D.: Handbook of integration, Jones and Bartlett,
1992.
E. Novak
MSC 1991: 41A25, 41A46, 65C05, 65D30, 65D32,
65Y20, 68Q25
ear systems of algebraic equations only. The coefficients
A};) are determined to give a high order of consistency
or B-consistency ([2]). Applied to the test equation of
A-stability, y' = AY with Re A:::; 0, an adaptive Runge-
Kutta method with T = A yields
U m +l = RO(8+1) (h A') um·
By the corresponding choice of stability functions
Rb8 + 1 )(z), adaptive Runge-Kutta methods are A- or L-
stable and therefore well suited for stiff systems (cf. Stiff
differential system). Furthermore, they can be easily
adapted to the numerical solution of partitioned sys-
tems, where only a subsystem of dimension ns < n is
stiff. Here, by a corresponding choice of T the dimension
of the linear systems to be solved can be reduced to ns
[1].

27
ADAPTNE RUNGE-KUTTA METHOD
References
[1) STREHMEL, K., AND WEINER, R.: 'Partitioned adaptive
Runge-Kutta methods and their stability', Numer. Math. 45
(1984), 283-300.
[2) STREHMEL, K., AND WEINER, R.: 'B-convergence results for
linearly implicit one step methods', BIT 27 (1987), 264-281.
R. Weiner
MSC 1991: 65L05
ADAPTIVE SAMPLING - Adaptive sampling [1) is
a probabilistic algorithm invented by M. Wegman (un-
published) around 1980. It provides an unbiased esti-
mator of the number of distinct elements (the 'cardi-
nality') of a file (a sequence of data items) of potentially
large size that contains unpredictable replications. The
algorithm is useful in data-base query optimization and
in information retrieval. By standard hashing techniques
[3), [6) the problem reduces to the following.
A sequence (hI, ... ,hn ) of real numbers is given. The
sequence has been formed by drawing independently and
randomly an unknown number N of real numbers from
[0,1], after which the elements are replicated and per-
muted in some unknown fashion. The problem is to es-
timate the cardinality N in a computationally efficient
manner.
Three algorithms can perform this task.
1) Straight scan computes incrementally the sets
Uj = {hI, ... ,hj}, where replications are eliminated on
the fly. (This can be achieved by keeping the succes-
sive Uj in sorted order.) The cardinality is then deter-
mined exactly by N = card(Un ) but the auxiliary mem-
ory needed is N, which may be as large as n, resulting
in a complexity that is prohibitive in many applications.
2) Static sampling is based on a fixed sampling ratio
p, where 0 < p ~ 1 (e.g., p = 1/100). One computes
sequentially the samples U; = {hI, .. , , h j } n [0, p). The
cardinality estimate returned is N* = card(U~)/p. The
estimator N* is unbiased and the memory used is N p
on average.
3) Adaptive sampling is based on a design parame-
ter b ~ 2 (e.g., b = 100) and it maintains a dynamically
changing sampling rate p and a sequence of samples UJ* .
o
Initially, p = 1 and U * = 0. The rule is like that of
static sampling, but with p divided by 2 each time the
cardinality of UJ* would exceed b and with UJ* modi-
fied accordingly in order to contain only Uj n [O,p). The
estimator N** = card(U~*)/p (where the final value of p
is used) is proved to be unbiased and the memory used
is at most b.
The accuracy of any such unbiased estimator if of
if divided
N is measured by the standard deviation of
by N. For adaptive sampling, the accuracy is almost
28
constant as a function of N and asymptotically close to
1.20
VE'
a result established in [1) by generating functions and
Mellin transform techniques. An alternative algorithm,
called probabilistic counting [2), provides an estimator
N*** of cardinalities that is unbiased only asymptoti-
cally but has a better accuracy, of about 0.78/VE.
Typically, the adaptive sampling algorithm can be ap-
plied to gather statistics on word usage in a large text.
Well-designed hashing transformations are then known
to fulfill practically the uniformity assumption [4). A
general perspective on probabilistic algorithms may be
found in [5).
References
[1) FLAJOLET, P.: 'On adaptive sampling', Computing 34 (1990),
391-400.
[2) FLAJOLET, P., AND MARTIN, G.N.: 'Probabilistic counting
algorithms for data base applications', J. Computer and Sys-
tem Sci. 31, no. 2 (1985), 182-209.
[3) KNUTH, D.E.: The art of computer programming, Vol. 3.
Sorting and Searching, Addison-Wesley, 1973.
[4] LUM, V.Y., YUEN, P.S.T., AND DODD, M.: 'Key to address
transformations: a fundamental study based on large existing
format files', Commun. ACM 14 (1971),228-239.
[5] MOTWANI, R., AND RAGHAVAN, P.: Randomized algorithms,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995.
[6] SEDGEWICK, R.: Algorithms, second ed., Addison-Wesley,
1988.
Ph. Flajolet
MSC 1991: 62D05
ADAPTIVE STABILIZATION - Suppose a dynam-
ical input-output system modelling a process is given,
i.e., a causal relationship between an input vector u(·)
and an output vector y(.) described, for example, by a
linear or non-linear difference or differential equation.
Then the 'classical' stabilization objective is to design
another dynamical system, a feedback system, such
that the output of the process is converted by the feed-
back system into the input of the process so that the
closed-loop system achieves output stabilization, i.e.,
y(t) tends to zero as t tends to infinity.
u plant y
(process)
feedback
controller
 ADDITION THEOREMS IN THE THEORY OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
However, the design of the feedback relies crucially
on exact knowledge of the plant parameters. If the pa-
rameters of the plant are uncertain, change with time,
or are even unknown and only structural information
is available, then the only available information is the
observed output. To achieve adaptive stabilization one
designs (possibly by incorporating identification meth-
ods) an adaptive feedback system, that means it 'adapts'
(respectively, adjusts) its parameters according to the
behaviour of the process, so that y(t) tends to zero as
t tends to infinity. In other words, a single dynamical
feedback system ensures stabilization of any process be-
longing to a class of systems. However, a precise and
universal definition of adaptive control is still elusive.
Historical development. Considerable research on
adaptive control started in the early 1950s. The pri-
mary motivation was control of high-performance air-
crafts which operate over a wide range of speeds and
altitudes, with the controller having to change accord-
ing to the rapidly changing operating conditions. How-
ever, only frequency domain methods were available at
that time, and they did not suffice for solving adaptive
control problems. Whilst in the 1960s and 1970s con-
siderable control-theoretic contributions were made (the
state space approach, stability theory, Lyapunov the-
ory, the linear optimal regulator problem, Bellman's dy-
namic programming), a breakthrough was achieved
in the late 1970s and early 1980s, when rigorous proofs
for the stability of adaptive systems were presented.
However, very soon a drawback was discovered. The
existing adaptive controllers were not robust, but very
sensitive to the presence of unmodelled dynamics. Since
then, numerous authors have tackled and solved these
problems, and adaptive control has matured.
Different adaptive concepts. There is no common
classification of adaptive concepts available in the liter-
ature. The reason is that numerous adaptive controllers
consist of mixtures. An (incomplete) list of the domi-
nating concepts is as follows.
Gain scheduling was one of the first adaptive con-
cepts. It consists of a set of non-adaptive controllers
C((Ji), where (Ji parametrizes an operation condition.
The adaptive controller switches between these C((Ji)
according to the region of operation that the plant is in.
The problem is the transition between different operat-
ing points.
In model reference adaptive control, a reference model
describing the input/output properties is given. The
overall system consists of an inner (respectively, regu-
lator) loop (i.e., plant and regulator) and an outer (re-
spectively, adaptation) loop. The latter attempts to ad-
just the parameters of the regulator so that the model
reference output is matched asymptotically.
In self-tuning adaptive control, the plant parameters
are estimated by a recursive identification algorithm,
and on the basis of these estimates a 'classical' controller
is chosen. The latter is also called the certainty equiva-
lence principle.
Adaptive concepts are referred to as indirect or direct,
depending upon whether the plant parameters are esti-
mated first and then used to determine the controller,
or the parameters are adjusted directly without inter-
mediate calculations.
See the survey articles [1], [3], [5], [7] and the books
[2], [4], [6], [8].
References
[1] ASTROM, K.J.: 'Adaptive feedback control', Proc. IEEE 75
(1987), 185-217.
[2] ASTROM, K.J., AND WITTENMARK, B.: Adaptive control,
Addison-Wesley, 1989.
[3] FRADKOV, A.L.: 'Continuous-time model reference adaptive
systems, an east-west review': Proc. IFAC Symp. Adaptive
Control and Signal Processing (Grenoble, France, July 1992),
199?
[4] IOANNOU, P.A., AND SUN, J.: Robust adaptive control,
Prentice-Hall, 1996.
[5] NARENDRA, K.S.: 'The maturing of adaptive control', in
P.V. KOKOTOVIC (ed.): Foundations of Adaptive Control,
Vol. 160 of Lecture Notes on Control and Information Sys-
tems, Springer, 1991, pp. 3-36.
[6] NARENDRA, K.S., AND ANNASWAMY, A.M.: Stable adaptive
systems, Prentice-Hall, 1989.
[7] ORTEGA, R., AND Yu, T.: 'Robustness of adaptive controllers:
a survey', Automatica 25 (1989),651-678.
[8] SASTRY, S., AND BODSON, M.: Adaptive control: Stability,
convergence and robustness, Prentice-Hall, 1989.
A.Ilchman
MSC 1991: 93C40, 93D21
ADDITION THEOREMS IN THE THEORY OF
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS - The exponential function
satisfies the addition formula e X+Y = eX eY • More gener-
ally, the function f satisfies an algebraic addition theo-
rem if A(J(x), f(y), f(x+y)) is identically zero for some
polynomial A(x, y, z). By a theorem of K. Weierstrass,
a single-valued analytic function f(z) satisfying an al-
gebraic addition theorem is either a rational function in
z, or a rational function in e Az for some ,x, or an elliptic
function.
The addition formula for Legendre polynomials
Pn(x) (P.S. Laplace, 1872) is the prototype of an ad-
dition theorem of a more general nature. It gives the
explicit Fourier-cosine expansion of Pn (cos ¢ cos 'If; +
sin ¢ sin 'If; cos (J) in terms of cos m(J. The Fourier coef-
ficients depending on ¢ and 'If; factorize as products of
two associated Legendre functions. This addition for-
mula was generalized by L. Gegenbauer (1875) to ultra-
spherical polynomials and, more generally, by T.H.
Koornwinder (1972) to Jacobi polynomials. Addition
29
ADDITION THEOREMS IN THE THEORY OF SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
theorems of this type exist for a large number of special
functions of hypergeometric type. See, in particular, [6J
for several addition formulas for Bessel functions.
An addition formula for a family of special functions
4>>. expands 4>>. (A(x, y, t)) (A a fixed elementary func-
tion, cf. also Elementary functions) explicitly and
orthogonally in terms of certain special functions 'l/J!-,(t)
with expansion coefficients of the form const4>~ (x) 4>~ (y).
The 4>~ are special functions associated with 4>>.. A fur-
ther requirement is that 'l/Jo (t) = 1 and 4>1 = 4>>.. A
variant, in particular occurring for q-special functions,
is that (PA (t), or even 4>>. (t)'l/J~X,y) (t), is expanded in terms
of 'l/J1X,y) (t), with expansion coefficients as before. An im-
portant corollary of any addition formula is the product
formula giving 4>>.(x)4>>.(Y) as an integral of 4>>..
Usually, if an addition formula is already explicitly
given, then an analytic proof can be provided, but it is
difficult to conjecture the form of an addition formula
from scratch. Addition formulas can often be conceptu-
ally obtained by an interpretation on groups (Lie groups
[4], [5]; finite groups [3J; quantum groups [2]) from the
homomorphism property of a group representation and
specific knowledge of the matrix coefficients of these rep-
resentations in terms of special functions (cf. Special
functions). Addition formulas with more general pa-
rameter values then follow by analytic continuation
and by certain elementary operations.
Addition formulas are important because they en-
code in a relatively compact form a lot of informa-
tion, for instance other identities, inequalities, positivity
results (hypergroup structures, cf. Generalized dis-
placement operators) for convolution and dual con-
volution associated with the 4>>., and sometimes unitari-
ness of related group representations.
References
[1] ASKEY, R.: Orthogonal polynomials and special functions,
Vol. 21 of Reg. Conf. Ser. Appl. Math., SIAM, 1975.
[2] KOELINK, E.: 'Addition formulas for q-special functions', in
M.E.H. ISMAIL ET AL. (ed.): Special Functions, q-Series and
Related Topics, Vol. 14 of Fields lnst. Commun., Amer.
Math. Soc., 1997, pp. 109-209.
[3] STANTON, D.: 'Orthogonal polynomials and Chevalley
groups', in R.A. ASKEY ET AL. (eds.): Special Functions:
Group Theoretical Aspects and Applications, 1984, pp. 87-
128.
[4] VILENKIN, N.J.: Special functions and the theory of group
representations, Vol. 22 of Transl. Math. Monogmphs, Amer.
Math. Soc., 1968. (Translated from the Russsian.)
[5] VILENKIN, N.J., AND KLIMYK, A.U.: Representation of Lie
groups and special functions, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1991-1993.
(Translated from the Russsian.)
[6] WATSON, G.N.: Theory of Bessel functions, second ed., Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1944.
H. T. Koelink
T.H. Koornwinder
MSC 1991: 33-XX, 22Exx, 42Cxx
30
ADDITIVE SELECTION - A mapping s: H -+ G as-
sociated with a set-valued function F from an (Abelian)
semi-group H to subsets of an (Abelian) semi-group
G which is a homomorphism (of semi-groups) and a
selection of F. If G C 2H and F is the identity transfor-
mation on G, then s is said to be an additive selection
on G. An archetypical example of an additive selection
is the mapping which subordinates to each non-empty
compact set in R its maximal element. In Rn, simi-
lar selections can be defined by means of lexicographic
orders, see [4J and Lexicographic order). They are
Borel measurable but not continuous with respect to the
Hausdorff metric (for n > 1). A Lipschitz-continuous
additive selection on the family of convex bodies in R n is
given by associating with each convex body its Steiner
point, see [2J. No such selections can exist in infinite di-
mensions, see [3], [lJ.
References
[1] PRZESLAWSKI, K., AND YOST, D.: 'Continuity properties of se-
lectors and Michael's theorem', Michigan Math. J. 36 (1989),
113-134.
[2] SCHNEIDER, R.: Convex bodies: the Brunn-Minkowski theory,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993.
[3] VITALE, R.A.: 'The Steiner point in infinite dimensions', ls-
mel J. Math. 52 (1985),245-250.
[4] ZIVALJEVIC, R.: 'Extremal Minkowski additive selections of
compact convex sets', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 105 (1989),
697-700.
K. Przeslawski
MSC 1991: 54C65, 54C60, 52Axx
ADDITIVE STOCHASTIC PROCESS - A real-
valued stochastic process X = {X (t): t E R+} such
that for each integer n ~ 1 and 0 ~ to < ... < tn
the random variables X(to), X(td - X(to), ... ,X(tn ) -
X(t n - l ) are independent. Finite-dimensional distribu-
tions of the additive stochastic process X are defined
by the distributions of X(O) and the increments X(t) -
X(s), 0 ~ s < t. X is called a homogeneous additive
stochastic process if, in addition, the distributions of
X(t) - X(s), 0 ~ s < t, depend only on t - s. Each
additive stochastic process X can be decomposed as a
sum (see [3])
t ~ 0, (1)
where f is a non-random function, Xl and X 2 are in-
dependent additive stochastic processes, X I is stochas-
tically continuous, i.e., for each s E R+ and f > 0,
P{IXI(t) - XI(s)1 > f} -+ 0 as t -+ s, and X 2 is purely
discontinuous, i.e., there exist a sequence {tk: k ~
I} C R+ and independent sequences {X:: k ~ I},
{Xi: : k ~ I} of independent random variables such that
t ~ 0, (2)

and the above sums for each t > 0 converge indepen-
dently of the order of summands.
A stochastically continuous additive process X has
a modification that is right continuous with left limits,
and the distributions of the increments X(t) - X(s),
s < t, are infinitely divisible (cf. Infinitely-divisible
distribution). They are called Levy processes. For ex-
ample, the Brownian motion with drift coefficient b
and diffusion coefficient (72 is an additive process X;
for it X(t) - X(s), s < t, has a normal distribution
(Gaussian distribution) with mean value b( t - s) and
variation (72(t - s), X(O) = o.
The Poisson process with parameter A is an ad-
ditive process X; for it, X(t) - X(s), s < t, has the
Poisson distribution with parameter A(t - s) and
X(O) = o. A Levy process X is stable (cf. Stable
distribution) if X(O) = 0 and if for each s < t the
distribution of X (t) - X (s) equals the distribution of
c(t - s)X(I) + d(t - s) for some non-random functions
c and d.
If, in (1), (2), f is a right-continuous function of
bounded variation for each finite time interval and
P{X: = O} = 1, k ~ 1, then the additive process
X is a semi-martingale (cf. also Martingale). A semi-
martingale X is an additive process if and only if the
triplet of predictable characteristics of X is non-random
(see [2]).
The method of characteristic functions (cf. Charac-
teristic function) and the factorization identities
are main tools for the investigation of properties of addi-
tive stochastic processes (see [1]). The theory of additive
stochastic processes can be extended to stochastic pro-
cesses with values in a topological group. A general
reference for this area is [3].
References
[1] BRATIJCHUK, N.S., AND GUSAK, D.V.: Boundary problems
for processes with independent increments, Naukova Dumka,
1990. (In Russian.)
[2] GRIGELIONIS, B.: 'Martingale characterization of stochas-
tic processes with independent increments', Lietuvos Mat.
Rinkinys 17 (1977), 75-86. (In Russian.)
[3] SKOROKHOD, A.V.: Random processes with independent in-
crements, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1991. (Translated from the
Russian.)
B. Grigelionis
MSC 1991: 60J30
ADEQUACY THEOREM for senses - A theorem
from the theories of sense and synonymy. This theory
provides a solution for the treatment of hyperintensional
predications.
The statement of the theorem is as follows. Assume
that:
ADEQUACY THEOREM
i) b. and Il> are well-formed expressions of an inter-
preted theory (T,D,I), where T is a theory based on
the modal calculus (cf. modal logic) MC" and I is a
model for the definition system D;
ii) I is a valuation of the constants, V and Ware
I-valuations of the variables, and the set-theoretical
unions I U V and I U Ware injective functions on the
elementary expressions (i.e., the primitive constants and
free variables) of b. and Il>, respectively.
Then b. has (with respect to I and V) the same sense
as Il> (with respect to I and W) if and only if Il> (re-
spectively, b.) can be obtained from b. (respectively, Il»
by replacing the elementary expressions (i.e., the prim-
itive constants and free variables) occurring in b. (re-
spectively, Il» with those of Il> (respectively, b.) suitably
rearranged.
Hyperintensional predication. By hyperintensional
predication one understands a predication which can as-
sume different truth values on terms having equal inten-
sions but different senses. This happens, for instance,
when propositional attitudes are involved: if one assumes
that mathematical equality implies equi-intensionality,
then '3' has the same intension as 'log28', even if the
assertions 'Peter knows that 3 = 3' and 'Peters knows
that 3 = log28' may have different truth values. The
treatment of hyperintensional predications has impor-
tant applications, for example in artificial intelligence.
Various approaches for constructing a general and sys-
tematic theory of propositional attitudes were proposed,
starting with work by A. Church [10] and R. Carnap
[8], [9]. Those based on Church's view use extensional
languages (see [12], [14]); others use categorial or quota-
tional languages (see [13], [11]; in the latter the litera-
ture and the situation with respect to the solution of the
problem are surveyed). The approach to sense presented
in [5], [7] is based on a very different point of view, in
which uniformity and generality features are taken into
account. This approach deals explicitly with Church's
A-operator, the [-operator for descriptions, general op-
erator forms and synonymy, and propositional attitudes
of transfinite order. It is modal, but not in an essential
way.
Senses and synonymy. The formulation of the ade-
quacy theorem for the senses (or quasi-senses) consid-
ered here refers to an approach to sense presented in
[5]. Senses are closely connected with the notion of syn-
onymy. This notion has been studied in itself, indepen-
dently of its relation to senses, in connection with an
extensional and a modal language (see, e.g., [1], [2]).
In order to obtain a unified theory for the various
synonymy notions, C. Bonotto and A. Bressan [5] have
introduced a general rigorous definition of synonymy as
a binary relation between well-formed expressions of a
31
ADEQUACY THEOREM
theory 7 endowed with a definition system D. 7 is
a theory based on the modal calculus MC v (see [6]).
In [5], four particular synonymy notions, ;;::io, ;;::iI, ;;::i2,
and ;;::i3, were first introduced by conditions only on
the forms of well-formed expressions among which they
hold. Among them, ;;::io and ;;::il are defined, first, only for
empty D, because the principles of A-conversion are not
meaning-preserving in connection with them. Therefore,
they may appear too weak (not extended enough) or too
rich in content. On the other hand, ;;::io also has a basic
role in treating quasi-senses connected with any other
synonymy notion. Moreover, the definitions of ;;::io and
;;::il can be extended to a certain theory 7* endowed with
the definition system D of 7, provided that D is of a
suitable kind. Finally, in [5] a general rigorous definition
of synonymy is introduced. For any synonymy notion ;;::i
one has ;;::io~;;::i.
A formal theory of senses. Let (7, D, 1) be an inter-
preted theory based on the modal calculus MC v intro-
duced in [6], where D is a definition system and J is an
interpretation, i.e. a model (in logic) for D. In the
semantics adopted by [5], every expression of a theory
T has both an intension and a sense, depending on the
notion of synonymy chosen.
The basic idea for the construction of senses is a gen-
eralization of the idea of intensional isomorphism ac-
cording to [8]. Senses of complex expressions are suit-
able equivalence classes, modulo the chosen synonymy,
of sequences constructed starting with intensions. These
sequences correspond to the weakest synonymy notion,
;;::io. Senses of expressions are determined in an essen-
tially unique way and depend on the formal aspect of
the expression and on valuation of the constants and
variables occurring in it. Therefore, for every choice of
synonymy notion the sense must fullfill certain natural
adequacy requirements. The first of these is:
a) the senses assigned to any two closed well-formed
expressions D. and II> of an interpreted theory (7, D, J)
coincide if and only if D. and II> are synonymous.
Since open well-formed expressions are also used, e.g.,
within propositional attitudes, they, too, must have a
sense. The requirement a) has been strengthened into
one which involves a certain extension of the synonymy
relation considered to v-valued well-formed expressions,
which are couples (D., V), where D. is a well-formed ex-
pression and V is a v-valuation, i.e., an assignment of
intensions to variables.
The adequacy theorem, basic to the sequel, has a
uniqueness character, in that it substantially asserts
that if both (D., V) and (11), W) are related to the same
sense a, then a simple procedure transforms them into
one another. This allows one to associate a with a unique
32
determination of (D., V) by a suitable convention. In [5]
a version of the adequacy theorem is proved when the
well-formed expressions D. and II> are constant free. This
proof holds only when the language is effectively modal,
because the following assumption is used:
b) the class r of possible worlds is infinite.
Subsequently, in [3] a version of the adequacy theo-
rem has been presented which is applicable to every case,
including the extensional case, since b) is not used.
The sense language SL~. On the basis of [5], the
modal language ML v has been extended in [7] to the
sense language SL~ (where Q may be a transfinite ordi-
nal, cf. also Ordinal number; Transfinite number),
which contains well-formed expressions of every (itera-
tion) order (3 < Q. Thus, SL~ is capable of dealing with
propositional attitudes whose iteration orders may be
transfinite.
Any semantics for SL~ must, on the basis of [5], in-
volve sense, hence it must be based on a synonymy re-
lation. Every well-formed expression D. of order (3 has
a hyper-quasi-intension (hyper-quasi-extension) of order
less than or equal to (3 which represents its hyperinten-
sion (hyperextension). In addition, D. has as quasi-sense
of order less than or equal to (3 which represents its
sense.
Intuitively, every hyper-quasi-intension is a func-
tion from r (the class of possible worlds) into a set
of hyper-quasi-extensions. Hyper-quasi-extensions are
constructed in the usual type-theoretical way except
that, if a hyper-quasi-extension is a function, its do-
main is formed with hyper-quasi-intensions and quasi-
senses. A relevant feature of this construction is that
the quasi-senses must have an order (see below) lower
than that of the function involved. The entities assign-
able to variables and constants of order (3 are hyper-
quasi-intensions or quasi-senses of order less than (3.
The v-valuations (respectively, c-valuations) assigning
a hyper-quasi-intension to every variable (constant) will
be called ostensive v-valuations (respectively, ostensive
c-valuations) .
Since expressions may contain both constants and
variables, quasi-senses are relative to a valuation of the
constants and variables. Roughly speaking, the senses of
constants and variables are their valuations, whereas the
quasi-sense of a compound expression D. is a sequence
(X, Xl, ... ,xn ), where X is a marker depending on the
form of D. and Xl, ... ,Xn are senses (of the components
of D.) or functions (depending on the senses of the com-
ponents of D.).
Adequacy theorem for SL~. In [4], a theory T based
on SL~ and a definition system D is presented. Strong
( weak) extensions of 7 are defined in connection with a

semantics for which the senses of well-formed expres-
sions are (are not) preserved by the principles of >.-
conversion. In [4] the designation rules for the senses,
given in [7] only for weak theories, have been given in
a complete form for strong theories as well. In fact, by
means of a suitable notion, every defined constant has a
sense, and the synonymy relations, introduced in [5] for
theories based on MC v , have been extended to strong
and weak extensions of theories based on SL~. In [4]
a strong version of the adequacy theorem is shown to
hold, which is a new result also for ML v , which is sub-
stantially SLr. The last version of the adequacy theorem
does not involve the assumptions that I U V and I U W
are injective functions and that no primitive constant or
defined constants occur in ~ and <I>. I is required to be
an ostensive valuation of the constants, V and Ware
ostensive I -valuations of the variables.
Orders of hyperintensional predications in SL~.
The basic notion of order is crucial in the sense lan-
guage SL~ presented in [7]. It arises from the obser-
vation that, when propositional attitudes are involved,
one faces a proposition containing subordinate clauses.
In other words, the logical analysis of the proposition
considered cannot ignore the recognition that there sub-
sists a hierarchy among the components of the propo-
sition itself. Orders are just the mathematical counter-
parts of this hierarchy: every expression of SL~ (as well
as its interpretation) has an order, so that the hierar-
chy can be established by comparing the orders of the
components of the formula. In this way, it is natural
to translate the propositions considered above into two
formulas like, e.g., K(P,3 = 3) and K(P,3 = log28),
where P denotes Peter, K is a binary relation repre-
senting knowledge and the order of K is greater than
those of '3 = 3' and '3 = log28'.
The example considered above shows that operators
like 'knows that' seem to be sensitive to something more
than the extension (or the intension) of the known as-
sertion. According to the role of the orders pointed out
above for the semantics of SL~, the truth value of F(~),
for F a predicate term, in general depends on the sense
of ~, when the interpretation of F has order greater
than that of ~. Thus, the fact that the assertions con-
sidered above may have different truth values can be ex-
plained by accepting the translations K(P,3 = 3) and
K (P, 3 = log2 8), with the order of K greater than those
of '3 = 3' and '3 = log2 8', and by holding that '3 = 3'
and '3 = log2 8' have different senses.
This example shows that substitution of identicals
fails to be valid in the semantics for SL~. It is replaced
with the substitutivity of synonymous expressions, which
are expressions having the same sense. Synonymy can
be expressed in the language and hence this also holds
ADINA SYSTEM
for the principle of substitutivity of synonymous expres-
sions. Roughly speaking, the synonymy of two expres-
sions ~ and ~', of order h, is expressed by asserting
that no predicate of order h + 1 can distinguish ~ and
~'. This means, in particular, that the mutual substi-
tutivity of two expressions of order h corresponds to an
axiom of order h + l.
References
[IJ BONOTTO, C.: 'Synonymy for Bressan's modal calculus Mev.
Part I: A synonymy relation for Mev', Atti 1st. Veneto di
Sci., Lettere ed Arti CXL (1982), 11-24.
[2J BONOTTO, C.: 'Synonymy for Bressan's modal calculus Mev.
Part II: A sufficient criterium', Atti 1st. Veneto di Sci., Let-
tere ed Arti CXL (1982), 85-99.
[3J BONOTTO, C.: 'An adequacy theorem for the quasi-senses
used in certain theories which are extensional, modal, or
strongly intensional', Atti 1st. Veneto di Sci., Lettere ed Arti
CXLVII (1988-89), 31-39.
[4J BONOTTO, C.: 'A generalization of the adequacy theorem for
the quasi-senses', Notre Dame J. Formal Logic 31 (1990),
560-575.
[5J BONOTTO, C., AND BRESSAN, A.: 'On generalized synonymy
notions and corresponding quasi-senses', Mem. Atti Accad.
Naz. Lincei (VIII), Sect. I 17 (1984), 163-209.
[6J BRESSAN, A.: A geneml interpreted modal calculus,
Yale Univ. Press, 1972.
[7J BRESSAN, A.: 'On the interpreted sense calculus se:;.', in
G. DORN AND P. WEINGARTNER (eds.): Foundations of Logic
and Linguistic, Plenum, 1985, pp. 427-463.
[8J CARNAP, R.: Meaning and necessity, Chicago Univ. Press,
1947.
[9J CARNAP, R.: 'Meaning and synonymy in natural languages',
Philosophical Studies 6 (1955), 33-47.
[lOJ CHURCH, A.: 'A formulation of the logic of sense and deno-
tation': Structure, Method, and Meaning. Essays in honor of
H. Sheffer, Liberal Art Press, 1951.
[I1J CRESSWELL, M.J.: Structured meanings, MIT, 1985.
[12J KAPLAN, D.: 'How to Russell a Frege-Church', J. Philosophy
72 (1975), 716-729.
[13J LEWIS, D.K.: 'General semantics', Synthese 22 (1972), 18-67.
[14J PARSONS, T.: 'Intensional logic in extensional language', J.
Symbolic Logic 47 (1982), 289-328.
C. Bonotto
MSC 1991: 03Bxx
ADINA SYSTEM, automatic dynamic incremental
non-linear analysis system - The finite-element method
(cf. also Difference scheme, variational) is nowadays
(1990s) widely used for the analysis of engineering prob-
lems, in research, design and manufacturing. The prob-
lems solved fall into the areas of solid and structural
mechanics, fluid mechanics, and the interaction between
fluids and structures. The name ADINA stresses that
automatic procedures are used and very general analy-
sis problems can be solved. ADINA has been developed
to address many engineering and scientific problems in
these areas.
The first step of any analysis is to choose an ap-
propriate mathematical model. Once the mathematical
33
ADINA SYSTEM
model has been selected, the finite-element method is
used to solve this model. This solution entails the mesh
generation, imposition of the boundary conditions, es-
tablishment and solution of the governing finite-element
equations, and the assessment of the numerical error. A
finite-element system should be usable for performing
these tasks with as little human effort as possible.
Since major design decisions are based on results
of finite-element analysis, the reliability and effective-
ness of the finite-element solution procedures employed
are of utmost importance. A strong mathematical ba-
sis for these procedures is therefore required, and much
research effort has been expended to develop finite-
element methods that are strong in theory and practice.
The solution techniques used in the ADINA system
are documented in [2], [4], [3]. Specifically, [2] gives the
theoretical basis of the finite-element procedures used.
Many applications are presented in [1].
Solution of solids and structures. The finite-element
discretization schemes employed for the solution of
solids and structures are the standard displacement
method and mixed methods. The standard displacement
method, while quite effective in general two- and three-
dimensional analysis, is not efficient for the analysis
of (almost) incompressible response (such as encoun-
tered in the analysis of rubber-like materials and elasto-
plastic, creep or visco-plastic materials) and for the anal-
ysis of plates and shells. The basic difficulty encountered
is that of 'solution locking'. Mathematically, solution
locking means that the convergence rate is highly depen-
dent upon the bulk modulus (in almost incompressible
analysis) or the thickness dimension (in the analysis of
plates and shells) and decreases drastically, respectively,
as the bulk modulus increases and the thickness dimen-
sion decreases. For incompressible analysis, the ADINA
system offers the use of displacement/pressure-based el-
ements which satisfy the inf-sup condition, and hence
are stable and optimal. These elements can be employed
for linear and highly non-linear analysis [2]. For the so-
lution of plate and shell problems the system offers the
use of elements based on mixed interpolation, that is,
the MITC elements, and special transition elements to
model transitions between three-dimensional and shell
actions [2]. Isotropic, orthotropic and general composite
plates and shells can be analyzed.
Finite-element discretizations can be used to solve
for static or dynamic, linear or non-linear response. The
non-linearities can be due to large deformations and/or
non-linear constitutive relations. A library of material
models is available to model many materials used in en-
gineering practice, and the user can incorporate a pri-
vate material model as well.
34
Another important solution procedure available in
the ADINA system is the contact algorithm, which is
based on the constraint-function method [2].
Solution of heat transfer in solids. In many struc-
tural analyses, notably in mechanical engineering, tem-
perature effects must be included in the stress so-
lution. For such analyses the ADINA system offers
a thermal analysis capability for general two- and
three-dimensional solids and shell structures. Convec-
tion and general radiation boundary conditions can be
modelled and steady-state or transient conditions can
be considered. Also, the constitutive relations can be
temperature- or time-dependent.
Of course, these capabilities can also be used to solve
other field problems such as seepage and electrostatic
conditions [2].
Solution of fluid flows including structural inter-
actions. A large area of analysis application is the so-
lution of fluid flows. Using the ADINA system the fluid
can be modelled as an incompressible or compressible
fluid governed by the full Navier-Stokes equations
[2], [4], [3]. The constitutive relations can be highly non-
linear, and various turbulence models can be employed.
Hence the full range of flows, from Stokes flows to highly
compressible flows with shock fronts, can be analyzed.
The discretization schemes used are a combination of
finite-element and finite-volume procedures [2], [4], [3].
For compressible flows the Euler equations used to
model flows can also be solved (cf. also Euler equa-
tion).
A particularly valuable feature is the capability of an-
alyzing fluid flows with structural interactions. In such
solutions an arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian formulation
is used, and the full flow and structural analysis capa-
bilities of the ADINA system can be employed. Hence,
for example, the flow can be fully compressible and the
structure can include large deformations and non-linear
material response.
Solution of equations. A key step in the finite-element
process is the solution of the equations. The ADINA
system offers direct sparse solution schemes as well as
iterative solution procedures. In structural analysis one
frequently uses the sparse solver, but for very large mod-
els the iterative conjugate-gradient procedure with pre-
conditioning, available in the ADINA system, is attrac-
tive. For fluid flows, of course, one mostly uses iterative
procedures, and a bi-conjugate-gradient technique and
a GMRES method, with pre-conditioning, are available.
Parallel processing. In recent years, parallel process-
ing has become a most important feature of finite-
element programs. The ADINA system, except for the
pre- and post-processing programs, has been fully par-
allelized for certain machines. Domain decomposition

is performed automatically, and the parallelization em-
braces the calculation and assemblage of the element
matrices, the solution of the equations, and the calcula-
tion of the element results.
Use of the ADINA system. The ADINA programs
are used worldwide in research, industry and education,
and increasingly in conjunction with CAD programs.
Many diverse applications have been published at the
ADINA Conferences [1].
References
[1] BATHE, K.J. (ed.): Nonlinear finite element analysis and
ADINA. Computers and Structures. 9-11th ADINA Conf.
Proc., Vol. 47 (4/5); 56 (2/3); 64 (5/6), Pergamon, 1993-
1997.
[2] BATHE, K.J.: Finite element procedures, Prentice-Hall, 1996.
[3] BATHE, K.J.: 'Simulation of structural and fluid flow response
in engineering practice', Computer Modelling and Simulation
in Engineering 1 (1996),47-77.
[4] INC., ADINA R&D: ADINA: Theory and Modeling Guide,
Reports ARD 97-7; 97-8. ADINA R&D Inc., 1997.
K.J. Bathe
MSC 1991: 65L60, 65N30, 65Y99
ADJOINT SEMI-GROUP OF OPERATORS ~ The
semi-group on a dual Banach space X* composed of
the adjoint operators of a Co-semi-group on X (cf. also
Semi-group of operators).
Let T = {T(t)h~o be a Co-semi-group on a Banach
space X, i.e. T(t) E .c(X) for all t and
i) T(O) = I, the identity operator on X;
ii) T(t + s) = T(t)T(s) for all t, s ::::: 0;
iii) the orbits t f-t T( t)x are strongly continuous (cf.
Strongly-continuous semi-group) on [0,(0) for all
x E X.
On the dual space X*, the adjoint semi-group T* =
{T*(t)h>o, with T*(t) = (T(t))*, satisfies i) and ii),
but not necessarily iii). Therefore one defines
X0 = {x* E X* : the orbit
t f-t T*(t)x* is strongly continuous on [0, oo)}.
This is a norm-closed, weak*-dense, T* -invariant sub-
space of X*, and the restriction TO = {T*(t)lx8h~o
is a Co-semi-group on X0, called the strongly contin-
uous adjoint of T. Its infinitesimal generator A0 is
the part of A * in X0, where A * is the adjoint of the
infinitesimal generator A of T. Its spectrum satisfies
a(A0) = a(A*) = a(A). If X is reflexive (cf. Reflexive
space), then X0 = X* [5].
Starting from TO, one defines X0* = (X0)* and
X00 = (X0)0. The natural mapping j: X -+ X0*,
(jx, x0) = (x0, x), is an isomorphic imbedding with
values in X00, and X is said to be 8-reflexive with re-
spect to T if j maps X onto X00. This is the case if
and only if the resolvent (>. - A)-l is weakly compact
for some (hence for all) >. E I?(A) [2]. If X is 8-reflexive
ADJUNCTION THEORY
with respect to T and B E .c(X, X0*), then the part of
A0* + B in X generates a Co-semi-group on X [1].
Let n: X* -+ X* / X0 be the quotient mapping. If, for
some x* E X*, the mapping t f-t nT*(t)x* is separably-
valued, then T*(t)x* E X0 for all t > o. Hence, if T
extends to a Co-group, then X* / X0 is either trivial or
non-separable [7].
If T is a positive Co-semi-group on a Banach lattice
X, then X0 need not be a sublattice of X* [4]. If, how-
ever, X* has order-continuous norm, then X0 is even a
projection band in X* [3]. For a positive Co-semi-group
T on an arbitrary Banach lattice X one has
lim sup IIT*(t)x* - x*11 : : : 211x*11
t.l.0
for all x* E (X0)d, the disjoint complement of X0 in
X*. If (X0)d has a weak order unit, then for all x* E X*
and t > 0 one has T*(t)x* E (X0)dd, the band gener-
ated by X0 in X* [8]. If, for some x* E X*, the mapping
t f-t T*(t)x* is weakly measurable, then, assuming the
Martin axiom (cf. Suslin hypothesis), for all t > 0 one
has T*(t)x* E (X0)dd [9].
A general reference is [6].
References
[1] CLEMENT, PH., DIEKMANN, 0., GYLLENBERG, M., HEIJMANS,
H.J.A.M., AND THIEME, H.R.: 'Perturbation theory for dual
semigroups, Part I: The sun-reflexive case', Math. Ann. 277
(1987), 709-725.
[2] PAGTER, B. DE: 'A characterization of sun-reflexivity', Math.
Ann. 283 (1989), 511-518.
[3] PAGTER, B. DE: 'A Wiener-Young type theorem for dual
semigroups', Acta Appl. Math. 27 (1992), 101-109.
[4] GRABOSCH, A., AND NAGEL, R.: 'Order structure of the semi-
group dual: A counterexample', Indagationes Mathematicae
92 (1989), 199-201.
[5] PHILLIPS, R.S.: 'The adjoint semi-group', Pacific J. Math. 5
(1955), 269-283.
[6] NEERVEN, J.M.A.M. VAN: The adjoint of a semigroup of lin-
ear operators, Vol. 1529 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1992.
[7] NEERVEN, J.M.A.M. VAN: 'A dichotomy theorem for the ad-
joint of a semigroup of operators', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc.
119 (1993), 765-774.
[8] NEERVEN, J.M.A.M. VAN, AND PAGTER, B. DE: 'The adjoint
of a positive semigroup', Compo Math. 90 (1994), 99-118.
[9] NEERVEN, J.M.A.M. VAN, PAGTER, B. DE, AND SCHEP, A.R.:
'Weak measurability of the orbits of an adjoint semigroup', in
G. FERREYRA, G.R. GOLDSTEIN, AND F. NEUBRANDER (eds.):
Evolution Equations, Vol. 168 of Lecture Notes in Pure and
Appl. Math., M. Dekker, 1994, pp. 327-336.
J. van Neerven
MSC 1991: 47D03
ADJUNCTION THEORY ~ In its basic form, the
study of the interplay between an embedding of a pro-
jective manifold (cf. Projective algebraic set) X into
projective space and its canonical bundle, Kx =
35
ADJUNCTION THEORY
det T x , where Tx is the cotangent bundle of X. For sim-
plicity, below the objects are considered over the com-
plex numbers. The book [1] is a general reference with
full coverage of the literature for the whole theory with
its history. The book [4] is a fine reference on related
material.
Classical adjunction theory. To study a smooth pro-
jective algebraic curve C, i.e., a compact Riemann
surface, a major approach in the 19th century was to
relate properties of the curve to properties of the canon-
ical mapping of the curve, i.e., the mapping of the curve
into projective space given by sections of Kc. To study
a two-dimensional algebraic submanifold of projective
space S C pN, it was natural to try to reduce ques-
tions about the surface S to the hyperplane sections of
S c pN, i.e., to the curves obtained by slicing S with
linear hyperplanes pN -1 C pN. This led to the study
of the adjoint bundle K s @ L, where L is the restric-
tion to S C pN of the hyperplane section bundle of pN,
i.e., the line bundle on pN whose sections vanish on hy-
perplanes of pN. The restriction of the adjoint bundle
to a hyperplane section C of S is the canonical bun-
dle of C, and, except in a few trivial cases, Ks ® L is
the only line bundle that has this property. Therefore,
if the mapping associated to Ks ® L exists, it would tie
together the canonical mappings of the smooth hyper-
plane sections of S c pN. In the 19th century geome-
ters, especially G. Castelnuovo and F. Enriques, used
this rational mapping to study the embedding of S into
pn. The general procedure was to consider the sequence
L, Ks ® L, K~ ® L, .... A classical result was that ad-
junction terminates, i.e., there is a positive t such that
Kl @ L has no sections, if and only if S is birational
(cf. Birational morphism) to the product of an alge-
braic curve and pI. A key point was that if the above
t was the first positive n such that Kl @ L has no sec-
tions, then (S, K1- 1 ® L) is one of only a 'very short list
of pairs'. Classically, it was not known if Ks ® L was
spanned and, therefore, this procedure did not usually
lead to a biregular classification. (A line bundle .c on an
algebraic set is said to be spanned if global sections of .c
surject onto the fibre of .c at any point of the algebraic
set.) There were also analogous classical procedures on
threefolds due to G. Fano and U. Morin (see [5], [1]).
A.J. Sommese [6] started the modern study of the
mapping (which he called the adjunction mapping) asso-
ciated to Kx®L n - 1 , where L is a very ample line bundle
(cf. Ample vector bundle) on an n-dimensional pro-
jective manifold. The complete story with history of the
adjunction mapping can be found in [1, Chapts. 8-11].
The fundamental results of this theory are that except
for a few special varieties, the pair (X, L) can be re-
placed by a closely related pair (X', L') with 7f: X ---+ X'
36
the blow-up of an n-dimensional projective manifold X'
at a finite set, L' = (7f*L)** an ample line bundle,
Kx ® L n - 1 ~ 7f*(Kxl ® Lin-I), and Kx, @ L ' n-l very
ample. Moreover, if n 2: 3 then, except for a few more
examples, Kx, @ L'n-2 is numerically effective, or nef,
i.e., (Kxl + (n - 2)L') . C 2: 0 for any effective curve
C C X'. These results allow the classical birational re-
sults alluded to above to be both considerably extended
and redone biregularly.
The major open question for this part of adjunc-
tion theory is to what extent the mapping associated
to Kx ® Ln-2 is well-behaved when L is very ample,
X is smooth, and n 2: 3. For example, it is known
when n 2: 3 that, except for obvious counterexamples,
hO(Kx ® Ln-2) 2: 2, and if the Kodaira dimension
of X is non-negative, then hO(Kx ® Ln-2) 2: 6 unless
X C p4 is a quintic threefold with Kx trivial. See [2],
[1] for this and some further discussion of this problem.
General adjunction theory. A more abstract ap-
proach to adjunction theory is to start with a pair
(X, L) with L an ample line bundle on a projective va-
riety X having at worst mild singularities, e.g., termi-
nal singularities. Then, assuming Kx is not nef, Kawa-
mata'8 theorem asserts that there is a rational num-
ber T = u/v with u,v > o. called the nefvalue of the
pair such that K'X ® LUis nef but not ample. By the
Kawamata--Shokurov theorem, K'X @L uS is spanned for
all sufficiently large positive integers s. The morphism
1jJ: X ---+ Y = 1jJ(X), from X to a normal projective vari-
ety Y, associated to K'X ® L us. is independent of s for all
sufficiently large s. This mapping 1jJ, called the nefvalue
morphism of the pair, has connected fibres, and at least
one positive-dimensional fibre. If dim Y < dim X, one
can express X as a very special fibration of Fano vari-
eties, e.g., if T > n/2+ 1, then 1jJ is a contraction of an ex-
tremal ray (see [3] and [1, Chapt. 6]). If dim X = dim Y,
then one can replace (X, L) with (Y, (1jJ*L)**) and re-
peat the procedure. This works well for T 2: n - 3 (see
[1, Chapts. 6, 7]).
Define the spectral value a of the pair (X, L) as the in-
fimum of the positive rational numbers u/v with u, v > 0
such that there is some positive integer t > 0 with
hO(K)f ® Lut) > o. A major conjecture in this part
of the theory is that if a > n/2 + 1, then a is the nef-
value of the pair (X, L) and the nefvalue morphism has
a lower-dimensional image.
References
[1] BELTRAMETTI, M.C., AND SOMMESE, A.J.: The adjunction
theory of complex projective varieties, Vol. 16 of Expositions
in Mathematics, De Gruyter, 1995.
[2] BELTRAMETTI, M.C., AND SOMMESE, A.J.: 'On the dimen-
sion of the adjoint linear system for threefolds', Ann. Scuola
Norm. Sup. Pisa Cl. Sci. Ser. (4) XXII (1995), 1-24.

[3] BELTRAMETTI, M.C., SOMMESE, A.J., AND WISNIEWSKI, J.A.:
'Results on varieties with many lines and their applica-
tions to adjunction theory (with an appendix by M.C. Bel-
trametti and A.J. Sommese)', in K. HULEK, T. PETERNELL,
M. SCHNEIDER, AND F.-O. SCHREYER (eds.): Complex Alge-
bmic Varieties, Bayreuth 1990, Vol. 1507 of Lecture Notes in
Mathematics, Springer, 1992, pp. 16-38.
[4] FUJITA, T.: Classification theories of polarized varieties,
Vol. 155 of London Math. Soc. Lecture Notes, Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1990.
[5] ROTH, L.: Algebmic threefolds with special regard to problems
of mtionality, Springer, 1955.
[6] SOMMESE, A.J.: 'Hyperplane sections of projective surfaces, I:
The adjunction mapping', Duke Math. J. 46 (1979),377-401.
A.J. Sommese
MSC 1991: 14J99, 14E99, 14C20
AF-ALGEBRA, approximately finite-dimensional al-
gebra - AF -algebras form a class of C* -algebras that, on
the one hand, admits an elementary construction, yet,
on the other hand, exhibits a rich structure and pro-
vide examples of exotic phenomena. A (separable) C*-
algebra A is said to be an AF-algebra if one of the
following two (not obviously) equivalent conditions is
satisfied (see [8], [2] or [4]):
i) for every finite subset {al, ... ,an} of A and for
every f > 0 there exists a finite-dimensional sub-C*-
algebra B of A and a subset {b l , ... ,bn } of B with
Ilaj - bj II < f for all j = 1, ... ,n;
ii) there exists an increasing sequence Al <:;:; A2 <:;:; ...
of finite-dimensional sub-C* -algebras of A such that the
union U~l Aj is norm-dense in A.
Bratteli diagrams. It follows from (an analogue of)
Wedderburn's theorem (cf. Wedderburn-Art in the-
orem), that every finite-dimensional C*-algebra is iso-
morphic to the direct sum of full matrix algebras over
the field of complex numbers. Property ii) says that
each AF-algebra is the inductive limit of a sequence
Al --+ A2 --+ ... of finite-dimensional C* -algebras, where
the connecting mappings Aj --+ Aj+l are *-preserving
homomorphisms. If two such sequences Al --+ A2 --+ ...
and BI --+ B2 --+ ... define isomorphic AF-algebras,
then already the algebraic inductive limits of the two
sequences are isomorphic (as algebras over C).
All essential information of a sequence Al --+ A2 --+
. .. of finite-dimensional C* -algebras with connecting
mappings can be expressed in a so-called Bratteli di-
agram. The Bratteli diagram is a graph, divided into
rows, whose vertices in the jth row correspond to the di-
rect summands of Aj isomorphic to a full matrix algebra,
and where the edges between the jth and the (j + l)st
row describe the connecting mapping Aj --+ A j +!. By
the facts mentioned above, the construction and also the
classification of AF -algebras can be reduced to a purely
AF-ALGEBRA
combinatorial problem phrased in terms of Bratteli di-
agrams. (See [2].)
UHF-algebras. AF-algebras that are inductive lim-
its of single full matrix algebras with unit-preserving
connecting mappings are called UHF-algebras ( uni-
formly hyper-finite algebras) or Glimm algebras. A UHF-
algebra is therefore an inductive limit of a sequence
Mk1(C) --+ Mk2(C) --+ ... , where, necessarily, each k j
divides kj+l . Setting nl = kl and nj = kj/kj- l for
j :::=: 2, this UHF-algebra can alternatively be described
as the infinite tensor product Mnl (C) 0 Mn2 (C) 0 ....
(See [8].)
The UHF-algebra with nl = n2 = ... = 2 is called
the CAR-algebra; it is generated by a family of op-
erators {a(f): f E H}, where H is some separable
infinite-dimensional Hilbert space and a is linear and
satisfies the canonical anti-commutation relations (cf.
also Commutation and anti-commutation rela-
tionships, representation of):
a(f)a(g)+ a(g )a(f) = 0,
a(f)a(g)* + a(g)*a(f) = (f,g)1.
(See [3].)
K-theory and classification. By the K-theory
for C* -algebras, one can associate a triple
(Ko(A),Ko(A)+,~(A)) to each C*-algebra A. Ko(A)
is the countable Abelian group of formal differences
of equivalence classes of projections in matrix algebras
over A, and Ko(A)+ and ~(A) are the subsets of those
elements in Ko(A) that are represented by projections
in some matrix algebra over A, respectively, by pro-
jections in A itself. The KI-groUP of an AF-algebra is
always zero.
The classification theorem for AF-algebras says
that two AF-algebras A and Bare *-isomorphic if
and only if the triples (Ko(A), Ko(A)+, ~(A)) and
(Ko(B), Ko(B)+, ~(B)) are isomorphic, i.e., if and only
if there exists a group isomorphism 0:: Ko(A) --+ Ko(B)
such that o:(Ko(A)+) = Ko(B)+ and o:(~(A)) = 'E(B).
If this is the case, then there exists an isomorphism
'P: A --+ B such that K 0 ( 'P) = 0:. Moreover, any ho-
momorphism 0:: Ko(A) --+ Ko(B) such that o:('E(A)) <:;:;
'E (B) is induced by a *-homomorphism 'P: A --+ B,
and if 'P, 'l/J: A --+ B are two *-homomorphisms, then
K 0 ( 'P) = K 0 ( 'l/J) if and only if 'P and 'l/J are homotopic
(through a continuous path of *-homomorphisms from
A to B).
An ordered Abelian group (G, G+) is said to have the
Riesz interpolation property if whenever Xl, X2, YI, Y2 E
G with Xi :S Yj, there exists a z E G such that
Xi :S z :S Yj. (G, G+) is called unperforated if nx :::=: 0, for
some integer n > 0 and some X E G, implies that X :::=: o.
37
AF-ALGEBRA
The Effros-Handelman-Shen theorem says that a count-
able ordered Abelian group (G, G+) is the K-theory of
some AF -algebra if and only if it has the Riesz inter-
polation property and is unperforated. (See [6], [5], [1],
and [4].)
A conjecture belonging to the Elliott classification
program asserts that a C* -algebra is an AF -algebra if it
looks like an AF-algebra! More precisely, suppose that A
°
is a separable, nuclear C* -algebra which has stable rank
one and real rank zero, and suppose that K 1 (A) =
and that Ko(A) is unperforated (Ko(A) must necessar-
ily have the Riesz interpolation property when A is as-
sumed to be of real rank zero). Does it follow that A is
an AF-algebra? This conjecture has been confirmed in
some specific non-trivial cases. (See [7].)
Traces and ideals. The K-theory of an AF-algebra not
only serves as a classifying invariant, it also explicitly re-
veals some of the structure of the algebra, for example
its traces and its ideal structure. Recall that a (positive)
trace on a C* -algebra A is a (positive) linear mapping
T: A -+ C satisfying the trace property: T(XY) = T(YX)
for all x, yEA. An 'ideal' means a closed two-sided
ideal.
A state f on an ordered A belian group (G, G+) is a
group homomorphism f: G -+ R satisfying f(G+) ~
R +. An order ideal H of (G, G+) is a subgroup of G
with the property that H+ = G+ n H generates H, and
if x E H+, Y E G+, and y ::; x, then y E H. A trace T
on A induces a state on (Ko(A), Ko(A)+) by
KO(T) ([P]o - [q]o) = T(p) - T(q),
where p, q are projections in A (or in a matrix algebra
over A); and given an ideal I in A, the image 1* of the
induced mapping Ko(I) -+ Ko(A) (which happens to be
injective, when A is an AF-algebra) is an order ideal of
Ko(A). For AF-algebras, the mappings T f-t KO(T) and
I f-t 1* are bijections. In particular, if Ko(A) is simple
as an ordered group, then A must be simple.
If a C* -algebra A has a unit, then the set of tra-
cial states (i.e., positive traces that take the value 1 on
the unit) is a Choquet simplex. Using the character-
izations above, one can, for each metrizable Choquet
simplex, find a simple unital AF -algebra whose trace
simplex is affinely homeomorphic to the given Choquet
simplex. Hence, for example, simple unital C* -algebras
can have more than one trace. (See [6] and [5].)
Embeddings into AF -algebras. One particularly in-
teresting, and still not fully investigated, application of
AF -algebras is to find for a C* -algebra A an AF -algebra
B and an embedding r.p: A -+ B which induces an inter-
esting (say injective) mapping Ko(r.p): Ko(A) -+ Ko(B).
Since Ko(r.p) is positive, the positive cone Ko(A)+ of
Ko(A) must be contained in the pre-image of Ko(B)+.
38
For example, the order structure of the Ko-group of
the irrational rotation C* -algebra Au was determined
by embedding Au into an AF-algebra B with Ko(B) =
Z + ()Z (as an ordered group). As a corollary to this,
it was proved that Au ~ Au' if and only if () = ()' or
() = 1 - ()'. (See [9].)
Along another interesting avenue there have been
produced embeddings of C(S2n) into appropriate AF-
algebras inducing injective K-theory mappings. This
suggests that the 'cohomological dimension' of these AF-
algebras should be at least 2n.
References
[1] BLACKADAR, B.: K-theory for operator algebras, Vol. 5 of
MSRI publication, Springer, 1986.
[2] BRATTELI, 0.: 'Inductive limits of finite-dimensional C*-
algebras', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 171 (1972), 195-234.
[3] BRATTELI, 0., AND ROBINSON, D.W.: Operator algebras and
quantum statistical mechanics, Vol. II, Springer, 1981.
[4] EFFROS, E.: Dimensions and CO-algebras, Vol. 46 of CBMS
Regional Conf. Ser. Math., Amer. Math. Soc., 1981.
[5] EFFROS, E., HANDELMAN, D., AND SHEN, C.-L.: 'Dimension
groups and their affine representations', Amer. J. Math. 102
(1980), 385-407.
[6] ELLIOTT, G.A.: 'On the classification of inductive limits of se-
quences of semisimple finite-dimensional algebras', J. Algebra
38 (1976), 29-44.
[7] ELLIOTT, G.A.: 'The classification problem for amenable C*-
algebras': Proc. Internat. Congress Mathem. (Zurich, 1 g94),
Birkhiiuser, 1995, pp. 922-932.
[8] GLIMM, J.: 'On a certain class of operator algebras',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 95 (1960), 318-340.
[9] PIMSNER, M., AND VOICULESCU, D.: 'Imbedding the irrational
rotation algebras into AF-algebras', J. Operator Th. 4 (1980),
201-210.
M. R¢rdam
MSC 1991: 46Lxx, 46L80, 19Kxx
AFL OPERATIONS - The basic families in the
Chomsky hierarchy (the regular, context-free, context-
sensitive, and recursively enumerable languages) are
closed under union (the usual set operation), concate-
nation (L1 L2 = {xy: x E L 1, Y E L 2}), Kleene +
(L+ = Ui~1Li, where L O = {.x} and LH1 = LiL, i ~ 0,
with .x denoting the empty string), intersection with reg-
ular languages, morphisms (non-erasing in the context-
sensitive case), and inverse morphisms (if h: V* -+ U*
is a morphism, one says that h- 1 : U* -+ 2v ' defined by
h- 1(x) = {y E V*: h(y) = x}, x E U*,
is an inverse morphism).
These six operations are called AFL operations, and a
family of languages closed under them is called an AFL
(a full AFL when it is closed under arbitrary morphisms;
cf. also Abstract family of languages; Trio). Union,
concatenation, and Kleene + are also called regular op-
erations.

The AFL operations are not independent. For in-
stance, any family of languages which is closed under
1) union, Kleene +, non-erasing morphisms, inverse
morphisms, and intersection with regular languages is
closed under concatenation;
2) concatenation, Kleene +, non-erasing morphisms,
inverse morphisms, and intersection with regular lan-
guages is closed under union;
3) concatenation, non-erasing morphisms, and in-
verse morphisms is closed under intersection with regu-
lar languages.
Moreover, if a family of languages is closed under
intersection with regular languages, union with regu-
lar languages, and substitution with regular languages,
then it is also closed under inverse morphisms. A family
of languages is closed under morphisms, inverse mor-
phisms, and intersection with regular languages if and
only if it is closed under sequential transducers (fi-
nite automata with outputs, allowing transitions on the
empty string; when the transitions are defined only for
non-empty strings, one obtains the notion of a general-
ized sequential machine, abbreviated gsm).
Thus, to check the closure properties of a family of
languages under the AFL operations, one does not have
to consider all six operations. On the other hand, the
AFL operations can simulate other operations, such as
direct and inverse gsm mappings, quotients by regular
languages, etc. (see Trio). Each AFL that contains a
language containing the empty string is also closed un-
der substitution into regular languages (for each symbol
of an alphabet one associates a language from an AFL
F; by replacing each symbol in each string of a regu-
lar language by the associated language one obtains a
language in F). This is important, because an AFL is
not necessarily closed under substitution (or intersec-
tion, reversal, shuffle, etc). However, any AFL closed
under intersection is closed under substitution.
References
[1] BERSTEL, J.: Transductions and context-free languages,
Teubner, 1979.
[2] GINSBURG, S.: Algebmic and automata-theoretic properties of
formal languages, North-Holland, 1975.
[3] GINSBURG, S., AND GREIBACH, S.A.: 'Abstract families of
languages', in S. GINSBURG, S.A. GREIBACH, AND J.E.
HOPCROFT (eds.): Studies in Abstmct Families of Languages,
Vol. 87 of Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1969.
[4] HOPCROFT, J.E., AND ULLMAN, J.D.: Introduction to au-
tomata theory, languages, and computation, Addison-Wesley,
1979.
[5] ROZENBERG, G., AND SALOMAA, A. (eds.): Handbook of For-
mal Languages, Springer, 1997.
[6] SALOMAA, A.: Formal languages, Acad. Press, 1973.
Gh. Paun
MSC 1991: 68S05, 68Q45
AKIVIS ALGEBRA
AHLSWEDE-DAYKIN INEQUALITY, four-
functions inequality - An inequality in which an in-
equality for four functions on a finite distributive lattice
applies also to additive extensions of the functions on
lattice subsets. Let (r, -<) be a finite distributive lat-
tice (see also FKG inequality), such as the power
set of a finite set ordered by proper inclusion. For sub-
sets A, B ofr, define Av B = {aVb: a E A,b E B}
and A 1\ B = {a 1\ b: a E A, b E B}. If A or B is
empty, A V B = A 1\ B = 0. Given f: r -+ R, let
f(A) = EaEA f(a).
The Ahlswede-Daykin inequality says that if It, 12,
13, and f4 map r into [0,00) such that
It(a)h(b) ::; h(a V b)f4(a 1\ b) for all a, bE r,
then
It(A)h(B) ::; h(A V B)f4(A 1\ B) for all A, B ~ r.
See [1] or [2], [4], [7] for a proof.
The inequality is very basic and is used in proofs of
other inequalities (cf. [2], [3], [4], [5], [7]), including the
FKG inequality [6] and the Fishburn-Shepp in-
equality [3], [8].
See also Correlation inequalities; Holley in-
equality.
References
[1] AHLSWEDE, R., AND DAYKIN, D.E.: 'An inequality for the
weights of two families, their unions and intersections', Z.
Wahrsch. verlll. Gebiete 43 (1978), 183-185.
[2] BOLLOBAS, B.: Combinatorics, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986.
[3] FISHBURN, P.C.: 'A correlational inequality for linear exten-
sions of a poset', Order 1 (1984), 127-137.
[4] FISHBURN, P.C.: 'Correlation in partially ordered sets', Dis-
crete Appl. Math. 39 (1992), 173-191.
[5] FISHBURN, P.C., DOYLE, P.G., AND SHEPP, L.A.: 'The match
set of a random permutation has the FKG property', Ann.
of Probab. 16 (1988), 1194-1214.
[6] FORTUIN, C.M., KASTELEYN, P.N., AND GINIBRE, J.: 'Cor-
relation inequalities for some partially ordered sets', Comm.
Math. Phys. 22 (1971), 89-103.
[7] GRAHAM, R.L.: 'Applications of the FKG inequality and its
relatives': Proc. 12th Internat. Symp. Math. Progmmming,
Springer, 1983, pp. 115-131.
[8] SHEPP, L.A.: 'The XYZ conjecture and the FKG inequality',
Ann. of Probab. 10 (1982), 824-827.
P. C. Fishburn
MSC 1991: 60E15, 06A06
AKIVIS ALGEBRA - A vector space over a field
with an anti-symmetric bilinear multiplication (x, y) f-t
[x,y] and a multilinear ternary operation (x,y,z) f-t
(x, y, z) which are linked by the so-called Akivis con-
dition, defined as follows [3], [4]. Let 8 3 denote the
group of all six permutations and A3 the subgroup of
all three cyclic permutations of the set {I, 2, 3}. Define
39
AKIVIS ALGEBRA

J(x,y,z) = I:<TEA 3 [[xo-(l),X<T(2)],X<T(3)]' The Akiviscon- along magnetic field lines 8/ 8l = f. V' with f =: 13/ 1131 :
dition reads:
82 282 } ~ ~
{ 8t 2 - A 8[2 v, h(l, t) = 0, (1)
L sgn(o-) \X<T(I), X<T(2), X<T(3)) = J(XI' X2, X3).
at the Alfven speed (2):
<TE S3
f.1,B2 T
The specialization (Xl, X2, X3) =: 0 yields a Lie alge- a2 = - - (2)
47l'p P
bra. If A is an arbitrary non-associative algebra over a p,B2
field with a binary bilinear multiplication (X, y) r-t xy T=:--,
47l'
(cf. also Non-associative rings and algebras), then
where p, is the magnetic permeability and p the mass
[x, y] = xy - yx and (x, y, z) = x(yz) - (xy)z define
density. Alfven waves are analogous [9] to the trans-
an Akivis algebra on A. The tangent algebra of a local
analytic loop (cf. Loop, analytic) is always an Akivis
verse oscillations of a string, with the velocity and v
magnetic field h perturbations replacing the displace-
algebra. This generalizes the facts that the tangent al-
ment, the magnetic field lines replacing the string, and
gebra of a local Lie group (cf. also Lie group, local)
T =: f.1,B2/47l' 'magnetic' tension. Under these simple
is a Lie algebra and that the tangent algebra of a lo-
conditions, the velocity perturbation is the fraction of
cal Moufang loop is a Mal'tsev algebra. Analytic or
the Alfven speed equal to the magnetic field perturba-
differentiable quasi-groups (cf. Quasi-group) and loops
tion as a fraction of the external magnetic field:
arise in the study of the geometry of webs (cf. Web),
v h
[2], [1], [4]. (3)
A B'
References
this implies, using (2), the equi-partition of kinetic Ev
[1] GOLDBERG. V.V.: Theory of multi co dimensional (n+1)-webs.
Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1988. and magnetic Eh energies:
[2] GOLDBERG, V.V.: 'Local differentiable quasi groups and
_ 1 2 1 2 (A) 2 f.1h 2 _
(4)
webs', in O. CHEIN. H.O. PFLUG FELDER. AND J.D.H. SMITH Ev = 2 Pv = 2Ph B = 87l' = Eh .
(eds.): Quasigroups and Loops - Theory and Applications,
Heldermann, 1990, pp. 263-311. It also implies that the energy flux is the total energy,
[3] HOFMANN, K.H., AND STRAMBACH, K.: 'The Akivis algebra
of a homogeneous loop', Mathematika 33 (1986),87-95. (5)
[4] HOFMANN, K.H., AND STRAMBACH, K.: 'Topological and an-
alytic loops', in O. CHEIN, H.O. PFLUGFELDER, AND J.D.H.
times the Alfven speed:
SMITH (eds.): Quasigroups and Loops - Theory and Applica-
tions, Heldermann, 1990, pp. 205-262.
[5] MIHEEV, P.O., AND SABININ, L.V.: 'Quasigroups and differen-
tialgeometry', in O. CHEIN, H.O. PFLUG FELDER, AND J.D.H. The energy density and flux satisfy
SMITH (eds.): Quasigroups and Loops - Theory and Applica-
8E 8F
tions, Heldermann, 1990, pp. 357-430. fit + 8z = O. (7)
K.H. Hofmann
Alfven waves, being transversal, are incompressible:
MSC 1991: 17Dxx, 22E05, 22E67, 20Nxx v
V' . = 0 (note that V' . h = 0 always, by the Maxwell
equations) .
ALFVEN WAVES - Waves in an ionized fluid, for In a compressible fluid, the pressure acts as a restor-
which the only restoring force is magnetic. This defi- ing force, and one obtains sound waves. The combina-
nition allows for different background media (homoge- tion is magneto-acoustic waves [24], [6], which have three
neous or not) under an external magnetic field (which modes: i) unchanged Alfven mode, because it is incom-
may be uniform, or vary in strength and/or direc- pressible; and sound waves modified into two coupled
tion), for the presence of dissipation and other effects slow ii) and fast iii) modes. Considering a stratified fluid
(displacement, Ohmic or Hall currents, fluid viscosity, (e.g., an atmosphere) and adding gravity as a restor-
mean flow, multiple ion species); it excludes other types ing force, one has magneto-acoustic-gravity waves [9],
of waves (sound, gravity and inertial) associated with [38], [34], [37] and Alfven-gravity waves decouple only
restoring forces of non-magnetic origin. if the horizontal wave-vector (which exists only in the
The simplest case [1] is a perfectly conducting, homo- direction transverse to stratification) lies in the plane of
geneous, ionized fluid under a uniform external magnetic gravity and the external magnetic field. Adding rotation
field 13. For an Alfven wave the perturbations of the ve- and the Coriolis force as the fourth restoring force leads
v
locity and magnetic field h are parallel and transverse to magneto-acoustic-gravity-inertial waves [9], [31], for
to the external magnetic field, h II v..l 13, and propagate which decoupling of Alfven-gravity modes is generally

40

not possible. Below, the Alfven waves are uncoupled to
other types of waves in fluids.
Alfven waves in a stratified medium, e.g., with den-
sity a function of altitude, but under a uniform external
magnetic field [22], and isothermal conditions, satisfy
different equations [7] for the velocity and magnetic field
perturbations:
{~
8t 2
- A2~} v(x t) = 0,
81 2 '
(8)
8 28 } ~ ~
{ -82 - -A _
- h(x, t) - 0, (9)
8t 2 8l 8l
where the Alfven speed is, in general, non-uniform. The
relation (3) no longer holds, and thus equi-partition of
energies breaks down (4), (5), and the simplification of
the energy flux (6) fails. Examples of a non-constant
magnetic field are: i) a radial magnetic field [7], for
which Alfven waves remain incompressible; and ii) a spi-
ral magnetic field [17], for which they are not divergence
free (compressive Alfven waves). Alfven waves have also
been considered in non-isothermal atmospheres [39],
[36], and in magnetic flux tubes [35].
The Alfven wave equations are usually deduced from
the equations of magneto-hydrodynamics [5], neglecting
the displacement current in comparison with the electric
current (cf. also Magneto-hydrodynamics, mathe-
matical problems in). The effect of the displacement
current on Alfven waves has been studied [29]. Another
effect is Hall currents, resulting from the spiralling of
electrons around the magnetic field [30], [13]. If the ex-
ternal magnetic field is non-uniform, the ion-gyro (or
spiralling) frequency varies with altitude, and where it
equals the wave frequency a critical layer occurs [33],
[18]. A critical layer is a singularity of the wave equation,
where wave absorption, reflection or transformation can
occur. A critical layer also occurs for Alfven-gravity
waves in the presence of Ohmic currents, i.e., electrical
resistance [8]. Since Alfven waves are transversal, i.e., in-
compressible, there are no thermal effects (e.g., conduc-
tion or radiation), and the other dissipation mechanism
is shear viscosity [10]' [12]. In a homogeneous medium
the dissipative Alfven wave equation reads [20]:
82 82 8 2 ~
{ - - A2_ - (X + TJ)-V + XTJV 4 } V, h(x, t) = 0,
8t 2 8l 8t
(10)
where X is the Ohmic and 71 the viscous diffusivity. If
their product is small, the fourth, biharmonic, term can
be omitted [25]. The wave equation is different for hand
V, and more complicated for dissipative Alfven-gravity
waves, since then, in general, A, X, 71 are non-uniform
[15], [14].
Alfven waves have been observed in the laboratory
[32], and occur in plasma machines and fusion reactors.
ALFVEN WAVES
They may be present in the Earth's molten core, where
inertial effects could be important. Alfven waves have
been observed in the solar atmosphere [11], and could
be a mechanism for: i) heating the atmosphere by dis-
sipation [2], [19]; or ii) accelerating the solar wind [26].
Alfven waves [3], [4] propagate with the solar wind to
the Earth's ionosphere, and exist in the interplanetary
[35] and probably in the interstellar medium. The case of
the solar wind [26] combines several of the possible influ-
ences on Alfven waves: i) non-uniform background den-
sity, decaying towards the Earth; ii) external magnetic
field varying in strength and direction along Parker's
spiral; iii) background mean flow with velocity exceed-
ing the Alfven speed, beyond the critical point; iv) pres-
ence of multiple ion species. In the distant solar wind, as
particle density decreases, Alfven waves should be con-
sidered in the context of plasmas [21], rather than of
magneto-hydrodynamics [28].
The generation of Alfven waves results from hydro-
magnetic turbulence and ionized inhomogeneities [6],
[27], [23], e.g., in the photosphere of the sun, where the
Alfven waves propagating in the solar atmosphere and
solar wind originate. The solution of the Alfven wave
equation uses:
i) elementary functions, Fourier transforms and dis-
persion relations for homogeneous media [1], [6], [38],
[34], [37], [30], [33], [20] (cf. also Fourier transform);
ii) Bessel functions for isothermal atmospheres and
other inhomogeneous media [22], [7], [16], [17], [39], [29],
[13], [11];
iii) hypergeometric functions (cf. also Hypergeo-
metric function) when critical layers are present [18],
[8], [10], [12], [15], [14], [19]. In this case the three singu-
larities represent the initial and asymptotic wave fields,
and the wave fields near the critical layer.
Alfven waves are linear [28]' [9]' even when of finite
amplitude, and this is why most of the theory uses lin-
ear differential equations with constant or variable coef-
ficients.
References
[1] ALFVEN, H.O.G.: 'On the existence of electromagnetic-
hydrodynamic waves', Ark. Mat. Astron. Fys. A29 (1942),
1-7.
[2] ALFVEN, H.O.G.: 'Granulation, magnetohydrodynamic
waves and the heating of the solar corona', Monthly Notices
Roy. Astron. Soc. 107 (1947), 201-211.
[3] ALFVEN, H.O.G.: Cosmical electrodynamics, Oxford Univ.
Press, 1948.
[4] ALFVEN, H.O.G., AND FALTHAMMAR, C.G.: Cosmical electro-
dynamics, Oxford Univ. Press, 1962.
[5] CABANNES, H.: Magneto-fluid dynamics, Acad. Press, 1970.
[6] CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'On the generation and radiation of
magneto-acoustic waves', J. Fluid Mech. 81 (1977),529-534.
41
ALFVEN WAVES
[7J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'On magneto-acoustic-gravity waves
propagating or standing vertically in an atmosphere', J. Phys.
A 16 (1983), 217-237.
[8J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'On viscous and resistive dissipation of
hydrodynamic and hydromagnetic waves in atmospheres', J.
Mech. Theor. Appl. 2 (1983), 861-89l.
[9J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'On waves in gases. Part II: Interaction
of sound with magnetic and internal modes', Rev. Mod. Phys.
59 (1987), 363-462.
[lOJ CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'On oblique Alfven waves in a viscous
and resistive atmosphere', J. Phys. A 21 (1988),2911-2930.
[11J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'On oscillations in sunspot umbras and
wave radiation in stars.', Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc.
241 (1989), 215-229.
[12J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'On the dissipation of Alfven waves in
uniform and non-uniform magnetic fields', Geophys. Astro-
phys. Fluid Dyn. 48 (1990), 193-215.
[13J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'On the Hall effect on vertical Alfven
waves in an isothermal atmosphere', Phys. Fluids B4 (1992),
2975-2982.
[14J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'Comparison of exact solutions and
phase mining approximation, for dissipative Alfven waves',
Europ. J. Mech. B12 (1993), 187-216.
[15J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'Exact and approximate methods for hy-
dromagnetic waves in dissipative atmospheres', W ave Motion
17 (1993), 101-112.
[16J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C.: 'An exact solution for spherical Alfven
waves', Europ. J. Mech. B13 (1994),613-28.
[17J CAMPOS, L.M.S., AND GIL, P.J.S.: 'On spiral coordinates
with application to wave propagation', J. Fluid Mech. 301
(1995),153-173.
[18J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C., AND ISAEVA, N.L.: 'On vertical spinning
Alfven waves in a magnetic flux tube', J. Plasma Phys. 48
(1992), 415-434.
[19J CAMPOS, L.M.B.C., AND MENDES, P.M.V.M.: 'On the com-
patibility of Alfven wave heating of the chromosphere, tran-
sition region and corona', Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc.
276 (1995), 1041-105l.
[20J COWLING, T.G.: Magnetohydrodynamics, Acad. Press, 1980.
[21J CROSS, R.: An introduction to Alfven waves, Adam Hilger,
lOP Publishing, 1988.
[22J FERRARO, V.C.A., AND PLUMPTON, C.: 'Hydromagnetic
waves in an horizontally stratified atmosphere', Astrophys.
J. 129 (1958), 459-476.
[23J FERRARO, V.C.A., AND PLUMPTON, C.: Magneto-fluid dy-
namics, Oxford Univ. Press, 1963.
[24J HERLOFSON, N.: 'Waves in a compressible fluid conductor',
Nature 165 (1950), 1020-102l.
[25J HEYVAERTS, J., AND PRIEST, E.R.: 'Coronal heating by
phase-mined shear Alfven waves', Astron. Astrophys. 117
(1983), 220-234.
[26J HOLLWEG, J.V.: 'Alfven waves in a two-fluid model of the
solar wind', Astrophys. J. 181 (1973),547-566.
[27J KULSRUD, R.M.: 'Effect of magnetic fields in the generation
of noise by turbulence', Astrophys. J. 121 (1955),461-468.
[28J LANDAU, L.D., AND LIFSHITZ, E.F.: Electrodynamics of con-
tinuous media, Pergamon, 1956.
[29J LEROY, B.: 'Propagation of Alfven waves in an isothermal
atmosphere when the displacement current is not neglected',
Astron. Astrophys. 125 (1983),371-383.
[30J LIGHTHILL, M.J.: 'Studies on magnetohydrodynamic waves
and other anisotropic wave motions', Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.
A 252 (1959), 397-430.
42
[31J LIGHTHILL, M.J.: Waves in fluids, Cambridge Univ. Press,
1978.
[32J LUNDQUIST, S.: 'Experimental investigation of magnetohy-
drudynamic waves', Phys. Rev. 79 (1949), 1805-IR09.
[33J McKENZIE, J.F.: 'On a critical level for ion-cyclotron waves',
J. Plasma Phys. 22 (1979),361-372.
[34J McLELLAl", A., AND WINTERBERG, F.: 'Magneto-gravity
waves and the heating of the solar corona', Solar Phys. 4
(1968),401-408.
[35J PARKER, E.N.: Cosmical magnetic fields, Oxford Univ. Press,
1979.
[36J PARKER, E.N.: 'Alfven waves in a thermally stratified fluid',
Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn. 29 (1984), 1-12.
[37J THOMAS, J.H.: 'Magneto-atmospheric waves', Ann. Rev.
Fluid Mech. 15 (1984),321-343.
[38J Yu, C.P.: 'Magneto-atmospheric waves in an horizontally-
stratified conducting medium', Phys. Fluids 8 (1965), 650-
658.
[39J ZUGZDA, Y.D.: 'Low-frequency oscillatory convection in a
strong magnetic field', Cosmic Electrodyn. 2 (1971),267-279.
L.M.B. C. Campos
MSC 1991: 33A30, 33A40, 35L05, 35LlO, 35NlO,
76W05, 85A35, 86A25
ALGEBRA OF FINITE REPRESENTATION TYPE,
representation-finite algebra - See (the editorial com-
ments to) Representation of an associative alge-
bra.
MSC 1991: 16G60
ALGEBRA WITH POLYNOMIAL IDENTITIES -
See PI-algebra.
MSC 1991: 16Rxx
ALGEBRAIC ANALYSIS - A phrase initially used
by J.P. Lagrange in 1797 in the title of his book [3] to
indicate that most of the results have been obtained by
algebraic operations on analytic quantities. In that gen-
eral and common sense, this name, adopted also by A.L.
Cauchy, was used in the 19th century and in the 20th
century (cf. [1], [2], [5]; see also Microlocal analysis).
The main idea of algebraic analysis in its present
(1996), more strict, sense derives from the fact that the
differential operator D = d/dt is right-invertible in
several function spaces.
The foundations of algebraic analysis are as follows.
Let L(X) be the set of all linear operators (cf. Linear
operator) with domains and ranges in a linear space
X (in general, without any topology) over a field F of
scalars of characteristic zero and let Lo(X) = {A E
L(X): domA = X}. Let R(X) be the set of all right-
invertible operators in L(X) and let D E R(X). Let
RD C Lo(X) be the set of all right inverses for D, i.e.
DR = I (the identity operator) if R E RD. Moreover,
domD = RX EB kerD. For all R,R' E R D , x E X,
Rx - R' x E ker D, i.e. the difference of two primitives is

a constant. Let
FD = {F E Lo(X) :
F2 = F, FX = kerD and ::lR E RDFR = O}.
Any F E F D is said to be an initial operator for D (cor-
responding to an R). One can prove that any projection
F' onto ker D is an initial operator for D corresponding
to a right inverse R = R - F = R independent of the
choice of an R E RD. If two right inverses (respectively,
initial operators) commute, then they are equal. Thus
this theory is essentially non-commutative. An operator
F is initial for D if and only if there is an R E RD such
that F = I - RD on dom D. The last formula yields (by
a two-line induction) a Taylor formula:
n
= L Rn FDn + Rn Dn
I on dom D n (n E N).
k=O
From these facts one can obtain a calculus and so-
lutions to linear equations (under appropriate assump-
tions on solving equations). If the field F is algebraically
closed (cf. Algebraically closed field), then solutions
of linear equations with scalar coefficients can be cal-
culated by a decomposition of a rational function into
vulgar fractions (similarly as in operational calculus).
If X is a commutative algebra, F = C and D sat-
isfies the Leibniz condition D(xy) = xDy + yDx for
x, y E dom D, then the trigonometric identity holds.
Some results can be proved also for left-invertible op-
erators, even for operators having either finite nullity
or finite deficiency. There is a rich theory of shifts
and periodic problems. Recently, logarithms and anti-
logarithms have been introduced and studied (even in
non-commutative algebras). This means that algebraic
analysis is no longer purely linear.
The main advantages of algebraic analysis are :
• simplifications of proofs due to an algebraic de-
scription of the problems under consideration;
• algorithms for solving 'similar' problems, although
these similarities could be rather far each from another
and very formal;
• several new results even for the classical operator
djdt (which is, indeed, unexpected).
There are several applications to ordinary and par-
tial differential equations with scalar and variable coef-
ficients, functional-differential equations and for discrete
analogues of these equations, for instance, for difference
equations. There are also some results for non-linear
equations.
It should be pointed out that in algebraic analysis a
notion of convolution of functions is not necessary.
Also, there is no need to have a field structure. This, to-
gether with the non-commutativity of right inverses and
ALGEBRAIC DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS
initial operators, shows the essential distinction between
algebraic analysis and operational calculus.
References
[1] FRASER, C.G.: 'The calculus as algebraic analysis: some ob-
servations on mathematical analysis in the 18 th century',
Arch. Hist. Exact Sci. 39 (1989), 317-335.
[2] JAHNKE, R.N.: 'Algebraic analysis in Germany, 1780-1840:
some mathematical and philosophical issues', Historia Math.
20, no. 3 (1993), 265-284.
[3] LAGRANGE, J.P.: Theorie des fonctions analytiques con-
tenant les principes du calcul differentiel, degages de toute
consideration d'infiniment petits, d 'evanouissans de limites
et de fluxions, et reduit a I 'analyse algebriques de quantites
finies, second, revised and enlarged ed., lmprimeur-Librairie
pour les Mathematiques, Paris, 1813, First edition published
in 1797.
[4] PRZEWORSKA-RoLEWICZ, D.: Algebraic analysis, PWN and
D. Reidel, 1988.
[5] PRZEWORSKA-RoLEWICZ, D.: 'Short story of the term" Al-
gebraic Analysis"': Proc. Intern. ConJ. Different Aspects of
Differentiability II, Warszawa, September 1995, Vol. 4 of In-
tegral Transforms and Special Functions, 1996, Preprint lnst.
Mat. Polish Acad. Sci. No. 565, Jan. 1997 (second ed., revised
and complemented).
D. Przeworska-Rolewicz
MSC 1991: 47 A05, 44A99
ALGEBRAIC DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS - The
work of Yu.V. Matiyasevich [3], and J. Robinson [6], (cf.
Diophantine equations, solvability problem of)
showed that in general there does not exist an algo-
rithm by which it is possible to decide whether a given
Diophantine equation over Z has integral solutions. Nei-
ther does a general decision procedure exist for finding
solutions of systems of such Diophantine equations in
the ring of integers of any number field of finite degree
over Q.
Let
(1)
be a system of polynomial equations having integral co-
efficients. The ring of all algebraic integers, Z, is defined
to be the integral closure of Z in an algebraic closure of
Q (cf. also Algebraically closed field). In 1934, Th.
Skolem suggested that the question: 'Does there exist
a decision procedure for finding solutions Xl, ... ,X n of
a system of polynomial equations (1) in Z?' could be
answered affirmatively.
More precisely, Skolem asked whether the elemen-
tary theory of the ring of all algebraic integers Z is
decidable.
Diophantine question. In the early 1980s R. Rumely
[7J positively answered the Diophantine question,
thereby showing that Hilbert's 10th problem (cf. Dio-
phantine set) can be solved positively for Z. His proof
43
ALGEBRAIC DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS
built on work by D. Cantor and P. Roquette, [1], who an-
swered the corresponding question for systems of equa-
tions determining unirational varieties. The methods
Rumely used for obtaining the general result are based
on his capacity theory on algebraic curves over number
fields.
The main point in the proof is the following Hasse
local-global principle for Diophantine problems of the
form (1): Let Qp be the algebraic closure of the p-adic
numbers Qp and let Zp be the integral closure of the
p-adic integers Zp in Qp. The local-global principle for
the ring Z asserts that if (1) has solutions in Zp for each
p, then there is a solution in Z.
Decidability question. By the decidability of the ele-
mentary theory of algebraically closed valued fields (cf.
Model theory of valued fields), it follows that the el-
ementary theory of Qp, with valuation coming from Zp,
is decidable. For the given Diophantine problem (1), it
is only necessary to check whether there are solutions
for finitely many critical primes p which are effectively
computable from the coefficients of (1). Hence the solv-
ability of arbitrary algebraic Diophantine equations in
Z is decidable and Hilbert's 10th problem over the ring
Z has a positive answer.
The following steps go into the proof of the local-
global principle: The result is first proved for curves,
and then a Bertini-type induction argument is used to
obtain the result for higher dimensions. For curves the
proof is divided into two parts, a local/semi-local part
and a local-to-globalpart. In each part a deep theorem
is involved: For the local part it is the Rumely exis-
tence theorem for functions having prescribed poles and
zeros lying in a given open subset of the set of all ra-
tional points of the curve over Qp. The local-to-global
part rests on Raquette's unit density approximation theo-
rem. This theorem allows one to approximate arbitrarily
closely at finitely many primes by an algebraic element
which is a unit at all other primes in a suitable finite
extension of Q.
The results above also hold for algebraic Diophan-
tine equations defined over rings of integers of a global
field, and, moreover, one is able to admit Archimedian
primes and include rationality conditions at a finite set
of primes. This general result is precisely stated below.
Let K be a global field and let p be an arbitrary
prime of K. An element a E K, the algebraic closure,
is called totally p-adic over K if for all embeddings
i: K -+ K p , the image i(a) lies in K p , i.e. the prime
p splits completely in K(a). If S is a finite set of primes
of K, then the set K' of totally S-adic elements over
K is the maximal extension in which all primes PES
split completely. It is a Galois extension of K, and if S
is empty it is taken to be the separable closure of K.
44
For any prime p one lets Op be the integral closure of
the completed unit ball in the algebraic closure of Kp.
Given a set of primes V not containing all primes of K,
one lets Ov be the set of all a E K that are contained in
Op for all p E V. The integral closure in K' is denoted
by O~.
The local-global principle with rationality condi-
tions. Let K be a global field, equipped with a set V of
primes not containing all primes of K. In addition, let a
finite subset S c V be given. Let V be a geometrically
integral variety defined over K, and let x = (x 1, . . . ,X n)
be a finite family of rational functions on V defined over
K. Suppose that locally the set
contains a non-singular point for each PES, and that
Vx (Op) is non-empty for P E V \ S. Then globally,
Vx (O~) is non-empty and it contains, moreover, non-
singular points.
This theorem can be found in [2], where the proof
is given using methods from classical algebraic number
theory and the theory of constant reductions. A proof
using geometric methods can be found in [4]. There,
equivalent properties for separated schemes of finite type
over appropriate Dedekind schemes are also given. Let-
ting K = Q and letting Xl, ... , Xn be the coordinate
functions for the variety determined by the system (1)
yields the local-global principle for algebraic Diophan-
tine equations, whose variety is geometrically integral.
with rationality conditions at a finite set of primes. The
solvability of arbitrary systems of algebraic Diophantine
equations whose variety is not geometrically integral can
be effectively reduced to the geometrically integral case.
An important question, which is still being investigated,
concerns bounding the degree of integral solutions.
A direct geometric application of the local-global
principle is to the existence of smooth curves of arbitrary
genus over suitable number fields having good reduction
everywhere. Another useful application is to the exis-
tence of finite morphisms to projective space. Let S be
the spectrum of a Dedekind ring of integers of a global
field and let X be a proper normal integral S-scheme
all fibres of which have dimension d. Then there exists
a finite morphism X ----+ P~. Another application is to
the algebraic theory of Z.
The algebraic theory of Z. Using the local-global
principle above, L. van den Dries [10], and A. Prestel,
J. Schmidt [5], have independently shown that the el-
ementary theory of the ring Z is decidable, answering
the more general question posed by Skolem. In [10]' van
den Dries extended the work of Rumely to an effective
elimination of quantifiers for the elementary theory
of Z, thus proving decidability for this theory. In [5], this

is done by studying the model theory of domains with
radical extensions and proving model completeness of
a certain class of such domains. Rumely's local-global
principle is then used to show that Z satisfies the ax-
ioms of this class and so one obtains a complete effective
axiomatization of the ring Z, which then also gives de-
cidability.
References
[1] CANTOR, D., AND ROQUETTE, P.: 'On diophantine equations
over the ring of all algebraic integers', J. Number Theory 18
(1984), 1-26.
[2] GREEN, B., POP, F., AND ROQUETTE, P.: 'On Rumely's lo-
cal global principle', Jahresber. Deutsch. Math.- Verein. 97
(1995), 43-74.
[3] MATIYASEVICH, Yu.V.: 'Diophantine sets', Russ. Math. Sur-
veys 27, no. 5 (1972), 124-164. (Uspekhi Mat. Nauk 27, no. 5
(1972), 185-222.)
[4] MORET-BAILLY, L.: 'Groupes de Picard et problemes de
Skolem I, II', Ann. Sci. Ecole Normale Sup. 22 (1989), 161-
179; 181-194.
[5] PRESTEL, A., AND SCHMIDT, J.: 'Existentially closed domains
with radical relations: An axiomatisation of the ring of alge-
braic integers', J. Reine Angew. Math. 407 (1990), 178-20l.
[6] ROBINSON, J.: 'Existential definability', Trans. Amer. Math.
Soc. 72, no. 3 (1952), 437-449.
[7] RUMELY, R.: 'Arithmetic over the ring of all algebraic inte-
gers', J. Reine Angew. Math. 368 (1986), 127-133.
[8] RUMELY, R.: Capacity theory on algebmic curves, Vol. 1378
of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1989.
[9] SKOLEM, TH.: 'Lasung gewisser Gleichungen in ganzen alge-
braischen Zahlen, insbesondere in Einheiten', Skrifter Norske
Videnskap. Akad. Oslo I. Mat. Kl. 10 (1934).
[10] DRIES, L. VAN DEN: 'Elimination theory for the ring of alge-
braic integers', J. Reine Angew. Math. 388 (1988), 189-205.
[11] DRIES, L. VAN DEN, AND MACINTYRE, A.: 'The logic of
Rumely's local-global principle', J. Reine Angew. Math. 407
(1990), 33-56.
B. Green
MSC 1991: 03C60, llG35, llR58, 12L05, 14G25
ALGEBRAIC-GEOMETRIC CODE, algebraic geom-
etry code - See Goppa code; Artin-Schreier code.
MSC 1991: 94B27
ALIQUOT SEQUENCE starting from n - The se-
quence of natural numbers al, a2, ... defined by the rule
The sequence is said to be terminating if an = 1 for
some n and eventually periodic if there is a c such that
a n+c = an for n sufficiently large. If an+l = an, then an
is a perfect number, while if a n +2 = an, then an and
an+! form an amicable pair (cf. also Amicable num-
bers).
ALPERIN CONJECTURE
An example of an eventually periodic aliquot se-
quence is the sequence 562,220,284,220, .... Larger cy-
cles are possible; e.g., a sequence with cycle length 28 is
known.
The Catalan-Dickson conjecture states that all
aliquot sequences either terminate or are eventually pe-
riodic. This conjecture is still (1996) open, but generally
thought to be false.
References
[1] RIELE, H.J.J. TE: A theoretical and computational study
of generalized aliquot sequences, Math. Centre, Amsterdam,
1976.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: llB37
ALPERIN CONJECTURE, Alperin weight conjecture
- Modular representation theory of finite groups is the
study of representations of groups over fields of finite
characteristic (cf. also Finite group, representation
of a; Finite group; Field). This theory was first devel-
oped by R. Brauer, who was motivated largely by a wish
to obtain information about complex characters of finite
groups (cf. Character of a group). One of the central
themes of Brauer's work was that many representation-
theoretic invariants of finite groups should be 'locally'
determined. When p is a prime number, a p-local sub-
group of a finite group is the normalizer (cf. also Nor-
malizer of a subset) of a non-trivial p-subgroup of
that group. An important feature of Alperin's weight
conjecture is that it makes a precise prediction as to how
a fundamental representation-theoretic invariant should
be p-Iocally controlled.
Let F be an algebraically closed field of prime
characteristic p, and let G be a finite group. Then the
group algebra has a unique decomposition in the form
FG = Bl EB··· EB B m , where the Bi'S are mutually an-
nihilating indecomposable two-sided ideals (cf. Ideal).
The B;'s are known as blocks of FG (cf. also Block). Let
l(Bi) denote the number of isomorphism types of simple
Bi-modules, and l(FG) = l:;:ll(Bi ). It is sometimes
the case that Bi is isomorphic to a full matrix alge-
bra over F. In that case, Bi is a block of defect zero of
FG. Such blocks have special significance; they are in
bijection with the isomorphism types of projective sim-
ple FG-modules. Blocks other than blocks of defect zero
are said to have positive defect.
A weight of FG is a pair (Q, S), where Q is a (possi-
bly trivial) p-subgroup (cf. also p-group) of G and S is
a projective simple FNc(Q)/Q-module. Weights (Q, S)
and (R, T) are deemed to be equivalent if for some x E G
one has QX = Rand SX ~ T as FNc(R)/R-modules.
The 'non-blockwise' version of Alperin's weight conjec-
ture simply asserts that the number of isomorphism
types of simple FG-modules should equal the number
45
ALPERIN CONJECTURE
of equivalence classes of weights of FG. The number of
equivalence classes of weights of the form ({IG}, S) is
just the number of isomorphism types of projective sim-
ple FG-modules, and the number of equivalence classes
of weights of the form (Q, S) with Q i= {IG} is deter-
mined within p-Iocal subgroups.
To describe the 'blockwise' version of the conjecture
one has to assign weights to blocks. This is achieved by
means of the Brauer homomorphism. When Q is a
p-subgroup of G, the projection brQ: FG -+ FCG(Q)
with kernel F[G\CG(Q)] restricts to an algebra homo-
morphism from the fixed-point subalgebra FGQ (under
conjugation by Q) onto FCG(Q). Given a weight(Q, S),
one may view S as an FNG(Q)-module. One assigns the
weight (Q, S) to the block B if and only if 1 B br Q does
not annihilate S. The 'blockwise' version of Alperin's
weight conjecture predicts that for each block B of FG,
I(B) should equal the number of equivalence classes of
weights assigned to B. If B is of defect 0, this is evidently
true. If B is of positive defect, then the conjecture makes
a prediction that I(B) is p-locally determined in a pre-
cise manner, since no weights of the form ({ IG }, S) are
then assigned to B.
Another interpretation of Alperin's weight conjecture
has been given by R. Knorr and G.R. Robinson. Given
a block B, Brauer showed how to assign complex irre-
ducible characters to B, and the number of such char-
acters assigned to B is dimF(Z(B)), denoted k(B).
Given a chain u of strictly increasing p-subgroups
of G, say u = Ql < Q2 < ... < Qn, one sets
Ga = ni=lNG(Qd, and lui = n. Then one sets Ba =
(IB brQn) . FG a , which is a sum of certain blocks of
the group algebra FG a . Then the blockwise version of
Alperin's weight conjecture is equivalent to the assertion
that whenever B is a block of positive defect of FG for
some finite group G, then
L (-I)la k(Ba) =0,
1
aE/';.p/G
where 6 p denotes the collection of all such chains of p-
subgroups of G (including the empty chain). Thus, k(B)
(the contribution to the alternating sum from the empty
chain) is predicted to be p-locally controlled in a precise
fashion.
J. Thevenaz has given a reformulation of Alperin's
conjecture which is expressed in terms of equivariant
K-theory. E.C. Dade has continued the pattern of
predictions of precise p-local control of representation-
theoretic invariants by making a series of conjectures ex-
pressing the number of irreducible characters of defect
d assigned to a block B of FG as an alternating sum
somewhat similar to that above. An irreducible charac-
ter X is said to have defect d for the prime number p
46
if pd II IGl/x(I). Dade's conjectures may be viewed as
unifying and extending Alperin's weight conjecture and
the Alperin-McKay conjecture. Furthermore, they are
compatible with techniques of Clifford theory and of-
fer the prospect of reducing these questions to questions
about finite simple groups (cf. Simple finite group).
References
[1] ALPERIN, J.L.: 'Weights for finite groups': Proc. Symp. Pure
Math., Vol. 47, Amer. Math. Soc., 1987, pp. 369-379.
[2] DADE, E.C.: 'Counting characters in blocks 1', Invent. Math.
109 (1992), 187-210.
[3] DADE, E.C.: 'Counting characters in blocks II', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 448 (1994),97-190.
[4] KNORR, R., AND ROBINSON, G.R.: 'Some remarks on a conjec-
ture of Alperin', J. London Math. Soc. (2) 39 (1989),48-60.
[5] THEVENAZ, J.: 'Equivariant K-theory and Alperin's conjec-
ture', J. Pure Appl. Algebra 85 (1993), 185-202.
G.R. Robinson
MSC 1991: 20C20, 19Cxx
ALTERNATING-DIRECTION IMPLICIT METHOD
- A method introduced in 1955 by D.W. Peaceman and
H.H. Rachford [3] and J. Douglas [1] as a technique
for the numerical solution of elliptic and parabolic dif-
ferential equations (cf. Elliptic partial differential
equation; Parabolic partial differential equation).
Let n E R2 be a bounded region and K 1 , K 2 , Ko con-
tinuous functions with K1(x,y) > 0, K 2 (x,y) > 0,
Ko(x, y) ~ ° in n. The discretization of the elliptic
boundary value problem (cf. Boundary value prob-
lem, elliptic equations)
-(KIUx)x - (K 2 u y )y + Kou = f in n,
u =g on an,
in a bounded region n c R2 by finite differences leads
to a system of linear equations of the form
(H + V + S)u = f.
Here, the matrices H and V stand for the discretiza-
tion of the differential operators in the x (horizontal)
and y (vertical) direction, respectively, and S is a di-
agonal matrix representing multiplication by Ko. The
alternating-direction implicit method attempts to solve
this linear system by the iteration
(H + ~S + PkI) Uk-l/2 = (PkI - V - ~S ) Uk-l + f,
(V + ~S + PkI) Uk = (PkI - H - ~S ) Uk-l/2 + f,
k = 1,2, ... ,
with some parameters Pk
> 0. On a uniform mesh, each
of the two half-steps in the above iteration scheme re-
quires the solution of a number of tri-diagonal systems
arising from one-dimensional difference operators, a task

which is relatively inexpensive. On an n by n rectangu-
lar mesh, the appropriate choice of a set of parameters
Pi, ... , PI (with l = log n) in the above iteration allows
one to solve the Poisson equation (Ki = K2 == 1,
Ko = 0) with an operation count of O(n 2 10gn), which
is almost optimal. (Optimal methods with an operation
count proportional to the number of unknowns n 2 have
later been developed using multi-grid methods.)
For the parabolic initial-boundary value problem
Ut = (KiUx)x + (K2U y)y + Kou = f in (0, T) x n,
U = 9 on (0, T) x an,
U=Uo fort=O,
implicit discretization in time requires the solution of
an elliptic boundary value problem of the type above
in each time-step. The alternating-direction implicit
method advances in time by inverting only the one-
dimensional difference operators in x- and in y-direction.
Each time step is therefore much less expensive. It can
be shown to be unconditionally stable. The classical ref-
erence is [4, Chapts. 7, 8].
In the 1980s, the apparent potential for parallelism
in the alternating-direction implicit method led to re-
search on the appropriate implementation on parallel
computers [2].
References
[1] DOUGLAS, J.: 'On the numerical integration ofuxx+uyy = Ut
by implicit methods', SIAM J. 3 (1962),42-65.
[2] LENNART JOHNSSON, S., SAAD, Y., AND SCHULTZ, M.H.: 'Al-
ternating direction methods on multiprocessors', SIAM J.
Sci. Statist. Comput. 8 (1987), 686-700.
[3] PEACEMAN, D.W., AND RACHFORD, H.H.: 'The numerical so-
lution of parabolic and elliptic differential equations', SIAM
J. 3 (1955), 28-4l.
[4] VARGA, R.S.: Matrix iterative analysis, Prentice-Hall, 1962.
G. Starke
MSC 1991: 65Nxx
ALTERNATING SCHWARZ METHOD - See
Schwarz alternating method.
MSC 1991: 35J05, 31-XX, 35J25, 35A25, 65M55
ALTERNATIVE SET THEORY - A theory created
as an answer to the question that should be asked by
every philosophically thinking mathematician: How is it
possible that certain results of infinitary mathematics
are applicable in the real world, while results other are
not?
Present mathematics is founded on the classical Can-
tor theory of actually infinite sets (cf. Set theory).
Nowadays however (1996), the existence of such sets in
the real world is, to say the least, dubious. Even if one
admits that such sets do exist in the real world, they are
ALTERNATIVE SET THEORY
not those which infinite mathematics applies its results
to.
The results of infinite mathematics are applied to cer-
tain phenomena that accompany the appearance of large
sets. Here, a 'large set' is meant to be a set that is fi-
nite from the classical point of view but is not located,
as a whole and along with each of its elements, in front
of the horizon currently limiting the view of the given
set. Here, 'view' is understood in much more than just
a visual sense, essentially as a grasping and holding of
some field of phenomena.
If infinity is applicable to certain phenomena which
show themselves on large sets, then it has to be already
present there in some form. This form of infinity is called
natural infinity. Alternative set theory is a theory of nat-
ural infinity. It works with objects called classes that are
further classified as sets and semi-sets. Sets are definite,
sharply defined, unchangeable from the classical point
of view. Semi-sets are their unsharp parts. Above all,
it is the semi-sets that represent the phenomena which
appear when viewing large sets and to which the results
of infinitary mathematics are applied.
A set is naturally finite if all its subclasses are sets.
Every semi-set, as well as every set containing a semi-set,
is naturally infinite. Finiteness and infiniteness hence
depend on the point view and on the place of the cor-
responding horizon. Static alternative set theory studies
the phenomenon of natural infinity under a given fixed
point of view. Dynamical alternative set theory, on the
other hand, considers a changing point of view and a
moving horizon.
The class FN of all natural numbers that lie in front
of the horizon of a considered view is a semi-set. The
classes that can be enumerated by numbers from FN
are called countable. The class FN behaves similarly as
the classical set of natural numbers. However, results
about numbers when applied are less evident as one ap-
proaches the horizon.
Classes are extensions of concepts and there are dif-
ferent sorts of classes corresponding to different sorts of
concepts.
Positively-defined concepts are represented by so-
called a-classes, which are countable unions of sets. (As
an example of such a concept, the colour red is first
learned on basic sharp shades of red, then on less dis-
tinct shades, etc., to the horizon.) Negatively-defined
classes are represented by 7r-classes, which are count-
able intersections of sets. It can be proved that every
class that is at the same time a and 7r must be a set. In
other words, if a set contains two disjoint semi-sets rep-
resenting positively-defined concepts, then there must
be an element of the set that is not contained in either
47
ALTERNATIVE SET THEORY
of the semi-sets. More complicated concepts are repre-
sented by 7ru-classes, u7r-classes, etc.; this hierarchy has
similar properties as the Borel hierarchy of sets in clas-
sical topology (cf. also Topological structure (topol-
ogy); Borel system of sets; Borel set of ambiguous
class).
So, natural infinity is closely related to vagueness.
In that sense alternative set theory is a study of vague
collections. It is desirable to find appropriate scales for
membership of objects in various types of semi-sets. Dif-
ferent scales may be suitable for different types of semi-
sets, some scales may not even be linear; other semi-sets
need not even have any suitable scale (all their element
belong vaguely to the semi-sets).
Indiscernibility equivalences present an important ex-
ample of 7r-classes. If an infinite set is completely located
in front of the horizon, then its elements make up mon-
ads of mutually indiscernible elements. These monads
are 7r-classes and their configuration creates a topological
shape of the set. One can then identify only so-called fig-
ures, that is, those parts of the set that with each point
contain also its monad. It can be proved that such topo-
logical shapes correspond to separable metric spaces (cf.
Metric space; Separable space). Similarly, time, mo-
tion and generally all sorts of changes of shape in time
can be modelled in this way discretely and continuously
at the same time.
The interpretation of topological shapes as outer ap-
pearances of indiscernibility enables one to consider so-
called invisible shapes of sets. For example, an indis-
cernibility equivalence is created on the class of inhab-
itants of Europe by certain selected properties. The
equivalence then induces a corresponding topological
metrizable shape that cannot be observed from inside.
Classes that are figures in an equivalence of indis-
cernibility are called real. These are exactly the classes
that are identifiable in the real world. On the other hand,
imaginary classes are the classes that are only conceiv-
able. However, being conceivable is a vague concept,
somewhere between pure consistence and absurdity. In
addition, two imaginary classes may exclude each other.
By deciding for one of them a certain branch of alterna-
tive set theory is entered.
The phenomenological analysis of classical infinity
draws the conclusion that this infinity is just the sharply
interpreted natural infinity with a number of imaginary
classes. From this point of view, Cantor's set theory is
only a branch (or possibly several different branches) of
alternative set theory.
See also Abstraction of actual infinity.
References
[1] VARIOUS: 'Papers of different authors published 1979-1990',
Comm. Math. Univ. Carolinae (1979/90).
48
[2] VOPENKA, P.: Mathematics in the alternative set theory,
Teubner, 1979.
[3] VOPENKA, P.: Introduction to mathematics in the alternative
set theory, Alfa, Bratislava, 1989. (In Slovak.)
P. Vopenka
MSC 1991: 03Exx, 03E70
AMITSUR-LEVITZKI THEOREM - A basic result
in the theory of polynomial identity rings (PI-rings). A
ring R is a PI-ring (cf. also PI-algebra) if there is a
polynomial in the free associative algebra Z(Xl,X2,"')
which vanishes under all substitutions of ring elements
for the variables. The standard polynomial of degree n is
the polynomial
Sn(Xl, ... ,xn ) =
= L {sign( U )Xu(l) ... xu(n) : U E Sn} ,
where Sn is the symmetric group on n letters. Since
S2 = XIX2 - X2Xl, a ring is commutative if and only
if it satisfies S2 (cf. also Commutative ring). The
Amitsur-Levitzki theorem says that the ring of (n x n)-
matrices over a commutative ring satisfies the standard
polynomial of degree 2n, and no polynomial of lower
degree.
There are five different published proofs of this the-
orem (1996). The original proof by S. Amitsur and J.
Levitzki [1] is a combinatorial argument using matrix
units. Because the standard polynomial is linear in each
variable, it is enough to prove the theorem when matrix
units are substituted for the variables. A streamlined
version of this proof can be found in [3].
The second proof, by B. Kostant [2], depends upon
the Frobenius theory of representations of the alternat-
ing group. Kostant's paper was also the first to relate the
polynomial identities satisfied by matrices with traces,
a theme which was later developed by C. Procesi [4] and
Yu.P. Razmyslov [5] and influenced much research. The
point is that the trace defines a non-degenerate bilinear
form on (n x n)-matrices.
The third proof, by R.G. Swan [7], translates the
problem into graph theory. The underlying arguments
are similar to those in the original proof by Amitsur
and Levitzki, but the graph-theoretical approach has led
to some generalizations, as in [8]. The fourth proof, by
Razmyslov [5], is probably the most natural, in that the
theorem is deduced in a direct way from the multilinear
form of the Cayley-Hamilton theorem. The fifth proof,
by S. Rosset [6], also depends on the Cayley-Hamilton
theorem, as well as on elementary properties of the ex-
terior algebra. It is the shortest and most elegant proof,
but is not at all straightforward.
References
[1] AMITSUR, S.A., AND LEVITZKI, J.: 'Minimal identities for al-
gebras', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 1 (1950),449-463.

[2] KOSTANT, B.: 'A theorem of Frobenius, a theorem of
Amitsur-Levitzki, and cohomology theory', J. Math. Mech.
7 (1958), 237-264.
[3] PASSMAN, D.S.: The algebraic structure of group rings, Wiley,
1977.
[4] PROCESI, C.: 'The invariant theory of n x n matrices', Adv.
in Math. 19 (1976), 306-381.
[5] RAZMYSLOV, Yu.P.: 'Trace identities of full matrix algebras
over a field of characteristic zero', Math. USSR Izv. 8 (1974),
727-760. (Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR 38 (1974),723756.)
[6] ROSSET, S.: 'A new proof of the Amitsur-Levitzki identity',
Israel J. Math. 23 (1976), 187-188.
[7] SWAN, R.C.: 'An application of graph theory to algebra',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 14 (1963), 367-380.
[8] SZIGETI, J., TUZA, Z., AND REVESZ, C.: 'Eulerian polynomial
identities on matrix rings', J. Algebra 161 (1993),90-101.
E. Formanek
MSC 1991: 16Rxx
ANALYSIS OF PROGRAMS, program analysis -
Program analysis offers static (i.e. compile-time) tech-
niques for predicting safe and computable approxima-
tions to the set of values or behaviours arising dynami-
cally (i.e. at run-time) when executing a program upon
a computer. A main application is to allow compilers
to generate more efficient code by avoiding to generate
code to handle errors that can be shown not to arise,
and to generate more specialized and faster code by tak-
ing advantage of the availability of data in registers and
caches. Among the newer applications is the validation
of software (possibly developed by subcontractors) to re-
duce the likelihood of malicious behaviour. To illustrate
the breadth of the approaches, five types of analyses will
be discussed: i) flow-based analysis; ii) inference-based
analysis; iii) semantics-based analysis; iv) abstract inter-
pretation; and v) fixed-point approximation techniques.
These approaches borrow mathematical techniques from
lattice theory and logical systems.
Flow-based approaches to program analysis.
These have mainly been developed for imperative, func-
tional and object-oriented programs. For a given pro-
gram p the task is to find a flow function F E Inf Pts
that maps the program points in p to approximate de-
scriptions of the data that may reach those points. This
may be formalized by a relation F P : F defined by a
number of clauses depending on the syntax of the pro-
gram p. As a very simple example, consider the program
p = Pl; P2 that takes an input, executes Pl on it, then
executes P2 on the result obtained from Pl, and finally
produces the result from P2 as the overall result. The
defining clause for this program may be written:
F (Pl;P2) : F if and only if
F Pl : F /\
FP2: F /\
F(end(Pl)) <;;; F(begin(p2))
ANALYSIS OF PROGRAMS
In the presence of recursive programs, the predicate
cannot be defined by structural induction on P and in-
stead one appeals to co-induction; this merely amounts
to taking the greatest fixed point of a function mapping
sets of pairs (p, F) into sets of pairs (p, F) as described
by the right-hand sides of the clauses.
It is essential that the analysis information is semanti-
cally correct. Given a semantics Vl -7p V2 for describing
when the program P maps the input Vl to the output
V2, this amounts in its simplest form to establishing a
subject reduction result:
FP: F /\ Vl E F(begin(p)) /\ Vl -7p V2
-ll
V2 E F(end(p))
Finally, realization of the analysis amounts to finding
the minimal F (with respect to the pointwise partial
order on Inf PtS ) for which F P : F; this is related to
the lattice-theoretic notion of {F: F P : F} being a
Moore family. Often, this is done by obtaining a more
implementation-oriented specification f- P : C for gen-
erating a set of constraints C, deriving a function C
mapping flow functions to flow functions, and ensuring
that C(F) = F if and only if F P : F.
Inference-based approaches to program analysis.
These have mainly been developed for functional, imper-
ative, and concurrent programs. For a given program
p, the task is to find an 'annotated type' ql ~ q2 de-
scribing the overall effect of executing p: if ql describes
the input data, then q2 describes the output data, and
properties of the dynamic executions (e.g., whether or
not errors can occur) are described by (J'. This may be
formalized by a relation f- P : (ql ~ q2) defined by a
number of inference rules (cf. Permissible law (infer-
ence)); some of these are defined compositionally in the
structure of the program as in:
Ull±JU2
f- ( Pl; P2 ) : qo -7 q2
Here, (J'l l±! (J'2 combines the effects (J'l and (J'2 into an
overall effect; in the simplest cases, (J'll±!(J'2 simply equals
(J'l U (J'2, but in more complex cases the causal structure
(i.e. which effect comes first) must be retained. Success-
ful analysis of recursive programs demands that invari-
ants be guessed in order to obtain a finite inference tree.
(This form of program analysis is closely related to pro-
gram verification: see Theoretical programming, the
section on 'The logical theory of programs'.)
Semantic correctness necessitates relations F v : q
between values and properties, e.g. (q = integer) =? (v E
{- .. , -1,0,1, ... }), and F d "" (J' between the effects of
the dynamic semantics (Vl ~p V2) and the analysis, e.g.
d = (J'. The correctness statement then amounts to a
49
ANALYSIS OF PROGRAMS
subject reduction result:
0= VI : ql) /\ (VI 4 p V2)/\ r p: (ql .!:t q2)
.l).
(p V2 : q2) /\ (p d", a)
Implementation of the analysis amounts to defining
an algorithm Q[P] = q that is syntactically sound, i.e.
r p : q, and syntactically complete, i.e. r p : (ql .!:t q2)
implies that ql .!:t q2 is an 'instance' of qi the precise def-
inition of 'instance' depends on the nature of the prop-
erties and may have some complexity to it. Often, the
algorithm works using constraints somewhat similar to
those used in the flow-based approach.
Semantics-based approaches to program analy-
sis. These attempt to define the analysis in much the
same way that the semantics itself is defined. These
developments have mainly been based on denotational
semantics (where VI -+p V2 is written S[P](vt} = V2)
for imperative and functional programs, although work
has started on similar developments based on (so-called
small-step) structural operational semantics and (so-
called big-step) natural semantics (cf. also Theoreti-
cal programming). The denotational approach may
be formulated as an analysis function A[P](It) = 12,
where It is a mathematical entity describing the input
to p and 12 is a mathematical entity describing the out-
put from p. The denotational approach calls for A[P]
to be defined compositionally in terms of the syntactic
constituents of the program Pi an example of this is the
functional composition
A[PliP2] = A[P2] 0 A[Pl],
i.e., A[PliP2](l) = A[P2](A[Pt](l)). In case ofrecursive
programs, a least fixed point is taken of a suitable func-
tional.
To express the correctness of the analysis one needs
to define correctness relations vRtl on the data, e.g.
vEL, and f Rtl--tt2h on the computations, e.g. "Iv, 1 :
(VRtll) =? (f(v)R t2 h(l))i the latter definition is usu-
ally called a logical relation. Semantic soundness then
amounts to establishing
for all programs p of type tl -+ t2. Efficient implemen-
tation of the analyses often demands that they be pre-
sented in a form less dependent on the program syntax,
e.g. using graphs or constraints, and then the solution
procedure must be shown sound and complete.
Abstract interpretation. This is a general framework
for obtaining cheaper and more approximative solutions
to program analysis problems. In its most general form
it attempts to be independent of the semantic base, but
usually it is formulated in either a structural operational
50
or a denotational setting. Given the semantics VI -+p V2
of a program p, the first step is often to define the un-
computable collecting semantics Sl =?p S2. The intention
is that
S2 = {V2: VI -+p V2 /\ VI E Sl}
and this may be regarded as a soundness as well as a
completeness statement.
To obtain a more approximate and eventually com-
putable analysis, the most commonly used approach is
to replace the sets of values s E S by some more ap-
proximate properties I E L. Both Sand L are partially
ordered in such a way that one generally wants the least
correct element and where the greatest element is un-
informative. (By the lattice duality principle, one could
instead have desired the greatest correct element, and
part of the literature on data flow analysis uses this vo-
cabulary.) The relation between Sand L is often for-
malized by a pair (a,,) offunctions:
'" L,
S t:>
'Y
where ,: L -+ S is the concretization function giving
the 'meaning' of properties in L, and a: S -+ L is the
abstraction function. It is customary to demand that
Sand L are complete lattices (cf. Complete lattice).
Furthermore, it is customary to demand that (a,,) is a
Galois connection, i.e. a and, are monotone and, 0 a
is extensive ("18 : ,( a( 8)) :;;) s) and a 0 , is reductive
(Vl : a(!(l)) ~ l), or, equivalently, that (a,,) is an ad-
junction, i.e. Vs,l : a(8) ~ 1 ¢} s ~ ,(l). This ensures
that a set of values 8 always has a best description li in
fact, I = a(8).
Abstract interpretation then amounts to define an
analysis II =?~ 12 on the properties of L such that the
following correctness statement holds:
It =?~ 12
.l).
38 : ,(it) =?p s /\ s ~ ,(l2)
This may be illustrated by the diagram
SI 82
p
h ==p:::::::.Il2
which expresses that a certain diagram semi-commutes.
Example analyses that can be obtained in this way
include intervals as approximations of sets of integers,
polygons in the plane as approximations of sets of pairs
of numbers, representations (kl' k 2 ) of arithmetical con-
gruences as approximations of periodic sets {kl + n .

k2 : n E { ... ,-1,0,1, ... }} as well as combinations of
these.
Fixed-point approximation. This is essential for pro-
gram analysis because most of the approaches can be
reformulated as finding the least fixed point (cf. also
Fixed point) lfp(f) of a monotone function f: L -+ L
on a complete lattice L = (L, 1;:;) of properties; often,
each element l E L describes a set of values. There are
two characterizations of the least fixed point that are of
relevance here. Tarski's theorem ensures that
lfp(f) = n Red(f) ,
Red(f) = {l E L: f(l) I;:; l},
satisfies f (lfp(f)) = lfp(f) and hence lfp(f) E Red(f) is
the least fixed point of f. Transfinite induction allows
one to define
jl'<+lJ = f(f[KJ) for K + 1 a successor ordinal,
f[KJ = UK'<Kf[K'J for K a limit ordinal,
and then the least fixed point is given by
lfp(f) = f[AJ
for some cardinal number ).; it suffices to let ). be the
cardinality of 2L. In simple cases, L has finite height
(all strictly increasing sequences are finite) and then ).
may be taken to be a natural number no; this then sug-
gests a computable procedure for calculating lfp(f): sim-
ply do the finite number of calculations f[oJ, ... ,f[noJ =
r°(f[oJ) = lfp(f).
In general, ). cannot simply be taken to be a natural
number and then one has to be content with a com-
putable procedure for finding some fixV' (f) E L such
that fixV' (f) ;;;) lfp(f); for pragmatic reasons fixV' (f)
should be 'as close to' lfp(f) as possible. An upper bound
operator V': L x L -+ L is a not necessarily monotone
function such that h V'l2 ;;;) II Ul2 for all h, l2 E L. Given
a not necessarily increasing sequence (In)n, one can then
define
l"(j = lo,
l~+l = l~V'ln+l'
for all natural numbers n. It is easy to show that (l;;)n
is in fact an increasing sequence. A widening operator
V': L x L -+ L is an upper bound operator such that
(l;;)n eventually stabilizes (i.e. 3noV'n ;::: no : l;; = l;;o)
for all increasing sequences (In)n' (A trivial and unin-
teresting example of a widening operator is given by
h V'h = UL.) One can now define
f~O) = nL (the least element of L),
(n+1) {f~n) if f(f~n») I;:; f~n) ,
fV' = f~n)V'f(f~n») otherwise,
ANDERSEN THEOREM
for all natural numbers n. One can show that (f~n»)n
eventually stabilizes and that fixV'(f) = Unf~n) equals
f~no) for some no and that fixV'(f) E Red(f). Hence,
fixV' (f) ;;;) lfp(f) and, furthermore, there is a computable
procedure for calculating fixV'(f): simply do the finite
number of calculations f~), ... ,f~no) = fixdf). Ex-
amples of 'good' widening operators can be found in the
literature.
References
[IJ COUSOT, P.: 'Semantic foundations of program analysis', in
S.S. MUCHNICK AND N.D. JONES (eds.): Program Flow Anal-
ysis: Theory and Applications, Prentice-Hall, 1981, pp. 303-
342.
[2J JAGANNATHAN, S., AND WEEKS, S.: 'A unified treatment of
flow analysis in higher-order languages': Proc. POPL '95,
ACM Press, 1995, pp. 393-407.
[3J JONES, N.D., AND NIELSON, F.: 'Abstract interpretation: a
semantics-based tool for program analysis', in S. ABRAMSKY,
D.M. GABBAY, AND T.S.E. MAIBAUM (eds.): Handbook of
Logic in Computer Science, Vol. 4, Oxford Univ. Press, 1995,
pp. 527-636.
[4J TALPIN, J.P., AND JOUVELOT, P.: 'The type and effect disci-
pline': Information and Computation, Vol. 111, 1994.
H.R. Nielson
F. Nielson
MSC 1991: 68Q20, 68Q55
ANDERSEN THEOREM - A result in the theory of
fluctuations in random walks (cf. Random walk). Let
(X n )l' be independent random variables with the same
distribution (cf. Random variable), and let So = 0,
Sk = Xl + ... + X k, kEN. Define
Mn = max(So, ... ,Sn), mn = min(So, ... ,Sn),
Ln = min {k: k = 0, ... ,n, Sk = Mn} ,
L~ =max{k: k=O, ... ,n, Sk =m n },
n
N n =Ll{Sk>O}.
k=l
Then (equivalence principle) for each n E N the pairs
(Nn' Sn), (Ln' Sn) and (n - L~, Sn) have the same dis-
tribution; in particular, N n , Ln and n - L~ have the
same distribution. As a consequence one has
P{Nn = k} = P{Nk = k}P{Nn-k = a},
k = 1, ... ,no
These results were first proved by E. Sparre Andersen
[5], [6], [7]. They connect the arcsine law for random
walks to the arcsine law in renewal theory.
Nowadays there are brief proofs based on combina-
torial properties of non-random sequences [3], [4]. The
results can be generalized to random vectors with sym-
metric distributions [6]. A comprehensive account for
integer-valued random variables can be found in [8]; a
51
ANDERSEN THEOREM
concise overview is given in [1]. Related combinatorial
results are discussed in [2].
References
[1] BINGHAM, N.H., GOLDIE, C.M., AND TEUGELS, J.L.: Regular
variation, second ed., Vol. 27 of Encycl. Math. Appl., Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1989.
[2] BRUIJN, N .G. DE: 'Some algorithms for ordering a sequence
of objects, with application to E. Sparre Andersen's princi-
ple of equivalence in mathematical statistics', Indagationes
Mathematicae 34, no. 1 (1972), 1-10.
[3] FELLER, W.: An introduction to probability theory and its
applications, second ed., Vol. 2, Springer, 1976.
[4] JOSEPH, A.W.: 'An elementary proof of the principle of equiv-
alence', J. London Math. Soc. (2) 3 (1971), 101-102.
[5] SPARRE ANDERSEN, E.: 'On the number of positive sums of
random variables', Skand. Aktuarietikskr. 32 (1949),27 36.
[6] SPARRE ANDERSEN, E.: 'On sums of symmetrically depen-
dent random variables', Skand. Aktuarietikskr. 36 (1953),
123-138.
[7] SPARRE ANDERSEN, E.: 'On the fluctuations of sums of ran-
dom variables', Math. Scand. 1 (1953), 263-285, Also: 2
(1954), 195-223.
[8] SPITZER, F.: Principles of random walk, second ed., Springer,
1976.
F. W. Steutel
MSC 1991: 60J15, 60K05, 05A19
ANDERSON-DARLING STATISTIC In the
goodness-of-fit problem (cf. Goodness-of-fit test) one
wants to test whether the distribution function of a ran-
dom variable X belongs to a given set of distribution
functions. In the simplest case this set consists of one
completely specified (continuous) distribution function
Fa, say. A well-known class of test statistics for this test-
ing problem is the class of EDF statistics, thus called
since they measure the discrepancy between the empir-
ical distribution function and Fa. The empirical distri-
bution function Fn is a non-parametric statistical es-
timator of the true distribution function based on a
sample Xl,'" ,Xn . The weighted Cramer- von Mises
statistics form a subclass of the EDF statistics. They
are defined by
where w is a non-negative weight function. The weight
function is often used to put extra weight in the tails of
the distribution, since Fn(x) - Fa(x) is close to zero at
the tails and some form of relative error is more attrac-
tive.
A particular member of this subclass 1S the
Anderson-Darling statistic, see [1], [2], obtained by tak-
ing
w(X) = [Fa(x){l- FO(X)}]-l.
52
To calculate the Anderson-Darling statistic one may use
the following formula:
-n - n- 1 2) (2-i - 1) Inzi + (2n + 1 - 2i) In(l- Zi)},
with Zi = FO(X(i)) and X(l) < ... < X(n) the ordered
sample.
It turns out, cf. [7] and references therein, that the
Anderson- Darling test is locally asymptotically optimal
in the sense of Bahadur under logistic alternatives (cf.
Bahadur efficiency). Moreover, under normal alterna-
tives its local Bahadur efficiency is 0.96, and hence the
test is close to optimal.
In practice, it is of more interest to test whether the
distribution function of X belongs to a class of distribu-
tion functions {F(x, O)} indexed by a nuisance parame-
ter 0, as, for instance, the class of normal, exponential,
or logistic distributions. The Anderson-Darling statis-
tic is now obtained by replacing FO(X(i)) by F(X(i)' 0)
in calculating Zi, where 0 is an estimator of O. Often,
the maximum-likelihood estimator (cf. also Maximum-
likelihood method) is used, but see [5] for a discussion
on the use of other estimators.
Simulation results, cf. [3]' [4], [5], [6] and references
therein, show that the Anderson Darling test performs
well for testing normality (cf. Normal distribution),
and is a reasonable test for testing exponentiality and
in many other testing problems.
References
[11 ANDERSON, T.W., AND DARLING, D.A.: 'Asymptotic theory
of certain 'goodness-of-fit' criteria based on stochastic pro-
cesses', Ann. Math. Stat. 23 (1952),193-212.
[2] ANDERSON, T.W., AND DARLING, D.A.: 'A test of goodness-
of-fit', 1. Amer. Statist. Assoc. 49 (1954), 765-769.
[3] BAIUNGIlAUS, L., DANSCHKE, R., AND HENZE, N.: 'Recent and
classical tests for normality: a comparative study', Comm.
Statist. Simulation Comput. 18 (1989),363-379.
[41 BARINGHAlJS, L., AND HENZE, N.: 'An adaptive omnibus test
for exponentiality', Comm. Statist. Th. Methods 21 (1992),
969978.
[5] DROST, F.C., KALLENBERG, W.C.M., AND OOSTERHOFF, J.:
'The power of EDF tests to fit under non-robust estimation of
lluisance parameters', Statist. Decisions 8 (1990), 167-182.
[6] GAN, F.F., AND KOEHLER, K.J.: 'Goodness-of-fit tests based
on P - P probability plots', Technometrics 32 (1990), 289-
303.
[7] NIKITlN, YA.YU.: Asymptotic efficiency of nonparametric
tests, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995.
w. C. M. K allenberg
MSC 1991: 62Gxx, 62G30, 62Fxx
ANOMALIES (IN QUANTIZATION) - The term
'anomaly' is not very precise, but here it will be taken
to mean an obstruction to the passage from a classical
theory to a corresponding quantum theory while, at the
same time, maintaining the same invariance groups of
the classical theory. A common feature of many of these

anomalies is that this obstruction has a topological ori-
gin (see below). The topology involved is usually the
cohomology of the invariance group of the theory.
The first anomaly of this kind was the triangle anom-
aly of [1], [3]. This anomaly is one of the many that
involves chiral Fermions coupled to a U(I) gauge field.
Many other anomalies are now known: for example,
anomalies are encountered in Yang-Mills theories, when
one replaces the gauge group U(I) by a non-Abelian
group G, in gravity theory, where general coordinate
transformations replace the gauge transformations of
Yang-Mills theories, in string theory, where both kinds
of transformations are present, and in two-dimensional
conformal field theories.
Within this miscellany of types of anomaly one distin-
guishes two categories: local anomalies and global anom-
alies.
Local anomaly. The discussion below involves Rie-
mannian spin manifolds (cf. Spinor structure)
throughout, so that space-time M is viewed as Eu-
clidean (a Hamiltonian treatment is also possible).
For the moment it is assumed that the dimension n
of M is even, so that the notion of chirality exists. Take
a Yang-Mills theory (cf. also Yang-Mills field) with
gauge field A coupled to chiral Fermions '1/;; A is a g-
valued I-form, where 9 is the Lie algebra of the group
G. The corresponding action S of the quantum field
theory is given by
S == S(A, '1/;) = 11F112 + ('1/;, f/JA'I/;) =
=- tr 1M F 1\ *F +
+-11-
2 M
'1/;1'1"(81-' + P' + AI")(1 + 1'5)'1/;
where fJA = 1'1"(81" + rl" + AI")(1 + 1'5)/2 is the chiral
Dirac operator, F is the Yang-Mills curvature 2-form
and r = r I" dxl" is the Levi-Civita connection I-form.
To unearth a possible anomaly, one constructs its
quantization via the partition function Z which is ob-
tained by integrating over the space of Fermions and
over A, the space of connections. Z is then expressed as
the functional integral
Z= I VAV'I/;V7jJexp[-11F11 2 - ('I/;,fJA'I/;)].
One can carry out the Fermionic integration using the
expression
I V'I/;V7jJexp[- ('I/;,fJA'I/;)] = Vdet(fJ'AfJA).
This allows one to write
Z = I VAV det(fJ'AfJA) exp[ - 11F112]
Now this action S is supposed to possess a gauge in-
variance under the group of gauge transformations g. If
ANOMALIES (IN QUANTIZATION)
this is so, then Z is naturally expressed as an integral
over the space of gauge orbits A/g. An anomaly is said
to have arisen if this is not the case.
Unfortunately, the supposition of gauge invariance re-
quires justification and is generally false: Although the
expression 11F112 is manifestly gauge invariant, the same
cannot be said of the Fermionic determinant det(fJ'AfJA).
Indeed, if 9 is a gauge transformation under which
A I--t Ag = g-l(d + A)g, then, in general,
One can now verify this by direct calculation. In addi-
tion, it can be shown that the variation of the Fermionic
determinant det(fJ'AfJA) under a gauge transformation
has a natural interpretation as a cohomology class in
Hde Rham(g)·
Choose g = exp(tj), where t is a real parameter
and f is locally represented by an expression of the
r(
form f = t a x ), where {ta} is a basis for the spinor
representation of g. Taking the Fermionic integral with
A = Ag one finds that
:t det(fJ'Ag(t) fJAg(t») It=o
I
= V'I/;V7jJexp[- ('I/;,fJA'I/;)]F,
F = r r(x)'\l~bj~l"(x)
lsn
and
1-
b
j51"(x) = 2'1/;1'1"(1 + 1'5)tb'1/;,
where '\l~b denotes covariant derivative.
If G = U(I), then t a is a one-dimensional matrix
and the covariant derivative expression r(x)'\l~bj~l"(x)
reduces to just f(x)8I"jr(x). The presence of an anom-
aly then forces the non-conservation of the well-known
U(I), or singlet, axial current
1-
jr(x) = 2'1/;1'1"(1 + 1'5)'1/;,
cf. [1], [3].
If, in the above calculation, the standard normaliza-
tion factor Vdet(fJ'AfJA) used to eliminate vacuum Feyn-
man graphs is included, one obtains
1 d I
Vdet(fJ'AfJA) dt det(fJ'Ag(t)fJAg(t») t=o =
I V'I/;v7jJ exp[-('I/;, fJA'I/;)] I dx '\l~bjt5(x)r(x)
vdet(fJ'AfJA)
The left-hand side now has the preferred structure and is
the infinitesimal variation of In vdet(fJ'AfJA) , while the
right-hand side is just the vacuum expectation value
of '\l~bj~l"(x) smeared with an arbitrary f. Hence if
53
ANOMALIES (IN QUANTIZATION)
In Jdet(??A??A) really were gauge invariant, one could
conclude that
nab .bp-( X ) --
v p- 15 °•
The catch is that when an anomaly is present, the above
equation is false.
A direct perturbative way of seeing this is to expand
the infinitesimal variation of In Jdet(??A??A) in terms of
the coupling constant and calculate the resultant Feyn-
man graphs. If one does this one finds at one loop the cel-
ebrated divergent triangle graph, whose non-vanishing
implies the existence of the anomaly.
Alternatively, from the point of view of functional
integration, since the integrand exp[ - (1/1, ??A 1/1)] of the
Fermionic integral is gauge invariant, the lack of gauge
invariance of det(??A??A) must occur somewhere in the
integration process over 1/1 and 1j. This is the point of
view of [5], where it is shown that the Fermionic 'mea-
sure' V1/IV1j is not gauge invariant.
The previous calculation suggests the use of a de
Rham technique to produce a topological interpretation
of the anomaly: One takes det(??Ag?? Ag), or more sim-
ply det(??A??A g), and uses its infinitesimal variation to
construct an element of Hde Rham (g).
More precisely, one defines [2]
Tg = ??A??Ag.
Then the natural cohomology class to define is [111],
where
d(det Tg)
111 = detTg ,
and d denotes the exterior derivative (cf. also Exte-
rior form; Exterior algebra) acting on the infinite-
dimensional space 9. Now this I-form 111 would be exact
and hence cohomologically trivial, provided one could
write
111 = dlndet T g .
But one cannot do this unless In det Tg exists. Recall
now that a necessary condition for In f to exist, for a
mapping f: W --+ C \ {O}, is that there is no loop 0: in
W whose image f(o:) circles the origin in C. When W is
simply connected, this is avoided. But in the case under
consideration, W is 9 and if one takes M = s2n, then 9
is weakly homotopic to the loop space 02nc, so that
= 11"1 (0 2n c) = 1I"2n+l (C) "I
11"1 (9) ° detIndex?? = (det ker ??) * Q9 (det ker r).
in general. For example, if M = S4 and C = U(N), then,
from standard results on the homotopy of Lie groups,
a, N=I,
1I"1(g) = 1I"5(U(N)) = { Z2, N = 2,
Z, N 23.
54
Thus, for N 2 3, [111] is a non-trivial cohomology class
in Hde Rham(g)·
The next step is to show how the non-triviality of [111]
is naturally related to the families index theorem.
Recall the partition function Z, for which
This expression contains both the Dirac operator ??A
and a sum over all A E A. Thus it is natural to consider
the family of elliptic operators given by ??A as A varies
throughout A.
Now, for the construction of det Tg one has to know
whether the zero eigenvalue spaces ker??A and ker??A are
non-empty or not. The dimensions of these vector spaces
are n+ and n_, these being the numbers of positive and
negative chirality zero mass Fermions, respectively. But
index??A (for a fixed A) is given by their difference, i.e.
where k is an integer given by the usual characteristic
class formula of the index theorem for the Dirac opera-
tor ??A; in four dimensions, -k is the familiar instanton
number. Thus, a non-zero k, which is the generic sit-
uation, produces an asymmetry in the massless chiral
Fermion sector.
Hence, when A varies, one ought to consider the in-
dex of a whole family of Dirac operators. The families
index theorem provides the framework to do precisely
this: for a family of elliptic operators parametrized by a
space Y, the index of the family is given by an element
of K(Y), the K-theory of Y.
In the present case, Y = A and, denoting the index
of the Dirac family by Index??, one obtains
Index?? = {ker??A: A E A} - {ker??A: A E A} =
= [ker??]- [kerr].
Such a formal difference of (equivalence classes) of vec-
tor bundles defines an element of the K-theory K(A) of
A, which immediately projects to an element of K(AjQ)
because of the gauge invariance of ??A.
It is now natural to consider a certain determinant
line bundle det Index?? associated with Index?? This
bundle is defined by
Since det Index?? is a line bundle, it is characterized
topologically by its Chern class C1 (detIndex??); how-
ever, one can calculate C1 (det Index??) from the stan-
dard cohomology formula for the index of elliptic fam-
ilies. Summing up these cohomology calculations, one

sees that two cohomology group elements have been con-
structed, namely
[ILd E Hde Rham(Q),
c1(detIndex??) E H~e Rham(A/G).
Actually, it can be shown by transgression that
[ILl] "I- 0 ::::} C1 (det Index??) "I- O.
In addition one can give formulas for ILl and
c1(detIndex??). For example, if M = 8 4 and G =
8U(N), then, if F t = tdA + t 2 A 1\ A, a formula for ILl is
the integral below restricted to the orbit 0 . A:
ior dt iS4
r
ILl = - ( i )3
1
tr(A 1\ F t
211"
The cohomology class C1 (detIndex??) is the one re-
quired for the anomaly. To see this, suppose that there is
no anomaly. Then det(??A??A) is gauge invariant and the
partition function descends to an integral over the orbit
space A/G on which also det(??A??A) projects to det(??).
But in this case det(??) provides a global section of the
line bundle detIndex??, causing c1(det Index ??) to van-
ish. Thus, the presence of the anomaly is detected by the
non-triviality of the bundle det Index?? and one sees that
the index theorem for the Dirac family {??A: A E A}
brings out succinctly the anomaly as an obstacle to the
definition of a gauge-invariant determinant for ??A.
Note that if G = U(l), then 11"1(0) vanishes; hence
Hde Rham (0) also vanishes. But it is known from the tri-
angle graph that there is an anomaly in this theory. It
is also known that there is no local counterterm ('lo-
cal' meaning: a polynomial in fields and their deriva-
tives) which can cancel the triangle graph and remove
the anomaly. Thus, the anomaly is, physically speaking,
unremovable. Mathematically speaking, the vanishing of
Hde Rham (0) means that there is a counterterm, but it
is non-local. This suggests defining a local cohomology
theory next to the conventional cohomology theory, and
that one should distinguish cases where the two coho-
mologies differ, cf. [4].
Anomalies also occur in other contexts. If Diff+ (M) is
the group of (orientation-preserving) coordinate trans-
formations of M, then one can consider the change of
the Dirac operator (1/2hJL(8JL + rJL)(l + '5) under a co-
ordinate transformation h E Diff+ (M) rather than an
element of g E O. Recall that the ,-matrices depend on
a choice of metric; the same is therefore true of the Dirac
operator. Hence, if Met(M) denotes the space of metrics
on M and p E Met(M), then one can display the metric
dependence of the Dirac operator by writing it as ??p.
In this context one now searches for an obstacle to the
descent of the determinant det(??;??p) from Met(M) to
the quotient Met( M) / Diff+ (M); actually, for technical
reasons due to fixed points of the action of Diff+ (M)
ANOMALIES (IN QUANTIZATION)
on Met(M), one replaces Diff+(M) by the (fixed-point-
free) subgroup Diffo(M) consisting of those elements
of Diff+ (M) that leave a basis at one point fixed. So,
now Met(M)/ Diffo(M) plays the role formerly played
by A/G. An anomaly of this kind is known as a gravi-
tational anomaly and lies in K(Met(M)/Diffo(M)).
Anomalous determinants need not contain Dirac op-
erators; other elliptic operators give rise to anomalies.
One of the most celebrated is in string theory, where
the anomaly concerns the a-operator on a compact
Riemann surface ~. The partition function for the
Bosonic string contains a power of det(a*a). The a-
1\ F t ). operator depends on the metric on ~ and det(a*a)
should only depend on the conformal equivalence class
of this metric. Now Met(~), the space of metrics on ~,
is acted on by diffeomorphisms and conformal transfor-
mations, i.e. by Diffo(~) and C+(~), the space of pos-
itive functions on ~. The determinant det(a*a) should
descend to a quotient of Met(~) under this combined
action. Failure to do this is an anomaly; this conformal
anomaly vanishes when the string moves in d dimensions
where d = 26. The anomaly can be seen to arise from
the need, in string theory, to consider representations of
the Virasoro group (cf. also Virasoro algebra), that is,
to consider central extensions of the group of conformal
transformations on ~.
Global anomaly. The last kind of anomaly de-
scribed in this article is a global anomaly. A global
anomaly is well defined when the appropriate local
anomaly, for example, an element of Hde Rham (0) or
Hde Rham (Diff+ (M)) say, vanishes. Global anomalies en-
ter when 0 or Diff+(M) have more than one connected
component. This means that they contain elements not
continuously connected to the identity. Such discrete-
ness is not detectable using methods of curvature and
de Rham cohomology -these methods are only sensi-
tive to objects in the tangent space. The situation is
closely analogous to the calculation of torsion in homol-
ogy and cohomology. Unfortunately, torsion calculations
are typically more difficult than free cohomology calcu-
lations, for which the de Rham method is usually avail-
able. Index theory for families can still be used with the
addition of some other ingredients, such as holonomy
and spectral flow round loops on the appropriate family
parameter space Y.
An example in which 0 is disconnected is provided by
a Yang-Mills theory (cf. also Yang-Mills field) with
group G. One can count the connected components of 0
with 1I"o(Q) and, doing this with M = 8 4 and G = SU(2),
one has
55
ANOMALIES (IN QUANTIZATION)
HJe
i.e. 71'0 (9) =1= 0, also Rham (9) = 0, so that the local
anomaly is zero. This means that there are global gauge
transformations under which det f/JA is not invariant -in
fact they change the sign of Vdet(f/JAf/JA)'
An example in which one has a global gravitational
anomaly is provided by M = 8 10 , since then
and this fact is also very closely tied to the existence of
992 distinct differentiable structures on 8 10 , i.e. to the
existence of exotic spheres. The cancellation of the local
and global anomalies in 10 dimensions for N = 1 su-
persymmetric string theories was first described in [6],
[9].
The quantization of two-dimensional conformal field
theories on a Riemann surface ~ involves a natural, pro-
jectively flat, connection on a vector bundle V over the
moduli space of~. One also chooses an integer k, known
as the level and constructs a suitable quotient of an
infinite-dimensional affine space, cf. [7]. The projective
flatness arises because of the necessity to consider a cen-
tral extension of the action of Diff+ (~) on the sections
of V. This then gives rise to an anomaly which is mani-
fested as a shift in the level k. Such a quantization arises
in the quantum field theoretic formulation of Jones' knot
polynomial.
A Hamiltonian approach to anomalies takes M to be
the manifold of space rather than of space-time; hence,
in the chiral examples, M would be odd dimensional and
there is no splitting of the Dirac operator into two chi-
ral pieces. Instead, one works with the full self-adjoint
Dirac operator f/J A and realizes it as a Fredholm op-
erator. A treatment using Fermionic Fock space is also
possible.
A general reference is [8]. See also Index formulas;
Chiral anomaly.
References
[1] ADLER, S.: 'Axial-vector vertex in spinor electrodynamics'.
Phys. Rev. 111 (1969), 2426-2438.
[2] ATIYAH, M.F., AND SINGER, I.M.: 'Dirac operators coupled
to vector potentials', Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 81 (1984),
2597-2600.
[3] BELL, J., AND JACKIW, R.: 'A PCAC puzzle 11"0 --+ 2/, in the
a-model', Nuovo Cimento 60A (1969),47-61.
[4] BONORA, L., AND COTTA-RAMUSINO, P.: 'Some Remarks on
BRS transformations, anomalies and the cohomology of the
Lie algebra of the group of gauge transformations', Comm.
Math. Phys. 81 (1983), 589-603.
[5] FUJIKAWA, K.: 'Path integral measure for gauge invariant
Fermion theories', Phys. Rev. Lett. 42 (1979), 1195-1197.
[6] GREEN, M.B., AND SCHWARZ, J.H.: 'Anomaly cancellations
in supersymmetric D = 10 gauge theory and superstring the-
ory', Phys. Lett. 149B (1984), 117-122.
[7] HITCHIN, N.J.: 'Flat connections and geometric quantisation',
Comm. Math. Phys. 131 (1990), 347-380.
56
[8] NASH, C.: Differential topology and quantum field theory,
Acad. Press, 1991.
[9] WITTEN, E.: 'Global gravitational anomalies', Comm. Math.
Phys. 100 (1985), 197 229.
C. Nash
MSC 1991: 81 T70, 81Q30, 81R25
ANTI-DE SITTER SPACE, complete maximal space-
like hypersurfaces in an- Let R;:r+l be an (n +
p + I)-dimensional Minkowski space of index p + 1,
.
I.e., +p+1 = {( Xl,"" Xn+p+l ) E R n+ p+1} and
R np+l
is equipped with the Lorentz metric L~=l (dXi)2 -
L~~~(dxn+j)2. For c > 0, let
Hn+p(c) = {x' EpRn+p+l.
p +l'
,2
Xl + ... + Xn2 2
- Xn+l - ... - Xn2 +p+l = -1 / c} .
Thus, H;+P (c) is an (n + p )-dimensional indefinite Rie-
mannian manifold of index p and of constant cur-
vature -c. It is called an (n + p )-dimensional anti-de
Sitter space of constant curvature -c and of index p.
A hypersurface M of Hi'+l (c) is said to be space-like
if the metric on M induced by that of ambient space
H~+l(c) is positive definite. The mean curvature H of
M is defined as in the case of Riemannian manifolds.
By definition, M is a maximal hypersurface if the mean
curvature H of M is identically zero. S. Ishihara proved
that a complete maximal space-like hypersurface M in
H~'+l (c) satisfies 8 ~ nc, and 8 = nc if and only if M is
isometric to the hyperbolic cylinder Hk(ct} X Hn-k(C2),
where 8 is the squared norm of the second fundamen-
tal form of M and Hk(Ci), i = 1,2, is a k-dimensional
hyperbolic space of constant curvature Ci. The rigidity of
the hyperbolic cylinder Hk(cd x Hn-k(C2) in H~+l(C)
was proved by U.-H. Ki, H.S. Kim and H. Nakagawa
[3]: for a given integer n and constant c > 0, there exists
a constant C < nc, depending on nand c, such that
the hyperbolic cylinder Hk(cd x Hn-k(C2) is the only
complete maximal space-like hypersurface in H~+l(c)
of constant scalar curvature and such that S > C. In
particular, for n = 3, Q.M. Cheng [1] has character-
ized the complete maximal space-like hypersurfaces in
Ht (c) under the condition of constant Gauss-Kronecker
curvature (cf. Gaussian curvature): Let M be a 3-
dimensional complete maximal space-like hypersurface
of Ht(c). Now:
1) if the Gauss Kronecker curvature of M is a
non-lICfO constant, then M is the hyperbolic cylinder
Hl(cd x H2(C2);
2) if the scalar curvature K is constant and
inf K2 > 0, then M is the hyperbolic cylinder HI (Cl) X
H2(C2)'
 APL

There are no complete maximal space-like hypersurfaces
in Hi (c) with constant scalar curvature and sup K2 <
8 3 /54.
On the other hand, complete space-like submanifolds
in anti-de Sitter spaces with parallel mean curvature
have been investigated by many authors.
Cf. also De Sitter space.
References
[1] CHENG, Q.M.: 'Complete maximal space-like hypersurfaces
of Ht(c)', Manuscripta Math. 82 (1994), 149-160.
[2] ISHIKAWA, T.: 'Maximal space-like sub manifolds of a pseudo-
Riemannian space of constant curvature', Michigan Math. J.
35 (1988), 345-352.
[3] KI, V-H., KIM, H.S., AND NAKAGAWA, H.: 'Complete max-
imal space-like hypersurfaces of an anti-de Sitter space',
Kyungpook Math. J. 31 (1991), 131-141.
Qingming Cheng
MSC 1991: 53C20, 53C42
ANTI-EIGENVALUE The theory of anti-
eigenvalues is a spectral theory based upon the turn-
ing angles of a matrix or operator A. (See Eigen value
for the spectral theory of stretchings, rather than turn-
ings, of a matrix or operator.)
For a strongly accretive operator A, i.e., Re(Ax, x) ;:::
mllxl1 2, m > 0, the first anti-eigenvalue /..l is defined by
_ . Re(Ax,x)
/..l = cos A = xE1gfA) IIAxllllxl1 .
From (1) one has immediately the notion of the angle
¢(A): the largest angle through which A may turn a vec-
tor. Any corresponding vector x which is turned by that
angle is called a first anti-eigenvector. It turns out that,
in general, the first anti-eigenvectors come in pairs. Two
important early results were the minmax theorem and
the Euler equation.
Minmax theorem. For any strongly accretive bounded
operator A on a Hilbert space X,
sup inf II(fA - I)x112 =
IIxll =1 -00<'<00
When A is a normal operator, (4) is satisfied not only
by the first anti-eigenvectors of A, but by all eigenvec-
tors of A. Therefore the Euler equation may be viewed
as a significant extension of the Rayleigh-Ritz theory for
the variational characterization of eigenvalues of a self-
adjoint or normal operator A. The eigenvectors maxi-
mize the variational quotient (1). The anti-eigenvectors
minimize it. See [1], [3].
The theory of anti-eigenvalues has been applied re-
cently (from 1990 onward) to gradient and iterative
methods for the solution of linear systems Ax = b; see
[4], [6]. For example, the Kantorovich convergence rate
for steepest descent,
where EA denotes the A-inner-product error
((x - x*), A(x - x*)), becomes
EA(Xk+l) ::; (sin 2 A)EA(Xk)'
Thus, the Kantorovich error rate is trigonometric. Sim-
ilar trigonometric convergence bounds hold for conju-
gate gradient and related more sophisticated algorithms
[5]. Even the basic Richardson method Xk+l = Xk +
a(b - AXk) (cf. also Richardson extrapolation) may
be seen to have optimal convergence rate Popt = sin A.
(1) For further information, see [4], [6].
References
[1] GUSTAFSON, K: 'Antieigenvalues', Linear Alg. & Its Appl.
208/209 (1994), 437-454.
[2] GUSTAFSON, K.: 'Operator trigonometry', Linear and Multi-
linear Alg. 37 (1994), 139-159.
[3] GUSTAFSON, K.: 'Matrix trigonometry', Linear Alg. & Its
Appl. 217 (1995), 117-140.
[4] GUSTAFSON, K: Lectures on computational fluid dynamics,
mathematical physics, and linear algebra, Kaigai & World
Sci., 1996/7.
[5] GUSTAFSON, K: 'Operator trigonometry of iterative meth-
ods', Numerical Linear Alg. Applic. to appear (1997).
(2) [6] GUSTAFSON, K., AND RAO, D.: Numerical range, Springer,
1997.

inf sup II(fA - I)xI1 2. MSC 1991: 47 AlO, 49RlO, 65F10

K. Gustafson
-00«<00 Ilxll =1
Using the minmax theorem, the right-hand side of (2)
APL - APL denotes both a programming lan-
is seen to define
guage and a programming system. Its name simply ab-
1I = sin A = inf
<>0
IlfA - III (3) breviates the title of [2], which presents the earliest ver-
sion of APL as a language, i.e. the very concise math-
in such a way that cos 2 A + sin 2 A = 1. This implies an ematical Iverson notation. The first available APL sys-
operator trigonometry (see [2]). tem was IBM's APL \360 (1966). It became soon popu-
Euler equation. For any strongly accretive bounded lar, mainly because it was an interactive system designed
operator A on a Hilbert space X, the Euler equation for to be used conversationally at typewriter terminals. It is
the anti-eigenvalue functional /..l in (1) is strongly based on the Iverson notation without taking
211Axl1 2 11xl1 2 (ReA)x -llxl1 2 Re (Ax, x) A* Ax + (4) over all its features. APL exists in many dialects and
versions, and most of them are extensions to APL\360
-IIAxI1 2Re (Ax, x) x = o. [1].

57
APL
APL is mainly a functional language, although it has
also some imperative features. It is actually an array
processing language, for all its non-trivial data struc-
tures are arrays and all its primitive functions and op-
erators act on arrays. For the same reason, APL can
also be considered a parallel language. The arrays in
APL can be of any dimension and of variable size. How-
ever, in most dialects they have to be homogeneous
and simple. These limitations, together with the lack of
pointers, make it difficult to implement non-linear data
structures (e.g. trees, graphs) in APL. It has no block
structure, no explicit types and no explicit control struc-
tures. Loops can only be constructed by means of goto
statements and should be avoided. Programs in APL
are user-defined functions. All this makes programming
in APL quite different from programming in impera-
tive languages like FORTRAN, Pascal or C [4]. Each of
the many primitive functions has an APL character as
its name. At first sight, the APL character set and its
semantics look strange, but actually they reflect a wise
design. Another characteristic of APL is that compound
statements are strictly executed from right to left. This
means that no hierarchy among operations and much
less parentheses are necessary. The following two com-
pound statements illustrate some of the spirit of APL:
SUM +- +\ B +- 04 -68 < 71-29.9
D +- DIAMETER CONVEX POLYGON X
In the first example, two vectors are compared ele-
mentwise, resulting in a binary vector B of the same
length. Then the elements of B are added and the re-
sult (= 3) is assigned to SUM. In the second example,
the variable X is supposed to contain an array repre-
senting a sequence of points. The user-defined functions
DIAMETER, CONVEX and POLYGON are applied
successively, and the resulting diameter is assigned to
the variable D.
APL code is normally interpreted, not compiled. Af-
ter a line has been entered, it is immediately interpreted
and executed. This 'desk calculator' property of APL
enables efficient debugging. The implementation of al-
gorithms in APL, often just for the purpose of rapid pro-
totyping, is typically very fast. A further key element of
the APL system are its work spaces, i.e. a simple mech-
anism for storing instances of variables and user-defined
functions.
Two influential followers of APL are APL2 (IBM,
1984) and J (Iverson and collaborator's, 1990) [1]. APL2
includes heterogeneous and nested arrays, whose ab-
sence in APL\360 has often been strongly felt. J, which
reflects Iverson's own further work on APL, introduces
tacit programming. The system Mathematica, too, is
strongly influenced by APL [5]. The 'phenomenon' APL
58
has always been controversial. At any rate, its influence
on computer science, and especially on the development
of programming languages, has been considerable [3].
References
[IJ HOFFNAGLE, G.F. (ED.): '13 papers on the occasion of the
25th anniversary of APL', IBM Systems J. 30, no. 4 (1991).
[2J IVERSON, K.E.: A programming language, Wiley, 1962.
[3J IVERSON, K.E.: 'Notation as a tool of thought, 1979 'TUring
Award Lecture', Comm. ACM 23 (1980),444-465.
[4J WEGNER, P.: 'Programming languages - the first 25 years',
IEEE Trans. Camp. C-25 (1976), 1207-1225.
[5J WOLFRAM, S.: Mathematica: A system for doing mathemat-
ics by computer, Addison-Wesley, 1988.
H. Bieri
MSC 1991: 68N15
ARBORESCENCE - A rooted tree such that all
edges are oriented away from the root.
MSC 1991: 05C05
ARENS MULTIPLICATION, Arens products -- A
pair of intrinsically defined products on the double dual
space A ** of any normed algebra A, each making A **
into a Banach algebra. In 1951, [2] and [1], R. Arens
defined these products using an essentially categorical
framework.
Let A be a normed algebra with dual Banach space
(i.e., set of continuous linear functionals on A) A* and
double dual space A** = (A*)*. Let "': A ---t A** be the
canonical isometric linear injection given by evaluation:
",(a)(w) = w(a) for all a E A, w E A*.
The definition of the Arens products is in three steps.
For any a E A and w E A *, define elements Wa and aW
of A* by
wa(b) = w(ab), aw(b) = w(ba), Vb E A. (1)
For any w E A * and f E A **, define elements fW and
wf of A* by
Va E A. (2)
Finally, for any f,g E A**, define elements fg and f· g
of A** by
fg(w) = f(gw), f· g(w) = g(wf)' Vw E A**. (3)
The two products f g and f .g in A ** are often called the
first and second Arens product, respectively. However,
there is perfect symmetry between them. Each product
makes A ** into a Banach algebra, and", is an injective
homomorphism from A into A ** with respect to either
Arens product.
The subalgebra ",(A) is always a spectral subalge-
bra of A ** with respect to either Arens product (cf. also
Spectral decomposition of a linear operator). This
means that the spectrum of an element ",(a) is the same
whether calculated in ",(A) or in A**. The two products

agree whenever one of the factors is in K(A). When the
two products coincide on all of A ** , the algebra A is said
to be Arens regular (cf. also Arens regularity). Subal-
gebras and quotient algebras of Arens-regular algebras
are Arens regular.
If r.p: A -+ B is a continuous (anti-) homomorphism,
then r.p**: A ** -+ B** is a continuous (anti-) homo-
morphism with respect to either Arens product (respec-
tively, the opposite Arens products) on A** and B**.
This shows that the involution on a Banach *-algebra A
extends naturally to an involution on A ** if and only if
A is Arens regular.
Examples of Arens products.
1) The classical Banach algebra Co of complex se-
quences converging to zero with pointwise multiplica-
tion has dual and double dual naturally isomorphic to
£1 and £00, respectively. The Arens product on (£1 )**
corresponds to the usual pointwise multiplication in £00.
2~3) The Banach space £1 = £l(N) is a commuta-
tive Banach algebra under either pointwise or convolu-
tion multiplication. It is Arens regular under the first
but not the second. For pointwise multiplication one
wishes to represent the double dual of £1 as the Banach
space ba(N) ~ KW) EB sba(N) of all complex, bounded,
finitely-additive set functions, where sba(N) is the sub-
set of singular measures (i.e. those which vanish on all
finite subsets of N). The duality is implemented by sim-
ply integrating the sequence in £00 by the set function in
ba(N). With pointwise multiplication, £1 is Arens regu-
lar and K is an isomorphism onto its range. Any product
in (£1 )** with one factor from sba(N) is zero, so sba(N)
is the Gel'fand (i.e., Jacobson) radical (cf. Jacobson
radical) of the commutative algebra (£1 )**.
If one regards £1 as the dual of the space c of all
bounded sequences, then £00 can be viewed as the com-
mutative CO-algebra C(,8N) of all continuous complex-
valued functions on the Stone-Cech compactifica-
tion ,8N of N. Hence, (£1 )** can be identified with the
Banach space M (,8N) of regular Borel measures on ,8N.
With this interpretation, it is clear that the two Arens
products do not agree. In essence, this construction ex-
tends to all discrete semi-group algebras.
4) If A is a C* -algebra, then it is Arens regular and
A** with its Arens product is the usual von Neumann
enveloping algebra of A (cf. von Neumann algebra).
Surprisingly, the Arens regularity of C* -algebras de-
pends only on their Banach space structure and not
at all on the nature of their product. A special case
of Arens products on C* -algebras was recognized very
early and plays a significant role in von Neumann al-
gebra theory. Let H be a Hilbert space. The trace
on the ideal BT(H) ~ B(H) of trace-class operators
in the algebra B(H) of all bounded linear operators
ARENS REGULARITY
establishes a natural isometric linear isomorphism of
the Banach space BT(H) onto the dual Banach space
BK(H)* of the ideal of compact operators BK(H). It
also defines a natural isometric linear isomorphism of
B(H) onto BT(H)*. The resulting isometric linear iso-
morphism 8: B(H) -+ BK(H)** is an algebra isomor-
phism with respect to both Arens products, which agree
on BK(H)**. Any K E BK(H) satisfies 8(K) = K(K).
Arens-regular algebras are rare. For a locally compact
group (cf. also Compact group; Locally compact
skew-field) G, Lt{ G) is Arens regular only when G is
finite. Even for Arens-regular algebras, A** is often in-
tractable. Various natural quotients are often more use-
ful. There is an intimate connection between the Arens
products on A ** and the double centralizer algebra of
A. An important technical property of the Arens prod-
uct is the close connection between approximate iden-
tities in A and one-sided or actual identity elements in
A**. The case in which K(A) is an ideal in A** has been
studied and characterized. The following theorem is an
important special case: A semi-simple annihilator Ba-
nach algebra is an ideal in its double dual with respect
to either Arens product.
The most comprehensive recent exposition is [3],
which contains numerous further references.
References
[1] ARENS, R.: 'The adjoint of a bilinear operation', Pmc. Amer.
Math. Soc. 2 (1951), 839-848.
[2] ARENS, R.: 'Operations induced in function classes',
Monatsh. Math. 55 (1951), 1-19.
[3] PALMER, T.W.: Banach algebras and the general theory of--
algebras /, Vol. 49 of Encycl. Math. Appl., Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1994.
T. W. Palmer
MSC 1991: 46Hxx, 43Axx, 47D35, 47D27
ARENS REGULARITY ~ A normed algebra A is
said to be Arens regular if the pair of intrinsically de-
fined Arens products (introduced by R. Arens in [2] and
[1]; cf. Arens multiplication) on the double dual space
A *- are identical. Since both Arens products extend the
product on A (relative to the natural embedding map-
ping K: A -+ A **), a Banach algebra on a reflexive
Banach space (cf. also Reflexive space) is Arens reg-
ular. S. Sherman has shown [10] that the double dual
of a C* -algebra A has a natural interpretation as the
von Neumann algebra generated by the universal *-
representation of A. Hence C* -algebras are always Arens
regular.
It is easy to show that if A ** is commutative under ei-
ther Arens product, then A is Arens regular. The follow-
ing fundamental result is due to J. Hennefeld [5], based
on work of J.S. Pym [8] making use of Grothendieck's
criterion for weak compactness.
59
ARENS REGULARITY
The following conditions are equivalent for a Banach
algebra A:
a) A is Arens regular;
b) for each a E A the adjoint L~: A* -+ A* of the
left regular representation is weakly compact;
c) for each a E A the adjoint R~: A* -+ A* of the
right regular representation is weakly compact;
d) for any bounded sequences {an}nEN and {bn}nEN
in A and any w E A *, the iterated limits
lim limw(anb n ), lim lim w( anb n )
n m m n
are equal when they both exist.
This theorem easily implies that subalgebras and quo-
tient algebras (with respect to closed ideals) of Arens-
regular algebras are Arens regular, as first noted in [3].
Arens regularity is rare among general Banach alge-
bras. N.J. Young [11] has shown that for a locally com-
pact group (cf. also Compact group; Locally com-
pact skew-field) G, £l(G) (or M(G)) is Arens regular
if and only if G is finite. P. Civin and B. Yood had proved
this for Abelian groups in [3]. In [12] it is shown that the
measure algebra (cf. Algebra of measures) M(5) of
a locally compact semi-group 5 in which multiplication
is at least singly continuous is Arens regular if and only
if £1 (5) is. These are, in turn, equivalent to either:
• there do not exist sequences {un} and {v m } in 5
such that the sets {un Vm: m > n} and {un Vm: m < n}
are disjoint;
• the semi-group operation can be extended to the
Stone-Cech compactification (35 of 5 as a discrete
space.
In [13], Young has proved that the algebra BA(X)
of approximable operators (i.e., those uniformly approx-
imable by finite-rank operators) on a Banach space X
is regular if and only if X is reflexive (cf. Reflex-
ive space). Hence, if the Banach algebra B(X) of all
bounded linear operators on a Banach space X is Arens
regular, then X must be reflexive. He also shows that
there are reflexive Banach spaces X with B(X) not
Arens regular.
A. RodrIguez-Palacios [9] has shown that any (even
non-associative) continuous multiplication on a Banach
space A is Arens regular if and only if every bounded
linear mapping from A into A * is weakly compact (cf.
Weak topology). C* -algebras satisfy this criterion.
A weaker version of Arens regularity was introduced
by M. Grosser [4]. An approximately unital Banach
algebra A is said to be semi-regular if it satisfies
R** (e) = L ** (e) for all mixed identities e. (An element
e E A ** is called a mixed identity if it is simultaneously
a right identity for the first Arens product and a left
60
identity for the second Arens product, see Arens mul-
tiplication.) He shows that an Arens-regular algebra is
semi-regular and that any commutative approximately
unital Banach algebra is semi-regular.
The most comprehensive recent (1996) exposition is
[7], which contains numerous further references.
References
[1] ARENS, R.: 'The adjoint of a hili near operation', Proc. Amer.
Math. Soc. 2 (1951),839-848.
[2] ARENS, R.: 'Operations induced in function classes',
Monatsh. Math. 55 (1951), 1 19.
[3] CIVIN, P., AND YOOD, B.: 'The second conjugate space of a
Banach algebra as an algebra', Pacific J. Math. 11 (1961),
847870.
[4] GROSSER, M.: 'Arens semi regular Banach algebras', Monatsh.
Math. 98, no. 1 (1984), '11-52.
[5] HENNEFELD, J.O.: 'A note on the Arens products', Pacific J.
Math. 26 (1968), 115 119.
[6] KAIJSER, S.: 'On Banach modules 1', Math. Proc. Cambridge
Philos. Soc. 90, no. 3 (1981),423-444.
[7] PALMER, T.W.: Banach algebras and the general theory of*-
algebras I, Vol. 49 of Encycl. Math. Appl., Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1994.
[8] PYM, .l.S.: 'The convolution of functionals on spaces of
bounded functions', Proc. London Math. Soc. (8) 15 (1965),
84-104.
[9] RODRIGUEZ-PALACIOS, A.: 'A note on Arens regularity',
Quart . .J. Math. Oxfor'd Ser. (2) 38, no. 149 (1987), 1991-
1993.
[10] SHERMAN, S.: 'The second adjoint ofa C'-algebra': Proc. In-
ternat. Congress Math. Cambridge, I, 1950, p. 470.
[11] YOUNG, N.J.: 'The irregularity of multiplication in group al-
gebras', Q·uart. J. Math. Oxford Ser. (2) 24 (1973), 5962.
[12] YOUNG, N.J.: 'Semigroup algebras having regular multiplica-
tion', Studio. Math. 47 (1973), 191-196 .
[13] YOUNG, N.J.: 'Periodicity of functionals and representations
of narmed algebras on reflexive spaces', Proc. Edinburgh
Math. Soc. (2) 20, no. 2 (197677),99-120.
T. W. Palmer
MSC 1991: 46Hxx, 43Axx, 47D35, 47D27
ARGUESIAN LATTICE, Desarguesian lattice A
lattice in which the Ar:quesian law is valid, i.e. for all
ai, bi,
c = CO(CI + C2), ci = (aj + ak)(bj + bd for any per-
mutationi,j, k [23]. Arguesian lattices form a variety
(cf. also Algebraic systems, variety of), since within
lattices p S q is equivalent to pq = p. A lattice is
Arguesian if and only if it is a modular lattice and
(0.0 + bo ) (0.1 + b]) S 0.2 + b2 (central perspectivity) im-
plies C2 S Co + C1 (axial perspectivity). In an Arguesian
lattice and for ai, bi such that (1.2 = ((1.0 + (1.2) ((1.] + 0.2)
and b2 = (b o + b2 )(b 1 + b2 ), the converse implication is
valid too [28]. A lattice is Arguesian if and only if its
partial order dual is Arguesian.
E:ra.mplcs of A rgllcsian lattices.

1) The lattice L(P) of subspaces of a projective
space P is Arguesian if and only if the Desargues as-
sumption is satisfied in P.
2) Every lattice L(nM) of submodules of an R-
module M (cf. also Module) and any lattice of sub-
objects of an object in an Abelian category.
3) Every lattice of normal subgroups (respectively,
congruence relations; cf. Normal subgroup; Congru-
ence (in algebra») of a group and any lattice of per-
muting equivalence relations [23] (also called a linear
lattice ).
4) Considering all lattices of congruence relations of
algebraic systems (cf. Algebraic system) in a variety,
the Arguesian law is equivalent to the modular law.
5) Every 2-distributive modular lattice (cf. also
Distributive lattice): w(x+y+z) = w(x+y) +w(x+
z) + w(y + z), i.e. without a projective plane in the
variety.
The Arguesian law can be characterized in terms of
forbidden subconfigurations, but not in terms of sub-
lattices [16]. Weaker versions involve less variables and
higher-dimensional versions have increasing strength
and number of variables; all are valid in linear lattices
[10]. The basic structure theory relies on the modular
law, cf. Modular lattice and [3], [30]. For its role in
the congruence and commutator theory of algebraic sys-
tems, cf. [12]. Large parts of dimension theory for
rings and modules can be conveniently done within mod-
ular lattices [31].
Projective spaces. See [17]. Every modular lattice
with complements (cf. Lattice with complements)
can be embedded into L(P) for a projective space on the
set P of its maximal filters (cf. Filter), actually a sublat-
tice of the ideal lattice of the filter lattice (with filters or-
dered by inverse inclusion), whence preserving all iden-
tities. This Frink embedding generalizes the Stone rep-
resentation theorem for Boolean algebras (cf. Boolean
algebra). The coordinatization theorem of projective
geometry implies that any Arguesian relatively com-
plemented lattice can be embedded into a direct prod-
uct of lattices of subspaces of vector spaces (cf. Vector
space) [24].
A compact element p of a modular algebraic lattice
L is called a point if it is completely join irreducible, i.e.
has a unique lower cover p*. If each element of L is a join
of points (e.g., if dimL < 00), then L can be understood
as the subspace lattice of an ordered linear space on the
set P of points: the order is induced by L. Points p, q, r
are collinear if they are distinct andp+q = p+r = q+r,
and a subspace is a subset X such that q ::; p E X im-
plies q EX, and p, q E X with p, q, r collinear implies
rEX. This can also be viewed as a presentation of L
as a semi-lattice. Instead of all collinearities one may
ARGUESIAN LATTICE
use a base of lines: for each element 1 = p + q a max-
imal set of points with pairwise join l. For an abstract
ordered linear space one has to require that collinearity
is a totally symmetric relation, that collinear points are
incomparable, that p, q ::; sand p, q, r collinear implies
r ::; s, that for r' ::; rand p, q, r collinear there are
p' ::; p and q' ::; q such that p', q', r' are collinear or
r' ::; p or r' ::; q, and, finally, a more elaborate version
of the triangle axiom. Then the subspaces form a lattice
L as above and each modular lattice can be naturally
embedded into such, preserving identities.
Subdirect products and congruences. See [3], [22].
Every lattice is a subdirect product of sub directly ir-
reducible homomorphic images (cf. Homomorphism).
By Jonsson's lemma, the sub direct irreducibles in the
variety generated by a class C are homomorphic images
of sublattices of ultraproducts from C. A pair of com-
plementary central elements u, v provides a direct de-
composition x H (xu, xv), a neutral element u implies
a sub direct decomposition x H (xu, x + u).
Any congruence () on a modular lattice L is deter-
mined by its set Q( ()) of quotients, where a quotient is
a pair alb with a 2: b, equivalently, an interval [b, a].
A pair of quotients is projective if it belongs to the
equivalence relation generated by alb, cld such that
a = b + c and d = bc. A subquotient cld of alb is
such that b ::; d ::; c ::; a. If () is generated by a set
r of quotients, then Q( ()) is the transitive closure of
the set of all quotients projective to some subquotient
of a quotient in r. The congruences form a Brouwer
lattice, with the pseudo-complement ()* of () given by
the quotients not having any subquotient projective to
a subquotient of a quotient in r. L is subdirectly de-
composed into LI() and LI()* and each sub directly in-
decomposable factor of L is a homomorphic image of
LI() or LI()*. If 7r: L -+ S is onto, dim(S) < 00, and if
1fX = inf {a E L: 7ra = x} (which then preserves sups)
and the dual ir exist, i.e. for a bounded image, then for
() = Ker 7r one finds that ()* is the transitive closure
of prime quotients alb with a = b + 1fX, b = airy for
some prime quotient x I y in S. For any onto mapping
'1/;: L -+ M with 7r not factoring through '1/;, this split-
ting method yields the relations 'l/;1fY ::; 'l/;irx for prime
quotients xly in S. If L is generated by a finite set
E, starting with aox = inf{ e E E: 7re ::; x} and iter-
ating, ak+1x = inf akr(akP + akq) with p, q, r rang-
ing over all subtriples of lines of a given base, leads to
a n+1 = an = 1f for some n [29].
For dim L < 00, each congruence is determined by its
prime quotients, either those in a given composition
sequence or those of the form plp*, p a point. It fol-
lows that the congruences form a finite Boolean alge-
bra and are in one-to-one correspondence with unions of
61
ARGUES IAN LATTICE
connected components of the point set under the binary
relation: 3r with p, q, r collinear. Moreover, the subdi-
reetly indecomposable factors Li of L are simple, i.e. cor-
respond to maximal congruences (Ji, and the dimensions
add up: dim L = E dim L i . The connected components
associated with the (Ji are disjoint and are isomorphic
images of the spaces of the Li via ifi. Thus, the space of
L can be constructed as the disjoint union of the spaces
of the Li with Pi ~ qj if and only if 7rjifiPi ~ qj where
7rjifi depends only on the sub direct product of Li and L j
and can be computed, in the scaffolding construction, as
the pointwise largest sup-homomorphism aij of Li into
L j such that aij7rie ~ 7rje for a given set of generators
e.
Glueing. See [7J. A tolerance relation on a lattice L is a
binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and com-
patible, i.e. a subalgebra of L x L. A block is a maximal
subset with every pair of elements in relation, whence
a convex sublattice. The set S of blocks has a lattice
structure. A convenient way to think of this is as a pair
0', 'Y of embeddings of a (not necessarily modular) skele-
ton lattice S into the filter, respectively ideal, lattice
of L preserving finite sups, respectively infs, such that
L(x) = O'(x) n 'Y(x) is non-empty for each x, namely one
of the blocks. A relevant tolerance for modular lattices
is given by the relation that lab, a+bJ be complemented.
Its blocks are the maximal relatively complemented con-
vex sublattices of L, and S is then the prime skeleton.
One has a glueing if the smallest congruence extend-
ing the tolerance is total; this occurs for modular L of
dim L < 00 and the prime skeleton tolerance. The neu-
trality of u E L can be shown with suitable S via an
order-preserving mapping a: S -+ L turning L into a
glueing with blocks [uax, u+axJ, xES; this happens if:
x 1-+ uax is sup-preserving, x 1-+ u+ax is inf-preserving,
and for each e in some generating set there is an xES
with e = uax + ue.
Every lattice with a tolerance gives rise to a system
¢xy, 'l/Jyx of adjunctions between the blocks L(x), L(y),
x :s; y in S, satisfying certain axioms. Namely, ¢xya ~ b
if and only if a ~ b if and only if a ~ 'l/Jyxb. Conversely,
each such system defines a pre-order on the disjoint
union of the L(x) and, factoring by the associated equiv-
alence relation, a lattice with tolerance having blocks
L(x). Glueing always produces a modular lattice from
modular blocks, but only in special cases the impact of
the Arguesian law and various kinds of represent ability
are understood (a necessary condition is that any pair
of adjunctions matching coordinate rings of two frames
induces an anti-isomorphism of partially ordered
sets [16]). For the combinatorial analysis of subgroup
lattices of finite Abelian groups, cf. [2J.
62
Coordinates. See [5J, [6J. J. von Neumann introduced
the lattice-theoretic analogue of projective coordinate
systems: an n-frame consists of independent elements
ai, aij = aji, i,j ~ n, i i j, such that aiaij = 0, Eai =
1, ai +aij = ai +aj, and aik = (ai +aj)(aij +ajk). There
are equivalent variants. Any bl ~ al provides frames
bi = aiali, bij = aij(bi+bj ) and Ci = ai+v, Cij = aij+v,
where v = E bi, of sublattices which can be used to de-
rive frames satisfying relations. The elements rij such
°
that rjaj = and rij + aj = ai + aj form the coordinate
domain R ij . For a free R-module with basis ei one has
the canonical frame Rei, R(ei-ej) and rij = R(ei-rej).
If n 2: 4 or, in the presence of the Arguesian law, n = 3
[8], then the Rij are turned into rings (cf. Ring) isomor-
phic via rij 1-+ rik = (ai + ak)(rij + ajk), respectively
rij 1-+ rhj = (ah + aj)(rij + aih), with unit aij and
rij EEl Sij = (ai+ aj)[(rij + ak)(aik + aj) + Skj],
rij ® Sij = (ai + aj)(rik + Skj).
Every modular lattice generated by a frame can be gen-
erated by 4 elements. Every finitely-generated semi-
group S can be embedded into the multiplicative semi-
group of the coordinate ring of a suitable frame in some
5-generated sublattice of L(k V) over a given field k (fi-
nite dimensional if S is finite).
A complemented Arguesian lattice possessing a large
partial 3-frame (i.e., a 3-frame of a section [0, uJ with
u having a complement d = E:I Xi, Xi perspective to
Yi :s; al) or being simple of dimension 2: 3 is isomorphic
to the lattice of principal right ideals of some regular
ring [25J. Under suitable richness assumptions, lattices
L(RM) have been characterized for various classes of
rings via the Arguesian law and geometric conditions
on the lattice, e.g. for completely primary uniserial rings
[28J and left Ore domains. There are results on lattice
isomorphisms induced by semi-linear mappings, respec-
tively Morita equivalences (cf. also Morita equiva-
lence), and on lattice homomorphisms induced by ten-
soring [IJ. Abelian lattices, having certain features of
Abelian categories, can be embedded into subgroup lat-
tices of Abelian groups. This includes algebraic modular
lattices having an infinite frame [18J.
Equational theory. See [5], [6], [7), [22). The class
of all linear lattices, respectively the class .c(R) of all
lattices embeddable into some L(RM), forms a quasi-
variety, since it arises from a projective class in the
sense of Mal 'tsev. Natural axiom systems and proof the-
ories for quasi-identities have been given, cf. [10], [19).
The latter present identities via graphs. On the other
hand, there is no finitely-axiomatized quasi-variety con-
taining L(k(w)), k some field, and satisfying all higher-
dimensional Arguesian laws. Also, every quasi-variety of
modular lattices containing some L(k(w)) also contains

a 5-generated finitely-presented lattice with unsolvable
decision problem for words [20].
Identities are preserved when passing to the ideallat-
tice; thus, one may assume algebraicity. Frames are pro-
jective systems of generators and relations within mod-
ular lattices: for each n there are terms ai, aij in the
variables Xi, Zij such that the ai, aij form a frame in
a sublattice for any choice of the Xi, Zij in a modular
lattice and ai = Xi, aij = Zij if these happen to form
a frame already. This allows one to translate divisibility
of integer multiples of 1 in a ring (more generally, solv-
ability of systems of linear equations with integer co-
efficients) into lattice identities. The converse has been
done in [21] for lattices of submodules: solving the deci-
sion problem for words in free lattices in £(R), whenever
R has decidable divisibility of integers (e.g. R = Z), and
providing a complete list of all varieties H£(R), each
generated by finite-dimensional members (related ideas
occur in the model theory of modules [33]). In contrast,
no finitely-axiomatized variety of modular lattices con-
taining L(Q(w») is generated by its finite-dimensional
members. For free lattices with n 2: 4 generators in
the quasi-varieties of all Arguesian linear, respectively
normal, subgroup lattices the decision problem remains
open (in contrast to the negative answer for modular
lattices [11]). The corresponding variety containments,
with H £( Z) included, are all proper [26], [27], [32].
There are rings R with £(R) not a variety, but the status
for £(k), k a field, £(Z), normal subgroup and linear lat-
tices is unknown. Yet, for finite-dimensional L E H£(k)
a retraction into £(k) is possible. The variety generated
by modular lattices of dim( L) :S n can be finitely ax-
iomatized; for n = 3 the lattice of subvarieties and the
\ modular lattices', in V. DLAB ET AL. (eds.): Representations
covering varieties have been determined [22]. Finitely-
generated varieties are finitely axiomatizable (this does
not extend to quasi-varieties).
Generators and relations. See [29]. Given a pair Ul,
U2 of complements in a modular lattice L and a sub-
set X such that X = U1X + U2X for all X E X, one
has that u, v are central in the sublattice they gener-
ate together with X. This applies to a direct decom-
position V = U1 EB U2 of a representation of a par-
tially ordered set, f: E ~ L(k V), with X = f(E).
Hence, for a set E of generators with partial order rela-
tion, the sub directly indecomposable factors of the free
lattice in H£(k) can be obtained via Jonsson's lemma
from the sub directly indecomposable factors of inde-
composable finite-dimensional representations. In par-
ticular, this carries through for representation-finite E.
For E not containing 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 nor 1 + 2 + 2, these
are exactly the subdirectly indecomposable modular lat-
tices generated by such E, namely 2- or 5-element. For
ARGUESIAN LATTICE
lEI = 4 one obtains all L(ppn), n 2: 3, P the prime sub-
field, lattices with ILl :S 6, and a series of 2-distributives
(with 6 labelings by generators) [13]. The latter are ex-
actly the sub directly indecomposable modular lattices
generated by two pairs of complements. Also, the struc-
ture of the free lattices in £(k) over these and other
tame E of finite growth is understood [4]. Moreover, the
word problem for 4-generated finitely-presented lattices
in £(k) is solvable. The lattice-theoretic approach deter-
mines the sub directly indecomposable factors S, first,
using neutral elements and the splitting method.
A large number of finitely-presented modular lattices
with additional unary operations have been determined
in [14], [29] as invariants for the orbits (cf. Orbit) of
subspaces under the group of isometric mappings (cf.
Isometric mapping) of a vector space endowed with
a sesquilinear form. The above methods have been
modified to this setting.
The Arguesian lattices generated by a frame can be
explicitly determined as certain lattices of subgroups of
Abelian groups. To some extent the analysis for lEI = 4
and other generating posets carries over to Arguesian
lattices, but essentially new phenomena occur [15].
References
[1] BREHM, U., GREFERATH, M., AND SCHMIDT, S.E.: 'Projec-
tive geometry on modular lattices', in F. BUEKENHOUT (ed.):
Handbook of Incidence Geometry, Elsevier, 1995, pp. 1115-
1142.
[2] BUTLER, L.M.: Subgroup lattices and symmetric junctions,
Vol. 539 of Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1994.
[3] CRAWLEY, P., AND DILWORTH, R.P.: Algebraic theory of lat-
tices, Prentice-Hall, 1973.
[4] CYLKE, A.A.: 'Perfect and linearly equivalent elements in
of Algebras VI (Proc. Int. Conf. Ottawa 1992), Vol. 14 of
CMS Conf. Proc., AMS, 1993, pp. 125-148.
[5] DAY, A.: 'Geometrical applications in modular lattices', in
R. FREESE AND O. GARCIA (eds.): Universal Algebra and
Lattice Theory, Vol. 1004 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1983, pp. 111-141.
[6] DAY, A.: 'Applications of coordinatization in modular lat-
tice theory: the legacy of J. von Neumann', Order 1 (1985),
295-300.
[7] DAY, A., AND FREESE, R.: 'The role of gluing in modular lat-
tice theory', in K. BOGART, R. FREESE, AND J. KUNG (eds.):
The Dilworth Theorems, Selected Papers of Robert P. Dil-
worth, Birkhauser, 1990, pp. 251-260.
[8] DAY, A., AND PICKERING, D.: 'The coordinatization of Argue-
sian lattices', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 278 (1983),507-522.
[9] DRASKOVICOVA, H. (EDS.), ET AL.: 'Ordered sets and lattices,
I-II', Amer. Math. Soc. Transl. Ser. 2142,152 (1989/1992).
[10] FINBERG, D., MAINETTI, M., AND ROTA, G.-C.: 'The logic
of computing with equivalence relations', in A. URSINI AND
P. AGLIANO (eds.): Logic and Algebra, Vol. 180 of Lecture
Notes Pure Applied Math., M. Dekker, 1996.
[11] FREESE, R.: 'Free modular lattices', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc.
261 (1980), 81-91.
63
ARGUESIAN LATTICE
[12J FREESE, R., AND McKENZIE, R.: Commutator theory for con-
gruence modular varieties, Vol. 125 of Lecture Notes, London
Math. Soc., 1987.
[13J GEL'FAND, LM. (ed.): Representation theory. Selected papers,
Vol. 69 of Lecture Notes, London Math. Soc., 1982.
[14J GROSS, H.: Quadratic forms in infinite dimensional vector
spaces, Vol. 1 of Progress in Math., Birkhiiuser, 1979.
[15J HERRMANN, C.: 'On elementary Arguesian lattices with four
generators', Algebra Universalis 18 (1984), 225-259.
[16J HERRMANN, C.: 'Alan Day's work on modular and Arguesian
lattices', Algebra Universalis 34 (1995), 35 60.
[17J HERRMANN, C., PICKERING, D., AND RODDY, M.: 'Geomet-
ric description of modular lattices', Algebra Universalis 31
(1994), 365-396.
[18J HUTCHINSON, G.: 'Modular lattices and abelian categories',
J. Algebra 19 (1971), 156-184.
[19J HUTCHINSON, G.: 'On the representation of lattices by mod-
ules', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 209 (1975),47-84.
[20J HUTCHINSON, G.: 'Embedding and unsolvability theorems for
modular lattices', Algebra Universalis 7 (1977), 47-84.
[21J HUTCHINSON, G., AND CZEDLI, G.: 'A test for identities satis-
fied in lattices of submodules', Algebra Universalis 8 (1978),
269-309.
[22J JIPSEN, P., AND ROSE, H.: Varieties of lattices, Vol. 1533 of
Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1992.
[23J JONSSON, B.: 'On the representation oflattices', Math. Scand.
1 (1953), 193-206.
[24J JONSSON, B.: 'Modular lattices and Desargues' theorem',
Math. Scand. 2 (1954), 295-314.
[25J JONSSON, B.: 'Representations of complemented modular lat-
tices', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 60 (1960),64 94.
[26J JONSSON, B.: 'Varieties of algebras and their congruence vari-
eties': Proc. Int. Congress Math., Vancouver, 1974, pp. 315
320.
[27J JONSSON, B.: 'Congruence varieties': G. Gratzer: Universal
Algebra, Springer, 1978, pp. 348-377, Appendix 3.
[28J JONSSON, B., AND MONK, G.: 'Representation of primary Ar-
guesian lattices', Pacific J. Math. 30 (1969), 95130.
[29J KELLER, H.A., KUENZI, U.-M., STORRER, H., AND WILD, M.
(eds.): Orthogonal geometry in infinite dimensional vector
spaces, Lecture Notes in Mathematics. Springer, to appear.
[30J McKENZIE, R., McNULTY, G., AND TAYLOR, W.: Algebras,
lattices, varieties, Vol. I, Wadsworth, 1987.
[31J NASTASECU, C., AND OSTAYEN, F. VAN: Dimensions of ring
theory, Reidel, 1987.
[32J PALFY, P.P., AND SZABO, C.: 'Congruence varieties of groups
and Abelian groups', in K. BAKER AND R. WILLE (eds.): Lat-
tice Theory and Its Applications, Heldermann, 1995.
[33J PREST, M.: Model theory and modules, Vol. 130 of Lecture
Notes, London Math. Soc., 1988.
C. Herrmann
MSC 1991: 06C05
ARONSZAJN TREE - An Aronszajn tree (specifi-
cally, an WI -Aronszajn tree) is an uncountable tree with
no uncountable levels and no uncountable branches.
The study of such trees is of central concern in infini-
tary combinatorics and also has applications in general
topology (cf. also Combinatorial analysis; Topol-
ogy, general). The existence of Aronszajn trees is a
theorem of ZFC set theory; however, many questions
64
concernmg their properties are known to be undecid-
able in ZFC. For example, an Aronszajn tree with no
uncountable anti-chain is called a Sus lin tree; the ex-
istence of a Suslin tree is equivalent to failure of the
Suslin hypothesis and is thus undecidable. The for-
mulation of Suslin's hypothesis in terms of trees facili-
tated its study using set-theoretic methods, particularly
forcing (cf. Forcing method). Another example of an
undecidable question is whether every Aronszajn tree,
when viewed as a topological space, is normal (cf.
Normal space).
A special Aronszajn tree is one which admits an order-
preserving mapping into Q. This is sometimes also re-
ferred to as a regular Aronszajn tree; in that case the
adjective 'special' is reserved for the case in which the
range of the order-preserving mapping is R. Assuming
the principle 0, these two notions are not equivalent.
The existence of a special Aronszajn tree is a theorem of
ZFC. Under the Martin axiom (d. Suslin hypothesis)
plus the negation of the continuum hypothesis, every
Arons~ajn tree is special, and consequently Suslin's hy-
pothesis is true. Under the proper forcing axiom, one has
the stronger property that any two Aronszajn trees are
essentially isomorphic in the sense that there is a closed
unbounded set of levels C such that the restrictions of
the trees to C are isomorphic.
Weaker notions of 'being special' have been stud-
ied, for example by restricting the domain of the order-
preserving mapping to a subset of the tree, leading to yet
more undecidability results via advanced forcing meth-
ods. Also notable is the fact that, consistently, Suslin's
hypothesis does not imply that every Aronszajn tree is
special.
By generalizing to larger cardinals (cf. Cardinal
number), one can obtain more undecidable statements,
and the methods of inner models come into play. In
contrast with the case of wI-Aronszajn trees, these re-
sults typically entail large-cardinal assumptions, and the
exact consistency strength has been obtained in many
cases. A r.:-Aronszajn tree is a tree of height K all of
whose levels have cardinality less than K and with no
branch of cardinality equal to K. The non-existence of
w2-Aronszajn trees is equi-consistent with the existence
of a weakly compact cardinal, and the non-existence of
special w2-Aronszajn trees (with the notion of 'special'
appropriate for W2) is equi-consistent with the existence
of a Mahlo cardinal. Under the generalized continuum
hypothesis, such trees exist. For K inaccessible, non-
existence of r.~-Aronszajn trees is equivalent with weak
compactness of K.
Aronszajn trees are examples of a larger class of trees
called WI-trees. An WI -tree is an uncountable tree with
no uncountable levels and no nodes of uncountable rank.

The existence of an wI-tree with uncountably many
branches is a theorem of ZF (without the axiom of
choice). A Kurepa tree is an wI-tree with at least N2 -
many uncountable branches; the K urepa hypothesis as-
serts that a Kurepa tree exists. This is yet another un-
decidable assertion; the failure of Kurepa's hypothesis
is equi-consistent with the existence of an inaccessible
cardinal.
A comprehensive reference is [7]. For various notions
of 'being special', see [1], [2] and [6]. Aronszajn trees
are treated in the standard texts [3] and [4]. For W2-
Aronszajn trees, see [5] and [6J.
References
[1] BAUMGARTNER, J.: 'Iterated forcing', in A.R.D. MATHIAS
(ed.): Surveys in Set Theory, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979.
[2] BAUMGARTNER, J., MALITZ, J., AND REINHARDT, W.: 'Em-
bedding trees in the rationals', Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA
67 (1970),1748-1753.
[3] JECH, T.: Set theory, Acad. Press, 1978.
[4] KUNEN, K.: Set theory: an introduction to independence
proofs, North-Holland, 1980.
[5] MITCHELL, W.: 'Aronszajn trees and the independence of the
transfer property', Ann. Math. Logic 5 (1972), 21-46.
[6] SHELAH, S.: Proper forcing, Springer, 1982.
[7] TODORCEVIC, S.: 'Trees and linearly ordered sets', in
K. KUNEN AND J.E. VAUGHAN (eds.): Handbook of Set The-
oretic Topology, North-Holland, 1984.
Ch. Schlindwein
MSC 1991: 54H05, 03E05, 05C05
ARRANGEMENT OF HYPERPLANES - Let V be
an f-dimensional affine space over the field K. An ar-
rangement of hyperplanes, A, is a finite collection of
codimension-one affine subspaces in V, [5J.
Examples of arrangements of hyperplanes.
1) A subset of the coordinate hyperplanes is called a
Boolean arrangement.
2) An arrangement is in general position if at each
point it is locally Boolean.
3) The braid arrangement consists of the hyperplanes
{Xi = Xj: 1 :::; i < j :::; f}. It is the set of reflecting hy-
perplanes of the symmetric group on f letters.
4) The reflecting hyperplanes of a finite reflection
group.
Combinatorics. An edge X of A is a non-empty inter-
section of elements of A. Let L(A) be the set of edges
partially ordered by reverse inclusion. Then L is a geo-
metric semi-lattice with minimal element V, rank given
by co dimension, and maximal elements of the same
rank, r(A). The Mobius function on L is defined by
J.t(V) = 1 and, for X > V,
L J.t(Y) = O.
V:O:;Y:O:;X
The characteristic polynomial of A is x(A, t)
EXEL J.t(X)tcodimX. Let .B(A) = (-ly(A)X(A, 1). For
ARRANGEMENT OF HYPERPLANES
a generic arrangement of n hyperplanes,
r(A)
x(A, t) = L (_I)k (~)ti-k.
k=O
For the braid arrangement,
x(A, t) = t(t - 1)··· (t - (f - 1)).
Similar factorizations hold for all reflection arrange-
ments involving the (co )exponents of the reflec-
tion group. Given a p-tuple of hyperplanes, S =
(HI, ... ,Hp), let nS = HI n ... n Hp; note that nS
may be empty. One says that S is dependent if nS i= 0
and codim(nS) < lSI. Let E(A) be the exterior algebra
on symbols (H) for H E A, where the product is juxta-
position. Define 8: E ---+ E by 81 = 0, 8(H) = 1 and,
for p 2: 2,
p
8(HI ... Hp) = "
L..,..(k - I (HI'" H
-1) - k ··· Hp).
k=1
Let J(A) be the ideal of E(A) generated by {S: nS =
0}u{ 8S: S dependent}. The Orlik-Solomon algebra of
A is A(A) = E(A)/ J(A). For connections with matroid
theory, see [3].
Divisor. The divisor of A is the union of the hyper-
planes, denoted by N(A). If K = R or K = C, then N
has the homotopy type of a wedge of .B(A) spheres of
dimension r(A) - 1, [4]. The singularities of N are not
isolated. The divisor of a general-position arrangement
has normal crossings, but this is not true for arbitrary
A. Blowing-up N along all edges where it is not locally
a product of arrangements yields a normal crossing di-
visor. See also Divisor.
Complement. The complement of A is M(A) = V \
N(A).
1) If K = F q, then M is a finite set of cardinality
IMI = X(A, q).
2) If K = R, then M is a disjoint union of open
convex sets (chambers) of cardinality (-I/x(A, -1). If
r(A) = f, M contains .B(A) chambers with compact clo-
sure, [7].
3) IfK = C, then M is an open complex (Stein) man-
ifold of the homotopy type of a finite CW-complex (cf.
also Stein manifold). Its cohomology is torsion-free
and its Poincare polynomial (cf. Kiinneth formula) is
Poin(M, t) = (-t)iX(A, _C I ). The product structure
is determined by the isomorphism of graded algebras
H*(M) ~ A(A). The fundamental group of M has an
effective presentation, but the higher homotopy groups
of M are not known in general.
The complement of a Boolean arrangement is a com-
plex torus. In a general-position arrangement of n > f
hyperplanes, M has non-trivial higher homotopy groups.
For the braid arrangement, M is called the pure braid
65
ARRANGEMENT OF HYPERPLANES
space and its higher homotopy groups are trivial. The
symmetric group acts freely on M with as orbit space
the braid space whose fundamental group is the braid
group. The quotient of the divisor by the symmetric
group is called the discriminant, which has connections
with singularity theory.
Ball quotients. Examples of algebraic surfaces whose
universal cover is the complex ball were constructed as
'Kummer' covers of the projective plane branched along
certain arrangements of projective lines, [2].
Logarithmic forms. For H E A, choose a linear poly-
nomial aH with H = keraH and let Q(A) = IIHEA aH.
Let np[V] denote all global regular (i.e., polynomial) ~
forms on V. Let np(V) denote the space of all global
rational ~forms on V. The space np(A) of logarithmic
~forms with poles along A is
np(A) =
= {w E np(V): Qw E np[v], Q(dw) E np+l[vl}.
The arrangement is free if nl(A) is a free module over
the polynomial ring. A free arrangement A has integer
exponents {bl. ... ,btl, so that x(A, t) = II~=1 (t - bk)'
Reflection arrangements are free. This explains the fac-
torization of their characteristic polynomials.
Hypergeometric integrals. Certain rank-one local
system cohomology groups of M may be identified with
spaces of hypergeometric integrals, [1]. If the local sys-
tem is suitably generic, these cohomology groups may
be computed using the algebra A(A). Only the top
cohomology group is non-zero, and it has dimension
,8(A). See [6] for connections with the representation
theory of Lie algebras and quantum groups, and with
the Knizhnik-Zamolodchikov differential equations of
physics.
References
[IJ AOMOTO, K., AND KITA, M.: Hypergeometric functions,
Springer, 1994. (Translated from the Japanese.)
[2J BARTHEL, G., HIRZEBRUCH, F., AND HOFER, T.: Gemdenkon-
figumtionen und Algebmische Fliichen, Vieweg, 1987.
[3J BJORNER, A., VERGNAS, M. LAS, STURMFELS, B., WHITE,
N., AND ZIEGLER, G.M.: Oriented matroids, Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1993.
[4J GORESKY, M., AND MACPHERSON, R.: Stmtified Morse the-
ory, Springer, 1988.
[5J ORLIK, P., AND TERAO, H.: Armngements of hyperplanes,
Springer, 1992.
[6] VARCHENKO, A.: Multidimensional hypergeometric functions
and representation theory of Lie algebms and quantum
groups, World Sci., 1995.
[7] ZASLAVSKY, T.: Facing up to armngements: face-count for-
mulas for partitions of space by hyperplanes, Vol. 154 of
Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1975.
P. Orlik
MSC 1991: 05B35, 52B30, 57N65, 20F36, 20F55
66
ARROW IMPOSSIBILITY THEOREM - In 1951, K.
Arrow [1] discovered a troubling result about decisions
involving three or more alternatives. After posing in-
nocuous conditions that seemingly are satisfied by all
reasonable procedures, he proved that they require a
dictator. This counter-intuitive assertion is one of the
better known results in the social and decision sciences;
it is part of Arrow's 1972 Nobel Prize.
Arrow's first condition, unrestricted domain, allows
each voter to rank the candidates in any complete, tran-
sitive manner (without ties). The Pareto condition re-
quires that when the voters unanimously agree on the
strict ranking of two candidates, then that is society's
relative ranking of this pair. Independence of irrelevant
alternatives, (IIA), requires society's relative ranking of
a pair to depend only on how the voters rank them; it is
not influenced by their views of other 'irrelevant' alter-
natives. This condition eliminates paradoxes, where an
A >- C relative outcome can change by voters varying
their B ranking but keeping their {A, C} rankings fixed.
Finally, the procedure has transitive outcomes.
Arrow proved that with more than two alternatives,
a dictator is the only procedure satisfying these condi-
tions, i.e., society's ranking is determined by the dic-
tator. If pn is the set of all n! transitive rankings of
the n candidates, then decision procedures are mappings
F: II pn --+ pn, where a dictator is an F that is the
identity mapping on one variable; e.g., there is a compo-
nent j so that for any profile p = (PI, ... ,Pa) E II pn,
one has F(p) == Pj'
Explanation. With the many extensions (see [3]) and
mathematical proofs of Arrow's theorem, ranging from
ultrafilters to geometry [4] to algebraic topology [2],
it is surprising that it admits an elementary explana-
tion with a benign re-interpretation [4], [5]. To explain
this, notice that the theorem is meaningless unless vot-
ers have transitive preferences. (For instance, if all vot-
ers had the same cyclic preferences, then Pareto forces
a non-transitive outcome.) However, IIA vitiates this
critical transitivity assumption. To see why, for each
pair {Ai,Aj}, let Fi,j(p) be the {Ai, Aj}-relative rank-
ing of F(p); e.g., if F(p) = A2 >- Aa >- AI, then
F I ,3(P) = A3 >- AI' IIA requires F to be decomposed
into the (;) mappings {Fi,j h<j, where the Fi,j domain
depends only on the voters' rankings of {Ai, A j }. Letting
Bn denote the set of all 2(;) ways to list the strict rank-
ings of the (;) pairs, IIA requires F to be expressible
as F: II Bn --+ Bn. This domain allows IIA-admissible
procedures to be used by unsophisticated voters with-
out transitive rankings. Similarly, the implicit indepen-
dence condition conferred on the {Fi,j} functions by IIA
renders them incapable of sequencing the (;) pairwise
outcomes into transitivity.

Thus, the transitivity assumption is a domain restric-
tion; the goal is to identify those IlA-procedures where
the I1 pn restriction is sufficiently severe to force the
outcomes to be in pn. Trivially, this includes a dicta-
tor. However, when the rankings of two or more voters
are involved, some F level sets contain transitive and
non-transitive profiles, where the non-transitive profile
determines a non-transitive F outcome. Arrow's asser-
tion, then, holds, because IlA prohibits procedures from
recognizing transitivity. This permits the alternative in-
terpretation that rational (transitive) outcomes cannot
be expected from procedures intended for highly irra-
tional voters.
Resolution. To resolve the problem, one replaces IlA
with a condition that recognizes rational preferences.
One is intensity of irrelevant alternatives (IlIA), where
society's relative ranking of two candidates is deter-
mined by each voter's relative ranking and the number
of alternatives separating them. Replacing Arrow's neg-
ative conclusion is that [4], [5] the Borda count is a pro-
cedure with transitive outcomes satisfying unrestricted
domain, IlIA and Pareto. (The Borda count assigns n- j
points to a voter's jth ranked candidate, j = 1, ... ,n;
the candidates are ranked according to the sum of as-
signed points.) Thus, if rational outcomes are desired,
use procedures designed for rational voters.
References
[IJ ARROW, K.: Social choice and individual values, second ed.,
Wiley, 1963.
[2J CHICHILNISKY, G.: 'The topological equivalence of the Pareto
condition and the existence of a dictator', J. Econ. Theory 9
(1982), 223-234.
[3J KELLY, J.: 'Social choice bibliography', Soc. Choice Welfare
8 (1991),97-169.
[4J SAARI, D.G.: Basic geometry of voting, Springer, 1995.
[5J SAARI, D.G.: 'Arrow's and Sen's theorems revisited and re-
solved', Social Choice and Welfare to appear (1997).
D. Saari
MSC 1991: 90A08, 90A28, 90A05
ART GALLERY THEOREMS - A collection of re-
sults similar to Chvatal's original theorem (cf. Chvatal
theorem). Each specifies tight bounds on the number of
guards of various types that can visually cover a polyg-
onal region. A guard 9 C P sees a point y if and only if
there is an x E 9 such that the segment xy is nowhere
exterior to the closed polygon P. A polygon is covered
by a set of guards if every point in the polygon is visible
to some guard. Types of guards considered include point
guards (any point 9 E P), vertex guards (g is a vertex of
P), diagonal guards (g is a nowhere exterior segment be-
tween vertices), and edge guards (g is an edge of P). An
art gallery theorem establishes the exact bound G(n) for
specific types of guards in a specific class of polygons,
where G(n) is the maximum over all polygons P with n
ARTIN-SCHREIER CODE
vertices, of the minimum number of guards that suffice
to cover P.
For simple polygons, the main bounds for G(n) are:
In/3J vertex guards (the Chvatal theorem), In/4J di-
agonal guards [6], and In/4J vertex guards for orthogo-
nal polygons (polygons whose edges meet orthogonally)
[5]. No tight bound for edge guards has been established.
Attention can be turned to visibility outside the poly-
gon: for coverage of the exterior of the polygon, one
needs In/31 point guards (g any point not in the inte-
rior of P) [6]; for coverage of both interior and exterior,
one needs In/21 vertex guards [2]. For polygons with
h holes and a total of n vertices, the main results are:
l(n + h)/3J point guards for simple polygons [1], [4],
and In/4J point guards for orthogonal polygons (inde-
pendent of h) [3]. Both hole problems remain open for
vertex guards. See [7] for a survey updating [6].
References
[IJ BJORLING-SACHS, I., AND SOUVAINE, D.: 'An efficient algo-
rithm for guard placement in polygons with holes', Discrete
Comput. Geom. 13 (1995), 77-109.
[2J FUREDI, Z., AND KLEITMAN, D.: 'The prison yard problem',
Combinatorica 14 (1994), 287-300.
[3J HOFFMANN, F.: 'On the rectilinear art gallery problem': Proc.
Intemat. Colloq. on Automata, Languages, and Program-
ming 90, Vol. 443 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
Springer, 1990, pp. 717-728.
[4J HOFFMANN, F., KAUFMANN, M., AND KRIEGEL, K.: 'The art
gallery theorem for polygons with holes': Proc. 32nd Found.
Computer Sci., 1991, pp. 39-48.
[5J KAHN, J., KLAWE, M., AND KLEITMAN, D.: 'Traditional gal-
leries require fewer watchmen', SIAM J. Algebraic Discrete
Methods 4 (1983), 194-206.
[6J O'ROURKE, J.: Art gallery theorems and algorithms, Ox-
ford Univ. Press, 1987.
[7J SHERMER, T.: 'Recent results in art galleries', Proc. IEEE
80, no. 9 (1992), 1384-1399.
J. O'Rourke
MSC 1991: 51M20
ARTIN-SCHREIER CODE - Given an algebraic
curve X/ K, where K is a field of characteristic p > 0,
a covering Y -+ X is called an Artin-Schreier curve
over X if the corresponding extension of function fields
K(Y)/ K(X) is generated by some function y E K(Y)
such that yl ± Y = f E K(X) (where l is a power of p,
cf. also Extension of afield). If K = F q is a finite
field, it turns out that Artin-Schreier curves often have
many rational points.
To be precise, let N(Y) (respectively, g(Y)) de-
note the number of F q-rational points (respectively, the
genus) of a curve Y /F q' The H asse- Weil theorem states
that
N(Y) :::; q + 1 + 2g(Y)y'q.
If the genus is large with respect to q, this bound can be
improved as follows. Let (Yi)iEN be a sequence of curves
67
ARTIN-SCHREIER CODE
over F q such that g(Yi) -t 00. Then
. N(Yi)
hmsup g(Yi) ~ yq - 1
(the Drinfel'd- Vladut bound).
Curves over F q can be used to construct error-
correcting linear codes, so-called geometric Goppa codes
or algebraic-geometric codes (cf. Error-correcting
code; Goppa code; Algebraic-geometric code; [2],
[3]). If the curves have sufficiently may rational points,
these codes have very good error-correcting properties.
Hence, one is interested in explicit constructions of
curves with many rational points.
Examples of Artin-Schreier curves. The Hermit-
ian curve over F q, for q = l2, is given by the equation
yl + y = xl+l. It has N = 13 + 1 rational points and
its genus is g = 1(1 - 1)/2. Hence, for it the Hasse-Weil
bound N = q + 1 + 2g.jq is attained, see [2J.
Again, let q = 12 be a square. Define a tower of func-
tion fields FI ~ F2 ~ ... over F q (cf. Tower of fields)
by FI = Fq(xd, Fn+1 = Fn(zn), where
Zn
and Xn =-- (for n ~ 2).
Xn-l
For the corresponding algebraic curves YI , Y2 , ••• , the
coverings Y n +1 -t Y n are Artin-Schreier curves. This
sequence (Yn)nEN attains the Drinfel'd-Vladut bound,
i.e., limi-tooN(Yi)/g(Yi) = I-I (see [1]).
The geometric Goppa codes constructed using these
curves Yn beat the Gilbert-Varshamov bound (cf. also
Error-correcting code; [5]) for all q ~ 49. This con-
struction is simpler and more explicit than the construc-
tion based on modular curves (the Tsfasman- Vladut-
Zink theorem, [3]).
References
[1] GARCIA, A., AND STICHTENOTH, H.: 'A tower of Artin~
Schreier extensions of function fields attaining the Drinfeld~
Vladut bound', Invent Math. 121 (1995), 211~222.
[2] STICHTENOTH, H.: Algebraic function fields and codes,
Springer, 1993.
[3] TSFASMAN, M.A., AND VLADUT, S.G.: Algebraic geometric
codes, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1991.
[4] GEER, G. VAN DER, AND VLUGT, M. VAN DER: 'Curves over
finite fields of characteristic two with many rational points',
C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 317 (1993), 693~697.
[5] LINT, J.H. VAN: Introduction to coding theory, Springer, 1992.
H. Stichtenoth
MSC 1991: 12E20, 14H25, 94B27
ARTIN-SCHREIER THEOREM - The Artin-
Schreier theorem for extensions K of degree p of a field
F of characteristic p > 0 states that every such Galois
extension is of the form K = F(a), where a is the root
of a polynomial of the form x P - x - a, an Artin-Schreier
polynomial.
68
If F is a function field, these polynomials define
Artin~Schreier curves, which in turn give rise to Artin--
Schreier codes (cf. Artin-Schreier code).
References
[1] LANG, S.: Algebra, Addison-Wesley, 1974.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 12F05, 12J15
ARTIN-SCHREIER THEORY - The phrase 'Artin-
Schreier theory' usually refers to a chapter in the theory
of ordered fields (cf. Ordered field).
A field F is formally real if the only solutions of
xi + ... + x~ = 0 are Xl = ... = Xn = O. Any such
field can be ordered and, conversely, any ordered field is
formally real. A real-closed field is a formally real field
that is maximal under algebraic extensions. If F is real
closed, then F( A) is algebraically closed and, con-
versely, if F( A) is algebraically closed and A ~ F,
then F is real closed (the Artin-Schreier characteriza-
tion of real-closed fields). A further Artin~Schreier the-
orem is that if F is the algebraic closure of F, F i- F
and [F : FJ < 00, then F is real closed and hence of
characteristic zero and F = F( A).
The theory of formally real fields led E. Artin to the
solution of the Hilbert problem on the resolution of def-
inite rational functions as sums of squares (the A rtin
theorem): Let F be a field of real numbers, i.e. a sub-
field of the field of real numbers R, which has a unique
ordering, and let Q be a rational function (of several
variables) with coefficients in F that is rationally definite
in the sense that Q(XI,'" ,xn ) ~ 0 for all Xl,'" ,xn
for which Q(Xl,'" ,xn ) is defined. Then Q is a sum of
squares of rational functions with coefficients in F.
References
[1] JACOBSON, N.: Lectures in abstract algebra, Vo!' III: theory
of fields and Galois theory, v. Nostrand, 1964, p. Ch. VI.
[2] RIBENBOIM, P.: L'arithmetique des corps, Hermann, 1972,
p. Ch. IX.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 12F05, 12J15
ASCOLI THEOREM - See Arzela-Ascoli theo-
rem.
MSC 1991: 26A15
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM - The problem of opti-
mally assigning m individuals to m jobs. It can be for-
mulated as a linear programming problem that is a
special case of the transport problem:
maximize I:.',].Ci]' Xi]'
subject to
L Xij = ai, i = 1, ... ,m
j

(origins or supply),
LXij = bj , j = 1, ... ,n
(destinations or demand), where Xij ~ 0 and 2: ai
2: bj , which is called the balance condition. The assign-
ment problem arises when m = n and all ai and bj are
1.
If all ai and bj in the transposed problem are inte-
gers, then there is an optimal solution for which all Xij
are integers (Dantzig's theorem on integral solutions oj
the transport problem).
In the assignment problem, for such a solution Xij is
either zero or one; Xij = 1 means that person i is as-
signed to job j; the weight Cij is the utility of person i
assigned to job j.
The special structure of the transport problem and
the assignment problem makes it possible to use al-
gorithms that are more efficient than the simplex
method. Some of these use the Hungarian method (see,
e.g., [4], [5, Chapt. 7]), which is based on the Konig-
Egervary theorem (see Konig theorem), the method of
potentials (see [5], [1]), the out-oj-kilter algorithm (see,
e.g., [3]) or the transportation simplex method.
In turn, the transportation problem is a special case
of the network optimization problem.
A totally different assignment problem is the pole
assignment problem in control theory.
References
[1] FRISCH, R.: 'La resolution des problemes de programme
lineaire par la methode du potentiellogarithmique', Cahier
Sem. Econom. 4 (1956), 20-23.
[2] GROTSCHEL, M., LovAsz, L., AND SCHRIJVER, A.: Geometric
algorithms and combinatorial optimization, Springer, 1987.
[3] MURTz, K.: Linear and combinatorial programming, Wiley,
1976.
[4] PAPADIMITRIOU, C.H., AND STEIGLITZ, K.: Combinatorialop-
timization, Prentice-Hall, 1982.
[5] YUDIN, D.B., AND GOL'SHTEIN, E.G.: Linear programming,
Israel Program. Sci. Trans!., 1965. (Translated from the Rus-
sian.)
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 90C05, 90B80, 90B06
ASYMPTOTIC INVARIANT OF A GROUP - A
property of a finitely-generated group G which is a
quasi-isometry invariant of the metric space (G, d A ),
where dA is the word metric associated to a finite gen-
erating set A of G (cf. also Quasi-isometric spaces).
This definition does not depend on the choice of the set
A, since if B is another finite set of generators of G,
then the metric spaces (G, dA) and (G, dB) are quasi-
isometric.
The theory of asymptotic invariants of finitely-
generated groups has been recently brought to the fore-
ground by M. Gromov (see, in particular, [2] and [3]). As
ASYMPTOTIC OPTIMALITY
Gromov says in [3, p. 8], 'one believes nowadays that the
most essential invariants of an infinite group are asymp-
totic invariants'. For example, amenability (cf. Invari-
ant average), hyperbolicity (in the sense of Gromov,
cf. Hyperbolic group), the fact of being finitely pre-
sented (cf. Finitely-presented group), and the num-
ber of ends (cf. also Absolute) are all asymptotic invari-
ants of finitely-generated groups. It is presently (1996)
unknown whether the Kazhdan T-property is an asymp-
totic invariant. For an excellent survey on these matters,
see [1].
A few examples of algebraic properties which are
asymptotic invariants of finitely-generated groups are:
being virtually nilpotent, being virtually Abelian, being
virtually free.
References
[1] GHYS, E.: 'Les groupes hyperboliques', Asterisque 189-190
(1990),203-238, Sem. Bourbaki Exp. 722.
[2] GROMOV, M.: 'Hyperbolic groups', in S.M. GERSTEN (ed.):
Essays in Group Theory, Vol. 8 of MSRI Publ., Springer,
1987, pp. 75-263.
[3] GROMOV, M.: 'Asymptotic invariants of infinite groups': Proc.
Symp. Sussex, 1991: II, Vol. 182 of London Math. Soc. Lec-
ture Notes, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993, pp. 1-291.
A. Papadopoulos
MSC 1991: 20F32, 57M07
ASYMPTOTIC OPTIMALITY of estimating func-
tions - Efficient estimation (cf. Efficient estimator) of
parameters in stochastic models is most conveniently ap-
proached via properties of estimating functions, namely
functions of the data and the parameter of interest,
rather than estimators derived therefrom. For a detailed
explanation see [3, Chapt. 1].
Let {Xt : 0 :::; t :::; T} be a sample in discrete or
continuous time from a stochastic system taking values
in an r-dimensional Euclidean space. The distribution of
X t depends on a parameter of interest () taking values in
an open subset of a p-dimensional Euclidean space. The
possible probability measures (cf. Probability mea-
sure) for X t are {P II}, a union of families of models.
Consider the class 9 of zero-mean square-integrable
estimating functions G T = G T ( {Xt : 0 :::; t :::; T}, ()),
which are vectors of dimension p and for which the ma-
trices used below are non-singular.
Optimality in both the fixed sample and the asymp-
totic sense is considered. The former involves choice of
an estimating function GT to maximize, in the partial
order of non-negative definite matrices, the information
criterion
which is a natural generalization of the Fisher amount
of information. Here V G is the (p x p)- matrix of deriva-
tives of the elements of G with respect to those of () and
69
ASYMPTOTIC OPTIMALITY
prime denotes transposition. If 1£ egis a prespecified
family of estimating functions, it is said that GT E 1£
is fixed sample optimal in 1£ if £ (G T) - £ (G T ) is non-
negative definite for all G T E 1£, () and Po. Then, GT
is the element of 1£ whose dispersion distance from the
maximum information estimating function in 9 (often
the likelihood score) is least.
A focus on asymptotic properties can be made by
confining attention to the subset Meg of estimat-
ing functions which are martingales (cf. Martingale).
Here one considers T ranging over the positive real num-
bers and for {Gr} E M one writes {( Gh} for the qua-
dratic characteristic, the predictable increasing process
for which {GTG~ - (Gh} is a martingale. Also, write
{GT} for the predictable process for which {V' GT - GT }
is a martingale. Then, GT E M I C M is asymptotically
optimal in M I if £ (G T) - £ (G T ) is almost surely non-
negative definite for all G T E M I , (), Po, and T > 0,
70
where
£(G T ) = G~ (G):;tc T .
Under suitable regularity conditions, asymptotically
optimal estimating functions produce estimators for
() which are consistent (cf. Consistent estimator),
asymptotically unbiased (cf. Unbiased estimator) and
asymptotically normally distributed (cf. Normal dis-
tribution) with minimum size asymptotic confidence
zones (cf. Confidence estimation). For further details
see [1], [2].
References
[1] GODAMBE, V.P., AND HEYDE, C.C.: 'Quasi-likelihood and op-
timal estimation', Internat. Statist. Rev. 55 (1987), 231~244.
[2] HEYDE, C.C.: Quasi-likelihood and its application. A general
approach to optimal parameter estimation, Springer, 1997.
[3] McLEISH, D.L., AND SMALL, C.G.: The theory and appli-
cations of statistical inference functions, Lecture Notes in
Statistics. Springer, 1988.
c.c. Heyde
MSC 1991: 62F12, 62G20
________ B ________
B-CONVERGENCE - The theory of B-convergence
predicts the convergence properties of discretization
methods, implicit Runge-Kutta methods in particular,
applied to initial value problems for systems of non-
linear ordinary differential equations y'(t) = f(t, y(t))
(cf. Runge-Kutta method; Initial conditions; Dif-
ferential equation, ordinary).
Problem class and historical background. Con-
cerning the class of ordinary differential equations con-
sidered, the underlying assumption is that f satisfies a
one-sided Lipschitz condition
(y - z, f(t, y) - f(t, z)) ::; m Ily - zl12 .
If m (the so-called one-sided Lipschitz constant of J)
is of moderate size, the initial value problem is eas-
ily proved to be well-conditioned throughout. Of par-
ticular interest are stiff problems (cf. also Stiff differ-
ential system). Stiffness means that that the under-
lying ordinary differential equation admits smooth so-
lutions, with moderate derivatives, together with non-
smooth ('transient') solutions rapidly converging to-
wards smooth ones. In the stiff case, the conventional
Lipschitz constant L of f inevitably becomes large;
therefore the classical error bounds for discretization
methods (which depend on L) are of no use for an appro-
priate characterization and analysis of methods which
are able to efficiently integrate a stiff problem. Thus
there is a need for a special convergence theory applica-
ble in the presence of stiffness.
The idea to use m (instead of L) as the problem-
characterizing parameter goes back to [7], where it was
used in the analysis of multi-step methods. The point is
that stiffness is often compatible with moderate values
of m, while L » o. In the same spirit, the concept of
B-stability was introduced in [4], [5], [6] in the context
of implicit Runge-Kutta methods, and an algebraic cri-
terion on the implicit Runge-Kutta coefficients entail-
ing B-stability was derived ('algebraic stability'). The
notion of B-stability enables realistic estimates of the
propagation of inevitable perturbations like local dis-
cretization errors.
The concept of B-convergence. In the convergence
theory of implicit Runge-Kutta methods applied to stiff
problems, stability is essential but also the analysis of
local errors is non-trivial: straightforward estimates are
affected by L » 0 and do not reflect reality. For a sim-
ple scalar model class, the local error of implicit Runge-
Kutta schemes was studied in [13]. It turned out that the
order observed for practically relevant stepsizes is usu-
ally reduced compared to smooth, non-stiff situations.
In [9], [11], [10], the convergence properties of im-
plicit Runge-Kutta schemes are studied and the notion
of B-convergence is introduced. A B-convergence result
is nothing but a realistic global error estimate based
on the parameter m but unaffected by L. Besides re-
lying on B-stability, the essential point are sharp local
error estimates which require a special internal stability
property called BS-stability. The latter can be concluded
from a certain algebraic condition on the Runge-Kutta
coefficients ('diagonal stability'). Explicit error bounds
have been derived for Gauss, Radau-IA and Radau-
IIA schemes; the corresponding 'B-convergence order'
is in accordance with the observations from [13]. B-
convergence results for Lobatto-IIIC schemes are given
in [14].
An overview on the 'B-theory' of implicit Runge-
Kutta methods is presented in [8]. Another relevant text
is [12].
Further developments. Concerning the relevance of
the B-theory for stiff problems, there remains a gap.
The point is that for most stiff problems there is a
strong discrepancy between the local and the global con-
dition: Neighbouring solutions may locally strongly di-
verge, such that the problem is locally ill-conditioned.
This is a transient effect, leaving the good global condi-
tion unaffected. But it inevitably implies that the one-
sided Lipschitz constant m is strongly positive (like L).
For details, cf. [1], where it is shown that m remains
B-CONVERGENCE
moderate only for a restricted class of stiff problems,
namely with Jacobians Iy that are 'almost normal'. In
general, however, m is large and positive, and the B-
convergence bounds based on m become unrealistically
large.
As a consequence, not even linear stiff problems
y' = A(t)y are satisfactorily covered. In [2] the B-theory
is extended to semi-linear stiff problems of the form
y' = A(t)y + rp(t, y), where A(t) has a smoothly varying
eigensystem and rp(t, y) is smooth. However, this does
not cover a sufficiently large class of non-linear prob-
lems. Current work concentrates on a more natural, geo-
metric characterization of stiffness; cf., e.g., [3].
References
[IJ AUZINGER, W., FRANK, R., AND KIRLINGER, G.: 'A note
on convergence concepts for stiff problems', Computing 44
(1990), 197-208.
[2J AUZINGER, W., FRANK, R., AND KIRLINGER, G.: 'An exten-
sion of B-convergence for Runge-Kutta methods', Appl. Nu-
mer. Math. 9 (1992), 91-109.
[3J AUZINGER, W., FRANK, R., AND KIRLINGER, G.: 'Extending
convergence theory for nonlinear stiff problems, Part I', BIT
36 (1996), 635-652.
[4J BURRAGE, K., AND BUTCHER, J.C.: 'Stability criteria for im-
plicit Runge-Kutta methods', SIAM 1. Numer. Anal. 16
(1979), 46-57.
[5J BUTCHER, J.C.: 'A stability property of implicit Runge
Kutta methods', BIT 15 (1975), 358-36l.
[6J CROUZEIX, M.: 'Sur la B-stabilite des methodes de R.unge
Kutta', Numer. Math. 32 (1979), 75-82.
[7J DAHLQUIST, G.: 'Error analysis for a class of methods for
stiff nonlinear initial value problems': Numerical Analysis,
Vol. 506 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, 1976, pp. 60-72.
[8J DEKKER, K., AND VERWER, J.G.: Stability of Runge Kutta
methods for stiff nonlinear differential equations, N orth-
Holland, 1984.
[9J FRANK, R., SCHNEID, J., AND UEBERHUBER, C.W.: 'The con-
cept of B-convergence', SIAM J. Numer. Anal. 18 (1981),
753-780.
[lOJ FRANK, R., SCHNEID, J., AND UEBERHUBER, C.W.: 'Order re-
sults for implicit Runge-Kutta methods applied to stiff sys-
tems', SIAM J. Numer. Anal. 22 (1985),515 534.
[l1J FRANK, R., SCHNEID, J., AND UEBERHUHER, C.W.: 'Stabil-
ity properties of implicit Runge-Kutta methods', SIAM 1.
Numer. Anal. 22 (1985), 497-515.
[12J HAIRER, E., AND WANNER, G.: Solving ordinary differential
equations, Vol. II: stiff and differential-algebraic problems,
Springer, 1991.
[13J PROTHERO, A., AND ROBINSON, A.: 'On the stability and ac-
curacy of one-step methods for solving stiff systems of ordi-
nary differential equations', Math. Compo 28 (1974), 145-162.
[14J SCHNEID, J.: 'B-convergence of Lobatto IIIC formulas', Nu-
m.er. Math. 51 (1987), 229-235.
W. Auzinger
R. Frank
MSC 1991: 65L06
BABUSKA-LAX-MILGRAM THEOREM - Many
boundary value problems for ordinary and partial differ-
ential equations can be posed in the following abstract
72
variational form (cf. also Boundary value problem,
ordinary differential equations; Boundary value
problem, partial differential equations): Find u E
U such that
h(u, II) = l(v), 'iv E V, (1)
where U and V are real normed linear spaces (cf. Norm;
Linear space), b denotes a functional on U x V and
l is an clement in V' (the dual of V).
The essential question here is what conditions can
be imposed on be, .) and on the normed spaces U and
V so that a unique solution to (1) exists and depends
continuously on the data l.
If U == V is a Hilbert space, P.D. Lax and A.N.
Milgram [3] have proved that for a bilinear continuous
functional b(·,·) strong coeT'{;iveness (i.e., there is a r
such that for all u E U, Ib(u, u)1 ;::: rllul1 2 ) is a suffi-
cient condition for the existence and uniqueness of the
solution to (1) (the Lax-Milgram lemma). In 1971, I.
Babuska [1] gave the following significant generalization
of this lemma: Let U and V be two real Hilbert spaces
and let b: U x V ---+ R be a continuous bilinear func-
tional. If it is also a weakly coercive (i.e., there exists a
r: > () such that
sup Ib(n, v) I ;::: Ilnll, 'iu E U,
Ilv II <:; 1
and
sup Ib(u, v)1 > 0, 'iv E V \ {O}),
uEU
then for all I E V there exists a unique solution u lEU
such that b(u I, v) = (f, 11) for all v E V and, moreover,
IluI11 :::; 1I111/c.
Sufficient and necessary conditions for a linear varia-
tional problem (1) to have a unique solution depending
continuously on the data l are given in [4], namely: Let
U be a Banach space, let V be a reflexive Banach space
(d. Reflexive space) and let b be a real functional on
U x V. The following statements are equivalent:
i) b(·,·) is a bilinear continuous weakly coerci ve func-
tional;
ii) there exists a linear, continuous and surjective op-
erator S: V' ---+ U such that b(Sl,v) = (l,v) for all
lEV' and v E V.
This result can be used to give simple examples of bi-
linear weakly coercive functionals that are not strongly
coercive. Indeed, let b: R n x R n ---+ R be the bilin-
ear functional generated by a square non-singular ma-
trix B E Mn(R) (i.e., b(u,v) = (Bu,v)). Then b(·,·)
is weakly coercive, because for all l E Rn there ex-
ists a unique solution, u = n-1l, for (1); however, it

is strongly coercive if and only if B is either strictly pos-
itive (i.e., (Bu, u) > 0 for all u i- 0) or strictly negative
(i.e., (Bu,u) < 0 for all u i- 0).
U sing this fact one can prove that if b: U x U -+ R
is symmetric (i.e., b(u,v) = b(v,u)) and strictly defined
(i.e., b(u,u) i- 0 for all u i- 0), then it is either a strictly
positive functional (i.e., b(u, u) > 0 for all u i- 0) or
a strictly negative functional (i.e., b(u,u) < 0 for all
u i- 0); moreover Ib(u,v)1 2 :S Ib(u,u)I·lb(v,v)1 for all
u, v E U. The following result can also be found in [4]: If
b: U x U -+ R is a symmetric and continuous functional
then it is strongly coercive if and only if it is weakly
coercive and strictly defined. This implies that if b(-, .)
is a symmetric and strictly defined functional, then it is
strongly coercive if and only if it is weakly coercive.
Effective applications of the Babuska-Lax-Millgram
theorem can be found in [2].
References
[1] BABUSKA, I.: 'Error bound for the finite element method',
Numer. Math. 16 (1971),322-333.
[2] BABUSKA, 1., AND AZIZ, A.K.: 'Survey lectures on the math-
ematical foundations of finite element method', in A.K. AZIZ
(ed.): The Mathematical Foundations of the FEM with Ap-
plication to PDE, Acad. Press, 1972, pp. 5-359.
[3] LAX, P.O., AND MILGRAM, A.N.: 'Parabolic equations', Ann.
Math. Studies 33 (1954), 167-190.
[4] RO§CA, I.: 'On the Babuska Lax Milgram theorem', An. Univ.
Bucure§ti XXXVIII, no. 3 (1989), 6165.
I. Ro§ca
MSC 1991: 35A15,35G15
BAER GROUP - A Baer subplane in a projective
plane is a sub plane with the property that any point
of the plane is incident with a line of the subplane and
any line of the plane intersects the subplane in at least
one point. For finite projective planes, the order of the
plane is n when there are exactly n + 1 points per line. A
subplane of order k in a projective plane n is Baer if and
only if k 2 = n. A Baer group is a collineation group of
a projective plane which fixes each point of a Baer sub-
plane. It is possible to use Baer groups to characterize
those planes which correspond to hyperbolic and conical
flocks (cf. also Flock). If the flock is in PG(3, K), for
K a field, a Baer subplane fixed pointwise by a Baer
group is a line of PG(3, K) which is not in the spread
(cf. Flock). A Baer group is maximal of elation, respec-
tively homology, type if the group acts transitively on
the non-fixed points on each line L of the spread which
intersects the Baer subplane and fixes one, respectively
two, point(s) of L.
The translation planes with spread in PG(3, K) that
admit maximal Baer groups of elation or homology type
are in one-to-one correspondence with partial conical
or hyperbolic flocks of deficiency one, respectively (see
Flock (also for additional references); [2], [1]).
BAHADUR EFFICIENCY
References
[1] JHA, V., AND JOHNSON, N.L.: 'Structure theory for point-
Baer and line-Baer collineation groups in affine planes':
Pmc. Amer. Math. Soc. Conf. Iowa City, 1996.
[2] JOHNSON, N.L.: 'Flocks of hyperbolic quadrics and transla-
tion planes admitting affine homologies', J. Geom. 34 (1989),
50-73.
N.J. Johnson
MSC 1991: 5IE15
BAHADUR EFFICIENCY - The large sample study
of test statistics in a given hypotheses testing problem
is commonly based on the following concept of asympto-
tic Bahadur efficiency [1], [2] (cf. also Statistical hy-
potheses, verification of). Let 8 0 and 8 1 be the
parametric sets corresponding to the null hypothesis
and its alternative, respectively. Assume that large val-
ues of a test statistic (cf. Test statistics) Tn = Tn(x)
based on a random sample x = (Xl, ... ,x n ) give evi-
dence against the null hypothesis. For a fixed () E 8 0
and a real number t, put Fn(t I ()) = Pe(Tn < t) and
let Ln(t I ()) = 1 - Fn(t I ()). The random quantity
Ln(Tn(x) I ()o) is the P-value corresponding to the statis-
tic T when ()o is the true parametric value. For example,
if Ln(Tn(x) I ()o) < a, the null hypothesis 8 0 = {()o} is
rejected at the significance level a. If for 7) E 8 1 with
P1]-probability one,
lim 2n -1 log Ln (T(x) I ()) = -d( 7) I ()),
then d( 7) I ()) is called the Bahadur exact slope of T. The
larger the Bahadur exact slope, the faster the rate of
decay of the P-value under the alternative. It is known
that for any T, d(7) I ()):S 2K(7),()), where K(7),()) is the
information number corresponding to P 1] and P e. A test
statistic T is called Bahadur efficient at 7) if
1
eT(7)) = inf -d(7) I ()) = inf K(7), ()).
e 2 e
The concept of Bahadur efficiency allows one to com-
pare two (sequences of) test statistics T(l) and T(2) from
the following perspective. Let N i , i = 1,2, be the small-
est sample size required to reject 8 0 at the significance
level a on the basis of a random sample x = (Xl' ... )
when 7) is the true parametric value. The ratio N2 / Nl
gives a measure of relative efficiency of T(1) to T(2). To
reduce the number of arguments a, x and 7), one usu-
ally considers the random variable which is the limit of
this ratio, as a -+ o. In many situations this limit does
not depend on x, so it represents the efficiency of T(1)
against T(2) at 7) with the convenient formula
lim N2 = dl (7) I ()o)
a-tO Nl d2 (7) I ()o)'
where dl and d2 are the corresponding Bahadur slopes.
To evaluate the exact slope, the following result ([2,
Thm. 7.2]) is commonly used. Assume that for any 7)
73
BAHADUR EFFICIENCY

with Pry-probability one as n -t 00, Tn(x) -t b(ry) and respectively. If D F,G (Uk, Vk) is not invertible, then the
the limit g()(t) = limLn(t I 0) exists for t taking val- method is undefined.
ues in an open interval and is a continuous function It is important that D F,G (u, v) is determined by the
there. Then the exact slope of T at (1l, 0) has the form remainders of P and PI after division by x 2 + UX + v.
d(ry I 0) = g()(b(ry)). See [3] for generalizations of this Express the polynomial P as
formula. P(x) = P2 (x, U, v)(x 2 + UX
+ v)2 +
The exact Bahadur slopes of many classical tests have
been found. See [4]. +(FI(u, v)x + GI(u, v))(x 2 + UX + v) +

References +F(u, v)x + G(u, v).

[1J BAHADUR, R.R.: 'Rates of convergence of estimates and tests Then the Jacobian matrix (4) has the following ele-
statistics', Ann. Math. Stat. 38 (1967), 303-324.
ments:
[2J BAHADUR, R.R.: Some limit theorems in statistics, Regional
Conf. Series Applied Math. SIAM, 1971. D ( ) _ (UFI(U,v) - GI(u,v)
[3J GLESER, L.J.: 'Large deviation indices and Bahadur exact F,G u,v - UF I (U,V )
slopes', Statistics fj Decisions 1 (1984), 193-204.
For the proof see [2].
[4J NIKITIN, YA.YU.: Asymptotic efficiency of nonpammetric
tests, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995. The values F, G and F I , G I can be found by means
A.L. Rukhin of a Horner-type scheme (cf. Horner scheme). Using
MSC 1991: 62F12, 62G20, 60F10
PI(X) = box n - 2 + bl x n - 3 + ... + bn- 2
BAIRSTOW METHOD - A well-known and widely- and
used process for determining the roots of a given poly- P 2(x) = cox n - 4 + C2 Xn - 5 + ... + Cn-4
nomial with real coefficients. The method determines
a second-degree divisor of the given polynomial itera- one finds the same recursion for F, G, bi and F I , G I, Ci:
tively, and hence by using the formula for the roots of bo = aO,
second-degree polynomials one can calculate an approx- bi=ai-bi-lU-bi-2V (i=2, ... ,n-2),
imation of two roots of the given polynomial. An advan-
F( u, v) = an-l - bn - 2u - bn - 3 v,
tage of the method is that it uses real arithmetic only.
Let G(u,v) = an - bn - 2u,
P( X) =aox n +alxn-l +"'+an , ao i- 0, Co = bo,
ci=bi-Ci-lU-Ci-2V (i=2, ... ,n-4),
be a given polynomial with real coefficients and n 2: 3.
After division by x 2 + UX + v one finds Fl (u, v) = bn- 3 - Cn-4U - Cn-5V,
G 1 (u, v) = bn - 2 - Cn-4U.
P(x) = (1)
The main assumption in local convergence theorems
= PI(x, U, v)(x 2 + UX + v) + F(u, v)x + G(u, v),
for the Newton method is the non-singularity of the Ja-
where F( u, v) and G( u, v) are the coefficients of the re- cobian matrix at the root. The following theorem gives a
mainder. It is now necessary to find two real numbers, necessary and sufficient condition of algebraic character
u' and v', so that x 2 + u'x + v· is a divisor of P. This for this to hold.
is equivalent to the solution of a system of non-linear Let u and v be arbitrary real numbers. The Jacobian
equations matrix DF,a( u, v) introduced in (4) is regular if and only
F(u,v) =0, G(u,v) =0. (2) if x 2 + UX + v and the polynomial PI (x, u, v) defined by
(1) have no common root. The rank of DF,G(u, v) is one
Bairstow's method is nothing else than a Newton
if and only if the number of the common roots is one.
method applied to (2). More precisely,
The Jacobian matrix is zero if and only if x 2 + UX + v

(~:) - DF,G(Uk,Vk)-I. (~~~::~:D, is a divisor of PI(x,u,v). For the proof see [1].
Using the local convergence theorem for the Newton
(3) method one obtains, as a corollary, the local convergence
where theorem for the Bairstow method:
Let
(4)
P(x) = P1(x, u*, v*)(x 2 + u*x + v*)
is the Jacobian matrix (cf. Jacobi matrix) and DIF, and suppose that the two factors on the right-hand
D 2 F, DIG, and D 2 G denote the partial derivatives of side have no common root. Then there exists a posi-
F and G with respect to the first and second argument, tive number d such that the sequence (Uk, Vk) produced

74

by Bairstow's method will converge (quadratically) to
(u*,v*), provided
IUa - u*1 < d, IVa - v*1 < d.
References
[1] FIALA, T., AND KREBSZ, A.: 'On the convergence and diver-
gence of Bairstow's method', Numerische Math. 50 (1987),
477-482.
[2] STOER, J., AND BULIRSCH, R.: Introduction to numerical
analysis, Springer, 1980.
A. Krebsz
MSC 1991: 65H05, 26CI0
BAKER-BEYNON DUALITY - The free Riesz
space on n generators, F(n), may be described as fol-
lows: View the set of all real-valued functions on Rn as a
Riesz space under the pointwise operations. Then F(n)
may be identified with the Riesz subspace generated by
the n coordinate projections 7rl, ... ,7rn: Rn --+ R. This
follows from universal algebra and the fact that R
generates an equational class of Riesz spaces, see [4, p.
355]. The elements of F(n) are continuous functions that
are piecewise-homogeneous linear in polyhedral cones
with common vertex o.
If I <;;; F (n) is a Riesz ideal, let
Z(I) = {x ERn: f(x) = ofor allf E I}.
If I is finitely generated and V ':::' F( n) / I, then V IS
said to be finitely presentable. In this case, Z(I) is a
polyhedral cone (with vertex 0) and V is isomorphic
to the Riesz space of all piecewise-homogeneous linear
functions on Z(I). Much of this can be found in [1], but
the crucial observation that all piecewise-homogeneous
linear functions occur appears first in [2]. Baker-Beynon
duality [3] states that the category FPR of finitely pre-
sentable Riesz spaces and arbitrary Riesz homomor-
phisms is dually equivalent to the category PHL of poly-
hedral cones (with vertex at 0) in some Rn and with
piecewise-homogeneous linear morphisms. The equiva-
lence is via enriched hom-functors. For any object X of
PHL, HOMpHdX, R) inherits the structure of a Riesz
space from R. In the other direction, if V ':::' F( n) / I is in
FPR, then HOMRiesz(V, R) is in one-to-one correspon-
dence with Z (I).
It can be shown that if also V ':::' F( n') / I', then
Z(I) and Z(I') are PHL-equivalent. There is an induced
duality between the category of finitely presentable
Riesz spaces with a distinguished strong unit and unit-
preserving morphisms and the familiar category PL of
polyhedra and piecewise-affine linear mappings, [3].
Among the first applications of this theory is Baker's
proof [1] that the finitely generated projectives in the
category of Riesz spaces are precisely the finitely pre-
sented Riesz spaces. This corresponds to the peculiar
feature of PHL that every object is an absolute retract
BANACH FUNCTION ALGEBRA
(cf. also Collapsibility). Presently (1996), nothing sig-
nificant is known about projectives that are not finitely
generated.
For important recent work related to Abelian l-
groups (cf. l-group), see [5].
References
[1] BAKER, K.A.: 'Free vector lattices', Canadian J. Math. 20
(1968), 58-66.
[2] BEYNON, W.M.: 'Combinatorial aspects of piecewise linear
functions', J. London Math. Soc. 7 (1974), 719-727.
[3] BEYNON, W.M.: 'Duality theorems for finitely generated vec-
tor lattices', Proc. London Math. Soc. 31 (1975), 114-128.
[4] BIRKHOFF, G.: Lattice theory, third ed., Colloquium Publica-
tions. Amer. Math. Soc., 1967.
[5] MUNDICI, D.: 'Farey stellar subdivisions, ultrasimplicial
groups and Ko of AF C·-algebras', Adv. Math. 68 (1988),
23-39.
J. Madden
MSC 1991: 06F20
BANACH CONTRACTION PRINCIPLE, Banach
contraction mapping principle - See Contracting-
mapping principle.
MSC 1991: 47HlO
BANACH FUNCTION ALGEBRA - A Banach al-
gebra of continuous functions on a compact Hausdorff
space X separating the points of X and containing the
constant functions (cf. also Algebra of functions).
One speaks of a real or complex Banach function algebra
according to whether the functions are real- or complex-
valued. If the Banach algebra norm is the supremum
norm, one speaks of a function algebra (or a uniform al-
gebra). An example of a Banach function algebra which
is not a uniform algebra is the algebra of all real- (or
complex-) valued continuously differentiable functions
on the unit interval [0, 1] with norm given by
Ilfll = Ilflloo + 111'11 00 ,
where Ilglloo = sup{lg(t)l: t E [0, I]} for a continuous
function g on the interval [0,1]. See, e.g., [1], [2].
Let B be a commutative semi-simple Banach algebra
with unit and let M be the maximal ideal space (cf.
also Commutative Banach algebra) for B. One can
identify the elements of B with continuous functions on
the compact Hausdorff space M via the Gel'fand trans-
form and then B is a Banach function algebra on M.
More generally, if X is a compact subset of M such that
the O-element of B is the only function in B vanishing
on X, then the restriction to X of the functions in B is
a Banach function algebra on X. Conversely, if B is a
Banach function algebra on X, then B is a semi-simple
commutative Banach algebra, and X can be imbedded
in the maximal ideal space for B via the mapping that
75
BANACH FUNCTION ALGEBRA
sends a point of X to the evaluation functional at that
point.
There is the following characterization of C(X), the
algebra of all real-valued continuous functions on a com-
pact Hausdorff space X, among the real Banach function
algebras: If B is a Banach function algebra on X and if
there is a number p between 0 and 1 such that bP is in
B whenever b is in Band b is non-negative on X, then
B = C(X), see [2], [3].
References
[1] BURCKEL, R.B.: Characterizations ofC(X) among its subal-
gebras, M. Dekker, 1972.
[2] HATORI, 0.: 'Symbolic calculus on a Banach algebra of con-
tinuous functions', J. Funct. Anal. 115 (1993),247-280.
[3] KATZNELSON, Y.: 'Sur les algebres dont les elements non-
negatifs admettent des racines carres', Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm.
Sup. 77 (1960), 167-174.
E. Briem
MSC 1991: 46JlO
BANACH LIMIT - Banach limits originated m [1,
Chapt. II, Sect. 3]. Denoting the positive integers by N,
the set lOO (N) is the real vector space of all bounded
sequences of real numbers. For any element s E lOO (N),
one defines rlS E lOO(N) by rls(n) = s(n + 1) for all
n E N. S. Banach showed that there exists an element
in the duallOO(N)*, called LIM, such that
1) LIM(s) = LIM(rls) for all s E lOO(N);
2) LIM(s) ~ 0 for all non-negative sequences 8 E
lOO(N);
3) lim inf Sn :s: LIM s :s: lim sup Sn for all s E 100 (N);
4) LIM s = limn-too Sn for all convergent sequences
s E lOO(N).
Banach proved the existence of this generalized limit
by using the Hahn-Banach theorem. Today (1996),
Banach limits are studied via the notion of amenability.
For a semi-group ~ one defines lOO(~) to be the real
vector space of all real bounded functions on ~. For an
element rJ E ~ one denotes the left (respectively, right)
shift by la (respectively, ra). Thus, laS(T) = S(rJT) for
all T E ~ and ras(T) = S(TrJ) for all T E ~. An ele-
ment tL E lOO(~)* is called a left- (respectively right-)
invariant mean if
1) inftL(X):S: tL(s):S: SUPtL(X);
2) l~tL = tL (respectively, r~tL = tL), where, e.g., l~ IS
the adjoint of la.
~ itself is called left (respectively, right) amenable if
there exists a left- (respectively, right-) invariant mean
in loo (~) *. The existence of Banach limits above is a spe-
cial case of an invariant mean, where ~ equals the semi-
group of natural numbers. Banach also proved that the
real numbers are amenable (left and right). M.M. Day
has proved that every Abelian semi-group is left and
76
right amenable. On the other hand, F 2 , the free group
on two generators, is not amenable.
Another approach to amenability is the measure-
theoretic point of view. In fact, the prehistory of
amenability starts with the following question by H.
Lebesgue in the classic 'Le<;ons sur L'Integration et la
Recherche des Fonctions Primitives' ([5, pp. 114-115]):
Can countable additivity of the Lebesgue measure
be replaced by finite additivity? Banach answered the
question in the negative, constructing a finitely additive
measure on all subsets of the real numbers, invariant
under translation, again using the Hahn-Banach theo-
rem. More generally, if a group G is acting on a set X, a
finitely additive probability measure on the collection
of all subsets of X, invariant under G, is sometimes also
called an invariant mean. If G n is the isometry group
of R n, one can ask for a finitely additive measure in-
variant under Gn,. Such a measure does exist for n = 2,
but not for n ~ 3. For n ~ 3 this leads to so-called
paradoxical decompositions or the Banach--Tarski para-
dox (see Tarski problem; for a survey, see [8]). For all
n ~ 3, the group G 3 contains the non-amenable F2 as
it subgroup. It has been proved that the Banach-Tarski
paradox is effectively (i.e., in ZF set theory) implied by
the Hahn Banach theorem (see [7]).
For it survey of results of the role of amenability, see
[6] and for a survey of the Hahn-Banach theorem, see
[2]. For the early history of Banach limits and invariant
means, including many important results, see [3] and [4].
References
[1] BANACH, S.: Theorie des operations lineaires, PWN, 1932.
[2] BUSKES, G.: 'The Hahn- Banach theorem surveyed', Disser-
tationes Mathematicae CCCXXVII (1993).
[3] DAY, M.M.: Normed linear spaces, Vol. 21 of Ergebnisse der
Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete, Springer, 1973.
[4] GREENLEAF, F.P: Invariant means on topological groups and
their applications, v. Nostrand, 1969.
[5] LEBESGUE, H.: Oeuvres Scientifiques, Vol. II of
L 'Enseignement Math., Inst. Math. Univ. Genreve, 1972.
[6] PATERSON, A.L.T.: Amenibility, Vol. 29 of Mathematical Sur-
veys and Monographs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1988.
[7] PAWLIKOWSKI, J.: 'The Hahn-Banach theorem implies the
Banach-Tarski paradox', Fund. Math. 138 (1991), 20-22.
[8] WAGON, S.: The Banach Tarski paradox, Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1986.
C. Buskes
MSC 1991: 43A07, 43A15, 46A22, 46Exx, 51M20,
51M25
BANACH-MAZUR COMPACTUM, geometry of the
- The Banach-Mazur compactum provides the natural
framework for a quantitative study of finite-dimensional
normed spaces with particular emphasis on the role
of the dimension. Since every n-dimensional normed
real vector space is easily seen to be isometric to Rn
equipped with a suitable norm 11·11, the typical Hormed

space discussed here will be X = (Rn, 11·11). The unit
ball Bx = {x E Rn: Ilxll :::; I} of X is a symmetric
convex body. Conversely, if K is a symmetric convex
body in Rn, then K induces on Rn the norm IlxilK =
min{>. 2 0: x E AK} and the space (Rn, II·IIK) has K
as its unit ball. Thus, the study of finite-dimensional
normed spaces is parallel to that of symmetric convex
bodies. If one assumes that an inner product (-,.) de-
fines the Euclidean structure on R n, then the dual space
X' of X (cf. also Adjoint space) has its norm given
by Ilyli. = max{l(x,y)l: x E Bx}. The unit ball Bx- of
X' is the polar body of B x .
Let X and Y be two n-dimensional normed spaces.
It is well-known that X and Yare isomorphic (cf. Iso-
morphism). The Banach-Mazur distance
d(X, Y) = This estimate is sharp: one can see that d( £~, £~) =
= min {IITIIIIT- 111 : T an isomorphism from X onto Y}
measures how well-isomorphic the two spaces are. An
equivalent geometric interpretation is that d(X, Y) is
the smallest possible d 2 1 for which there exists a
linear invertible transformation of R n such that By S;;;
T(Bx) S;;; dEy. It is easy to check that for every X and
Y: d(X, Y) = d(Y, X) (d is symmetric); d(X, Y) = 1
if and only if X is isometric to Y; and d( X' , Y') =
d(X, Y), where X', Y' are the dual spaces of X, Y,
respectively.
Consider the set En of all equivalence classes of n-
dimensional normed spaces, where X is equivalent to
X' if and only if X and X' are isometric. Then it is not
hard to check that En becomes a contractible compact
metric space with metric log d: the triangle inequality
is a consequence of
d(X, Y) :::; d(X, Z) d(Z, Y), (1)
which can be easily verified for every X, Y, Z E En.
The metric space (En' log d) is usually called the n-
dimensional Banach-Mazur compactum (or Minkowski
compactum). In the sequel, instead of log d, the 'multi-
plicative' distance d on Bn is considered.
The structure of the Banach--Mazur compactum is
still to be explored. There are many interesting quan-
titative questions one may ask and, besides a few fun-
damental results, most of these questions remain open.
Below, some basic problems and final or partial answers
to them are given. Several other important topics are
not mentioned here: the interested reader is referred to
the books [39]' [43], [44], [58], and to the survey papers
[21], [29], [30], [38], [41], and [53].
The diameter of the compactum. The first classical
result on the geometry of En is John's theorem [26] on
the maximal possible distance to the Euclidean space £~.
Starting with an n-dimensional space X = (Rn, 11·11), F.
BANACH-MAZUR COMPACTUM
John considered the linear transformation T of Rn for
which the Euclidean unit ball Dn is the ellipsoid of mini-
mal volume containing K = T(Bx). Using a variational
argument, he obtained the following precise information
about K:
i) K S;;; Dn S;;; ynK;
ii) there exist m :::; n( n + 1) /2 contact points
X1,· .. ,X m of K and Dn (i.e., IlxillK = IXil), and
AI,'" ,Am> 0 such that the following representation
of the identity holds: for every x E Rn,
m
X = LAi (X,Xi) Xi·
i=l
In particular, i) gives an upper bound for d(X, £~)
(John's theorem): d(X,£~) :::; yn for every X E En.
d(£'1, £~) = yn. John's theorem and a direct application
of the multiplicative triangle inequality (1) give some
first information on the diameter of En:
diam(En) = max {d(X, Y): X, Y E En} :::; n. (2)
A most natural question arising from (2) is to de-
termine diam(En). The exact value of this quantity is
known only when n = 2: diam(E2 ) = 3/2, by results of
E. Asplund [1] and W. Stromquist [48]. Even the ques-
tion of determining up to constants the order of growth
of diam(En) as a function of n remained open for a long
time. The answer was given by E.D. Gluskin [18] in 1981
(Gluskin's theorem): There exists an absolute constant
c> 0 such that diam(En) 2 en for every n.
Therefore, the diameter of the Banach-Mazur com-
pactum is of the order of n. In his solution of the
problem, Gluskin does not describe the pair of spaces
X, Y E En with d(X, Y) 2 en explicitly (in fact, no ex-
plicit example of two spaces with distance considerably
larger than Cyn is known (1996)).
The existence of a pair with distance of the or-
der of n has been established by probabilistic argu-
ments. Gluskin [21] describes his idea as follows: Con-
sider the pair X = Y = £'1 and let T be a random
matrix whose entries are independent standard Gauss-
ian variables. It is not hard to see that the inequality
IITIIIIT-111 2 en holds with high probability for matri-
ces T of this form. This suggests that by 'spoiling' the
space £'1 a bit it is possible to obtain spaces X and Y
such that IITIIIIT-111 2 en for every linear isomorphism
T of Rn. This is actually the case.
Gluskin considered spaces whose unit ball is a sym-
metric convex body of the form K = co{ ±ei, ±xj: 1 :::;
j :::; 2n}, where {e;}i~n is the standard orthonor-
mal basis of Rn and Xj, j :::; 2n, are 2n independent
random points chosen from the Euclidean unit sphere
77
BANACH-MAZUR COMPACTUM
sn-1 equipped with the rotationally invariant proba-
bility measure (Tn' If (Xn' Yn ) is a pair of independent
'Gluskin spaces', one can show that the probability
is exponentially small, uniformly in T E SLn . Combining
this with exact estimates on the cardinality of c-nets in
suitable spaces of operators one gets that, for most pairs
(Xn' Yn), the inequality IITllxn-+yJT-11IYn-+xn ~ cn
holds true on a sufficiently fine net in SL n . A stan-
dard argument, depending, however, on the precise es-
timates above, allows one to pass from the net to an
arbitrary T E SLn , thus showing that d(Xn' Yn ) ~ c'n
with d = c/2.
Besides settling the question on the diameter of Bn ,
Gluskin's method of considering random spaces proved
to be extremely influential and fruitful. Random spaces
provided the right framework for establishing 'patho-
logical behaviour' and solving several other major open
problems in the asymptotic theory of finite-dimensional
normed spaces. An example of this is Szarek's finite-
dimensional analogue of Enflo's example of a space with-
out the approximation property [12]: There exist n-
dimensional normed spaces whose basis constant is of
the order of y'n [51]. See also [19], [32] and subsequent
work of S.J. Szarek and P. Mankiewicz, in which Gluskin
spaces playa central role.
Extremal problems for special families of spaces.
In many important cases, the Banach-Mazur distance
d(X, Y) is significantly smaller than n. For example,
when both X and Yare i;-spaces (1 :::; p :::; 00) one
has the following classical Gurarii-Kadec-Macaev esti-
mates [25]:
i) if 1 :::; P :::; q :::; 2 or 2 :::; p :::; q :::; 00, then
d(inP' in)
q
= n 1/ p - 1/ q •,
ii) if 1 :::; p < 2 < q :::; 00, then C1n'" :::; d(i;,i~) :::;
C2n"', where C1, C2 > 0 are absolute constants and
a = max{l/p - 1/2,1/2 - l/q}.
Much work has been done in the direction of es-
timating max{ d(X, Y): X, YEAn} for some impor-
tant families An c Bn. One of the methods invented
for dealing with such problems is the method of ran-
dom orthogonal factorization, which has its origin in
work of N. Tomczak-Jaegermann [55] and Y. Benyamini
and Y. Gordon [3]. The idea is to use the average
of IITllx-+yIlT- 11Iy-+x with respect to the probability
Haar measure on the orthogonal group SOn as an up-
per bound for d(X, Y). Technically, this process depends
upon passing from SOn to matrices whose entries are in-
dependent standard Gaussian variables and then use the
theory of Gaussian processes to estimate this average.
78
Using this method, one can prove a general inequality
involving the type-2 constant of the spaces [3], [8]:
d(X, Y) :::; cy'n[T2(X) + T 2(Y*)]
for every X, Y E Bn. This estimate may be viewed as a
generalization of the estimates for d( i;, i~) given above.
This was further improved by J. Bourgain and V.D. Mil-
man [5] to
d(X, Y) :::; c[d(Y,i~)T2(X) + d(X,i~)T2(Y*)]'
See [39] or [58] for definitions and theory of the type and
co-type parameters.
Two more results obtained by the same method and
having an obvious geometric flavour are as follows.
Suppose that X and Yare two n-dimensional spaces
such that Bx and By. have few extreme points, in the
sense that their cardinality is bounded by nf3, where f3
is a fixed positive number. Then
d(X, Y) :::; c(f3)(nlogn)1/2,
where c(f3) > 0 is a constant depending only on f3 (see
[8]).
Let X be an n-dimensional space. It has been shown
[5] that the distance from X to its dual X* is 'small'.
More precisely, for some constant 'Y > 0,
d(X,X*) :::; c(logn)"'n5 / 6 .
The best-possible exponent ofn is not yet known (1996).
Both these results indicate that the distance between
two spaces whose unit balls are 'quite different' as con-
vex bodies, should not be of the order of the diameter of
Bn. Recall that in Gluskin's theorem the spaces X and
Y with distance cn were of the same nature ('spoiled'
iI-spaces) .
Now, let An to be the family of all I-symmetric
spaces. Such a space possesses a basis {el, ... ,en} with
the property that for every choice of scalars {adi:::;n, ev-
ery choice of signs {Cih:::;n' and every permutation T of
the set of indices {I, ... ,n},
Iit
Il tciaT(ileill x =
aiei
.=1 .=1 x
Gluskin [20] and Tomczak-Jaegermann have proved that
if X, YEAn, then d(X, Y) is bounded by y'n up to some
factor logarithmic in n. Finally, Tomczak-Jaegermann
[56] succeeded to remove this extra factor, thus an-
swering completely the following question on the max-
imal distance between I-symmetric spaces (Tomczak-
J aegermann theorem): For two I-symmetric spaces X, Y
one has d(X, Y) :::; cy'n, where c > 0 is an absolute con-
stant.
Note that every i;is a I-symmetric space, therefore
the estimate above is clearly optimal (consider the dis-
tance between il and i~).

Another important family of spaces in Bn is the fam-
ily of I-unconditional spaces. These are spaces for which
there exists a basis {e1' ... ,en} with the property that
for every choice of scalars {ai}; -c: n and every choice of
signs {ci};:-c: n ,
n can find an m 2: (1- <5)n and two operators 0:: CI' --+ X,
L Ciaiei
i=l x written as id2,oo = (300: and 110:1111(311:::; l/f(<5), where
One naturally asks for the order of
max {d(X, Y): X, Y I-unconditional} .
The final answer to this problem is not known (1996): it
is conjectured that the right order is close to ,,;n. J. Lin-
denstrauss and A. Szankowski [31] have shown that it
has to be smaller than n: There exists a constant 0: > ° a function f(A), A 2: 1, such that for every X E Bn with
such that whenever X and Yare two I-unconditional
spaces in Bn , then d(X, Y) :::; c(<5)noH for every <5 > 0,
°
where c(<5) > is a constant depending only on <5. The
constant 0: obtained in [31] is given by a complicated ex-
pression. One knows that 0: E [5/9,2/3] and numerical
calculations show that it should be 5/9.
Radius of the compactum with respect to a fixed
centre. Let X E Bn , and let Rn(X) be the radius of the
Banach-Mazur compactum Bn with respect to X, de-
fined by
Rn(X) = max {d(X, Y): Y E Bn}.
In this terminology, John's theorem states that
Rn(£2) = n 1/ 2. It is natural to ask about sharp ana-
logues of this result if £2 is replaced by other standard
n-dimensional spaces. In this direction, A. Pelczynski
[41] asked a question of obvious geometric importance:
What is the order of the maximal possible 'Banach-
Mazur distance to the cube' Rn(£~)' Until recently, the
only information available was that n 1/ 2 :::; Rn(£~) :::; n,
a consequence of John's theorem. It turns out that none
of these two estimates is sharp: Rn(£~) = o(n) ([7];
the Bourgain- Szarek estimate). On the way to this
estimate, very interesting information on the relation
between a symmetric convex body K and its minimal
volume ellipsoid has been obtained. Assuming that Dn
is the minimal ellipsoid of K, as in John's argument,
it was proved that for every <5 E (0,1) one can choose
Xl, ... ,X m , m 2: (1 - <5)n, among the contact points of
K and D n , such that for every choice of scalars (ti)i-c: m ,
f(') (~tlr ~ I~t,x, < (3)
~ II~t,xl ~ ~ It,l·
The important part in this string of inequalities is, of
course, the first one. This is a strengthened version of
BANACH-MAZUR COMPACTUM
the classical Dvoretzky-Rogers lemma [11], which im-
plied a similar inequality only for m :::; ,,;n. It can also be
stated in the form of a 'proportional factorization result'
(proportional Dvoretzky-Rogers factorization, [7]): Let
X be an n-dimensional space. For every <5 E (0,1) one
(3: X --+ £';;:;" such that the identity id 2,oo : £2' --+ £;;:; is
f (<5) is a function depending only on the proportion
<5 E (0,1).
Using this result, Bourgain and Szarek gave a final
answer to the problem of the uniqueness, up to constant,
of the centre of the Banach-Mazur compactum. This can
be made a precise question as follows: Does there exist
Rn(X) :::; A,,;n one must have d(X'£2) :::; f(A)? In other
words, are all the 'asymptotic centres' of the Banach-
Mazur compactum close to the Euclidean space? The
answer is negative and the main tool in the proof is the
proportional Dvoretzky-Rogers result (non-uniqueness
of an asymptotic centre for Bn; [7]): Let X = £2 EB £~-s,
where s = [n/2]. Then Rn(X) :::; c,,;n for some absolute
constant, but d(X'£2) 2: (n/2)1/2. Therefore, there ex-
ist asymptotic centres of the Banach-Mazur compactum
with distance to £2 of the order of Rn (£2)'
The same inequality allowed Bourgain and Szarek to
show that Rn(£~) = o(n). It is now known [54], [17] that
(3) holds true with f(<5) = c<5. This gives a better upper
bound for Rn(£~)' which, however, does not seem to
give the right order of magnitude (Banach-Mazur dis-
°
tance to the cube; [52]' [16]): There exist two absolute
constants C1, C2 > such that
c1n1/210gn:::; Rn(£~) = Rn(£~):::; C2n5/6.
The lower bound Rn(£'1) 2: c1n1/210gn, due to
Szarek, shows that £'1 and £~ are not asymptotic centres
of the Banach-Mazur compactum (these are actually es-
sentially the only explicit examples of spaces for which
this property has been established). In Szarek's work,
the space with distance to £'1 of the order of n 1/2 log n is
once again a Gluskin space. So, the problem of the dis-
tance to the cube remains open (even without a strong
conjecture about what the order of Rn(£~) should be,
1996). The question of the best possible exponent of <5 in
the proportional Dvoretzky-Rogers factorization is also
open (1996): by [17] and [46] it must lie between 1/2
and l.
Sections and projections of a symmetric convex
body: distance to Euclidean space. Some funda-
mental results on the local structure (i.e., the struc-
ture of subspaces and quotients) of finite-dimensional
normed spaces are closely related to the Banach-Mazur
compactum. The starting point of the asymptotic theory
79
BANACH-MAZUR COMPACTUM
of finite-dimensional normed spaces is Dvoretzky's theo-
°
rem [9], [10] on almost spherical sections of symmetric
convex bodies: For every c > and every n-dimensional
normed space X, there exist an integer k 2: cc 2 log nand
a subspace E of X with dim E = k, such that
d(E, e~) S; 1 + c.
In other words, every symmetric convex body in R n
has sections which are almost ellipsoids and whose di-
mension k = k( c, n) can be chosen to increase to in-
finity as the dimension n of the original body tends to
infinity. Being probabilistic in nature, the proof actu-
ally gives that most of the k-dimensional subspaces of
X are almost Euclidean. The log n dependence on the
dimension n (first obtained by Milman in [34]) is exact,
as one can see by considering X = e~. There are several
other proofs of Dvoretzky's theorem: see [13], [49]. The
c 2 dependence on c (established in [22], [47]) does not
seem to be the right one: see [37] for related remarks
and conjectures.
A rough description of Milman's argument, which was
further exploited in [14], runs as follows: consider the
quantity
Mx = hn-l Ilxll u(dx),
where u is the rotationally invariant probability mea-
sure on the Euclidean unit sphere sn-1. Without loss
of generality one may assume that Dn is the ellipsoid
of maximal volume contained in Bx. Then, 11·11 is a
I-Lipschitz function on sn-1 and the isoperimetric in-
equality on the sphere implies that the values of 11·11 are
highly concentrated around its expectation Mx (cf. also
Isoperimetric inequality). One can extract subspaces
E of dimension k 2: cc 2 nMl such that Ilxll ~ Mx up
to 1 + c for all x E sn-1 n E. The second main tool is
the Dvoretzky-Rogers lemma (in a form dual to (3)). A
simple computation based on the information given by
(3) shows that, under the above hypotheses, Mx has to
be at least ((logn)/n)1/2.
In many cases one has an estimate for Mx which
allows almost Euclidean subspaces of X of dimension
even proportional to n. See [14], where this is verified
for X = e;, 1 S; p S; 2. A different approach, which has
its origin in [27] and was further simplified and gener-
alized in [50], shows that this is a common property of
all spaces whose unit ball Bx has 'small' volume ratio
(theorem on volume ratio and Euclidean sections): Let
X be an n-dimensional normed space and set
vr(X)
. (IBxl)l/n '
= mf lDf
where the inf is taken over all ellipsoids D contained in
Bx. For every .\ E (0,1) there exist subspaces E with
80
dim E 2: .\n, such that
d(E,£~) S; (47fvr(X))1/(1-,X).
Note that if vr(X) is bounded by a constant A, then
this theorem gives subspaces of X of any proportional
dimension and isomorphic to the Euclidean space up to
a constant depending only on A and .\ (independent of
the dimension n). A simple computation shows that the
volume ratio of all spaces £;,
1 S; p S; 2, is uniformly
bounded.
A crucial inequality in the same direction of a 'pro-
portional theory' of finite-dimensional spaces is Mil-
man's low M* -estimate, [35], which holds for every space
X: There exists a function J: (0,1) ---+ R+ such that for
every .\ E (0,1) and every X one can find a subspace E
of X with dim E 2: .\n and satisfying
Ilxll 2: D:: Ixl (4)
for all x E E.
Again, the proof is probabilistic in nature and shows
that this estimate holds true for most subspaces E of
a given dimension. There are several proofs of the Mil-
man inequality; see [40] and [23] for the best possible
dependence on .\: J(.\) ~ (1 - .\)1/2. Note that M x * is
half the mean width of the unit ball of X and that (4)
is equivalent to
BxnE~ (~~;)DnnE.
Thus, the geometric interpretation of Milman's inequal-
ity is that the diameter of the proportional sections of a
symmetric convex body is controlled by the mean width
of the body up to a function depending only on the pro-
portion .\.
An important consequence of Milman's inequality
is Milman's quotient-of-subspace theorem, [35], which
states that, starting with any space X E Bn and any
.\ E [1/2,1), one can find a quotient of a subspace of
X with dimension [.\n] and which is Euclidean up to
a constant depending only on .\. This should be com-
pared with the (log n )-dimension of the Euclidean sub-
spaces in Dvoretzky's theorem and the fact that the
corresponding dimension for Euclidean quotients does
not exceed vn in general. More precisely (the Mil-
man quotient-oj-subspace theorem): Let X E Bn and
1/2 S; .\ < 1. There exist subspaces FeE c X such
that dim( E / F) = k 2: .\n and
d(E/F,£~) S; c(l- .\)-1110g(l- .\)1.
Crucial results from [15], [28] and [42] always allow
one to have MxMx* logarithmic in d(X'£2) for a suit-
able choice of the Euclidean structure in R n. Then, an
iteration scheme based on double applications of Mil-
man's inequality completes the proof.

The quotient-of-subspace theorem has found several
applications even in the context of classical convexity,
such as the inverse Bantal6 inequality and the inverse
Brunn-Minkowski inequality.
It was proved by W. Blaschke for n = 3, and by L.
Santal6 for general n, that IKllKol :::; IDnl2 for every
symmetric convex body K in R n, where KO is the polar
body of K. The quotient-of-subspace theorem enabled
Bourgain and Milman [6] to prove that
CI :::; (IKIIKOI ?/n : :; C2
n n
for every body K, where CI, C2 are positive absolute
constants. This shows that the affinely invariant volume
product (IKIIKol)l/n is the same for all symmetric con-
vex bodies, up to an absolute constant.
The classical Brunn-Minkowski inequality (cf.
also Brunn-Minkowski theorem) states that
IA + BII/n 2: IAII/n + IBII/n for every pair of convex
bodies in Rn. It is easy to check that, in general, no in-
verse to this inequality can hold. However, Milman [36]
proved the following: There exists a mapping sending
each symmetric convex body K to some linear transfor-
mation TK E SLn such that for every pair of symmetric
convex bodies KI and K2 in R n the following inequality
holds:
ITKI (K I ) + TK2(K2)II/n :::;
=C (ITKI (Kdl l / n + ITK2(K2)II/n) ,
where C > 0 is an absolute constant. The body TK(K)
is called an M -position of K.
An example of the interaction between the local
structure of normed spaces and the geometry of the
Banach-Mazur compact urn is the isomorphic finite-
dimensional version of the homogeneous space problem.
A question raised by S. Banach in [2] is whether an n-
dimensional normed space all k-dimensional subspaces
of which are pairwise isometric for some 1 < k < n,
must be isometric to the Euclidean space. In most cases
this has been answered in the affirmative by M. Gromov
[24].
An isomorphic version of the same problem was stud-
ied by Bourgain [4]. He showed that there are a 8 E (0,1)
and a function r.p: R + ---+ R + such that if X is an
n-dimensional space with d(E, F) :::; c for every pair
of [8n]-dimensional subspaces E and F of X, then
d(X,£~) :::; r.p(c).
Mankiewicz and Tomczak-Jaegermann completed
this result. They proved in [33] that there is a function
f: (0,1) x R+ ---+ R+ such that d(X,£~) :::; f(8,c) for
every space X all [8n]-dimensional subspaces of which
BANACH-MAZUR COMPACTUM
are c-isomorphic. The positive answer to the question in-
volves most of the basic methods and results mentioned
in the previous sections.
Weak Banach-Mazur distance. Tomczak-
Jaegermann [57] has introduced a different way of mea-
suring the distance between two n-dimensional normed
spaces X and Y. She first considered the weak factor-
ization norm of the identity
q(X, Y) = inf iIIS(w)IIIIT(w)11 dw,
where the inf is taken over all measure spaces f2 and
all mappings T: f2 ---+ L(X, Y), S: f2 ---+ L(Y,X) such
that In x.
S(w) oT(w) dw = id Then, one symmetrizes
q(X, Y) to define the weak distance between X and Y
as
wd(X, Y) = max{q(X, Y), q(Y, X)}.
One can easily check that wd(X, Y) :::; d(X, Y) for all
X, Y E En. On the other hand, one can see that, with
high probability, the weak distance between two Gluskin
spaces is bounded by cyn. So, the weak distance may
differ much from the Banach-Mazur distance. Actually,
M. Rudelson [45] has given an example of a pair of spaces
with weak distance less than 2 and Banach-Mazur dis-
tance of order n.
The diameter of En with respect to the weak distance
is much smaller than n. Rudelson [45] has proved that
wd(X, Y) :::; cnI3/1410g15/7 n
for every pair X, Y E En. It has been conjectured that
the weak distance in En is always bounded by cyn.
References
[1] ASPLUND, E.: 'Comparison between plane symmetric convex
bodies and parallelograms', Math. Scand. 8 (1960), 171-180.
[2] BANACH, S.: Theorie des operations lineaires, PWN, 1932.
[3] BENYAMINI, Y., AND GORDON, Y.: 'Random factorization
of operators between Banach spaces', J. d'Anal. Math. 39
(1981), 45-74.
[4] BOURGAIN, J.: 'On finite dimensional homogeneous Banach
spaces': Vol. 1317 of Lecture Notes in mathematics, Springer,
1988, pp. 232-238.
[5] BOURGAIN, J., AND MILMAN, V.D.: 'Distances between
normed spaces, their subspaces and quotient spaces', Inte-
gral Eq. Operator Th. 9 (1986), 31-46.
[6] BOURGAIN, J., AND MILMAN, V.D.: 'New volume ratio prop-
erties for convex symmetric bodies in R n ', Invent. Math. 88
(1987), 319-340.
[7] BOURGAIN, J., AND SZAREK, S.J.: 'The Banach-Mazur dis-
tance to the cube and the Dvoretzky-Rogers factorization',
Israel J. Math. 62 (1988), 169-180.
[8] DAVIS, W.J., MILMAN, V.D., AND TOMCZAK-JAEGERMANN,
N.: 'The distance between certain n-dimensional spaces', Is-
rael J. Math. 39 (1981), 1-15.
[9] DVORETZKY, A.: 'A theorem on convex bodies and appli-
cations to Banach spaces', Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 45
(1959), 223-226.
81
BANACH-MAZUR COMPACTUM
[10] DVORETZKY, A.: 'Some results on convex bodies and Ba-
nach spaces': Proc. Symp. Linear Spaces, Jerusalem, 1961,
pp. 123-160.
[11] DVORETZKY, A., AND ROGERS, C.A.: 'Absolute and uncondi-
tional convergence in normed linear spaces', Proc. Nat. Acad.
Sci. USA 36 (1950), 192-197.
[12] ENFLO, P.: 'A counterexample to the approximation prop-
erty', Acta Math. 130 (1973), 309-317.
[13] FIGIEL, T.: 'A short proof of Dvoretzky's theorem', Compo-
sitio Math. 33 (1976), 297-301.
[14] FIGIEL, T., LINDENSTRAUSS, J., AND MILMAN, V.D.: 'The di-
mension of almost spherical sections of convex bodies', Acta
Math. 129 (1977), 53-94.
[15] FIGIEL, T., AND TOMCZAK-JAEGERMANN, N.: 'Projections
onto Hilbertian subspaces of Banach spaces', Israel J. Math.
37 (1979), 155-171.
[16] GIANNOPOULOS, A.A.: 'A note on the Banach-Mazur distance
to the cube', Operator Theory: Advances and Applications 77
(1995), 67-73.
[17] GIANNOPOULOS, A.A.: 'A proportional Dvoretzky-Rogers
factorization result', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 124 (1996),
233-241.
[18] GLUSKIN, E.D.: 'The diameter of the Minkowski compactum
is approximately equal to n', Funct. Anal. Appl. 15 (1981),
72-73. (Translated from the Russian.)
[19] GLUSKIN, E.D.: 'Finite dimensional analogues of spaces with-
out basis', Dokl. Akad. Nauk USSR 216 (1981), 1046-1050.
(In Russian.)
[20] GLUSKIN, E.D.: 'On distances between some symmetric
spaces', J. Soviet Math. 22 (1983), 1841-1846. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[21] GLUSKIN, E.D.: 'Probability in the geometry of Banach
spaces': Proc. Int. Congress Mathematicians, Berkeley,
Vol. 2, 1986, pp. 924-938.
[22] GORDON, Y.: 'Gaussian processes and almost spherical sec-
tions of convex bodies', Ann. of Probab. 16 (1988), 180-188.
[23] GORDON, Y.: 'On Milman's inequality and random subspaces
which escape through a mesh in R n ,: Vol. 1317 of Lecture
Notes in mathematics, Springer, 1988, pp. 84-106.
[24] GROMOV, M.: 'On a geometric conjecture of Banach', Izv.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Mat. 31 (1967), 1105-1114.
[25] GURARII, V.E., KADEC, M.l., AND MACAEv, V.E.: 'On the
distance between isomorphic Lp spaces of finite dimension',
Math. Sb. 70 (1966), 481-489. (In Russian.)
[26] JOHN, F.: 'Extremum problems with inequalities as sub-
sidiary conditions': Courant Anniversary Volume, Inter-
science, 1948, pp. 187-204.
[27] KASHIN, B.S.: 'Sections of some finite dimensional sets and
classes of smooth functions', lzv. Akad. Nauk. SSSR Ser.
Mat. 41 (1977),334-351. (In Russian.)
[28] LEWIS, D.R.: 'Ellipsoids defined by Banach ideal norms',
Mathematika 26 (1979), 18-29.
[29] LINDENSTRAUSS, J.: 'Almost spherical sections: their exis-
tence and their applications', Jber. Deutsch. Math. Ver.
(1992), 39-61.
[30] LINDENSTRAUSS, J., AND MILMAN, V.D.: 'The local theory
of normed spaces and its applications to convexity', in P.M.
GRUBER AND J.M. WILLS (eds.): Handbook of Convex Geom-
etry, 1993, pp. 1149-1220.
[31] LINDENSTRAUSS, J., AND SZANKOWSKI, A.: On the Banach-
Mazur distance between spaces having an unconditional basis,
Vol. 122 of Math. Studies, North-Holland, 1986.
82
[32] MANKIEWICZ, P.: 'Finite dimensional spaces with symmetry
constant of order fo', Studia Math. 79 (1984), 193-200.
[33] MANKIEWICZ, P., AND TOMCZAK-JAEGERMANN, N.: 'A so-
lution of the finite dimensional homogeneous Banach space
problem', Israel J. Math. 75 (1991), 129-160.
[34] MILMAN, V.D.: 'New proof of the theorem of Dvoretzky on
sections of convex bodies', Funct. Anal. Appl. 5 (1971), 28-
37.
[35] MILMAN, V.D.: 'Almost Euclidean quotient spaces of sub-
spaces of finite dimensional normed spaces', Proc. Amer.
Math. Soc. 94 (1985), 445-449.
[36] MILMAN, V.D.: 'Inegalite de Brunn-Minkowski inverse et ap-
plications it la theorie locale des espaces normes', C.R. Acad.
Sci. Paris 302 (1986), 25-28.
[37] MILMAN, V.D.: 'A few observations on the connection be-
tween local theory and some other fields': Vol. 1317 of Lecture
Notes in mathematics, Springer, 1988, pp. 13-40.
[38] MILMAN, V.D.: 'Dvoretzky's theorem: Thirty years later',
Geom. and Funct. Analysis 2 (1992), 455-479.
[39] MILMAN, V.D., AND SCHECHTMAN, G.: Asymptotic theory
of finite-dimensional normed spaces, Vol. 1200 of Lecture
Notes in mathematics, Springer, 1986.
[40] PAJOR, A., AND TOMCZAK-JAEGERMANN, N.: 'Subspaces
of small co dimension of finite dimensional Banach spaces',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 97 (1986), 637-642.
[41] PELCZYNSKI, A.: 'Structural theory of Banach spaces and its
interplay with analysis and probability': Proc. Int. Congress
Mathematicians 1983, North-Holland, 1984, pp. 237-269.
[42] PISIER, G.: 'Un theoreme sur les operateurs lineaires entre es-
paces de Banach qui se factorisent par un espace de Hilbert',
Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm. Sup. 13 (1980), 23-43.
[43] PISIER, G.: Factorization of linear operators and the geome-
try of Banach spaces, Vol. 60 of CBMS, Amer. Math. Soc.,
1986.
[44] PISIER, G.: The volume of convex bodies and Banach space
geometry, Vol. 94 of Tracts in Math., Cambridge Univ. Press,
1989.
[45] RUDELSON, M.: 'Estimates of the weak distance between
finite-dimensional Banach spaces', Israel J. Math. 89 (1995),
189-204.
[46] RUDELSON, M.: 'Contact points of convex bodies', Israel J.
Math. (to appear).
[47] SCHECHTMAN, G.: 'A remark concerning the dependence on e
in Dvoretzky's theorem': Vol. 1376 of Lecture Notes in math-
ematics, Springer, 1989, pp. 274-277.
[48] STROMQUIST, W.: 'The maximum distance between two di-
mensional spaces', Math. Scand. 48 (1981),205-225.
[49] SZANKOWSKI, A.: 'On Dvoretzky's theorem on almost spher-
ical sections of convex bodies', Israel J. Math. 17 (1974),
325-338.
[50] SZAREK, S.J.: 'On Kashin's almost Euclidean orthogonal de-
composition of t'i', Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci. 26 (1978), 691-
694.
[51] SZAREK, S.J.: 'The finite dimensional basis problem, with an
appendix on nets of Grassman manifold', Acta Math. 159
(1983),153-179.
[52] SZAREK, S.J.: 'Spaces with large distance to £~ and random
matrices', Amer. J. Math. 112 (1990), 899-942.
[53] SZAREK, S.J.: 'On the geometry of the Banach-Mazur
compactum': Vol. 1470 of Lecture Notes in mathematics,
Springer, 1991, pp. 48-59.
[54] SZAREK, S.J., AND TALAGRAND, M.: 'An isomorphic version
of the Sauer-Shelah lemma and the Banach-Mazur distance

to the cube': Vol. 1376 of Lecture Notes in mathematics,
Springer, 1989, pp. 105-112.
[55] TOMCZAK-JAEGERMANN, N.: 'The Banach-Mazur distance
.between the trace classes C;:', Pmc. Amer. Math. Soc. 72
(1978), 305-308.
[56] TOMczAK-JAEGERMANN, N.: 'The Banach-Mazur distance
between symmetric spaces', Israel J. Math. 46 (1983), 40-
66.
[57] TOMczAK-JAEGERMANN, N.: 'The weak distance between Ba-
nach spaces', Math. Nachr. 119 (1984), 291-307.
[58] TOMCZAK-JAEGERMANN, N.: Banach-Mazur distances and
finite-dimensional operator ideals, Vol. 38 of Monographs,
Pitman, 1989.
A.A. Giannopoulos
MSC 1991: 52A21, 46Bxx, 46B20
BANACH-SAKS PROPERTY - A Banach space
X is said to have the Banach-Saks property if
bounded sequences admit subsequences having norm-
convergent arithmetic means (such subsequences are
called Banach-Saks sequences). The origin of the
Banach-Saks property can be traced back to a result
of S. Mazur: If a sequence (Xn) in a Banach space X
is weakly convergent to some point x, then there is a
sequence formed by convex combinations of (xn) that
converges in norm to x. (The proof is just an appli-
cation of the Hahn-Banach theorem: x belongs by
hypothesis to the weak closure of the convex hull of the
sequence, and the convex closed sets coincide for the
weak and norm topologies.) It is then a natural question
to ask if that convex combination can be chosen to be
the arithmetic means. S. Banach and S. Saks [2] proved
that this is the case in Lp(O, 1), 1 < p < 00. S. Kaku-
tani [8] extended this result to uniformly convex spaces.
Later, T. Nishiura and D. Waterman [9] proved that a
space with the Banach-Saks property must be reflexive
(cf. Reflexive space) and W. Schlenk [12] proved that
Ll(O, 1) satisfies the weak Banach-Saks property: weakly
null (instead of bounded) sequences have Banach-Saks
subsequences. J. Schreier [13] showed that a certain
weakly null sequence of indicator functions on the com-
pact space WW contains no Banach-Saks subsequences;
thus, not all spaces have the weak Banach-Saks prop-
erty. An example of A. Baernstein II [1] shows that not
all reflexive spaces have the Banach-Saks property.
Subsequences of Banach-Saks sequences need not be
Banach-Saks. For example, consider a sequence formed
by an infinity of zeros and ones. The so-called Ram-
sey methods have had a great impact in the study of
the Banach-Saks property and, in general, of properties
depending on the extraction of subsequences, because
they introduce some order into this phenomenon. The
basic Ramsey theorem asserts that given a sequence
and a property P that pairs may have, either there is
a subsequence for which all pairs have P or there is a
BANASCHEWSKI COMPACTIFICATION
subsequence for which no pair has P. Some topological
work allows one to replace, in some cases, 'pair' by 'sub-
sequence'. For instance, a bounded sequence in a Banach
space either contains a subsequence such that all its fur-
ther subsequences are Banach-Saks or it contains a sub-
sequence having no Banach-Saks subsequences. Classi-
cal, as well as Ramsey, methods are described in full
detail in [6]; a survey of counterexamples and new re-
lated properties is [5].
Regarding stability properties, J.R. Partington [10]
proved that the Banach-Saks property is stable under
lp-sums, and W. Schachermayer [11] and J. Bourgin (see
[7]) examples of Banach spaces E with the Banach-Saks
property but for which L 2 (E) does not have the Banach-
Saks property. B. Beauzamy [3] studied the behaviour of
the Banach-Saks property under interpolation. It does
not pass from X to X* (or vice versa). It is unknown
what the dual of a space with the Banach-Saks property
looks like.
References
[1] BAERNSTEIN II, A.: 'On reflexivity and summability', Studia
Math. 42 (1972), 91-94.
[2] BANACH, S., AND SAKS, S.: 'Sur la convergence forte dans les
champs Lp', Studia Math. 2 (1930),51-57.
[3] BEAUZAMY, B.: Espaces d'interpolation reels: topologie
et geometrie, Vol. 666 of Lecture Notesin Mathematics,
Springer, 1978.
[4] BEAUZAMY, B., AND LAPRESTE, J.-T.: Modeles etales des es-
paces de Banach, Hermann, 1984.
[5] CASTILLO, J.M.F.: 'Extraction of subsequences in Banach
spaces', Extracta Math. 7 (1992), 77-88.
[6] DIESTEL, J.: Sequences and series in Banach spaces, Vol. 92
of GTM, Springer, 1984.
[7] GUERRE, S.: 'La propriete de Banach-Saks ne pase pas de E
it L2(E), d'apres J. Bourgin', Sem. Anal. Fonctionnelle Ecole
Polytechn. Palaiseau (1979-1980), Exp. 8.
[8] KAKUTANI, S.: 'Weak convergence in uniformly convex
spaces', Math. Inst. Osaka Imp. Univ. (1938), 165-167.
[9] NISHIURA, T., AND WATERMAN, D.: 'Reflexivity and summa-
bility', Studia Math. 23 (1963), 53-57.
[10] PARTINGTON, J.R.: 'On the Banach-Saks property', Math.
Pmc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 82 (1977), 369--374.
[11] SCHACHERMAYER, W.: 'The Banach-Saks property is not L2-
hereditary', Israel J. Math. 40 (1981), 340-344.
[12] SCHLENK, W.: 'Sur les suites faiblement convergents dans
l'espace L', Studia Math. 25 (1969),337-341.
[13] SCHREIER, J.: 'Ein Gegenbeispiel zur Theorie der swachen
Konvergenz', Studia Math. 2 (1930), 58-62.
J.M.F. Castillo
MSC 1991: 46A22
BANASCHEWSKI COMPACTIFICATION - A
topological space X is O-dimensional if it is a T1-space
(cf. also Separation axiom) with a base of clopen sets
(a set is called clopen if it is both open and closed). The
Banaschewski compactification [1], [2] of X, denoted by
(30 X , is the O-dimensional analogue of the Stone-Cech
83
BANASCHEWSKI COMPACTIFICATION

compactification of a Tikhonov space. It can be ob- BAND METHOD A framework for solving various
tained as the Stone space of the Boolean algebra of positive-definite and strictly contractive extension prob-
clopen subsets. lems and various interpolation problems from a unified
The Banaschewski compactification is also a special abstract point of view. This method applies to algebras
case of the Wallman compactification [4] (as gener- with band structure. An algebra M with an identity e
alized by N.A. Shanin, [3]). A fairly general approach and an involution * is called an algebra with band struc-
subsuming the above-mentioned compactifications is as ture if M admits a direct sum decomposition
follows.
Let X be an arbitrary non-empty set and .c a lat- (1)
tice of subsets of X such that 0, X E .c. Assume that
.c is disjunctive and separating, let A(.c) be the alge-
where all the summands are subspaces of M such that
bra generated by .c, let I(.c) be the set of non-trivial
the following conditions are satisfied:
zero-one valued finitely additive measures on A(.c), and
let IR(.c) be the set of elements JL E I(.c) that are .c- Ed e E Md;
regular, i.e., E2 ) Mi = M 4, (Mg)* = M~, M;t = Md;
E 3 ) the following multiplication table holds:
JL(A) = sup {JL(L): LeA, L E .c}, A E A(.c).
Ml MO2 Md MO3 M4
One can identify I(.c) with the .c-prime filters and IR(.c)
Ml Ml Ml Ml MO M
with the .c-ultrafilters (cf. also Filter; Ultrafilter). +
MO2 Ml MO MO2 Me M~
Next, let V(A) = {JL E IR(.c): JL(A) = I}, where +
Md Ml MO2 Md MO3 M4
A E A(.c); V is a lattice isomorphism from .c to V(.c) = MO3 MO
+ Me MO3 M~ M4
{V(L): L E .c}. Take V(.c) as a base for the closed sets M4 M M~ M4 M4 M4
of a topology rV(.c) on IR(.c). Then (IR(.c),rV(.c)) is
where
a compact T1-space and it is T2 (cf. Hausdorff space)
if and only if .c is a normal lattice. X can be densely
imbedded in IR(.c) by the mapping x ---+ JLx, where JL M~ = Ml EBMg,
is the Dirac measure concentrated at x (cf. also Dirac M~ =M~EBM4'
delta-function). The mapping is a homeomorphism Me = Mg EB Md EB M~.
if X is given the topology of closed sets with .c as base
for the closed sets.
The space Me is called the band of M, and any ele-
If X is a T1-space and .c is the lattice of closed sets,
ment in Md is called a diagonal. Also, let
then (IR(.c) , rV(.c)) becomes the usual Wallman com-
pactification wX.
If X is a Tikhonov space and .c is the lattice of zero M+ =M~EBMd,
sets, then (IR(.c) , rV(.c)) becomes the Stone-Cech com- M_ = M~ EBMd,
pactification (JX. M2 = Mg EBMd,
If X is a O-dimensional T1-space and .c is the lat-
tice of clop en sets, then (I R (.c), r V (.c)) becomes the
M:3 = M~ EB Md·
Banaschewski compactification (JoX.
wX = (JX if and only if X is a normal space; The natural projections associated with the decomposi-
(JX = (JoX if and only if X is strongly O-dimensional tion (1) are denoted by P 1 , P~, Pd , pf, P4 , respectively.
(i.e., the clopen sets separate the zero sets). An example of an algebra with band structure is the
Wiener algebra W of all complex-valued functions 1
References
[IJ BANASCHEWSKI, B.: 'Uber nulldimensional Riiume', Math.
on the unit circle T that have absolutely convergent
Nachrichten 13 (1955), 129-140. Fourier series expansions
[2J BANASCHEWSKI, B.: 'On Wallman's method of compactifica-
tion', Math. Nachrichten 27 (1963), 105-114. ex!

[3J SHANIN, N.A.: 'On the theory of bicompact extensions of

topological spaces', Dokl. Aka. Nauk SSSR 38 (1943), 154 n=-oo
156. (In Russian.)
[4J WALLMAN, H.: 'Lattices and topological spaces', Ann. Math. with
39 (1938), 112-126.
G. Bachman ex!
MSC 1991: 54D35
11111 = 2: lanl < 00.
n=-OCJ

84

The involution on W is complex conjugation. Let p be
a fixed positive integer. A band structure on W is ob-
tained by letting the summands in (1) be defined by
M 1 = {! E W: a j = 0 if j ~ p} ,
Mg = {f E W: aj = 0 if j ~ 0 or j
Md={fEW:aj=O ifjiO},
M~ = {f E W: aj = 0 if j 2': 0 or j < -p},
M 4 ={!EW:aj=0 ifj2':-p}.
An element b in an algebra A with involution * and
unit e is called positive definite in A if b = c* c for some
invertible c E A. Such an element in an algebra M with
band structure is said to admit a right (respectively,
left) spectral factorization if c and c- 1 can be taken in
M+(respectively, M_).
Hereafter, M is assumed to be a *-subalgebra of a
unital C* -algebra R, with the unit of M equal to the
unit of R. Let k be an element in the band Me. An
R-positive extension of k is an element b E M that is
positive definite in R such that
for certain elements ml E Ml and m4 E M 4 . A band
extension of k is an R-positive extension b of k such that
b- 1 E Me. The main problems are to determine condi-
tions under which a band extension of k exists, to find
the band extension when it exists, and to describe all
R-positive extensions of k when k has a band extension.
The following two statements provide solutions of these
problems.
I) Let M be an algebra with band structure (1), and
let k = k* E Me. Then k has a band extension b with a
right spectral factorization relative to (1) if and only if
the equation
has a solution x with the following properties:
i) x E M 2 ;
ii) x is invertible and X-I E M+;
iii) PdX = d*d for some d E Md which is invertible
in Md.
Furthermore, in this case such an element b is obtained
by taking
where x is any solution of (2) satisfying i)-iii).
To describe all R-positive extensions of k, it will be
additionally assumed that the following axiom holds:
Axiom A: If 9 E M+ and IlgliR < 1, then (e _. g)-l E
M+.
This axiom holds if M + is closed in R.
BAND METHOD
II) Let M be an algebra with band structure (1) in
a unital C* -algebra R, and assume that axiom A holds.
Let k = k* E Me, and suppose that k has a band exten-
sion b which admits a right and left spectral factorization
relative to (1):
> p} ,
b = (u- 1 )*U- 1 = (v- 1 )*v- 1 ,
U±l E M+, V±l E M_.
Then each R-positive extension of k is of the form
F(g) = [(vg + u)-l]*(e - g*g)(vg + u)-l, (3)
where the free parameter 9 is an arbitrary element in
Ml such that IlgliR < 1. Moreover, the mapping F pro-
vides a one-to-one correspondence between all such 9
and all R-positive extensions of k.
In the above statement, F may be replaced by
F' (h) = [( uh + v) -1]* (e - h * h) (uh + v) -1,
where now the free parameter h is an arbitrary element
of M4 such that IlhliR < 1.
The right-hand side of (3) yields a positive extension
(i.e., an extension which is positive definite in M) if and
only if the free parameter gEM 1 is such that e - g* 9
is positive definite in M.
An alternative characterization of the band extension
is provided by an abstract maximum entropy principle.
For this it is necessary to assume two additional ax-
ioms. An element a E R is positive semi-definite in R if
a = g* 9 for some 9 E R.
Axiom B1: If a E M is positive semi-definite in R,
then Pd (a) is positive semi-definite in R.
Axiom B2: If a E M is positive semi-definite in R
and Pd(a) = 0, then a = o.
Any element b of M with a right spectral factoriza-
tion can be factored uniquely in the form
b = (e+ m~)* ~(e + m~),
(2)
where ~ E Md and e + m~ is invertible
with (e +
m~)±l E e+M~. The element ~ is called the right mul-
tiplicative diagonal of b and is denoted by ~r (b). The
maximum entropy principle states that if a self-adjoint
element k in Me (cf. also Self-adjoint operator) has
a band extension b with a right spectral factorization,
then for any R-positive extension a of k having a right
spectral factorization,
with equality only if a = b.
Solution of the Caratheodory-Toeplitz exten-
sion problem. There are many applications of these
results to various algebras of functions, matrix-valued
functions, and matrices. When applied to the Wiener
algebra W with the band structure described above,
85
BAND METHOD

they yield a description of the solutions of the classi-
cal Caratheodory-Toeplitz extension problem.
Given a trigonometric polynomial
p can be found in [3, Chapts. XXXIV-XXXV].
L ak eikt ,
k=-p
one looks for a function I(() = E%"=-oo ak(k in W with
the property that I(() > 0 for every ( E T. The follow-
ing statement gives the solution.
The Caratheodory-Toeplitz extension problem for
the trigonometric polynomial (4) is solvable if and only
if the matrix
a_I
al ao a~p
Strictly contractive extension problems, such as the
Nehari extension problem of complex analysis, can
be reduced to band extension problems. Further details
(4) The band method has its origin in the papers [1], [2],
and has been developed further in [4], [5], [6]. Additional
references can also be found in [3].
References
[1] DYM, H., AND GOHBERG, I.: 'Extensions of kernels of Fred-
holm operators', J. Anal. Math. 42 (1982/3), 51-97.
[2] DYM, H., AND GOHBERG, I.: 'A new class of contractive in-
terpolants and maximum entropy principles': Operator The-
ory: Advances and Applications, Vol. 29, Birkhiiuser, 1988,
)
pp. 117-150.

C
[3] GOHBERG, I., GOLDBERG, S., AND KAASHOEK, M.A.: Classes
a_~+1
r= . of linear operators II, Vol. 63, Birkhiiuser, 1993.
[4] GOHBERG, I., KAASHOEK, M.A., AND WOERDEMAN, H.J.:
ap ap-I ao 'The band method for positive and conntractive extension
problems', J. Operator Th. 22 (1989), 109-155.
is positive definite. In that case there exists a unique
[5] GOHBERG, I., KAASHOEK, M.A., AND WOERDEMAN, H.J.:
solution I = Ib with the additional property that the 'The band method for positive and conntractive extension
jth Fourier coefficient of Ibi is equal to 0 for Ijl > p. problems: An alternative version and new applications', In-
To obtain Ib, let tegral Eq. Operator Th. 12 (1989), 343-382.
[6] GOHBERG, I., KAASHOEK, M.A., AND WOERDEMAN, H.J.: 'A
maximum entropy principle in the general framework of the
band method', J. Funct. Anal. 95 (1991),231-254.
R.L. Ellis
I. Gohberg
M.A. Kaashoek
MSC1991: 47A57,47A68

BARIC ALGEBRA, weighted algebra - In 1939, in

connection with the formalism of genetics, I.M.H. Ether-
and define ington introduced the notion of baric algebra (cf. [1];
U(A) :S:: (xo + AXI + ... + APXp)x~I/2 more commonly it is also called a weighted algebra). If
K is a (commutative) field and A a K-algebra, not nec-
and essarily commutative or associative, one says that A is
V(A) = (Yo + rIY_I + ... + A-PY_p)y~I/2. a weighted algebra if there exists an algebra morphism
w: A --+ K which is non-trivial. This means that one
Then U(A) =f; 0 for IAI ::; 1 and V(A) =f; 0 for IAI 2: 1 and
can write w(e) = 1, where e is a convenient element of
1 1
Ib(A) = IU(A)12 = IV(A)12 (A E T). A. The morphism w is called the weight function of A
and one can regard a weighted algebra as a pair (A,w)
Furthermore, every solution I of the Caratheodory- where A is an algebra and w the weight function. A
Toeplitz problem is of the form morphism I: (A, w) --+ (A', w') of weighted algebras is a
1 - Ig(A)12 morphism of algebras f: A --+ A' such that w' 0 I = w.
(5)
I(A) = IU(A) + g(A)V(A)I2' This gives a category, the category of weighted alge-
where 9 E W is an arbitrary function with Ig(A)1 < 1 bras. All constructions on weighted algebras are made
for A E T and with the jth Fourier coefficient of g equal in this category. For a finite-dimensional K-algebra A,
to 0 for j ::; p. Moreover, (5) gives a one-to-one corre- the following conditions are equivalent:
spondence between all such g and all solutions I. Ad-
i) A is a weighted algebra;
ditionally, the band solution Ib is the unique solution I
ii) there exists a finite basis el, ... ,en of A over K
that maximizes the entropy integral
such that if eiej = E~=I 'ijkek (i, j = 1, ... ,n) is the
-1 j1r log/(eit)dt. multiplication table of A in this basis (the scalars 'ijk
211' -1r (i,j,k = 1, ... ,n) are the structure constants of A),
This solution is called the maximum entropy solution. then E~=I 'ijk = 1 (i,j = 1, ... ,n);

86

iii) there exists a two-sided ideal N of A, of codimen-
sion one, such that A2 ctN.
It is easy to see that a Lie algebra is not weighted;
however, over any weighted algebra (A, w) one can define
a Lie algebra structure via the multiplication (bracket)
[x,y] = w(x)y - w(y)x for all x,y E A. A Jordan al-
gebra mayor may not be weighted; however, over any
weighted algebra (A, w) one can define a Jordan alge-
bra structure via the multiplication xy = w(x)y+w(y)x
for all x, yEA. A weighted algebra is not necessar-
ily associative (cf. Associative rings and algebras);
however, over any weighted algebra (A, w) with a unit e
one can define an associative algebra structure via the
multiplication xy = w(x)y + w(y)x - w(x)w(y)e for all
x, yEA. A Clifford algebra is not weighted; in par-
ticular, the algebra of complex numbers and the algebra
of quaternions are not weighted. All Bernstein algebras
are weighted (cf. Bernstein algebra).
References
[1] ETHERINGTON, I.M.H.: 'Genetic algebras', Proc. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh 59 (1939), 242-258.
[2] McHALE, D., AND RINGWOOD, G.A.: 'Haldane linearisation
of baric algebras', J. London Math. Soc. (2) 28 (1983), 17-
26.
[3] MICALI, A., AND REVOY, PH.: 'Sur les algebres gametiques',
Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc 29 (1986), 187-197.
[4] SINGH, M.K., AND SINGH, D.K.: 'On baric algebras', The
Math. Education (2) 20 (1986), 54-55.
A. Micali
MSC 1991: 17D92, 16A99, 90D10
BASKAKOV OPERATORS - V.A. Baskakov [2] lU-
troduced a sequence of linear positive operators Ln with
weights
by
(Lnf)(x) = fPnk(X)f (~) , (1)
k=O
where n E N, x E [0, b], b > 0, for all functions f on
[0,00) for which the series converges. Here, {1>n}nEN is
a sequence of functions defined on [0, b] having the fol-
lowing properties for every n, kEN, k > 0:
i) 1>n E COO[O,b];
ii) 1>n (0) = 1;
iii) 1>n is completely monotone, i.e., (-l)k1>~k) 2: 0;
iv) there exists an integer c such that 1>~k+l)
-n1>~k~c, n> max{O, -c}.
Baskakov studied convergence theorems of bounded
continuous functions for the operators (1). For satura-
tion classes for continuous functions with compact sup-
port, see [8]. For a result concerning bounded continuous
functions, see [3].
BASKAKOV OPERATORS
In his work on Baskakov operators, C.P. May [6] took
conditions slightly different from those mentioned above
and showed that the local inverse and saturation theo-
rems hold for functions with growth less than (l+t)N for
some N > 0. Bernstein polynomials and Szasz-Mirakian
operators are the particular cases of Baskakov operators
considered by May.
S.P. Singh [7] studied simultaneous approximation,
using another modification of the conditions in the orig-
inal definition of Baskakov operators. However, it was
shown that his result is not correct (cf., e.g., [1], Re-
marks).
Motivated by the Durrmeyer integral modification of
the Bernstein polynomials, M. Heilmann [4] modified
the Baskakov operators in a similar manner by replac-
ing the discrete values f (k / n) in (1) by an integral over
the weighted function, namely,
(Mnf)(x) = ~pnk(X)(n - c) 10 00
Pnk(t)f(t) dt,
n > c, x E [0,00),
where f is a function on [0,00) for which the right-hand
side is defined. He studied global direct and inverse Lp-
approximation theorems for these operators.
Subsequently, a global direct result for simultaneous
approximation in the Lp-metric in terms of the second-
order Ditzian-Totik modulus of smoothness was proved,
see [5]. For local direct results for simultaneous approx-
imation of functions with polynomial growth, see [5].
References
[1] AGRAWAL, P.N., AND KASANA, H.S.: 'On simultaneous ap-
proximation by Szasz-Mirakian operators', Bull. Inst. Math.
Acad. Sinica 22 (1994), 181-188.
[2] BASKAKOV, V.A.: 'An example of a sequence of linear pos-
itive operators in the space of continuous functions', Dokl.
Akad. Nauk SSSR 113 (1957),249-251. (In Russian.)
[3J BERENS, H.: 'Pointwise saturation of positive operators', J.
Approx. Theory 6 (1972), 135-146.
[4] HEILMANN, M.: Approximation auf [0,(0) durch das Ver-
fahren der Opemtoren vom Baskakov-Durrmeyer Typ, Univ.
Dortmund, 1987, Dissertation.
[5] HEILMANN, M., AND MULLER, M.W.: 'On simultaneous ap-
proximation by the method of Baskakov-Durrmeyer opera-
tors', Numer. Func. Anal. Optim. 10 (1989), 127-138.
[6] MAY, C.P.: 'Saturation and inverse theorems for combina-
tions of a class of exponential-type operators', Canad. J.
Math. 28 (1976), 1224-1250.
[7] SINGH, S.P.: 'On Baskakov-type operators', Comment. Math.
Univ. St. Pauli, 31 (1982), 137-142.
[8] SUZUKI, Y.: 'Saturation oflocal approximation by linear posi-
tive operators of Bernstein type', T6hoku Math. J. 19 (1967),
429-453.
P.N. Agrawal
MSC 1991: 41Axx, 41A40, 41A27, 41A36
87
BATEMAN-HORN CONJECTURE
BATEMAN-HoRN CONJECTURE - A conjecture
on the asymptotic behaviour of a polynomial satisfy-
ing the Bunyakovski'l condition (cf. also Bunyakovski'l
conjecture).
Let h(x), ... ,fr(x) be polynomials (cf. Polyno-
mial) with integer coefficients, of degrees d1 ,··· ,dr 2:
1, irreducible (cf. Irreducible polynomial), and with
positive leading coefficients. Let
f = h··· fr
be their product.
V. Bunyakovski'l considered the case r = 1 and asked
whether f(n) could represent infinitely many prime
numbers as n ranges over the positive integers. An ob-
vi0l!s necessary condition is that all coefficients of f be
relatively prime. However, that is not sufficient. He con-
jectured that, in addition, the following Bunyakovskiz
condition is sufficient: there is no prime number p di-
viding all the values f (n) for the positive integers n (cf.
B unyakovskil conject ure).
Assuming the Bunyakovski'l condition, let
where Nf(P) is the number of solutions of the congru-
ence equation f(n) == 0 (mod p) (for p prime). The
l
Bateman-Horn conjecture asserts that
C(f) x
1 Tannaka in [6] to generalize the set difference in set the-
7rf(x) rv d l ' .. dr -(1--)
og t r
dt,
2 ory, and by Y. lmai and lseki in [3] as the algebras of
where 7r f (x) is the number of positive integers n < x
such that all h(n), ... ,fr(n) are prime.
This formula gives the density of primes in an arith-
metic progression (cf. Dirichlet theorem), using the
polynomial f(x) = ax + b. After some computations,
it gives the asymptotic behaviour conjectured by G.H.
Hardy and J .E. Littlewood for the number of primes
representable by the polynomial x 2 + 1. It also gives the
Hardy-Littlewood conjecture for the behaviour of the
number of twin primes, by applying the formula to the
polynomials x and x + 2 (cf. also Twins). Similarly, it
implies many other conjectures of Hardy and Littlewood
stated in [3].
See also Distribution of prime numbers.
References
[1] BATEMAN, P.T., AND HORN, R.: 'A heuristic formula con-
cerning the distribution of prime numbers', Math. Camp. 16
(1962), 363-367.
[2] HALBERSTAM, H., AND RICHERT, H.-E.: Sieve methods, Acad.
Press, 1974.
[3] HARDY, G.H., AND LITTLEWOOD, J.E.: 'Some problems of
Partitio Numerorum III', Acta Math. 44 (1922), 1-70.
S. Lang
MSC 1991: 11N05, 11P45
88
BCH-ALGEBRA - A variant of a BCI-algebra.
One can define it by taking some of the axioms for a
BCl-algebra and some of the important properties of a
BCl-algebra. Specifically, a BCH-algebra is a non-empty
set X with a constant 0 and a binary relation * satis-
fying the following axioms:
1) :1:*.7:=0;
2) if x * y = 0 and y * x = 0, then x = y;
3) (x * y) * z = (.7: * z) * y.
Clearly a BCl-algebra is a BCH-algebra; however, the
converse is not true. While some work has been done on
such algebras, generally they have not been as exten-
sively investigated as BCl-algebras.
References
[1] IMAI, Y., AND ISEKI, K.: 'On axiom systems of propositional
calculi, XIV', I'roc. Japan Acad., Series A, Math. Sci. 42
(1966), 1922.
[2] Isf;KI, K.: 'An algebra related with a propositional calculus',
Froc. Japan Acad., Series A, Math. Sci. 42 (1966), 26-29.
[:~] HlJ, QING PING, AND LI, XIN: 'On BeH-algebras', Math. Sem-
inar Notes (Kobe University) 11 (1983), 313·320.
C.S. Hoo
MSC 1991: 04A03, 03G25, 06Dxx, 06Exx
BCI-ALGEBRA- Algebras introduced by K. lseki in
[4] as a generalized version of BCK-algebras (cf. BCK-
algebra). The latter were developed by lseki and S.
certain propositional calculi. It turns out that Abelian
groups (d. Abelian group) are a special case of BCl-
algebras. One may take different axiom systems for BCl-
algebras, and one such system says that a BCl-algebra
is a non-empty set X with a binary relation * and a
constant 0 satisfying
i) {(x*y)*(x*z)}*(z*y)=O;
ii){x*(x*y)}*y=O;
iii) :r* x = 0;
iv) * y = 0 and y * x = 0 imply that x = y;
:r:
v) x * 0 = 0 implies that x = O.
A partial order <::; may be defined by x <::; y if and
only if :r: * 11 = O. A very useful identity satisfied by X is
(x * y) * z = (x * z) * y. One can then develop many of the
usual algebraic concepts. An ideal is a set I with the
properties that 0 E I and that whenever x * y E I and
y E I, then x E I. The ideal is implicative if (x*y)*Z E I
and y * z E I imply that x * z E I. It is known that one
always has (x * z) * z E I. An ideal I is closed if when-
ever x E I then () * x E I. While ideals in general are
not subalgebras, dosed ideals are. A sub algebra simply
means a subset containing () and closed under * that is
itself a BCl-algebra under *.

The subset X+ of all elements x ~ 0 forms an ideal,
called the p-radical of X. The algebra X is a BCK-
algebra if and only if X = X +, and X is p-semi-simple
if and only if X+ = {O}. In the latter case, X satisfies
the identity x * (0 * y) = y * (0 * x) for all x and y .
It then follows that one can define an operation + on
X by x + y = x * (0 * y), and -x = 0 * x. This makes
X into an Abelian group with 0 as the identity. Con-
versely, every Abelian group (X, +,0) can be given a
BCI-algebra structure by x * y = x - y. It follows that
the category of Abelian groups is equivalent to the sub-
category of the category of BCI-algebras formed by the
p-semi-simple BCI-algebras. Here, a homomorphism
f: X -+ Y from one BCI-algebra to another is a func-
tion satisfying f (x * y) = f (x) * f (y). In general, X al-
ways contains a p-semi-simple BCI-subalgebra, namely
its p-semi-simple part Xp = {x E X: 0 * (0 * x) = x}.
Of course, also Xp = {x E X: y S x => y = x}, since it
can be verified easily that the induced partial order in a
p-semi-simple BCI-algebra is always trivial. Clearly, X
is p-semi-simple if X = X p, and X is a BCK-algebra if
Xp = {O}. Note that for a p-semi-simple BCI-algebra,
the closed ideals are precisely the subgroups of the as-
sociated Abelian group structure.
Some of the homological algebra properties of BCI-
algebras are known. For example, it is known that a
BCI-algebra is injective if and only if it is p-semi-simple
and its associated Abelian group structure is divisible
(cf, also Divisible group).
Fuzzy ideals of BCI-algebras are described in [1] and
[2].
References
[1] Hoo, C.S.: 'Fuzzy ideals of BCI and MV-algebras', Fuzzy
Sets and Systems 62 (1994), 111-114.
[2] Hoo, C.S.: 'Fuzzy implicative and Boolean ideals of MV-
algebras', Fuzzy Sets and Systems 66 (1994), 315-327.
[3] IMAI, Y., AND ISEKI, K.: 'On axiom systems of propositional
calculi, XIV', Pmc. Japan Acad., Series A, Math. Sci. 42
(1966), 19-22.
[4] ISEKI, K.: 'An algebra related with a propositional calculus',
Pmc. Japan Acad., Series A, Math. Sci. 42 (1966), 26-29.
[5] ISEKI, K.: 'On BCI-algebras', Math. Seminar Notes (Kobe
University) 8 (1980), 125-130.
[6] ISEKI, K., AND TANAKA, S.: 'An introduction to the theory
of BCK-algebras', Math. Japan. 23 (1978), 1-26.
C.S. HOD
MSC 1991: 04A03, 03G25, 06Dxx, 06Exx
BCK-ALGEBRA -~ Algebras originally defined by K.
lseki and S. Tanaka in [7] to generalize the set difference
in set theory, and by Y. lmai and lseki in [5] as the al-
gebras of certain propositional calculi. A BCK-algebra
may be defined as a non-empty set X with a binary
relation * and a constant 0 satisfying the following ax-
ioms:
BCK-ALGEBRA
1) {(x * y) * (x * z n * (z * y) = 0;
2) {x * (x * yn * y = 0;
3) x * x = 0;
4) x * y = 0 and y * x = 0 imply x = y;
5) x * 0 = 0 implies x = 0;
6) 0 * x = 0 for all x.
A partial order S can then be defined by putting
x S y if and only if x * y = O. A very useful property is
(x * y) * z = (x * z) * y.
A BCK-algebra is commutative if it satisfies the iden-
tity x*(x*y) = y*(y*x) (cf. also Commutative ring).
In this case, x * (x * y) = x /\ y, the greatest lower bound
of x and y under the partial order S. The BCK-algebra
is bounded if it has a largest element. Denoting this el-
ement by 1, one has 1 * {( 1 * x) /\ (1 * y n= x V y,
the least upper bound of x and y. In this case, X is
a distributive lattice with bounds 0 and 1. A BCK-
algebra is positive implicative if it satisfies the identity
(x * y) * z = (x * z) * (y * z). This is equivalent to the
identity x * y = (x * y) * y. X is called implicative if it
satisfies the identity x * (y * x) = x. Every implicative
BCK-algebra is commutative and positive implicative,
and a bounded implicative BCK-algebra is a Boolean
algebra.
An ideal of a BCK-algebra is a non-empty set I such
that 0 E I and if x * y E I and y E I imply x E I. The
ideal is implicative if (x * y) * z E I and y * z E I imply
x * z E I. It is known that always (x * z) * z E I. Note
that in a positive implicative BCK-algebra, every ideal
is implicative. Implicative ideals are important because
in a bounded commutative BCK-algebra they are pre-
cisely the ideals for which the quotient BCK-algebras
are Boolean algebras. Here, if I is an ideal in a BCK-
algebra, one can define a congruence relation in X by
x'" y if and only if x*y E I and y*x E I. The set XI I of
congruence classes then becomes a BCK-algebra under
the operation [x] * [y] = [x * y], with [0] as the constant
and [1] as the largest element if there exists a largest el-
ement 1. Some, but not all, of the well-known results on
distributive lattices and Boolean algebras hold in BCK-
algebras, in particular in bounded commutative BCK-
algebras. For example, the prime ideal theorem holds
for bounded commutative BCK-algebras, that is, if I is
an ideal and F is a lattice filter such that I n F = 0,
then there exists a prime ideal J such that I c J and
J n F = 0. Here, 'prime ideal' simply means that if it
contains x /\ y, then it contains either x or y.
Some of the homological algebra properties of BCK-
algebras are known, see [1]. There is also a close connec-
tion between BCK-algebras and commutative I-groups
with order units (cf. I-group). Recall that an element
u in the positive cone G+ of a commutative I-group G
is an order unit if for each x E G one has x S nu for
89
BCK-ALGEBRA
some integer n. Let G(u) = {x E G: 0 ::; x < u}. For
X,Y E G(u), let x * Y = (x - y)+ = (x - y) V O. Then
G( u) is a commutative BCK-algebra.
Fuzzy ideals of BCK-algebras are described in [2J and
[3J. General references for BCK-algebras are [6J and [7J.
References
[1] Hoo, C.S.: 'Injectives in the categories of BCK and BCI-
algebras', Math. Japon. 33 (1988),237-246.
[2] Hoo, C.S.: 'Fuzzy ideals of BCI and MV-algebras', Fuzzy
Sets and Systems 62 (1994), 111-114.
[3] Hoo, C.S.: 'Fuzzy implicative and Boolean ideals of MV-
algebras', Fuzzy Sets and Systems 66 (1994),315-327.
[4] Hoo, C.S., AND MURTY, P.V. RAMANA: 'The ideals of
a bounded commutative BCK-algebra', Math. Japon. 32
(1987), 723-733.
[5] IMAI, Y., AND ISEKI, K.: 'On axiom systems of propositional
calculi, XIV', Proc. Japan Acad., Series A, Math. Sci. 42
(1966), 19-22.
[6] ISEKI, K., AND TANAKA, S.: 'Ideal theory of BCK-algebras',
Math. Japon. 21 (1976),351-366.
[7] ISEKI, K., AND TANAKA, S.: 'An introduction to the theory
of BCK-algebras', Math. Japon. 23 (1978), 1-26.
C.S. Hoo
MSC 1991: 04A03, 03G25, 06Dxx, 06Exx
BECKER-GOTTLIEB TRANSFER An S-
mapping from the base to the total space of a fibration.
It thus induces homomorphisms on homology and coho-
mology, which are also called Becker-Gottlieb transfers.
Suppose that p: E -+ B is a Hurewicz fibration
(cf. Covering homotopy) whose fibre F is homotopy
equivalent to a compact CW-complex F. The Becker-
Gottlieb transfer is an S -mapping T: B -+ E, which
means that there is a mapping T: L;N B -+ L;N E defined
between the Nth suspensions of Band E for some N (cf.
Suspension). Thus, T induces a homomorphism T* on
any homology theory and T* on any cohomology theory.
This gives striking relations on homology and coho-
mology, respectively:
where X(F) denotes multiplication by the Euler-
Poincare number of F.
The Becker-Gottlieb transfer was discovered in the
mid-1970s. It generalizes the transfer for finite covering
spaces (F is a finite set of points), which had been well-
known since the 1940s and which was a generalization
of a group theory transfer from the 1920s.
Since the discovery of the Becker-Gottlieb transfer,
other transfers have been discovered which satisfy equa-
tions (1) with the Euler-Poincare number replaced by
another elementary topological invariant. Thus,
p* 0 T. = k, T' 0 p' = k, (2)
where k denotes multiplication by an integer k, which
can be a Lefschetz number, a coincidence number, a
90
fixed-point index, a vector field index, or an intersection
number. For any mapping p: X -+ Y, the greatest com-
mon divisor of all the integers k associated to a transfer
is the Brouwer degree of p when X and Yare manifolds
of the same dimension (cf. also Degree of a mapping).
Some of these transfers are induced by S-mappings, and
others are not.
Several mathematicians contributed to the discov-
ery of these other transfers, most of which either gen-
eralize some or all of the Becker-Gottlieb transfer.
Dold's fixed-point transfer was discovered independently
of the Becker-Gottlieb transfer, which it generalizes. It
is sometimes called the Becker-Gottlieb-Dold transfer.
References
[1] BECKER, J.C., AND GOTTLIEB, D.H.: 'Vector fields and trans-
fers', Manuscripta Math. 72 (1991), 111-130.
D.H. Gottlieb
MSC 1991: 55R12
BECKMAN-QUARLES-TYPE THEOREMS - A
fundamental theorem in Euclidean geometry is the
following result of F.S. Beckman and D.A. Quarles [lJ.
Let k be a fixed positive real number and let f: R n -+
Rn (n 2: 2) be a mapping satisfying d(f(x), f(y)) = k
for all x, y E R n with d(x, y) = k. (Here, d(x, y) denotes
the Euclidean distance
n
d(x, y) = 2.)Xi - Yi)2
i=l
of x = (Xl,'" ,xn ) and Y = (Yl,'" ,Yn) in Rn.) The
mapping x -+ f(x) - f(O) is then in O(n, R).
It should be emphasized that no regularity assump-
tion (like differentiability or continuity) is required in
the theorem. For an analogue in hyperbolic geome-
try, see [4J and [5J.
A distance space is a set S i- 0, a set Wand a map-
ping d: S x S -+ W. The element d( x, y) is called the
distance of x and y (in this order). Beckman-Quarles-
type theorems for distance spaces are, up to general-
izations, statements claiming that a mapping f: S -+ S
preserves all occurring distances w if it preserves one sin-
gle distance. Beckman-Quarles-type theorems belong to
a class of statements called characterizations of geomet-
rical mappings under mild hypotheses.
LetD(x,y) = (xl-yd 2+"'+(X n _l-Yn_d 2 -(x n -
Yn)2, for x, y E Rn. Let k i- 0 be a fixed real number
and let f: R n -+ R n (n 2: 2) be a mapping satisfying
D(f(x),f(y)) = k for all X,Y E Rn with D(x,y) = k.
Then x -+ f (x) - f (0) is a Lorentz transformation of
Rn. For n > 2 and k > 0, this was proved by J. Lester;
for n = 2 and for n > 2 and k < 0 this was proved by
W. Benz (see [2J for all these results). The proofs are

different for the three cases, and no common proof is
known (1996).
Let X and Y be normed real vector spaces such that
Y is strictly convex and the dimension of X is at least
2 (cf. also Vector space; Convex set). Let k > 0 be
a fixed real number and N > 1 a fixed integer. Suppose
that I: X -t Y is a mapping satisfying
Iia - bll = k =} 11/(a) - l(b)11 :::; k,
Iia - bll = Nk =} 11/(a) - l(b)11 ~ Nk,
for all a, b EX. Then 1 is an isometric operator,
and hence an affine transformation (the Benz-Berens
theorem, [2]). If X and Yare, in addition, pre-Hilbert
spaces (cf. Pre-Hilbert space), then N may be re-
placed by any real number greater than J3 (Rado-
Andreascu-Valcan theorem).
There are generalizations for finite planes [9], ratio-
nal or constructible curves (B. Farrahi), non-Euclidean
spaces [11], and planes over fields [10]. F. Rad6 [8] has
proved the following theorem. Let V be a non-singular
metric vector space of dimension ~ 3 over GF(pm),
p # 2, m ~ 3, and let k # 0 be a fixed element of
GF(pm). If 1 is a bijection of V preserving distance
k, then 1 is a semi-affine mapping if n "t 0, -1,-2
(mod p).
Let I: Rn -t Rn, n ~ 3, be a mapping satisfying
\:Ia,b,c ERn: b.(a,b,c) = 1 =}
=} b.(f(a) , I(b), I(c)) = 1,
where b.(a, b, c) denotes the area of the triangle with
vertices a, b, c. Then 1 is a Euclidean motion, i.e., x -t
I(x) - 1(0) is in O(n, R) (Lester's theorem), [3]. For
n = 2 the equi-affine mappings are characterized simi-
larly.
Let 7r: M n -t M n be a mapping of the set M n of lines
in Rn, n ~ 2, into itself such that whenever a, b, c E Mn
are the lines making up the sides of a triangle of area
1, then 7r ( a ), 7r (b), 7r ( c) are also the sides of a triangle of
area 1. Then 7r is induced by a Euclidean motion of Rn
for n ~ 3 and by an equi-affine mapping if n = 2 (the
Wen-ling Huang theorem, [3]).
Let k > 0 be a fixed real number and X a normed
real vector space of dimension ~ 3. Let I: X -t X be a
function satisfying
\:Ix, y EX: Ilx - yll = k =}
=} x - y, I(x) - I(y) linearly independent.
Then there are elements A E Rand t E X such that
1(x) = AX + t for all x EX. This theorem was proved
by Benz [2] and, anew, by D. Laugwitz [6].
General references for this area are [2], [3] and [7].
References
BEILINSON CONJECTURES
[lJ BECKMAN, F.S., AND D.A. QUARLES, JR.: 'On isometries of
Euclidean spaces', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 4 (1953), 810-815.
[2J BENZ, W.: Geometrische Transformationen (unter beson-
derer Beriicksichtingung der Lorentztransformationen), BI
Wissenschaftsverlag, 1992.
[3J BENZ, W.: Real geometries, BI Wissenschaftsverlag, 1994.
[4J FARRAHI, B.: 'A characerization of isometries of absolute
planes', Resultate Math. 4 (1981), 34-38.
[5J KUZ'MINYKH, A.V.: 'Mappings preserving a unit distance',
Sibirsk. Mat. Zh. 20 (1979), 597-602. (In Russian.)
[6J LAUGWITZ, D.: 'Regular hexagons in normed spaces and a
theorem of Walter Benz', Aequat. Math. 45 (1993), 163-166.
[7J LESTER, J.: 'Distance preserving transformations', in
F. BUEKENHOUT (ed.): Handbook of Incidence geometry, El-
sevier, 1995.
[8J RADO, F.: 'On mappings of the Galois space', Israel J. Math.
53 (1986), 217-230.
[9J SAMAGA, H.-J.: 'Zur Kennzeichnung von Lorentztransforma-
tionen in endlichen Ebenen', J. Geom. 18 (1982), 169-184.
[10J SCHAEFFER, H.: 'Der Satz von Benz-Rad6', Aequat. Math.
31 (1986), 300-309.
[11J SCHRODER, E.M.: 'Zur Kennzeichnung distanztreuer Abbil-
dungen in nichteuklidischen Riiumen', J. Geom. 15 (1980),
108-118.
W. Benz
MSC 1991: 5IM05, 5IM1O
BEILINSON CONJECTURES - Let X be a smooth
projective variety (cf. Projective scheme) defined over
Q. For such X one has, on the one hand, the alge-
braic K-groups (cf. K-theory) Ki(X), i = 0,1, ... ,
and on the other hand, various cohomology theories,
such as Betti cohomology HB(X), de Rham cohomol-
ogy HOR(X) and l-adic cohomology Hl(X), These co-
homology theories can be considered as realizations of
the (Chow) motive h(X) associated to X. There are
comparison isomorphisms between them. Decomposing
the motive h(X) = hO(X) EB .•. EB h2n (X), n = dim(X),
one may fix i, 0 :::; i :::; 2n, and define, via the Frobe-
nius action on l-adic cohomology Hf(X) (cf. [6]), the
L-function L(M, s) = L(hi(X), s), an infinite prod-
uct which converges absolutely for Re(s) > 1 + i/2.
Here, M = hi(X) is a pure motive of weight i. Using
the Hodge structure on the cohomology H~(X) of
the complex manifold X(C), one defines the L-factor
'at infinity', Loo(M, s) = Loo(hi(X), s), essentially as
a product of r-factors. Finally, one defines A(M, s) =
A(hi(X), s) = Loo(M, s)L(M, s). For A(M, s) one has a
conjectural analytic continuation and functional equa-
tion A(M, s) = c(M, s)A(MY, 1- s), for a suitable func-
tion c(M, s) of the form a . bS, and with MY the dual
motive of M. Here, by Poincare duality and hard Lef-
schetz, this means A(M, s) = c(M, s)A(M, i + 1- s). In
general, for an arbitrary motive M of pure weight w,
one extends the above construction of L, Loo and A.
One should have A(M, s) = c(M, s)A(M, w + 1 - s).
91
BEILIN SON CONJECTURES
On the K-groups of X one has the action of the
Adams operators 'ljJk (cf. Cohomology operation).
They all commute with each other. Write K;j)(X) c
Ki(X) ® Q for the subspace on which 'ljJk acts as multi-
plication by k j , j E N. A. Bellinson defines the absolute
or motivic cohomology HM(X,Q(j)) = K~;~i(X), As
a matter of fact, this can be defined for any regular or
affine (simplicial) scheme X. It has many nice properties
of a cohomology theory; in particular there is a motivic
Chern character mapping (a sum of projections after
tensoring with Q) chM: Ki(X) -+ EB H~-i(X, Q(j)).
A classical theorem of A. Grothendieck says that
2' ,
H~(X,Q(j)) ~ CH1(X) ® Q. Be'llinson has extended
motivic cohomology to the category of (Chow) motives
with coefficients in a number field E. Assuming that X
admits a regular model Xz over Spec(Z), one defines
HM(X, Q(*))z =
= 1m (HM(X Z , Q(*)) -+ HM(X, Q(*))) c
c HM(X,QH).
This is independent of the regular model, provided that
it exists. The HM(X,Q(*))z are conjectured to be
finite-dimensional. Their construction may be applied
to define groups HM(Mz, Q(*)) for any Chow motive
Mover Q with coefficients in E.
Another main ingredient of Bellinson's conjectures
is Deligne (or Deligne-Beuinson) cohomology. This is
defined for any quasi-projective variety (cf. Quasi-
projective scheme) X defined over the complex num-
bers. For smooth projective X it is easy to define. Let
A = Z, Q or R and write A(j) for the subgroup
(2?Ti)j A c C, where i 2 = -1. Consider the following
complex of sheaves on X:
A(j)v = (A(j) -+ Ox ~ n1- ~ ... ~ n::x- 1 ),
where A(j) (respectively, n~) is placed in degree 0 (re-
spectively, i + 1). Ox (respectively, n~) denotes the
sheaf of holomorphic functions (respectively, hoi om or-
phic i-forms) on X. One defines the Deligne cohomology
of X as
Hb(X, A(j)) = Hi(X, A(j)v),
the hypercohomology of the complex A(j). For arbitrary
X one uses a smooth compactification X of X such that
y = X \ X is a normal crossings divisor, and, using the
associated logarithmic de Rham complex of X along Y,
it is possible to construct well-defined Deligne-Bellinson
cohomology Hb(X, A(j)). Thus, one obtains a good co-
homology theory, with supports, Poincare duality, even
a homological counterpart, satisfying the axioms of a
Poincare duality theory in the sense of S. Bloch and A.
Ogus. In particular, there is again a Chern character
mapping chv: Ki(X) -+ EBHiJ-i(X, A(j)). For smooth
92
projective X defined over Q, one defines Hb(XjR' A(j))
as the subspace of Hb(X c , A(j)) invariant under the in-
duced action of complex conjugation P oo E Gal(C/R)
acting on the pair (Xc, A(j)), i.e., acting on differential
forms by J(z)dz H J(z)dz. Similarly for H1m(XjR) and
H~(XjR' A(j)). Then, for an integer m :::; i/2, there is
a short exact sequence
0-+ pi+1- m HhR(X/ R ) -+ H~(XjR,R(i - m)) -+
-+ Hb+1(X/R' R(i + 1 - m)) -+ O.
The Q-structures on the first two terms give rise to a
natural Q-structure
£(i, m) = detQ H~(X/R' R(i - m)) .
. detQl (p i + 1- mHhR(XjR))
on detRHb+1(X/R,R(i + 1 - m)). In the general case
of motives with coefficients in E, one will have E-
structures, etc.
Taking things together, one sees that, for varieties
over R, there are natural transformations, called regu-
lators, r: HM(X,QH) -+ H;(X,A(*)). Already the
simplest explicit examples suggest one should restrict
to 'integral motivic cohomology' and one is led to
Beuinson's regulator mappings rv: HM(X, Q(j))z -+
Hb(X/R' R(j)). It should be remarked that one can
extend the formalism to the category of Chow mo-
tives Mover Q with field of coefficients in the num-
ber field E. The L- functions will take their values in
E ® C and the regulator mappings will be of the form
rv: HM(Mz,Q(j)) -+ Hb(M/R,R(j)). This is even
expected to work for Grothendieck motives, i.e., mo-
tives modulo homological (which, conjecturally, coin-
cides with numerical) equivalence.
Bellinson's first conjecture. To state Bellinson's con-
jectures on special values of L(hi(X), s) at integer argu-
ments s = m, one distinguishes between three cases:
i) m < i/2, which by the functional equation corre-
sponds to the region of absolute convergence;
ii) m = i/2, i even, which lies on the boundary of the
critical strip {s E C: ';/2:::; Re(s) :::; 1 + i/2};
iii) 'Tn = (i + 1) /2, i odd, the centre of the critical
strip.
It IS easily shown that ords=m L(hi(X), s)
dimHb+l(X/R,R(i + 1- m)), for m < i/2.
Beuinson's first conjecture reads as follows. Assume
rn < i/2. Then: rv®R: HZl(X,Q(i+1-m))z®R-+
Hb+1 (X /R, R( i + 1 - m)) is an isomorphism; and
c(i, m) . £(i, m) = detQ rv(HZ I (X, Q(i +1- rn))z),
where c(i, m) = L*(hi(X), s)s=rn is the first non-
vanishing coefficient of the Taylor series expansion of
L(hi(X), s) at s = m.

In [1], Bellinson states this conjecture for general
Chow motives with coefficients in E.
Some special cases are as follows.
a) For X = Spec(K), K a number field, and i =
0, one recovers the situation studied by A. Borel
[5]. Bellinson showed that his regulator coincides with
Borel's regulator (at least modulo Q X). Thus, by Borel's
°
results, the first conjecture is true. Classically, for m =
one obtains the Dirichlet regulator and Dedekind's class
number formula.
b) Bloch and Bellinson were the first to construct
a regulator mapping r: K 2 (X) -+ H1(X(C), R(l)) (or
even Hi, (X/R' R(2))) for a Riemann surface X, and
make a conjecture about r. For X/Q an elliptic curve
without complex multiplication, i = 1 and m = 0, Bloch
and D. Grayson made computer calculations which ac-
tually gave rise to a formulation of the first conjecture in
terms of the integral model X z . For elliptic curves with
complex multiplication a weak form of the first conjec-
ture was proved by Bloch and Bellinson.
c) Another conjecture which motivated Bellinson's
first conjecture is due to P. Deligne [6]. It is stated
in terms of motives and predicts that the L-function
of such a motive (cf. also Motives, theory of) at a
so-called critical value of the argument would be equal
(modulo QX) to a well-defined period.
d) J.-F. Mestre and N. Schappacher gave numerical
evidence for the case of the symmetric square of an el-
liptic curve without complex multiplication.
e) For Dirichlet motives, Bellinson proved the con-
jecture. For general Artin motives one recovers Gross'
conjecture.
f) C. Deninger has obtained results for motives of
Hecke characters of imaginary quadratic number fields.
g) Bellinson has proved partial results for (products
of) modular curves.
h) K.-I. Kimura has given numerical evidence for (a
projective curve related to) the Fermat curve x 5 + y5 =
1.
Some further examples are known. They all deal
with modular curves, Shimura curves, products of such
curves, Hilbert modular surfaces, or products of elliptic
modular surfaces. A general phenomenon occurs: in all
these examples there exists a subspace of H5vt(X, Q(j))
giving rise, via the regulator mapping rv, to a Q-
structure on the corresponding Deligne-Bellinson coho-
mology with det (rv) equal (up to a non-zero rational
number) to the first non-vanishing coefficient of the L-
function at a suitable integer value of its argument.
Bellinson's second conjecture. The second conjec-
ture takes into account the possible pole of L(hi(X), s)
BEILINSON CONJECTURES
at the Tate point s = 1 + i/2. One shows that
ords=m L(hi(X), s) - ord s=m+1 L(hi(X), s) =
= dimH1+1(X/R' R(i + 1 - m)),
for m = i/2.
Beuinson's second conjecture reads as follows. Let i
be even and write m = i/2. Then:
i) (rv EEl zv) ® R: (H.rt\X, Q(m + l))z ® R) EEl
(Bm(x) ® R) -=+ H1+1(X/R' R(m + 1)), where Bm(x)
is the group of m-codimensional algebraic cycles on
X modulo homological equivalence, i.e., the image
of the morphism CHm(X) -+ H~m(xc, Z(m)), and
Zv: Bm(x) -+ H~+1(X/R' R(m + 1)) is the inclusion;
ii) ords=m L(hi(X), s) = dimQ H.rt1(X, Q(m + l))z.
iii) c(i, m) . C(i, m) = L*(hi(X), s)s=m . C(i, m) =
detQ(rv EEl zv)(H.rt 1(X, Q(m + l))z EEl (Bm(x) ® Q)).
This conjecture can also be stated in terms of mo-
tives.
a) For Artin motives it gives Stark's conjecture.
b) For a Hilbert modular surface X, D. Ramakr-
ishnan proved the existence of a subspace R c
H1(X, Q(2)) such that
rv EEl ZV: REEl (NS(X) ® Q) -+ H~(X, R(2))
gives a Q-structure on Deligne cohomology with
det(rv EEl zv) equal (up to a non-zero rational number)
to L*(h 2 (X), S)s=1.
Be'llinson's third conjecture. The third conjecture
deals with the centre m = (i + 1) /2, i odd, of the crit-
ical strip. Let X/Q be a smooth projective variety (cf.
Projective scheme) of dimension n, and assume that
X admits a regular, proper model X z over Spec(Z). One
has an isomorphism
glvmg a period matrix II. Let CHP(X)O
Ker(CHP(X) -+ H~P(Xc, Q(p))). Bellinson [3]
showed that there exists a unique bilinear pairing
(.,.): CHP(X)O x CH n +1-P(X)O -+ R of an arithmetic
nature, i.e., closely related to the Gillet-Soule arith-
metic intersection pairing (on X z), and generalizing
Arakelov's intersection pairing on arithmetic surfaces.
Bellinson's third conjecture reads as follows. Let X be
a smooth projective variety defined over Q, and assume
that X has a regular, proper model Xz over Spec(Z).
Let m = (i + 1)/2. Then:
i) dimQ H.rt1(X, Q(m))~ < 00;
ii) the pairing (., .) is non-degenerate.
iii) ords=m L(hi(X), s) = dimQ H.rt1(X, Q(m))~.
iv) L*(hi(X), s)s=m == det(II) . det(·,·) modulo QX.
93
BEILINSON CONJECTURES
For XjQ an elliptic curve, i = m = 1, one recovers
the Mordell- Weil theorem and the Birch-Swinnerton-
Dyer conjectures for E.
Generalizations. Deligne observed that, for i + 1 < 2j,
one can interprete Hb+1(X/R' R(j)) as a Yoneda exten-
sion Ext1t1l+ (R(O), HMX), R(j)), where M1itt is the
R
category ofR-mixed Hodge structures with a real Frobe-
nius. This made the search for a category of 'mixed mo-
tives' over Q, MMQ (or, even better, over Z, MMz)
very tempting. The regulator mapping in this setting
would be just the Betti realization functor
HB : Ext~MQ (Q(O), hi(X)(j)) --+
--+ Ext1t1l+ (R(O), H~(X), R(j)).
R
The category MMQ should contain Grothendieck's cat-
egory of pure motives MQ and allow the treatment of
arbitrary varieties over Q. Analogously, for other base
fields k, one should have categories Mk, MMk, etc.
Also, the role of the Chow groups in the theory of
Grothendieck motives might be enlarged to include all
the algebraic K -groups of the variety. In this respect one
may mention a very geometric construction by Bloch of
generalized Chow groups CHi(X,j). For j = 0 they co-
incide with CHi (X). They are integrally defined and sat-
isfy CHi(X,j) ® Q ~ H;&-i(X, Q(i)). A series of other
conjectures, mainly about filtrations on Chow groups
(Bellinson, J.P. Murre), emerges, and the ultimate for-
mulation of Bellinson's conjectures appears in terms of
derived categories, mixed motivic sheaves, mixed per-
verse sheaves, etc., cf. [3], [8].
In [2], Bellinson introduced the notion of abso-
lute Hodge cohomology H1l. This generalizes Deligne-
Bellinson cohomology by taking the weight filtra-
tion into account. It is a derived functor coho-
mology defined for any scheme X over C. For
A = Z, Q or R, let 1i denote the category of A-
mixed Hodge structures. In this setting, for A = Z,
one can define the Abel-Jacobi mappings of X as
¢i: CHi(X)O --+ Ext~(Z(O), h2i-l(X)(i)). For smooth
projective XjC this gives the classical Abel-Jacobi
mappings ¢i: CHi(X)O --+ Ji(X), where Ji(X) is Grif-
fiths' intermediate Jacobian.
The following conjecture generalizes the classical
Hodge conjecture. In this form it is due to Bellinson
and U. Jannsen.
The Beuinson-Jannsen conjecture. Let X be a
smooth variety defined over Q. Then, for all i, j E Z, the
regulator mapping r'D: H1t(X, Q(j)) --+ H~(X, Q(j))
has dense image.
In [4] there is a formulation of Bellinson's conjectures
in terms of (mixed) motives, without the modulo QX
ambiguity. There is also a very precise conjecture in
94
terms of Tamagawa numbers, cf. [4], [7] and the con-
tribution by J.-M. Fontaine and B. Perrin-Riou in [8].
References
[1] BEILINSON, A.: 'Higher regulators and values of L-functions',
J. Soviet Math. 30 (1985), 2036-2070. (Translated from the
Russian.)
[2] BEILINSON, A.: 'Notes on absolute Hodge cohomology': Con-
temp. Math., Vol. 55, Amer. Math. Soc., 1985, pp. 35-68.
[3] BEILINSON, A.: 'Height pairings for algebraic cycles':
Vol. 1289 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1987,
pp. 1-26.
[4] BLOCH, S., AND KATO, K.: 'L-functions and Tamagawa num-
bers of motives': The Grothendieck Festschrift I, Vol. 86 of
Progress in Mathematics, Birkhauser, 1990, pp. 333-400.
[5] BOREL, A.: 'Cohomologie de SL2 et valeurs de fonctions zeta
aux points entiers', Ann. Sci. Pisa (1976),613-636.
[6] DELIGNE, P.: 'Valeurs de fonctions L et periodes d'inMgrales':
Proc. Symp. Pure Math., Vol. 33, Amer. Math. Soc., 1979,
pp. 313-346.
[7] FONTAINE, J.-M., AND PERRIN-RIOU, B.: 'Autour des conjec-
tures de Bloch et Kato, I-III', C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 313
(1991), 189-196; 349-356; 421-428.
[8] JANNSEN, V., ET AL. (eds.): Motives, Vol. 55 of Proc. Symp.
Pure Math., Amer. Math. Soc., 1994.
W. W.J. Hulsbergen
MSC 1991: llG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 19Dxx, 19Exx,
19F27
BELL INEQUALITIES - Motivated by the desire to
bring into the realm of testable hypotheses at least some
of the important matters concerning the interpretation
of quantum mechanics which were evoked in the contro-
versy surrounding the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen para-
dox [7], [3], J.S. Bell discovered the first version [1], [2]
of a series of related inequalities which are now gener-
ally called Bell's inequalities (for general reviews from
different points of view, see [5], [6], [8]). These inequali-
ties commonly provide bounds on the strength of corre-
lations between systems which are no longer interacting
but have interacted in their past.
A typical class of correlation experiments involved in
these inequalities can be briefly described. A source pro-
vides an ensemble of identically prepared systems, one
after another, and, as part of the preparation, splits each
system into two subsystems, directing these to separate
arms of the experiment. At one arm the arriving sub-
system is subjected to a measuring device chosen from
a class A of suitable devices, and at the other arm the
incident subsystem interacts with a measuring device
from a second class B. For each choice of devices A E A
and B E B with outcome sets A and B, the relative
frequencies p( a, (3) of the measurement of a E A on one
arm and {3 E B on the other are determined. An opera-
tional condition of independence of the two arms of the

experiment is required:
L p(a, /3) == p(a)
f3EB
( respectively, ~ p( a, /3) == P(f3))
aEA
must be independent of the choice of B E B (respec-
tively, independent of the choice of A E A).
Bell's inequality, in the form of J.F. Clauser and M.H.
Horne [4], is:
0:::; p(ad + p(/3d + p(a2,/32) - p(a1,/31) + (1)
-p(a1,/32) - p(a2,/31) :::; 1,
for all ai E .ti, /3j E B, A E A, B E B. Bell's theo-
rem (and its many subsequent extensions) is a meta-
theoretical theorem which states that all theories of a
certain class C describing such a correlation experiment
must provide predictions satisfying (1). Hence, if in a
real experiment one measures correlation probabilities
violating (1), then one must conclude that there exist
real physical processes which cannot be described by
any theory in the class C. If a given theory predicts a
violation of (1), then Bell's theorem entails that no the-
ory in the class C can reproduce all predictions of this
theory.
Which class of theories must yield predictions satis-
fying (1)? As there are many forms of Bell's theorem in
the literature, there is no unique answer to this question.
One illustrative answer is the following. If there exists
a measure space (fl,~, /-L) such that for all ai E .ti,
/3j E B, A E A, B E B there exist corresponding mea-
surable sets ai, /!Jj E ~ such that
inr Xli i Xj3
p(ai,/3j) = d/-L,
J
where Xlii is the characteristic function for the set ai,
then (1) must hold [10]. Classical physics and the so-
called 'local hidden-variable theories' fall into the class
C.
The interest of Bell's inequalities for quantum physics
is that quantum mechanics predicts the existence of
preparations and measuring devices such that the re-
sulting correlation experiments violate (1) (and these
predictions have been verified in the laboratory). Indeed,
quantum field theory (which is relativistic quantum
mechanics) predicts that for every preparation there ex-
ist measuring devices such that (1) is violated (see the
review [9] and references cited there). Hence, the results
of these theories cannot be reproduced by any theory in
the class C. For the significance of this fact for the inter-
pretation of quantum theory, see the above-mentioned
reviews.
References
BELL POLYNOMIAL
[1] BELL, J.S.: 'On the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox',
Physics 1 (1964), 195-200.
[2] BELL, J.S.: 'On the problem of hidden variables in quantum
mechanics', Reviews of Modern Physics 38 (1966), 447-452.
[3] BOHR, N.: 'Can quantum-mechanical description ofreality be
considered complete?', Physical Review 48 (1935), 696-702.
[4] CLAUSER, J.F., AND HORNE, M.A.: 'Experimental conse-
quences of objective local theories', Physical Review D 10
(1974), 526-535.
[5] CLAUSER, J.F., AND SHIMONY, A.: 'Bell's theorem: Experi-
mental tests and implications', Reports of Progress in Physics
41 (1978), 1881-1927.
[6] DEBAERE, W.: 'Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox and Bell's
inequalities', Adv. Electronics 68 (1986), 245-336.
[7] EINSTEIN, A., PODOLSKY, B., AND ROSEN, N.: 'Can quantum-
mechanical description of physical reality be considered com-
plete?', Physical Review 47 (1935), 777-780.
[8] PITOWSKY, I.: Quantum probability, quantum logic, Springer,
1989.
[9] SUMMERS, S.J.: 'On the independence of local algebras in
quantum field theory', Reviews Math. Physics 2 (1990),201-
247.
[10] WERNER, R.F.: 'Bell's inequalities and the reduction of sta-
tistical theories', in W. BALZER ET AL. (eds.): Reduction in
Science, D. Reidel, 1984.
S.J. Summers
MSC 1991: 81015, 81Pxx
BELL NUMBERS - The Bell numbers B o, B 1 , ... are
given by
or by
Also,
n
Bn = LS(n,k),
k=l
where S(n, k) are Stirling numbers (cf. Combinatorial
analysis) of the second kind, so that Bn is the total
number of partitions of an n-set.
They are equal to 1,1,2,5,15,52,203,877,4140, ....
The name honours E.T. Bell.
References
[1] COMTET, L.: Advanced combinatorics, Reidel, 1974.
N. J. A. Sloane
MSC 1991: 05A15
BELL POLYNOMIAL - The Bell polynomials (stud-
ied extensively by E.T. Bell [2]) arise naturally from dif-
ferentiating a composite function n times, but in this
context they predate Bell since they are implicit in the
work of F. Faa di Bruno [4]. Accounts of Faa di Bruno's
formula, however, often fail to mention any connection
with Bell polynomials. The polynomials also occur in
other places without being referred to by name; in [1]
95
BELL POLYNOMIAL

(Table 24.2), for example, the numbers M3 are coeffi- The generating function for the complete polynomials
cients of partial Bell polynomials, but are not identified is
as such.
Suppose that h(t) = I(g(t)) and let <1>( t, 1) = exp ( 1=1
00 tm
g';;.d
)
=

then by repeated application of the chain rule:

ho = 10, hI = I1g1, h2 = I1g2 + hgi, Explicit formulas are known for Bell polynomials and
they are examples of partition polynomials (multivari-
h3 = I1g3 + h(3g1g2) + hg~,
able polynomials which can be expressed as a sum of
h4 = I1g4 + h(3g~ + 4g1g3) + h(69ig2) + 14gt· monomials, where the sum is over a set of partitions of
In general, n; cf. also Partition). The partial polynomial
n
hn = L Ik B n,k(gl,'" ,gn-k+l), (1)
k=1
where Bn,k is a homogeneous polynomial of degree k and
weight n in the gm, known as a (partial) Bell polynomial
where the sum is over all partitions of n into exactly
(see [3] for a table for 1 ::; k ::; n ::; 12); it has integral
k non-negative parts, i.e., over all solutions III non-
coefficients. Because of the homogeneity, for fixed n all
negative integers Cr of the two equations
Bn,k (k = 1, ... ,n) can be determined uniquely even if
the !k are omitted. Hence the (complete) Bell polyno-
Cl + 2C2 + ... + (n - k + l)Cn -k+l = n,
mial Y n is usually defined for n ~ 1 by
Cl + C2 + ... + Cn-k+l = k.
n
Yn (gl, ... ,gn) =L B n ,k(gl,'" ,gn-k+l)'
k=1 Since, for each fixed k, there can be no parts of size
greater than n - k + 1, the formula is often stated in the
In [7], however, the term Bell polynomial is used for
simpler looking, but equivalent, form (where necessarily
An(f;9b'" ,gn-k+l) = hn' cn -k+2 = ... = C n = 0):

so the Ik are included in the definition. B n ,k(gl,'" ,gn-k+d = (2)

The following definitions are also made: Bo,o = 1,
BO,k = 0 (k ~ 1), Yo = 1. = L Cl! .~!. cn ! (~~) Cl ••• (~~ ) C
n
,
Although the gn were introduced as derivatives, the
Bell polynomials themselves, considered purely as poly- where the sum is over all solutions in non-negative inte-
nomials in the variables gl, g2, ... are independent of the gers of the equations
initial functions g(t) and I(g). Hence information can be
deduced from special choices such as 1(g) = eg , which Cl+ 2C2 + ... + nCn = n,
gives Cl + C2 + ... + C n = k.
dne g
Yn(gb ... ,gn) = e- g dtn . The complete polynomial
An alternative approach which gives the same poly-
nomials Bn,k is adopted in [3], where they are defined
as coefficients in the expansion of the two-variable gen-
erating function where the sum is over all partitions of n into arbitrar-
ily many non-negative parts, i.e., over all non-negative
integer solutions of the single equation

There are many recurrence relations for Bell polyno-

This approach obviates the earlier assumption that the mials, as well as formulas connecting them with other
gm are derivatives. special polynomials and numbers; the following is a

96
 BELL POLYNOMIAL

small selection, and others may be found in [3], [7], [8]. Thus, provided that ao > 0,
kBn,k(gl,'" ,gn~k+d =
In (~ a~~n) = In ao +
~ (~)gn~rBr'k~l(gl"" ,gr~k+2)' = n tn
r=k~l
+L o
L( _l)k~l(k - l)!a k Bn,k(al,'" ,an~k+1) n!'
+ 1) = (~)kn~k,
n=lk=l
B n,k(l, ... ,n - k
A special case of (3) is used [6] to express the cu-
Bn,k(O!, ... ,(n - k)!) = Is(n, k)1 , mulants (semi-invariants, cf. Semi-invariant) "'n of a
Bn,d1, ... ,1) = S(n. k), probability distribution {Po, Pl, ... } in terms of its
moments (cf. Moment)
where s(n, k) and S(n, k) are Stirling numbers of the
first and second kinds (cf. Combinatorial analysis),
(n:2: 1),
respectively;

Bn,d1!, ... ,(n - k + I)!) := ILn,kl ,

=

where Ln,k is the Lah number;

The probability generating function of the distribution
is
where Bn are the Bell numbers. =
Combining equations (1) and (2) gives Faa di Bruno's G(z) = LPrzr,
formula for the nth derivative of a composite function: r=O
dn and it is easy to show that
dtnf(g(t)) =
n! dkf (g')Cl ... (g(n))cn
= L Cl!" ,cn ! dg k I! n!
summed over all solutions in non-negative integers of
The cumulants "'n
(n :2: 1) and their exponential gener-
ating function L(t) are defined in terms of G(e t ) by
Cl+ 2C2 + ... + nCn = n,
Cl + C2 + ... + Cn = k. L(t) = L= ----;-
'" t
n.
n
= InG(e t) = In L
<Xl rn
_n,_.
n.
tn
n=l n=O
(For a generalization to functions of several variables,
Since mo = 1, it follows from (3) that
see [5].)
n
The formula can be used, in particular, to express
"'n = L ( _l)k~l(k - l)!Bn,k(ml,'" ,mn~k+l)'
functions of power series as power series. If
k=l

g(t) =~ ant n Similarly, starting from

~ n!
~ m~:n = eL(t) = exp (~ ",~~n)
n=O
and G(et) = 1

b tn
L
00

h(t) = f(g(t)) = ~, and applying Faa di Bruno's formula with f(g) = e 9

n.
n=O and g( t) = I: "'n t n / n! (and noting that in this case
then Mk) (0) = 1 for all k :2: 1), the inverse relation expressing
moments in terms of cumulants reduces to

and Faa di Bruno's formula can be used to find bn . For

example, if f(g) = lng, then References
[lJ ABRAMOWITZ, M., AND STEGUN, I.: Handbook of mathemat-
(k:2: 1). ical functions, Dover (reprint), 1965.
[2J BELL, E.T.: 'Exponential polynomials', Ann. of Math. 35
Hence, applying the formula and evaluating the result (1934), 258~277.
at t = 0 gives [3J COMTET, L.: Advanced combinatorics, Reidel, 1974.
[4J BRUNO, F. FAA DI: 'Note sur une nouvelle formule du calcul
(3) differentiel', Quart. J. Math. 1 (1855), 359~360.
n tn [5J GOOD, I.J.: 'The multivariate saddlepoint method and chi-
= L(-l)k~l(k - o
l)!a k Bn,k(al,'" ,an~k+l) n!' squared for the multinomial distribution', Ann. Math. Stat.
k=l 32 (1961), 535~548.

97
BELL POLYNOMIAL

[6] LUKACS, E.: 'Applications of Faa di Bruno's formula in math-

ematical statistics', Amer. Math. Monthly 62 (1955), 340-

[7]
348.
RIORDAN, J.: Combinatorial identities, Wiley, 1968.
a
[8] ROMAN, S.: The umbral calculus, Acad. Press, 1984.

E.K. Lloyd

MSC 1991: 05A19, llB83

Fig. la: A homo clinic re-injection process resulting

BELOUSOV-ZHABOTINSKII REACTION, sym- from a slow manifold effect
bolic dynamics in the - The Belousov-Zhabotinskil re-
action has revealed most of the well-known routes to
chaos, including period-doubling, intermittency, quasi-
periodicity, frequency locking, and fractal torus [7], [8],
[6], [4], [2]. However, although the data have been shown
to display unambiguous features of deterministic chaos,
the understanding of the nature and the origin of the
observed behaviour has been incomplete. In 1976, O.E.
Rossler suggested an intuitive interpretation to explain
chemical chaos. His feeling was that non-periodic wan-
dering trajectories might arise in chemical systems from
a pleated slow manifold (Fig. la), if the flow on the
lower surface of the pleat had the property of returning
trajectories to a small neighbourhood of an unstable fo-
cus lying on the upper surface. More recently, Rossler's
terminology of spiral-type, screw-type and funnel-type
Fig. Ib: The homo clinic re-injection process observed
strange attractors has been revisited in terms of chaotic
in a Belousov-Zhabotinskil experiment; only a part of
orbits that occur in nearly homoclinic conditions [5].
the time series is shown
By Shil'nikov's theorem, there exist uncountably many
non-periodic trajectories in systems that display a ho-
moclinic orbit bi-asymptotic to a saddle-focus at 0, pro- -50 V c
vided that pi A < 1, where the eigenvalues of 0 are
(-A,p ± iw). This subset of chaotic trajectories is ac-
tually in one-to-one correspondence with a shift auto-
morphism with an infinite number of symbols. Since ho-
moclinic orbits are structurally unstable objects lying on o
codimension-one hypersurfaces in the constraint space,
one can reasonably hope to cross these hypersurfaces
when following a one-parameter path. The bifurcation
structure encountered near homo clinic orbits involves
infinite sequences of saddle-node and period-doubling
bifurcations.
50

o -40 -80
x
Fig. lc: Homoclinic orbit computed in a 3-dimensional
Some numerical and experimental evidences for
Rossler-like model
Shil 'nikov homoclinic chaos in non-equilibrium chemi-
cal systems are obtained in [1], [3].

98
 BELOUSOV-ZHABOTINSKII REACTION

I:'
Poincare map model for homoclinic chaos. To con- 1 •

· :,• 8•, i,• 2

nect Rossler's intuition to Shil'nikov's mathematical re-

·, ,
,. ·• ,I
sults, one can use a geometrical approach to construct
a Poincare return map model for homo clinic chaos It+l
·o. ;
••••
[1], [3]. This approach consists in constructing a sim-
ple model of the flow that retains the two essential fea- 0.6 ~ 0
,I I I
/ .
tures of the flow near homoclinicity: i) an orbit close .' I
I
~; ; · I
to a homo clinic orbit spends most of its time near the • I

/
• 0

• •
saddle-focus 0 where the dynamics is approximately lin- ., , r
ear; and ii) the non-linear properties of the flow are such
':..., •• I
-'.
o ~
that the trajectories return to a small neighbourhood of f
~
O. Assuming the re-injection process to be a rigid mo- I
•

, .. ..
tion, one obtains a 2-dimensional Poincare map model,
which reduces to the following I-dimensional mapping o 0.6 1
in the infinite area contraction limit: Fig. 2a: 'Spiral-type' strange attractor at homoclinicity

' :.
0.6 19 __ 08
, , .I ' .. .!
, ,•
X' = JX2 + iPe(arctan y/X+k7r)p/w - XH + X,
: .... I I •
\ .
/
• • ••••
where the parameters A, p, w characterize the dynam-
ics near the saddle focus while X H , x and fj parame- o \• ,·: ....,. ,. • '0 0
.. -,!~ ,•
.')'"
trize the non-linear re-injection process. x and fj mea- ··•
. I
• e •••

sure the deviation from homoclinicity (x = fj = 0). •, • •, .• 00 t • •

, :';",. I
•
"
k is an integer, corresponding to the number of half- 3, \ I
turns the trajectory completes around the saddle-focus • 0' •
in between two successive crossings of the Poincare plane -0.1 .............-......................---~

, ,.,
that must be chosen transverse to the re-injection pro- -0.1 0 0.1
cess. Fig. 2a illustrates the I-dimensional mapping of Fig. 2b: 'Screw-type' strange attractor at homoclinicity
a 'spiral-type' strange attractor at homoclinicity. This
piecewise-linear mapping contains an infinite number 0.6
79.:0~

., ..,.:,,,' I / ,
of increasing branches, which converge geometrically to
X = 0 with ratio 8 = exp( -27rp/w). A symbol k = 2m \ t ;I . j ,
(even) is assigned to each of these branches. 'Spiral-type' •
• '
;
, ,/
strange attractors are such that the re-injection process
returns the trajectories on one side of the saddle-focus
only. Therefore, the number of half-turns of the tra- o \
,, , : · , · . t. I I
, • f
jectories around it is either even, k = 2m (increasing ,
branches), or odd, k = 2m + 1 (decreasing branches).
Since for 'screw-type' strange attractors the re-injection
•
\• • • • •
I • •
• ••
process returns the trajectories on both sides of 0,
the corresponding I-dimensional mapping exhibits in- -o.I ............-............................... ~

finite sequences of increasing (k = 2m) and decreas- -G.6 o 0.6

ing (k = 2m + 1) branches, which both converge ge-
ometrically to X = 0, as shown in Fig. 2b. At finite
Fig. 2c: 'Screw-type' strange attractor at finite
distance from homoclinicity, the I-dimensional mapping
distance from homoclinicity
of 'screw-type' strange attractors contains only a finite
Fig. 2: Sets of iterates of the I-dimensional mapping
number of increasing and decreasing branches, separated
model
by a quadratic well (Fig. 2c). When approaching homo-
clinicity, the successive disappearances (at the bottom) Homoclinic chaos in a seven-variable Oregona-
and re-appearances (at the top) of the well in the in- tor model. The controversy about the deterministic or
variant square governs the creation of new branches via stochastic character of chemical chaos has been essen-
a cascade of saddle-node bifurcations [5]. tially perpetuated by numerical simulations [7], [8], [6],

99
BELOUSOV-ZHABOTINSKII REACTION

[4], [2]. In fact, none among all the chemical models pro-
posed has been able to reproduce the scenarios to chaos
observed in bench experiments. Recently, some success
has been recorded in reproducing most of the alternat-
ing periodic-chaotic sequences detected in experiments
with a seven-variable Oregonator model which retains
the main steps of the F .K.N. model of the Belousov-
Zhabotinskil reaction [4], [2]. While these simulations of
experimental sequences have dispelled all doubts about
a obtained with the BelousovZhabotinskil reaction [1],
., .......
the deterministic nature of chemical chaos, the strik-
ing resemblance of some I-dimensional mappings ob-
tained with this Oregonator model (Fig. 3), with the
multi-branched I-dimensional mapping model (Fig. 2)
strongly indicates that the 'screw-type' strange attrac-
tors observed along these sequences are the precursors
to Shil'nikov's homoclinic chaos [1], [3], [5].
Experimental evidence for homo clinic chaos. To
conclude definitely the homo clinic nature of chemical
chaos, some convincing experimental results have been
[3]. On increasing the flow rate from low values, the
thermodynamic branch has been traced up to a crit-
ical value (subcritical Hopf bifurcation), where a dis-

.•. ............;.,-- continuous transition leads to non-periodic oscillations

(Fig. 4a). Apparently, at random a large amplitude os-
cillation occurs and is followed by an episode of small
amplitude oscillations, the envelop of which increases
nearly exponentially. The trajectory returns once in a
while to the vicinity of a saddle-focus and close enough
(Fig. 1b) so that the phase portrait looks like a 'spiral-
type' strange attractor (Fig. 4b). This observation is
confirmed when reconstructing a 2-dimensional Poincare
map (Fig. 4c): the whole set of experimental points is,
to a good approximation, located along a smooth curve.
This attests that the dynamics is attracted to a nearly
2-dimensional fractal surface with a strong transverse
XI packing of the sheets of the attractor. The correspond-
ing I-dimensional mapping is shown in Fig. 4d; a symbol
3 m (k = 2m + 1) has been assigned to each point of this
b· '.
5...
I-dimensional mapping according to the number m of
small amplitude oscillations which immediately follow
the homo clinic re-injection. Thus, m is the number of
small amplitude oscillations in a basic pattern in the
time series (Fig. 4a). The distribution of the symbols
/ in Fig. 4d displays some ordering which appears to be
...+ //
/

:.
consistent with the theoretical ordering for 'spiral-type'

/
strange attractor in nearly homo clinic condition. Re-
>< garding the experimental uncertainty, the points associ-
ated with the same symbol fall roughly in vertical strips;
moreover m increases (from 0 to 8) from the left to the
right of the figure, which is the clue that the chronol-
ogy of patterns in the time-series in Fig. 4a conforms
to the symbolic dynamics predicted by Shil'nikov's the-
ory of homo clinic chaos. The reproduction in Fig. 5 of
the experimental situation in a low-dimensional differen-
XI tial system of Rossler type consolidates the homo clinic
appellation for the data shown in Fig. 4. This is the
Fig. 3b: The corresponding I-dimensional mapping first experimental proof of the homo clinic nature of the
Fig. 3: Simulation of a 'screw-type' strange attractor chemical chaos occurring in the Belousov-Zhabotinskil
with a seven-variable Oregonator model experiment [1], [3], [5].

100
 BELOUSOV-ZHABOTINSKII REACTION

• a

lj -j .- ill- .'j
JC

j
•
..I
- - 110
-
j

1000

Fig. 4a: Time series Fig. 5a: Time series

o x -M
Fig. 4b: Phase portrait
Fig. 5b: Phase portrait

c lor---------------
,e
/

.-U o
"
•,
,
00

Fig. 4c: Poincare map

I~------------~
o YI

,
• •
•• 20
Fig. 5c: Poincare map

0
•• I
,
1
Ie
I ,
I
I I
~
4
",. '
2K-______________ ~

Fig. 4d: I-dimensional mapping a ao

Fig. 5d: I-dimensional mapping

Fig. 5: Homoclinic chaos computed with a
3-dimensional ordinary differential system in conditions
Fig. 4: Experimental homo clinic chaos observed in the close to the subcritical Hopf bifurcation of the origin 0
Belousov-Zhabotinski'l reaction (in order to mimic the experimental situation in Fig. 4)

101
BELOUSOV-ZHABOTINSKrI REACTION
References
[1] ARGOUL, F., ARNEODO, A., AND RICHETTI, P.: 'Symbolic dy-
namics in the Belousov-Zhabotinskii reaction: from ROssler's
intuiton to experimental evidence for Shil'nikov's homoclinic
chaos', in G. BAIER AND M. KLEIN (eds.): A Chaotic Hiemr-
chy, World Sci., 1991, p. 79.
[2] ARGOUL, F., ARNEODO, A., RICHETTI, P., Roux, J.C., AND
SWINNEY, H.L.: 'Chaos in chemical systems: from hints to
confirmation', Ace. Chem. Res. 20 (1987),436.
[3] ARNEODO, A., ARGOUL, F., ELEZGARAY, J., AND RICHETTI,
P.: 'Homoclinic chaos in chemical systems', Physica D 62
(1993), 134.
[4] ARNEODO, A., ARGOUL, F., RICHETTI, P., AND Roux, J.C.:
'The Belousov-Zhabotinskii reaction: a paradigm for theoret-
ical studies of dynamical systems', in H.G. BOTHE, W. EBEL-
ING, A.M. ZURZHANSKI, AND M. PESCHEL (eds.): Dynamical
Systems and Environmental Models, Akademie Verlag, 1987,
p.122.
[5] GASPARD, P., ARNEODO, A., KAPRAL, R., AND SPARROW, C.:
'Homoclinic chaos', Physica D 62 (1993), 1-372.
[6] GRAY, P., NICOLlS, G., BARAS, F., BORCKMANS, P., AND
SCOTT, S.K. (eds.): Spatial inhomogeneities and tmnsient be-
haviour in chemical kinetics, Manchester Univ. Press, 1990.
[7] VIDAL, C., AND PACAULT, A. (eds.): Nonlinear phenomena
in chemical dynamics, Springer, 1981.
[8] VIDAL, C., AND PACAULT, A.: Nonequilibrium dynamics in
chemical systems, Springer, 1984.
A. Arneodo
F. Argoul
P. Richetti
MSC 1991: 58F13
BENFORD LAW, significant-digit law, first-digit law
- A probability distribution on the significant digits
of real numbers named after one of the early researchers,
[1]. Letting {Dn}~=1 denote the (base-lO) significant
digit functions (on R\{O}), i.e.,
Dn (x) = nth significant digit of x
(so, e.g., D 1 (0.0304) = D 1 (304) = 3, D 2 (0.0304) = 0,
etc.), Benford's law is the logarithmic probability distri-
bution P given by
1) (first digit law)
P(D 1 = d) = 10glO(1 + d-: 1 ), d = 1, ... ,9;
2) (second digit law)
102
'9
P(D2 = d) = Lloglo (1 + (10k + d)-I),
k=1
d= 0, ... ,9
3) (general digit law)
for all kEN, d l E {I, ... ,9} and d j E {O, ... ,9},
j = 2, ... ,k.
An alternate form ofthe general law 3) is
4) P(mantissa ~ t/lO) = 10giO t for all t E [1,10).
Here, the mantissa (base 10) of a positive real number
x is the real number r E [1/10,1) with x = r . IOn for
some n E Z; e.g., the mantissas of both 304 and 0.0304
are 0.304.
More formally, the logarithmic probability mea-
sure P in 1 )-4) is defined on the measurable space
(R+, M), where R+ is the set of positive real numbers
and M is the (base-l0) mantissa sigma algebra, i.e., the
sub-sigma-algebra of the Borel a-algebra generated by
the significant digit functions {Dn}~=l (or, equivalently,
generated by the single function x f--t mantissa(x)). In
some combinatorial and number-theoretic treatises of
Benford's law, R+ is replaced by N, and P by a finitely-
additive probability measure defined on all subsets of
N.
Empirical evidence of Benford's law in numerical data
has appeared in a wide variety of contexts, including
tables of physical constants, newspaper articles and al-
manacs, scientific computations, and many areas of ac-
counting and demographic data (see [1], [5], [6], [7]),
and these observations have led to many mathematical
derivations based on combinatorial (e.g., [2]), analytic
([3], [8]), and various urn-scheme arguments, among oth-
ers (see [7] for a review of these ideas).
Benford's law P can also be characterized by several
invariance properties, such as the following two. Say that
a probability measure 13 on the mantissa space (R + , M)
is scale-invariant if P(sS) = P(S) for every S E M and
s > 0, and is base-invariant if p(SI/n) = p(S) for every

S E M and n E N. Letting P denote the logarithmic
probability distribution given in 1)-4), then (see [4])
• P is the unique probability on (R+ , M) which is
scale-invariant;
• P is the unique atomless probability on (R+, M)
which is base-invariant.
A statistical derivation of Benford's law in the form
of a central limit-like theorem (cf., e.g., Central limit
theorem) characterizes P as the unique limit of the
significant-digit frequencies of a sequence of random
variables generated as follows. First, pick probability
distributions at random, and then take random samples
(independent, identically distributed random variables)
from each of these distributions. If the overall process is
scale- or base-neutral (see [5]), the frequencies of occur-
rence of the significant digits approach the Benford fre-
quencies 1)-4) in the limit almost surely (i.e., with prob-
ability one; cf. also Convergence, almost-certain).
There is nothing special about the decimal base in
1)-4), and the analogue of Benford's law 4) for general
bases b > 1 is simply
Pro b (mantissa ( base b) :::; ~) = 10gb t
for all t E [1, b).
Applications of Benford's law have been given to de-
sign of computers, mathematical modelling, and detec-
tion of fraud in accounting data (see [5], [7]).
References
[1] BENFORD, F.: 'The law of anomalous numbers', Proc. Amer.
Philos. Soc. 78 (1938), 551-572.
[2] COHEN, D.: 'An explanation of the first digit phenomenon',
J. Combinatorial Th. A 20 (1976), 367-370.
[3] DIACONIS, P.: 'The distribution ofleading digits and uniform
distribution mod 1', Ann. of Probab. 5 (1977),72-81.
[4] HILL, T.: 'Base-invariance implies Benford's law',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 123 (1995), 887-895.
[5] HILL, T.: 'A statistical derivation of the significant-digit law',
Statistical Sci. 10 (1996), 354-363.
[6] NEWCOMB, S.: 'Note on the frequency of use of different digits
in natural numbers', Amer. J. Math. 4 (1881), 39-40.
[7] RAIMI, R.: 'The first digit problem', Amer. Math. Monthly
102 (1976), 322-327.
[8] SCHATTE, P.: 'On mantissa distributions in computing and
Benford's law', J. Inform. Process. and Cybernetics 24
(1988), 443-445.
T. Hill
MSC 1991: 60Axx, 60Exx, 62Exx
BENJAMIN-FEIR INSTABILITY - In his 1847 pa-
per, G.G. Stokes proposed the existence of periodic
wave-trains in non-linear systems. In the case of waves
on deep water, the first two terms in the asymptotic
expansion employed by Stokes are given by
1 The non-linear Schrodinger equation also exhibits the
rJ(x,t) = acos(() + 2ka2cos(2(),
BENJAMIN-FEIR INSTABILITY
where (= kx-wt and w2 = gk(1+k 2a 2 ). Not everyone
was convinced that the series converges and therefore
that periodic waves actually exist. Convergence of the
series for waves on infinitely deep water was finally es-
tablished in 1925 by T. Levi-Civita and extended the
next year to waves on water of finite depth by D.J.
Struik (a brief history is given by [4]). With the existence
of the Stokes wave established, it is quite remarkable
that no one noticed its instability, until T.E. Benjamin
and J.E. Feir during the 1960s (see, e.g., [4], [5]).
Adding perturbations with frequencies close to the
carner frequency w, of the form
€(x, t) = €+ exp(nt) cos[kx - w(l + 8)t] +
+€_ exp(nt) cos[kx - w(l - 8)t],
Benjamin and Feir used a linearized analysis to show
that
Thus, the perturbations grow exponentially provided
0< 8 < hka.
It is important to note that the instability is controlled
by the wave-number k and the amplitude a of the carrier
wave (larger values of ka allow more unstable 'modes'
8, thus enhancing the instability).
One practical implication of the Benjamin-Feir insta-
bility is the disintegration of periodic wave-trains on suf-
ficiently deep water, as demonstrated by their wave tank
experiments (see, e.g., [4]). However, it was experimen-
tally observed [9] that the periodic wave need not always
disintegrate (under certain circumstances the instability
may lead to a Fermi-Pasta-Ulam-type recurrence). This
means that the Benjamin-Feir instability saturates and
that the initial wave-form is (approximately) regained
after a while.
This whole process is best understood by investigat-
ing the normalized non-linear Schrodinger equation,
iA t + Axx + 21AI2 A = 0,
which describes the evolution of weakly non-linear wave
envelopes on deep water, among other things (for a gen-
eral introduction see [3]). This equation also has the
distinction that it is completely integrable and that it
allows soliton solutions. H.C. Yuen and B.M. Lake [9]
observed soliton interactions in wave tank experiments,
which demonstrates that the non-linear Schrodinger
equation provides a qualitatively satisfactorily descrip-
tion of the long-time evolution of wave packets.
Benjamin-Feir instability and was used in [8] to study
103
BENJAMIN~FEIR INSTABILITY
the long-time evolution of the instability. Numerical ex-
periments indicate that the instability leads to two dif-
ferent types of recurrence, simple and complex, depend-
ing on the number of unstable modes.
Subsequently, the Benjamin~Feir instability and re-
currence have been associated with homo clinic mani-
folds (see, e.g., [6], [1]) with the complexity of the man-
ifolds increasing with the number of unstable modes.
Careful numerical experiments with the non-linear
Schrodinger equation show that recurrence is possible
for a low number of unstable modes. However, if the
number of unstable modes is increased, the non-linear
Schrodinger equation becomes effectively chaotic (see
[2]). In practical terms this means that the periodic wave
may disintegrate into chaos.
Although soliton interactions and recurrence have
been observed in wave tank experiments, as described by
the non-linear Schrodinger equation, it remains a chal-
lenge to observe homo clinic manifolds experimentally.
References
[1] ABLOWITZ, M.J., AND HERBST, B.M.: 'On homoclinic struc-
ture and numerically induced chaos for the nonlinear
Schrodinger equation', SIAM J. Appl. Math. 50 (1990), 339-
251.
[2] ABLOWITZ, M.J., AND SCHOBER, C.M.: 'Effective chaos in
the nonlinear Schrodinger equation', Contemp. Math. 172
(1994), 253-268.
[3] ABLOWITZ, M.J., AND SEGUR, H.: Solitons and the inverse
scattering transform, SIAM, 1981.
[4] BENJAMIN, T.B.: 'Instability of periodic wavetrains in nonlin-
ear dispersive systems', Proc. Roy. Soc. A 299 (1967), 59-75.
[5] BENJAMIN, T.B., AND FEIR, J .E.: 'The disintegration of wave
trains on deep water. Part 1. Theory', J. Fluid Mech. 27
(1967), 417-430.
[6] ERCOLANI, N., FOREST, M.G., AND McLAUGHLIN, D.W.: 'Ge-
ometry of the modulational instability Part III: homoclinic
orbits for the periodic sine-Gordon equation', Physica D 43
(1990), 349-384.
[7] LAKE, B.M., YUEN, H.C., RUNGALDIER, H., AND FERGUSON,
W.E.: 'Nonlinear deep-water waves: theory and experiment
Part 1. Evolution of a continuous wave train', J. Fluid Mech.
83 (1977), 49-74.
[8] YUEN, H.C., AND FERGUSON, W.E.: 'Relationship between
Benjamin-Feir instability and recurrence in the nonlinear
Schrodinger equation', Phys. Fluids 21 (1978), 1275-1278.
[9] YUEN, H.C., AND LAKE, B.M.: 'Nonlinear deep water waves:
Theory and experiment', Phys. Fluids 18 (1975), 956-960.
B.M. Herbst
MSC 1991: 76B15, 58F07, 35Q53
BENZ PLANE, circle plane ~ A common concept
for the geometries of Mobius, Laguerre and Lie, and
Minkowski, as given by W. Benz in [1].
A Benz plane 8 = (P, Qj, ([) consist of a set P of
points and two sets of subsets of P, namely the set Qj of
generators and the set ([ of circles, satisfying:
104
1) each generator intersects each circle in exactly one
point;
2) through any three points no two of which are on a
common generator there passes exactly one circle;
3) if C is a circle, p is a point on C and q is a point
outside C and not on a cornman generator with p, then
there is exactly one circle through q intersecting C at p
only (the tangency axiom);
4) there is a circle C :f P, and C contains at least
three points;
5a) 8 is a Mobius plane if Qj = 0;
5b) 8 is a Laguerre plane if Qj is a partition of P;
5c) 8 is a Minkowski plane if Qj = Qjl U Qj2, with Qjl
and Qj2 partitions of P, and any generator of Qjl inter-
sects any generator of Qj2 in exactly one point.
For a point pEP one defines its derived affine plane,
8 p , as follows. The points of 8 p are the points different
from p and outside all generators through p. The lines
of 81' are the generators not passing through p and the
circles through p minus the point p itself.
So, a Bem plane 8 is a special kind of chain space:
Two (different) points of 8 are distant if and only if they
do not belong to a common generator.
An affine model of 8 is obtained by adding to 8 p the
traces of all circles not through p.
An imbeddable (or egg-like) Benz plane is isomorphic
to a Benz plane of the form 8 = (P, Qj, ([) with P a sub-
set of a (projective or affine) three-dimensional space
and ([ consist of planar sections of P:
a) P is an ovoid;
b) P is a cylindrical surface {cylinder} over an
oval as directrix, and hence P is covered by its set of
generators;
c) P is a ruled quadric in projective 3-space (a hy-
perbolic quadric), and hence has two sets of (mutually
skew) straight lines covering it.
In any case, Qj consists of the generators on P and ([ con-
sists of the intersections of P with all planes containing
more than one point of P but no line of P. Stereo-
graphic projection once more gives an affine model of
8.
A classical Benz plane is a chain geometry 'L,(K, A)
where the K-algebra A is a 2-dimensional K-vector
space. There are three such algebras.
i) A is a quadratic field extension (d. Extension of
a field). Then 'L,(K, A) is a Mobius plane.
ii) A = K[E] with f2 = O. Then 'L,(K, A) is a Laguerre
plane.
iii) A = K x K (addition and multiplication compo-
nentwise). Then 'L,(K, A) is a Minkowski plane.

The classical Benz planes are imbeddable. Here, P be-
comes an elliptic quadric, a quadric cone without its
vertex or a hyperbolic quadric, respectively.
The classical affine Benz planes (affine models) are
as follows: There is an affine plane A over K and in A
one takes:
I) all straight lines and circles;
II) all straight lines not belonging to a given parallel
class and all parabolas having axis in this parallel class;
III) all straight lines not belonging to two given paral-
lel classes and all hyperbolas having asymptotes in these
parallel classes.
Many theorems from Euclidean geometry valid in I)
(e.g., the theorem on inscribed angles) also hold in II)
and III), see [4, §3.4].
A Benz plane is called Miquelian if the so-called
Miquels condition is valid in it: Let G1, ... ,G4 be circles
no three of which have a common point but such that
Gi nGi +1 = {Pi, q;} for 1 ~ i ~ 4 (subscripts modulo 4),
where Pi and qi are not necessarily different points. If
PI,··· ,P4 lie on a common circle, then so do q1,··· ,q4.
The following theorem was proved by B.L. van der
Waerden and L.J. Smid in 1935 for I), II) and by G.
Kaerlain in 1970 for III): A Benz plane is classical if
and only if it is Miquelian.
T.J. Kahn (1980) has proved that a Benz plane is
imbeddable if and only if it satisfies the so-called bundle
condition: Let Pi, qi, i = 1, ... ,4, be eight points no
two of which are on a common generator. If Pi, qi, Pj, qj,
1 ~ i, j ~ 4, belong to a common circle in five cases,
then this is also true for the sixth case.
A finite Benz plane is a Benz plane with a finite point
set. A finite Benz plane B = (P, Q), <!:) has order 101 - 1
for any G E <!:. This number is independent of the choice
of G. The following theorem was proved by P. Dem-
bowski (1964) for I) and by W. Heise (1974) for III):
A finite Mobius or Minkowski plane of even order is
imbeddable.
A direct consequence of the Segre-Barlotti theorem
(that an ovoid or oval in a finite Desarguesian projective
space is a quadric or conic) is that a finite imbeddable
Benz plane of odd order is Miquelian.
For further information see the surveys [2], [5] (e.g.,
classification of Benz planes by automorphism groups);
for topological Benz planes see [5]. A more general
concept, using unitals instead of quadrics (i.e., self-
conjugate points of a Hermitian form instead of a qua-
dratic form), arose in [1]; for subsequent developments,
see [2]. For projectivities in Benz planes see [3].
References
[1] BENZ, W.: Vorlesungen fiber Geometrie der Algebren,
Springer, 1973.
BERGMAN INTEGRAL OPERATOR
[2] DELANDSHEER, A.: 'Dimensional linear spaces', in
F. BUEKENHOUT (ed.): Handbook of Incidence Geome-
try, North-Holland, 1995.
[3] PLAUMANN, P., AND STRAMBACH, K.: Geometry: von Staudt's
point of view, Reidel, 1981.
[4] SCHRODER, E.M.: 'Metric geometry', in F. BUEKENHOUT
(ed.): Handbook of Incidence Geometry, North-Holland, 1995.
[5] STEINKE, G.F.: 'Topological circle geometries', in F. BUEKEN-
HOUT (ed.): Handbook of Incidence Geometry, North-
Holland, 1995.
A. Herzer
MSC 1991: 51B05
BERGMAN INTEGRAL OPERATOR - A complex
integral transform which maps holomorphic func-
tions J of a complex variable onto complex solutions
u of linear second-order partial differential equations in
the plane, originally of elliptic type (cf. also Analytic
function; Elliptic partial differential equation). To
apply the transform, complex (independent) variables
z = x + iy, z* = x - iy are introduced instead of the
coordinates x, y in the plane; note that the Laplace po-
tential operator (cf. Laplace operator) is
82 82 82
Do=-+-=4--.
8x 2 8y2 8z8z*
Then the transform is realized by a complex line integral
(cf. Curvilinear integral) as
j
7r/2
T[J](z, z*) = E(z, z*, sin e/»J(z cos 2 e/» de/> (1)
-7r/2
(Bergman type) or
T[J](z, z*) = r R(z, z*, t, t*)J(t) dt
Jzo
(2)
(Vekua type). Here, the generating kernels E
E(z,z*,t) (respectively, R = R(z,z*,t,t*)) (the so-
called complex Riemann function, t* a complex param-
eter) depend on the differential equation to be solved
and J = J(z) is an arbitrary holomorphic function. The
path of integration may be (e.g.) a straight line.
For example, the complex solutions of the
Helmholtz equation Dou + 4k 2 u = 0 are given by
(1) (respectively, by (2)) with
E(z, z*, T) = cos(kv'zZ*t),
R(z, z*, t, t*) = J o(2ky'(z - t)(z* - t*))
(where J o is a Bessel function, cf. Bessel functions).
The analytic properties of the solution u = u(z, z*) =
T[J] are closely related to the analytic properties of
the holomorphic function J = J(z), e.g., location and
type of singularities. Further, complete sets of solu-
tions T[J(z)](z, z*) can be found as transforms of com-
plete sets of holomorphic functions, such as {zn }n=O,l, ....
105
BERGMAN INTEGRAL OPERATOR
These (and similar) properties are the basis of applica-
tions in mathematical physics. However, there is no sim-
ple relation between the boundary values of 1 and those
of u on a prescribed boundary.
The method has been generalized widely: to equa-
tions of higher dimensions, higher order, and of other
(parabolic, mixed, composite) type. Here, holomorphic
functions of two (or more) complex variables are mapped
onto solutions, using integral transforms. E.g., the solu-
tions u of a parabolic equation in two spacial variables
z, z* and time r may be found (and studied) by integral
transforms
u(z,z',r) = T[J(Z,T)],
where, in this case, 1 = I(z, t) is a holomorphic function
of two variables z, T. In this way a unified method of ex-
plicitly constructing solutions of equations of different
types and different dimensions has been established.
References
[1] BERGMAN, S.: Integral operators in the theory of linear par-
tial differential equations, Springer, 1961.
[2] COLTON, D.L.: Partial differential equations in the complex
domain, Pitman, 1975.
[3] GILBERT, R.P.: Constructive methods fOT elliptic equations,
Springer, 1974.
[4] KRACHT, M.W., AND KREYSZIG, E.: Methods of complex
analysis in parlial differential equations (with applications),
Wiley, 1988.
[5] LANCKAU, E.: Complex integral operatoTs in mathematical
physics, W. Barth, 1993.
[6] VEKUA, LN.: New methods for solving elliptic equations, Wi-
ley, 1967. (Translated from the Russian.)
E. Lanckau
MSC 1991: 35C15
BERGMAN-SHILOV BOUNDARY - The concept
of the Bergman-Shilov boundary is credited to both S.
Bergman and G.E. Shilov. Bergman, in 1931, introduced
the concept of a distinguished boundary in connection
with his studies of holomorphic functions of two com-
plex variables [1]. He discovered that, for a large class
of domains, a holomorphic function of two or more
variables is completely determined by its values on a rel-
atively small closed subset of the topological boundary
of the domain. This phenomenon does not occur in func-
tion theory of one complex variable (d. also Analytic
function). On the other hand, in the 1940s Shilov in-
troduced the concept of a minimal boundary, now called
the Shilov boundary, in connection with his studies on
commutative Banach algebras (cf. also Boundary (in
the theory of uniform algebras); Commutative
Banach algebra). Much of the content of this work
can be found in [3].
In modern terminology, the Shilov boundary is de-
fined as follows: Let X be a compact space and F an
algebra of continuous complex-valued functions on X
106
which separates the points of X (cf. Algebra of func-
tions). A boundary for F is a closed subset S of X such
that
II(x)1 :S max {11(t)1 : t E S}
for all 1EF and x EX. The Shilov boundary of X for
F, denoted by SF(X), is defined as the intersection of
all boundaries S of X for :F. It was proved by Shilov [3]
that SF(X) is non-empty and is a boundary for :F.
If D is a bounded domain in an n-dimensional com-
plex space C n , n ?: 1, and if F = ll(D) is the set of
all functions 1 that are hoI om orphic on D (the closure
of D), then the Shilov boundary of D for F is called
the Bergman-Shilov boundary of D, usually denoted by
B(D). By the maximum principle, B(D) is always a
subset of the topological boundary of D. However, when
n ?: 2, for many domains B(D) is a proper subset of the
boundary of D. For example, if
D = {(z,w) E C2 : Izl < 1, Iwl < 1},
then B(D) = {(z,w): Izl = Iwl = I}, which
is a
two-dimensional closed subset of the three-dimensional
boundary of D. This is the case for a wide class of do-
mains, including all analytic polyhedra (cf. Analytic
polyhedron). On the other hand, if
D = {(z, w) EC 2: Izl2 + Iwl 2< I},
then B(D) is equal to the boundary of D. More gener-
ally, if D is strictly pseudo-convex, that is, D = {z E
c n : 4>(z) < O}, where 4> is a plurisubharmonic function
in a neighbourhood of D (cf. also Pseudo-convex and
pseudo-concave), then B(D) is equal to the topolog-
ical boundary of D. A fairly comprehensive treatment
of the Shilov and Bergman-Shilov boundaries can be
found in [2].
References
[1] BERGMAN, S.: 'Uber ausgezeichnete Randflachen in der The-
orie der Functionen von Zwei komplexen Veranderlichen',
Math. Ann. 104 (1931),611-636.
[2] FUKS, B.A.: Special chapters in the theory of analytic func-
tions of several complex variables, Amer. Math. Soc., 1965.
(Translated from the Russian.)
[3] GEL'FAND, I., RAIKOV, D., AND SHILOV, G.: Commutative
normed rings, Chelsea, 1964. (Translated from the Russian.)
M. Stoll
MSC 1991: 32E25, 46JlO
BERNOULLI EXCURSION - Consider a set of se-
quences each consisting of 2n
elements such that el- n
ements are equal to +1, n elements are equal to -1,
and the sum of the first i elements is greater than or
equal to zero for every i = 1, ... ,2n.
The number of
such sequences is given by the nth Catalan number
C _ (2n)_1
n n+1'
n-

The first few Catalan numbers are: Co = 1, C 1 = 1,
C 2 = 2, C 3 = 5, C 4 = 14, C 5 = 42. A sequence is
randomly chosen from the C n sequences, assuming that
all possible sequences are equally probable. Denote by 1]i
(i = 1, ... ,2n) the sum of the first i elements in this cho-
sen sequence and set 1]0 = o. Then 1]i 2: 0 for 0 ::::: i ::::: 2n
and 1]2n = TJo = o. The sequence {1]0, ... ,1]2n} describes
a random walk, which is usually called a Berno'u,lli ex-
cursion (cf. also Bernoulli random walk). One can
imagine that a particle performs a random walk on the
x-axis. It starts at x = 0 and takes 2n steps. At the
ith step the particle moves either a unit distance to the
right or a unit distance to the left according to whether
the ith element in the random sequence is + 1 or -1.
At the end of the ith step the position of the particle is
x = 1]i for i = 1, ... ,2n.
In probability theory, many problems require the
determination of the distributions of various functionals
of the Bernoulli excursion. For example, for a single-
server queue M I M lIthe distribution of the max-
imal queue size during a busy period requires the de-
termination of the distribution of the random variable
max (1]0 , ... ,1]2n). Another example is concerned with
random trees. There are C n rooted plane (ordered) trees
with n + 1 unlabelled vertices. Choose a tree at random,
assuming that all the C n possible trees are equally prob-
able. Then the height of the random tree has the same
distribution as max(1]o, ... ,1]2n) in the Bernoulli excur-
sion. Explicitly:
22n + 1
= k +1 ~
k (
cos k 7
1
)2n (
sin k r; )2
1
for k 2: 1 and n 2: 1. For other examples see [1], [2].
References
[1] TAKACS, L.: 'A Bernoulli excursion and its various applica-
tions', Adv. in Probability 23 (1991),557-585.
[2] TAKACS, L.: 'Queueing methods in the theory of random
graphs', in J.H. DSHALALOW (ed.): Advances in queueing
Theory, Methods, and Open Problems, CRC, 1995, pp. 45-
78.
L. Takacs
MSC 1991: 60J15
BERNOULLI MEASURE - A measure describing the
independent repetition of an experiment with two pos-
sible outcomes, such as playing head and tail with a
possibly biased coin. This is the simplest and most ba-
sic probabilistic scheme for which the fundamental the-
orems of probability theory, such as the weak and
strong law of large numbers, the integral and local limit
properties and the large deviation principle, were first
and most easily proved.
BERNOULLI MEASURE
The scheme can be generalized to experiments with
possibly more than two outcomes and can be mathemat-
ically formalized in the following way. Given a countable
set D and a finite set S with n elements n 2: 2, which
can be identified with the set of the first n positive in-
tegers if there are no special requirements, and n non-
negative numbers PI, ... ,Pn with PI + ... + Pn = 1,
one defines the corresponding Bernoulli measure on the
space n = SD = {WdiED as a probability measure
(finitely or count ably additive, in accordance with the
setting) P such that the Wi'S are independent and iden-
tically distributed random variables P(Wi = j) = Pj for
1 ::::: j ::::: n. In the countable additive framework, a ba-
sic result is the Kolmogorov zero-one law [5], stating
that events in the algebra at infinity (i.e., events that are
measurable with respect to the Borel fields generated by
the wi's in the complement of every finite subset of D)
have probability either 0 or 1.
Percolation theory on Bernoulli measures is a theory
that, although in a simpler setting, presents in many
respects the same kinds of phenomena as statistical me-
chanics, with important difficult results and many open
problems (see Statistical mechanics, mathematical
problems in; [4], [2]). In the most common setting, one
considers on each site i of a lattice a random variable
with values 0 and 1; such variables are assumed to be in-
dependent and identically distributed, so that one finds
that the Bernoulli measures parametrized by the proba-
bility P for an Wi are equal to 1. Many events considered
in percolation theory are increasing (or positive) in the
sense that their indicator functions are non-decreasing
functions of the Wi'S. L. Russo [8] has proved a finite
version of Kolmogorov's zero-one law; it states that in-
creasing events that in a suitable sense depend little on
each Wi have probability close to 0 or 1 for all but a small
interval ofp's. T.E. Harris [3] has proved a basic inequal-
ity for increasing events on Bernoulli measures: if A and
B are increasing events, then P(A n B) 2: P(A)P(B).
An inequality in the opposite sense was proved by J.
van den Berg and H. Kesten [9] for increasing events; it
was generalized to arbitrary events by D. Reimer [7]. It
states that the probability that two events happen dis-
jointly (in the sense that one can verify their occurrence
by looking at disjoint subsets of the lattice) is less than
or equal to the product of their probabilities.
The De Finetti theorem on infinite sequences of
exchangeable random events [1] shows that Bernoulli
measures are relevant for statistical inference in a wide
range of situations. It states that if the distribution of an
infinite family of random events is invariant under finite
permutations, then it can be expressed as a mixture of
Bernoulli measures. The assumption of exchangeability
is very natural in many concrete situations.
107
BERNOULLI MEASURE
Let D = Z be the set of integer numbers and let T
be the left shift operator on 0 = SZ:
(TW)i = Wi+l.
The pair consisting of the Bernoulli measure and the
shift operator is called the Bernoulli shift. One says that
an invertible measurable mapping ¢: 0 ---+ 0' between
two Bernoulli shifts, with probability measures P and P'
and shift operators T and T', is an isomorphism between
Bernoulli shifts if P' 0 ¢ = P and T' 0 ¢ = ¢ 0 T. The fa-
mous Ornstein theorem [6], which has been generalized
in many ways, states that two Bernoulli shifts are iso-
morphic if and only if their Kolmogorov-Sinal entropies
are equal. For a Bernoulli shift the K olmogorov-Sinaz
entropy is given by 2::~ -Pi log(pi), with the convention
that xlog(x) = 0 for x = O.
References
[1] FINETTI, B. DE: 'La prevision: ses lois logiques, ses sources
subjectives', Ann. Inst. Poincare VII (1937), 1-68.
[2] GRIMMETT, G.: Percolation, Springer, 1989.
[3] HARRIS, T.E.: 'A lower bound for the critical probability in
certain percolation processes', Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc.
56 (1960), 13.
[4] KESTEN, H.: Percolation theory for mathematicians, Vol. 2
of Pmgress in Pmbab. and Stat., Birkhiiuser, 1983.
[5] KOLMOGOROV, A.N.: Foundations of the theory of pmbabil-
ity, Chelsea, 1950. (Translated from the Russian.)
[6] ORNSTEIN, D.: Ergodic theory, randomness, and dynamical
systems., Yale Univ. Press, 1974.
[7] REIMER, D.: 'Butterflies', Preprint (1994).
[8] Russo, L.: 'An approximate zero-one law', Z. Wahrschein-
lichkeitsth. verw. Gebiete 61 (1982), 129-139.
[9] BERG, J. VAN DEN, AND KESTEN, H.: 'Inequalities with appli-
cations to percolation and reliability theory', J. Appl. Probab.
22 (1985), 556.
M. Campanino
MSC 1991: 60Fxx, 60G09, 28Dxx, 60K35
BERNSTEIN ALGEBRA - Around 1900, S.N. Bern-
stein (cf. [4], [3], [5]) worked on an important problem
concerning the laws of formal genetics. This problem is
known today as the Bernstein problem. Following Yu.I.
Lyubich (cf. [10]), this problem can be expressed as fol-
lows. The state of a population in a given generation
is described by a vector in Rn whose coordinates sat-
isfy Xi ~ 0 (i = 1, ... ,n) and 2::~lxi = 1. The set
S of all states is a simplex in Rn and the vertices ei
(i = 1, ... ,n) of S are the different types of individuals
in the population. If rijk is the probability that an in-
dividual ek appears in the next generation from parents
of types ei and ej, then 2::~=lrijk = 1 (i,j = 1, ... ,n)
and rijk = rjik (i,j,k = 1, ... ,n). In absence ofselec-
tion and under random hypothesis, the state of the pop-
ulation in the next generation can be written, in terms
of coordinates, as x~ = 2::~j=l rijkXiXj (k = 1, ... ,n).
These relations define a quadratic operator V: S ---+ S
108
called the evolutionary quadratic operator. The B ern-
stein stationarity principle says that V 2 = V and the
Bernstein problem aims at describing all quadratic oper-
ators satisfying this principle. Bernstein solved his prob-
lem for n = 3 and much progress was achieved recently
(cf. [6], [8]) in this direction. The Bernstein problem can
be translated in terms of algebra structure. In fact, over
Rn an algebra structure can be defined via the operator
V by
1
xy = 2(V(x + y) - V(.r) - V(y))
for all x,y ERn, and if w: Rn ---+ R is the mapping
defined by x = (Xl, ... ,X n ) f-t 2::7=1 Xi, then V 2 = V
if and only if (X2)2 = W(X)2X 2 for all X ERn. More-
over, w(xy) = w(x)w(y) for all x, y ERn. Of course,
to define this multiplication over the whole space Rn
starting from the simplex S, one has to make convenient
extensions of this multiplication by bilinearity. Now, in
general, if K is a (commutative) field and A is a com-
mutative K-algebra, then a weighted algebra (A, w) over
K is said to be a Bernstein algebra if (x2)2 = w(x)2x 2
for all x E A (d. [2]). In recent years (1990s), the theory
of Bernstein algebras has been substantially improved.
V.M. Abraham (cf. [1]) suggests the construction of a
generalized Bernstein algebra. In this perspective, for
an element X E A, where (A, w) is a weighted algebra,
the plenary powers x[m] of X are defined by x[l] = x and
;r,[m-l]x[m-l] = .r[m] for all integer m ~ 2. The plenary
powers can be interpreted by saying that they repre-
sent random mating between discrete non-overlapping
generations. (A, w) is called an nth order Bernstein al-
gebra if x[n+2] = w(x )2" x[n+1] for all X E A, where
n ~ 1 is the smallest such integer (cf. [11]). S econd-
or-der Bernstein algebras are simply called Bernstein al-
gebras and first-order Bernstein algebras are also called
gametic diploid algebras. The interpretation of the equa-
tion :r[n+2] = :r,[n+l] (x E A such that w(x) = 1) is that
equilibrium in the population is reached after exactly
n generations of intermixing. For genetic properties of
Bernstein algebras, see [7] and [12].
See also Genetic algebra; Baric algebra.
References
[1] ABRAHAM, V.M.: 'Linearising quadratic transformations in
genetic algebras', Thesis, Univ. London (1975).
[2] ALCALDE, M.T., BURGUENO, C., LABRA, A., AND MICALI, A.:
'Sur les algebres de Bernstein', Pmc. London Math. Soc. (3)
58 (1989),51-68.
[3] BERNSTEIN, S.N.: 'Demonstration mathematique de la loi
d'heredite de Mendel', C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 177 (1923),
581 584.
[4] BERNSTEIN, S.N.: 'Principe de stationarite et generalisation
de la loi de Mendel', C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 177 (1923), 528-
531.
 BERNSTEIN-BASKAKOV-KANTOROVICH OPERATOR
[5J BERNSTEIN, S.N.: 'Solution of a mathematical problem con-
nected with the theory of heredity', Ann. Math. Stat. 13
(1942), 53-6l.
[6] GONZALEZ, S., GUTIERREZ, J.C., AND MARTINEZ, C.: 'The
Bernstein problem in dimension 5', J. Algebra 177 (1995),
676-697.
[7J GRISKHOV, A.N.: 'On the genetic property of Bernstein al-
gebras', Soviet Math. Dokl. 35 (1987),489-492. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[8J GUTIERREZ, J .C.: 'The Bernstein problem for type (n - 2, 2)',
J. Algebra 181 (1996), 613627.
[9J HOLGATE, P.: 'Genetic algebras satisfying Bernstein's sta-
tionarity principle', J. London Math. Soc. (2) 9 (1975),613-
623.
[IOJ LYUBICH, Yu.I.: 'Mathematical structures in population ge-
netics', Biomathematics 22 (1992).
[l1J MALLOL, C., MICALI, A., AND OUATTARA, M.: 'Sur les
algebres de Bernstein IV', Linear Alg. &J Its Appl. 158 (1991),
1-26.
[12] MICALI, A., AND OUATTARA, M.: 'Structure des algebres de
Bernstein', Linear Alg. 1'9 Its Appl. 218 (1995), 77-88.
A. Micali
MSC 1991: 92DIO, 17D92
BERNSTEIN-BASKAKOy-KANTOROYICH OP-
ERATOR - To give a simpler proof of the Weierstrass
approximation theorem (cf. Weierstrass theorem),
S.N. Bernstein [3] defined a new sequence of linear pos-
itive operators defined for functions continuous on [0,1]
as
n k
Bn(f; x) = LPn,k(X)f( -),
n
k=D
where
Pn,k(X) = (~)xk (1 - xt- k , 0::; x::; 1.
This sequence turned out to be a very interesting se-
quence, easy to deal with and having many applications
in mathematical analysis. It has been extensively
studied by G.G. Lorentz in [13]. It is also of great inter-
est in approximation theory, and as a result of that
L.V. Kantorovich [12] devised a modification of these
operators, known as the Bernstein-Kantorovich polyno-
mials; they are defined over a larger class of functions,
e.g., Lp[O, 1], P :::: 1. The operator is defined as
n l(k+I)/(n+l)
Kn(f; x) = (n + 1) LPn,k(X) f(u) duo
k=O k/(n+l)
The approximation properties of this sequence have
been discussed in detail (cf., e.g., [7], [14]).
Another interesting modification of the Bernstein
polynomials was introduced by J.L. Durrmeyer [8] for
approximating functions in Lp[O, I], P > 1. This se-
quence is given by
M.M. Derriennic [5] has studied approximation prop-
erties of the operators Mn. Subsequently, important con-
tributions to the study of these operators were made
(see, e.g., [6], [9]). Modifications similar to that of Durr-
meyer have been studied for other sequences of operators
as well, e.g., for Szasz, Lupas, and Baskakov operators
(cf., e.g., [10]' [11], [17]).
It has been observed that the order of approximation
by these sequences of linear positive operators increases
with the smoothness of the function. E. Voronovskaya
[20] has shown that the order of approximation by Bern-
stein polynomials cannot be improved beyond O(n- I ).
This phenomenon is true for every other sequence of lin-
ear operators. The first attempt at somehow improving
the order of approximation was made by P.L. Butzer [4],
who showed that by taking a linear combination of the
Bernstein polynomials the order of approximation con-
siderably improves for smoother functions. More general
combinations have been studied for other sequences of
operators (cf., e.g., [15]). There is still another approach
towards improving the order of approximation, by tak-
ing iterative combinations (cf., e.g., [16]).
Another phenomenon of interest is the study of simul-
taneous approximation (approximation of derivatives of
a function by the derivatives of corresponding order of
operators). The first remarkable result in this direction
is due to Lorentz [13]. For further research in this area,
see [5], [6], [9], [11], [17].
V.A. Baskakov [1] gave a sequence of linear positive
operators which includes the Bernstein polynomials, the
Szasz operators, the Lupas operators, etc., as particular
cases. The sequence is defined by
where {rPn} is a family of real-valued functions such that:
i) rPn(x) can be expanded in a Taylor series in [0, b)
(where b may be equal to 00);
ii) rPn(O) = 1;
iii) (-I)krP~k)(x):::: 0, k = 0,1, ... , for x E [O,b);
. ) k -- 1,2, ... , x E [0 , b) ,lor
.-I,(k-I)( x,
IV) -'I-'n X -_ n'l-'n+c
.-I,(k)() C
°
some constant c;
v) for any fixed constant M, limx-+CX) rPn (x )x k = for
k=O, ... ,M.
Studies similar to those for the Bernstein polynomials
have been carried out for the Baskakov operators (cf.,
e.g., [10], [11], [15]).
The converse problem of inferring the nature of
smoothness of a function from its order of approximation
led to the study of inverse and saturation theorems for
the above sequences of operators. Such problems have
been studied both locally as well as globally.
109
BERNSTEIN-BASKAKOV-KANTOROVICH OPERATOR
Some important references for the study of such prob-
lems are [2], [6], [7], [9], [15], [16], [18], [19].
References
[1] BASKAKOV, V.A.: 'An example of a sequence of linear pos-
itive operators in the space of continuous functions', Dokl.
Akad. Nauk SSSR 113 (1957), 249-251. (In Russian.)
[2] BECKER, M., AND NESSEL, R.J.: 'An elementary approach
to inverse approximation theorems', J. Approx. Theory 23
(1978), 99-103.
[3] BERNSTEIN, S.N.: 'Demonstration du theoreme de Weier-
strass, fondee sur Ie calcul des probabilites', Commun. Soc.
Math. Kharkow (2) 13 (1912-13), 1-2.
[4] BUTZER, P.L.: 'Linear combinations of Bernstein polynomi-
als', Canad. J. Math. 5 (1953), 559-567.
[5] DERRIENNIC, M.M.: 'Sur l'approximation de fonctions
integrable sur [0,1] par des polyn6mes de Bernstein modifies',
J. Approx. Theory 31 (1981), 325-343.
[6] DITZIAN, Z., AND IVANOV, K.: 'Bernstein-type operators and
their derivatives', J. Approx. Theory 56 (1989), 72-90.
[7] DITZIAN, Z., AND MAY, C.P.: 'Lp-saturation and inverse the-
orems for modified Bernstein polynomials', Indiana Univ.
Math. J. 25 (1976), 733-751.
[8] DURRMEYER, J.L.: Une formule d'inversion de la trans-
formee de Laplace: Applications a la theorie des moments,
Fac. Sci. l'Univ. Paris, 1967, These de 3e cycle.
[9] GONSKA, H.H., AND ZHOU, XIN-LONG: 'A global inverse theo-
rem on simultaneous approximation by Bernstein-Durrmeyer
operators', J. Approx. Theory 67 (1991), 284-302.
[10] HEILMANN, M.: Approximation auf [0,00) durch das Ver-
fahren der Operatoren vom Baskakov-Burrmeyer Typ, Univ.
Dortmund, 1987, Dissertation.
[11] HEILMANN, M., AND MULLER, M.W.: 'On simultaneous ap-
proximation by the method of Baskakov-Durrmeyer opera-
tors', Numer. Funct. Anal. Optim. 10 (1989), 127-138.
[12] KANTOROVICH, L.V.: 'Sur certaines developments suivant les
polyn6mes de la forme de S. Bernstein 1- II', C.R. Acad. Sci.
USSR A (1930), 563-568; 595-600.
[13] LORENTZ, G.G.: Bernstein polynomials, Univ. Toronto Press,
1953.
[14] MAIER, V.: 'Lp-approximation by Kantorovic operators',
Anal. Math. 4 (1978), 289-295.
[15] MAY, C.P.: 'Saturation and inverse theorems for combina-
tions of a class of exponential-type operators', Canad. J.
Math. 28 (1976), 1224-1250.
[16] MICCHELLI, C.A.: 'The saturation class and iterates of the
Bernstein polynomials', J. Approx. Theory 8 (1973), 1-18.
[17] SINHA, R.P., AGRAWAL, P.N., AND GUPTA, V.: 'On simulta-
neous approximation by modified Baskakov operators', Bull.
Soc. Math. Belg. B 43 (1991), 217-231.
[18] SUZUKI, Y.: 'Saturation oflocal approximation by linear posi-
tive operators of Bernstein type', T6hoku Math. J. 19 (1967),
429-453.
[19] SUZUKI, Y., AND WATANABE, S.: 'Some remarks on saturation
problems in the local approximation II', T6hoku Math. J.21
(1969), 65-83.
[20] VORONOWSKAJA, E.: 'Determination de la forme asympto-
tique d'approximation des fonctions par les polyn6mes de S.
Bernstein', C.R. Acad. Sci. USSR (1932), 79-85.
P.N. Agrawal
T.A.K. Sinha
MSC 1991: 41Axx, 41A40, 41A27, 41A36
110
BERNSTEIN PROBLEM IN DIFFERENTIAL GE-
OMETRY - It is a well-known and elementary fact in
complex analysis that a bounded and holomorphic
function on the whole plane must be a constant (cf.
Liouville theorems). S.N. Bernstein proved an anal-
ogous result in differential geometry (cf. [2]), saying
that a smooth function f(x, y) defined on the whole
plane and whose graph is a minimal surface, must
be a constant (see Bernstein theorem). The classical
Bernstein problem asks whether the corresponding re-
sult also holds for functions of n variables, n > 2. More
precisely, is it true that entire solutions (cf. also Entire
function) of the minimal equation
~D
f:t VI +DiUIDuI2 = 0,
i
2
u(Xl, ... ,xn ) E C (Rn ),
where Di = a/aXi, Du = (Dlu, ... ,Dnu), must nec-
essarily be a linear function? This equation is the con-
dition that the mean curvature of the graph of the
function in Rn+l vanishes everywhere.
The answer to the above question is affirmative in
the range 2 ~ n ~ 7; the proof of this is the result
of the successive efforts of Bernstein [2], W.H. Fleming
[8], [9], E. DeGiorgi [7], F. Almgren [1], and J. Simons
[15]. On the other hand, a counterexample for n = 8,
which in turn renders a counterexample for each n > 8
by a standard construction, was obtained in 1969 by E.
Bombieri, DeGiorgi and E. Giusti, cf. [3]. The complete
solution of the classical Bernstein problem constitutes,
indeed, an exciting chapter of global differential geome-
try, involving geometric measure theory and non-linear
analysis (cf. also Plateau problem).
Among the various generalizations of the above prob-
lem, the so-called spherical Bernstein problem is a natu-
ral and challenging one in the realm of global differential
geometry. Let the (n-l)-sphere 8 n - l be imbedded as a
minimal hypersurface of the Euclidean n-sphere 8 n (1) .
Is it necessarily an equator?
This problem is due to S.S. Chern (cf. [5]; he also
proposed it at the International Congress of Mathemati-
cians at Nice (1970), cf. [6]). The problem has, for exam-
ple, a direct bearing on the possible local structures of
isolated singularities of minimal hypersurfaces Nn in a
general Riemannian manifold. Indeed, the (regular)
tangent cone of Nn at the singularity is a minimal cone
in Rn+l, whose intersection with 8 n (l) is a minimal
hypersurface.
By the Almgren-Calabi theorem [1], [4], an immer-
sion (cf. Immersion of a manifold) of 8 2 into 8 3 (1)
must, in fact, be an equator. Thus, at least the be-
ginning case n = 3 of the spherical Bernstein prob-
lem was known to have a positive answer. However,
no further progress was made until 1983, when Wu-yi

Hsiang, in the framework of equivariant differential
geometry, constructed infinitely many mutually non-
congruent minimal imbeddings of sn-l into sn(I), for
each n = 4,5,6,7,8,10,12,14 (cf. [10]' [11]). The basic
ideas of this approach, which was initiated by Hsiang
and H.B. Lawson [13], is to choose an orthogonal repre-
sentation (G, <I>, Rn) with codimension-two principal or-
bits, and to search for solutions of the geometric problem
which are invariant under the induced orthogonal trans-
formation group (G, <I> + 1, sn (1)). Thus, the original
partial differential equation associated with the mini-
mal hypersurface condition is reduced to an ordinary
second-order differential equation on the 2-dimensional
orbit space sn(I)/G, which is geometrically a spheri-
callune. Here, the 'closed' (in a certain sense) solution
curves represent minimal hypersurfaces, and they will
have the correct topology of sn-l thanks to the trivial
summand added to <I>.
During the 1980s, Hsiang and his collaborators ob-
tained further results related to the spherical Bernstein
problem, by investigating equivariant systems of the
above type, as well as additional isoparametric foliations
on sn(I). For instance, many new examples of imbed-
ded as well as immersed minimal hyperspheres ~n-l in
sn(1) have been constructed, and moreover, the stabil-
ity of the singularity at the origin of the corresponding
minimal cone c(~n-l) in Rn+1 has been investigated,
see, e.g., [14]. P. Tomter [16] has shown the existence
of a minimal and imbedded hypersphere ~n-l in sn(l)
which is not an equator, for each even n. On the other
hand, although the methods give infinitely many non-
congruent minimal immersions of sn-l for each n > 3,
the problem of finding a non-equatorial imbedded sphere
sn-l in sn(l) for odd n 29 remains open.
Finally, as a generalization of the spherical Bernstein
problem, it is also natural to replace the ambient space
sn(l) by a simply-connected, compact symmetric space.
See [12] for some recent results in this direction.
References
[1] ALMGREN, JR., F.J.: 'Some interior regularity theorems for
minimal surfaces and an extension of the Bernstein's theo-
rem', Ann. of Math. 85 (1966), 277-292.
[2] BERNSTEIN, S.N.: 'Sur une theoreme de geometrie et ses ap-
plications aux derivees partielles du type elliptique', Comm.
Inst. Sci. Math. Mech. Univ. Kharkov 15 (1915-17), 38-45.
[3] BOMBIERI, E., DEGIORGI, E., AND GIUSTI, E.: 'Minimal cones
and the Bernstein problem', Invent. Math. 7 (1969), 243-268.
[4] CALABI, E.: 'Minimal immersions of surfaces in euclidean
spaces', J. Diff. Geom. 1 (1967), 111-125.
[5] CHERN, S.S.: 'Brief survey of minimal submanifolds',
Tagungsbericht Oberwolfach (1969).
[6] CHERN, S.S.: 'Differential geometry, its past and its future':
Actes Congres Intern. Mathem., Vol. 1, 1970, pp. 41-53.
[7] DEGIORGI, E.: 'Una estensione del teoreme di Bernstein',
Ann. Sc. Norm. Sup. Pisa 19 (1965), 79-85.
BERNSTEIN-VON MISES THEOREM
[8] FLEMING, W.H.: 'On the oriented Plateau problem', Rend.
Cire. Mat. Palermo II (1962), 1-22.
[9] FLEMING, W.H.: 'Flat chains over a finite coefficient group',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 121 (1966), 160-186.
[10] HSIANG, W.Y.: 'Minimal cones and the spherical Bernstein
problem 1', Ann. of Math. 118 (1983),61-73.
[11] HSIANG, W.Y.: 'Minimal cones and the spherical Bernstein
problem II', Invent. Math. 74 (1983), 351-369.
[12] HSIANG, W.Y., HSIANG, W.T., AND TOMTER, P.: 'On the
existence of minimal hyperspheres in compact symmetric
spaces', Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm. Sup. 21 (1988), 287-305.
[13] HSIANG, W.Y., AND LAWSON, JR., H.B.: 'Minimal submani-
folds of low cohomogeneity', J. Diff. Geom. 5 (1971), 1-38.
[14] HSIANG, W.Y., AND STERLING, I.: 'Minimal cones and the
spherical Bernstein problem III', Invent. Math. 85 (1986),
223-247.
[15] SIMONS, J.: 'Minimal varieties in Riemannian manifolds',
Ann. of Math. 88 (1968),62-105.
[16] TOMTER, P.: 'The spherical Bernstein problem in even di-
mensions and related problems', Acta Math. 158 (1987), 189-
212.
E. Straume
MSC 1991: 53C42, 57R40, 57R42
BERNSTEIN-VON MISES THEOREM - Let
{Xj: j 2 I} be independent identically distributed ran-
dom variables with a probability density depending on a
parameter () (cf. Random variable; Probability dis-
tribution). Suppose that an a priori distribution for
() is chosen. One of the fundamental theorems in the
asymptotic theory of Bayesian inference (cf. Bayesian
approach) is concerned with the convergence of the a
posteriori density of (), given Xl, ... ,Xn , to the nor-
mal density. In other words, the a posteriori distribution
tends to look like a normal distribution asymptoti-
cally. This phenomenon was first noted in the case of
independent and identically distributed observations by
P. Laplace. A related, but different, result was proved
by S. Bernstein [2], who considered the a posteriori dis-
tribution of () given the average n-l(X l + ... + Xn). R.
von Mises [12] extended the result to a posteriori distri-
butions conditioned by a finite number of differentiable
functionals of the empirical distribution function. L. Le
Cam [5] studied the problem in his work on asymptotic
properties of maximum likelihood and related Bayesian
estimates. The Bernstein-von Mises theorem about con-
vergence in the Ll-mean for the case of independent and
identically distributed random variables reads as follows,
see [3].
Let Xi, 1 :si :s
n, be independent identically
distributed random variables with probability density
f(x, ()), () E e c R. Suppose e is open and A is an a
priori probability density on e which is continuous and
positive in an open neighbourhood of the true param-
eter ()o. Let h(x,()) = logf(x,()). Suppose that {}h/{}()
and {}2h/{}()2 exist and are continuous in (). Further,
suppose that i(()) = -Eo [{}2h/{}()2] is continuous, with
111
BERNSTEIN-VON MISES THEOREM
o < i( 0) < 00. Let K (.) be a non-negative function sat-
i:
isfying
K(t) exp [- (i(Oo) 2- f)t 2 ] dt <
for some 0 < f < i(Oo). Let On be a maximum-likelihood
estimator of 0 based on X!, ... , Xn (cf. Maximum-
likelihood method) and let Ln(O) be the correspond-
ing likelihood function. It is known that under certain
regularity conditions there exists a compact neighbour-
hood UO o of 00 such that:
• On --t 00 almost surely;
• (8IogL n (0)180)I O=8 n = 0 for large n;
• n l / 2 (On - ( 0 ) converges in distribution (cf. Con-
vergence in distribution) to the normal distribution
with mean 0 and variance l/i(8 0 ) as n --t 00.
Let fn(O I Xl, ... ,xn ) denote the a posteriori density
of 0 given the observation (Xl, . .. , xn) and the a priori
probability density A( 0), that is,
f (0 I ) n~-l f(Xi, O)A(O)
n Xl,··· ,Xn = Jen~lf(Xi,4»A(4»d4>·
Let f~(t I Xl, ... ,Xn) = n- I / 2 fn(On + tn- I / 2). Then
f~ (t I X!, ... , xn) is the a posteriori density of t =
n l / 2 (0 - On).
A generalized version of the Bernstein-von Mises the-
orem, under the assumptions stated above and some ad-
dition technical conditions, is as follows.
If, for every h > 0 and 8 > 0,
e- n6 ( K(n l / 2t)A(On + t) dt --t 0
J1tl>h
then
lim roo K(t).
r/
n-7OO J-oo
. f~(t I Xl,··· , Xn) - C~;) 2
e-!i(Oo)t 2 dt =
=0 a.s. [POol.
For K(t) == 1 one finds that the a posteriori den-
sity converges to the normal density in Ll-mean con-
vergence. The result can be extended to a multi-
dimensional parameter. As an application of the above
theorem, it can be shown that the Bayesian estimator
is strongly consistent and asymptotically efficient for a
suitable class of loss functions (cf. [11]). For rates of
convergence see [4], [7], [8].
B.L.S. Prakasa Rao [6] has generalized the result to
arbitrary discrete-time stochastic processes (cf. [1]); for
extensions to diffusion processes and diffusion fields, see
[9], [10].
References
[1] BASAWA, I.V., AND PRAKASA RAO, B.L.S.: Statistical infer-
ence for stochastic processes, Acad. Press, 1980.
112
[2] BERNSTEIN, S.N.: Theory of probability, 1917. (In Russian.)
[3] BORWANKER, J.D., KALLIANPUR, G., AND PRAKASA RAO,
B.L.S.: 'The Bernstein~von Mises theorem for Markov pro-
00
cesses', Ann. Math. Stat. 43 (1971), 1241~1253.
[4] HIPP, C., AND MICHAEL, R.: 'On the Bernstein~von Mises ap-
proximation of posterior distribution', Ann. Stat. 4 (1976),
972~980.
[5] LE CAM, L.: 'On some asymptotic properties of maximum
likelihood estimates and related Bayes estimates', Univ. Cal-
ifornia Publ. Statist. 1 (1953), 277~330.
[6] PRAKASA RAO, B.L.S.: 'Statistical inference for stochastic
processes', in G. SANKARANARAYANAN (ed.): Proc. Advanced
Symp. on Probability and its Applications, Annamalai Univ.,
1976, pp. 43~ 150.
[7] PRAKASA RAO, B.L.S.: 'Rate of convergence of Bernstein~
von Mises approximation for Markov processes', Serdica 4
(1978), 36~42.
[8] PRAKASA RAO, B.L.S.: 'The equivalence between (modi-
fied) Bayes estimator and maximum likelihood estimator for
Markov processes', Ann. Inst. Statist. Math. 31 (1979), 499~
513.
[9] PRAKASA RAO, B.L.S.: 'The Bernstein~von Mises theorem for
a class of diffusion processes', Tear. Sluch. Prots. 9 (1981),
95~104. (In Russian.)
[10] PRAKASA RAO, B.L.S.: 'On Bayes estimation for diffusion
fields', in J.K. GHOSH AND J. ROY (eds.): Statistics: Applica-
tions and New Directions, Statistical Publishing Soc., 1984,
pp. 504~511.
[11] PRAKASA RAO, B.L.S.: Asymptotic theory of statistical in-
ference, Wiley, 1987.
[12] MISES, R. VON: Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung, Springer, 1931.
B.L.S. Prakasa-Rao
MSC 1991: 62A15
a.s. [Poo],
BERS SPACE - A complex Banach space of holo-
morphic automorphic forms introduced by L. Bers
(1961). Let D be an open set of the Riemann sphere
C = C U {oo} whose boundary consists of more than
two points. Then D carries a unique complete confor-
mal metric A(Z) Idzi on D with curvature -4, known as
the hyperbolic metric on D. Let G be a properly dis-
continuous group of conformal mappings of D onto it-
self (cf. also Kleinian group; Conformal mapping).
Typical examples of G are Kleinian groups (cf. also
Kleinian group), that is, a group of Mobius trans-
formations (cf. also Fractional-linear mapping) of C
acting properly discontinuously on an open set of C. By
the conformal invariance, the hyperbolic area measure
A(z)2 dx dy (z = X + iy) on D is projected to an area
measure dJ.L on the orbit space DIG. In other words, let
dJ.L(w) = A(z)2 dx dy, W = 1f(z), where 1f: D --t DIG is
the natural projection.
Fix an integer q 2: 2. A holomorphic function cp
on D is called an automorphic form of weight - 2q for G
if (cpO g). (g,)q = cp for all g E G. Then A-qlcpl is invari-.
ant under the action of G and hence may be considered
as a function on DIG. The Bers space A~ (D, G), where

1 :S p :S 00, is the complex Banach space of holomor-
phic automorphic forms r.p of weight -2q on D for G
such that the function ,X -qlr.pl on DIG belongs to the
space Lp with respect to the measure J.L. The norm in
A:(D, G) is thus given by
11r.p11 = (If ,X-pq 1r.pIP dJ.L)l /p
DIG
if 1 :S p < 00, and
11r.p11 = sup ,X -q Ir.pl
DIG
if p = 00. Automorphic forms in A:(D, G) are said to be
p-integrable if 1 :S p < 00, and bounded if p = 00. When
G is trivial, A:(D, G) is abbreviated to A:(D). Note
that A~(D, G) is isometrically embedded as a subspace
of A~(D).
Some properties of Hers spaces.
1) Let lip + lip' = 1. The Petersson scalar product
of r.p E A:(D, G) and 'l/J E A:' (D, G) is defined by
(r.p,'l/J)=!f ,X-2 q r.p-;j)dJ.L.
DIG
If 1 :S p < 00, then the Petersson scalar product estab-
lishes an anti-linear isomorphism of A:' (D, G) onto the
dual space of A:(D, G), whose operator norm is between
(q - 1)(2q - 1)-1 and 1.
2) The Poincare (theta-) series of a holomorphic
function f on D is defined by
8f = 2)f 0 g) . (g,)q
gEG
whenever the right-hand side converges absolutely and
uniformly on compact subsets of D (cf. Absolutely
convergent series; Uniform convergence). Then
8f is an automorphic form of weight -2q on D for
G. Moreover, 8 gives a continuous linear mapping of
A~(D) onto A~(D, G) of norm at most 1. For every
r.p E A:(D, G) there exists an f E A:(D) with Ilfll :S
(2q - l)(q -1)-111r.p11 such that r.p = 8f.
3) Let B be the set of branch points of the natu-
ral projection 7L Assume that: i) DIG is obtained from
a (connected) closed Riemann surface of genus g by
deleting precisely m points; and ii) 7r(B) consists of ex-
actly n points PI, ... ,Pn (possibly, m = 0 or n = 0). For
each k = 1, ... ,n, let Vk be the common multiplicity of
7r at points of 7r- 1 (Pk). Then A:(D, G) = A~(D, G) for
1 :S p :S 00 and
dimA~(D, G) =
:J] ,
+ (q -l)m + ~
= (2q -l)(g - 1) [q (1-
where [x] denotes the largest integer that does not ex-
ceed x.
BERWALD CONNECTION
4) Consider the particular case where D is the unit
disc. Then G is a Fuchsian group and 'x(z) = (1 -
IzI2)-1. It had been conjectured that A~(D, G) c
A~(D, G) for any G, until Ch. Pommerenke [6] con-
structed a counterexample. In [5] D. Niebur and M.
Sheingorn characterized the Fuchsian groups G for
which the inclusion relation holds. In particular, if G
is finitely generated, then A~ (D, G) c A~ (D, G).
5) Let G be a Fuchsian group acting on the unit disc
D. It also preserves D* = C \ D, the outside of the unit
circle. If f is conformal on D* and can be extended to a
quasi-conformal mapping of C onto itself such that
fog 0 f- 1 is a Mobius transformation for each 9 E G,
then its Schwarz ian derivative
Sf = filll' _~ (f")
2f'
2
belongs to Af(D*, G) with IISfl1 :S 6. Moreover, the set
of all such Schwarzian derivatives constitutes a bounded
domain in Af (D* ,G) including the open ball of radius
2 centred at the origin. This domain can be regarded
as a realization of the Teichmiiller space T(G) of G,
and the injection of T(G) into Af(D*, G) induced by
the Schwarzian derivative is referred to as the Bers em-
bedding.
References
[1] KRA, I.: Automorphic forms and Kleinian groups, Benjamin,
1972.
[2] LEHNER, J.: Discontinuous groups and automorphic func-
tions, Amer. Math. Soc., 1964.
[3] LEHNER, J.: 'Automorphic forms', in W.J. HARVEY (ed.): Dis-
crete Groups and Automorphic Functions, Acad. Press, 1977,
pp.73-120.
[4] NAG, S.: The complex analytic theory of Teichmiiller spaces,
Wiley, 1988.
[5] NIEBUR, D., AND SHEINGORN, M.: 'Characterization of Fuch-
sian groups whose integrable forms are bounded', Ann. of
Math. 106 (1977), 239-258.
[6] POMMERENKE, CH.: 'On inclusion relations for spaces of au-
tomorphic forms', in W.E. KIRWAN AND L. ZALCMAN (eds.):
Advances in Complex Function Theory, Vol. 505 of Lecture
Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1976, pp. 92-100.
M. Masumoto
MSC 1991: 30F35
BERWALD CONNECTION - Let TM n denote the
tangent bundle of a smooth n-dimensional manifold
M n , with zero-section removed. In Finsler geometry,
one starts with a smooth metric function F: T Mn -+
R1 and its associated metric tensor, given locally by
1·· 2
y) = "28i 8j F , i,j = 1, ... ,n,
gij(X,
where (xi, yi) are the 2n coordinates (positions and ve-
locities) and 8i and 8j denote partial differentials with
respect to Xi and yj, respectively. It is assumed that
113
BERWALD CONNECTION
(9ij) is non-singular on TMn and that F and 9ij ex-
tend continuously to the entire tangent bundle T Mn .
The pair (Mn, F) is called a Finsler space. The Euler-
Lagrange equations (cf. Euler-Lagrange equation)
of (Mn, F) describe geodesics (cf. Geodesic line) and
.
have the local description
dyi. . k dx i -
. connection Bf is the so-called Berwald connection on
~ +1jk(X,b)yJ y =0, ~-y,
where the differential of arc length is ds = F(x, dx)
and 1;k(X,y) are the usual Levi~Civita (or Christoffel)
symbols (cf. Christoffel symbol) in terms of 9ij(X, y),
its inverse 9 ij (x, y) and Oi9k/. Note that the 1}k de-
pend on y. This is not the case in Riemannian ge-
ometry, where they are the coefficients of a unique,
metric compatible, symmetric connection. In Finsler ge-
ometry there are several important connections, but
1}k(X,y) itself is not a connection. One way to pro-
ceed is as follows. Let G i = (1/2h}kyjyk and form
G~(x, y) = 8j Gi(x, y) and G~k(X, y) = 8kG~(X, y). It
can be readily proved that the G~k(X, y) transform like
a classical affine connection, in spite of their depen-
dence on y, i.e.
i j k _ -a i oxt
GjkXbXc - GbcXa + axc '
Also, the G~(x, y) have a transformation law induced
from that of G~dx, y), because G~ = G;kyk, by the
Euler theorem on homogeneous functions. Note that
G i , G; and G;k are positively homogeneous in yk of de-
gree two, one and zero, respectively. The triple Bf =
(G~k(X,y),G;(x,y),O) is an example of a pre-Finsler
connection [2], Ff = (Fjk(X, y), Nj(x, y), VA(x, y)),
meaning that:
1) the Fjk(X, y) transform just like the n 3 functions
G~k(X, y) above (they are called the coefficients of the
pre-Finsler connection on (Mn, F));
2) the n 2 functions Nj (x, y) transform just like
G~(x, y) (they are called the coefficients of a non-linear
connection on TMn) and
3) VA (x, y) is a tensor (cf. Tensor calculus) on Mn.
Using these local expressions one can further intro-
duce the vertical covariant derivative VV and the hori-
zontal covariant derivative VH, as follows: for any con-
travariant vector A r (x, y), set
1) VI:!
J
Ai = oJ·A i + Ar Fi.
rJ
and
2) VV Ai = 8-A i + Arv.: i .
J J rJ'
where Oi = Oi - NJ a r is the Finsler delta-derivative op-
erator on (Mn, F) corresponding to the non-linear con-
nection Nj(x, y). The important thing is that for any
function f: TMn -+ R 1 , 0;/ is a covariant vector. Sim-
ilar rules for higher-order tensors A(x, y) are just what
one expects and all of the above have global descriptions.
114
The Okada theorem states that for a pre-Finsler con-
nection Ff = (Fjk,Nj, VA)
on (Mn,F) such that:
VHF=O, N ji = FirjY'
r
one has Ff = Bf = (G~k' G~, 0). The pre-Finsler
(Mn,F).
Curvature of the Berwald connection. If Ai(x,y)
is a contravariant vector, then
VVVH Ai _ VHVV Ai = ArGirJk,
.
k J J k
where G~jk = V~ G~j defines the so-called (HV)-
curvature, also known as the spray curvature or Douglas
tensor [2], [1], [3]) of Bf. Also,
where the Berwald curvature tensor is
B~jk = OkG~j - Gk(arGhj) + GhjG~k - (j/k)
and the VH-torsion tensor of Bf is
R;k = OkG; - G;rGk - (j/k).
Here, the symbol (j / k) denotes that the entire expres-
sion before it is to be rewritten with the indices j and k
interchanged.
A fundamental result in Berwald geometry is that
both B~jk = 0 and G~kl = 0 if and only if (Mn, F)
is locally Minkowski. (Being locally Minkowski means
that there is an admissible change of coordinates x -+ x
so that F(x,y) is actually independent of Xi.) Conse-
quently, the geodesics in such a space have the local
expression Xi = a i s + bi , i = 1, ... , n.
Now, generally, in Berwald theory one has
whereas for n = 2,
R~k = fFKmi(ljmk -lkmj),
so that B~jk is completely determined by the so-called
Berwald-Gauss curvature K (x, y) of (Mn , F). The num-
ber f equals +1 if gij is positive definite and -1 other-
wise. The pair of contravariant vectors (li, m j ), where
li = yi / F, is called the Berwald frame. The mi are
normal vectors and are oriented. They are both of unit
length and orthogonal relative to gij(X,y). Of course,
li = 9ij l j and mi = gijm j . The scalar invariant K(x,y)
is positively homogeneous of degree zero in yi. If K > 0
everywhere, then the geodesics of (Mn, F) are Lyapunov
stable (d. Lyapunov stability); if K ::; 0 everywhere,
they are unstable [2], [4].
See also Berwald space.
References
 BESSEL POLYNOMIALS

[1) ANTONELLI, P.L., AND ZASTAWNIAK, T. (EDS.): 'Lagrange Here (3 and, are independent I-forms in yi that depend
geometry, Finsler spaces and noise applied in biology and
on x and where the number E equals + 1 if gij is positive
physics', Math. and Comput. Mod. (Special Issue) 20 (1994).
[2) ANTONELLI, P.L., INGARDEN, R.S., AND MATSUMOTO, M.:
definite and -1 otherwise (cf. also Berwald connec-
The theory of spmys and Finsler spaces with applications in tion).
physics and biology, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1993. Applications of Berwald spaces in biology, physics
[3) MATSUMOTO, M.: Foundations of Finsler geometry and spe- and stochastic processes can be found in [2], [1].
cial Finsler spaces, Kaiseisha Press, 1986.
[4) RUND, H.: The differential geometry of Finsler spaces, References
Springer, 1959. [1) ANTONELLI, P.L., AND ZASTAWNIAK, T. (EDS.): 'Lagrange
P.L. Antonelli geometry, Finsler spaces and noise applied in biology and
MSC 1991: 53C60 physics', Math. and Comput. Mod. (Special Issue) 20 (1994).
[2) ANTONELLI, P.L., INGARDEN, R.S., AND MATSUMOTO, M.:
The theory of spmys and Finsler spaces with applications in
BERWALD SPACE - The Berwald connection Br physics and biology, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1993.
satisfies P.L. Antonelli
MSC 1991: 53C60
V'~9ij = -2V'rCijk y l ,
where Cijk = 2"1 V' V
k gij =I2"8·
k gij denotes the so-called BESSEL POLYNOMIALS - Related to Bessel func-
Canan torsion tensor. Clearly, Cijk = 0 if and only if tions, [2], the Bessel polynomials {Yn(x, a, b)}~=o sat-
(Mn,F) is Riemannian (i.e., gij has no dependence on isfy
y). So, generally, V'r gij -=I- 0 nor is, generally, V'rCijk x 2y" + (ax + b)y~ - n(n + a - I)y =0
vanishing.
and are given by
A Berwald space (Mn, F) is a Finsler manifold (cf.
Finsler space) such that its Berwald coefficients G~k ( b)_~n!r(n+k+a-I)(x/b)k
are independent of yi. In fact, (Mn, F) is a Berwald Yn x,a, - L..J k!(n-k)!r(n+a-I) .
k=O
space if and only if G;kl = 0 if and only if V'rCijk = o.
The ordinary Bessel polynomials are those found with
Clearly, all Riemannian and locally Minkowski spaces
a = b = 2, [2].
are Berwald spaces (cf. also Riemannian space;
The moments associated with the Bessel polynomials
Minkowski space). L. Berwald gave a complete char-
satisfy
acterization of such spaces. He used the frame W,
mj )
and noted that (n +a - I)JLn + bJLn-l = 0, n = 0, 1, ... ,
and are given by JLn = (_b)n+l /a(a + 1) .. · (a + n - 1).
The weight equation is
where j is the so-called principal scalar invariant.
Berwald's theorem, slightly rephrased, reads as fol- x 2w' + ((2 - a)x - b)w = N(x),
lows. If (M2, F) is a Berwald space which is not locally where N(x) is any function with 0 moments. This equa-
Minkowski (i.e., K -=I- 0), then j is a constant and F(x, y) tion has been solved when
has one of the following four forms: 1/4 /4
N(x) = H(x)e- X snx 1 ,
1) E = +1, j2 < 4:
where
+ ,2) exp {~ tan- 1 ~} ,
F2 = ((32
H(x) = {I, x 2: 0,
J=V4-J2; 0, x < 0,
when b = 2 (no restriction), a-2 = 2a and a> 6(2/rr)4,
2) E = +1, j2 = 4:

d};
[3]. The weight for the ordinary Bessel polynomials was
F2 = (32 exp { found by S.S. Kim, K.H. Kwon and S.S. Han, [1], after
over 40 years of search.

r/
3) E = +1, j2 > 4: Using the three-term recurrence relation
(n +a - I)(2n +a - 2)Yn+l(x, a, b) =
F2 = (3, { ~ J , J=VJ2-4;
= [(2n + a)( 2n + a - 2) (~) + (a - 2)] .
4) E = -1: ·(2n + a - I)Yn + n(2n + a)Yn-b

F2 = (3, { ~ }
I/J
, J=Vj2+4. 10
the norm square 00 gn(x,a,b)2w(x) dx is easily calcu-
lated and equals (_b)k+lk(n) /(k+a+nd(k+n), [2], where

115
BESSEL POLYNOMIALS

X(k) = X(X - 1)··· (x - k + 1). Clearly, w generates a B is said to be a Bessel potential operator for 0
KreIn space on [0,00). (briefly, B E BPO(O)) if B E BPO(l,O) and if it gen-
erates an additive group {BV}vER, BV E BPO(II; 0),
References
[1] KIM, S.S., KWON, K.H., AND HAN, S.S.: 'Orthogonalizing
Br BV = Br+v, B O = Id [3].
weights of Tchebychev sets of polynomials', Bull. London The following assertions are basic for Bessel potential
Math. Soc. 24 (1992),361-367. operators.
[2] KRALL, H.L., AND FRINK, 0.: 'A new class of orthogonal
polynomials: The Bessel polynomials', Trans. Amer. Math.
1) For a special Lipschitz domain 0 c Rn the inclu-
Soc. 63 (1949), 100-115. sion Bo E BPO(II, 0) holds if and only if
[3] MARONI, P.: 'An integral representation for the Bessel form', r-1B±1
B o±lu = .r o.rr k
U = Bo *U
J. Camp. Appl. Math. 57 (1995), 251-260.
A.M. Krall
is a generalized convolution, with
MSC 1991: 33C10

BESSEL POTENTIAL OPERATOR - A classical

being Lp-multipliers (cf. also Multiplier theory) and
Bessel potential operator is a generalized convolution op-
O+SUPpkB cO [3].
erator (or a pseudo-differential operator)
The group of B E BPO(n) can be generated as fol-
(Id -~t cp = F-1)...v Fcp = kv * cp, lows: B'" = F- 1B,"/vF for 11 E R [3].
cp E S(Rn), liE R, 2) Let n, II and B be as in 1). There exists a gener-
alized kernel k B E S' (R n) such that Bu = k B * u for all
with symbol u E C8" (Rn); if 0 E 0 (here, 0 stands for the closure of
n), then supp kB cO.
If n' is another special Lipschitz domain and 0 E n',
where ~ = L:?=1 f)2 lox;
is the Laplace operator, F n+n' cO, then BPO(II; n') c BPO(II; n) for all II E R
and F- 1 are, respectively, the Fourier transform and [3].
its inverse, and kv (x) is a generalized kernel (cf. also 3) Let II, n be as in 1). Any operator BV E BPO(II, n)
Kernel of an integral operator). If II < 0, the kernel arranges an isomorphism BV: iI~(O) --+ iI~-V(n) of
kv is the modified Bessel function of the third kind (cf. the Bessel potential spaces of functions vanishing at the
also Bessel functions) and boundary

kv*cp(x) = r kv(x-y)cp(y)dy
iRn iI~(n) = {cp E H;(Rn): supp cp cO}

is an ordinary convolution of functions [1], [2], [5]. (the same for the P~,q (n )-spaces).
The set of functions 4) Let II, n be as in 1) and let, further, ro: S'(Rn) --+
S' (n) be the restriction and let Ro be one of its right in-
H;(Rn) = (Id _~)-8 Lp(Rn) = verses, roRncp = cp for cp E S'(O). Then the restricted
= {u = (Id-~)-8cp: cp E Lp(Rn)} , adjoint operator BV = ro(BV)*Ro: H;(O) --+ H;-V(O)
1 < p < 00, s E R, arranges an isomorphism, where H;(n) = roH;(Rn).
The isomorphism is independent of the choice of a right
is known as the Bessel potential space. inverse Rn (the same for the F;,q (n )-spaces).
(Id - ~ textends to an isomorphism between 5) For all II E R and any general Lipschitz do-
the Bessel potential spaces: (Id _~)v: H;(Rn) --+ main n c Rn (even for a manifold n with a Lip-
H;-V(Rn) [1], [2], [5], and even between more general schi tz boundary) there exist pseudo-differential opera-
Besov-Triebel-Lizorkin spaces F;,q (Rn) --+ F;,~v (R n) tors BV and BV such that B V : iI~(n) --+ iI~-V(O) and
[6]. BV: H;(n) --+ H;-V(n) will be isomorphisms (the same
Now, let 0 c R n be a special Lipschitz domain. A for the P~,q(n)- and F;,q(n)-spaces). rn(B*)VRo is inde-
linear operator B: S(Rn) --+ S,(R n ) is said to be a pendent of the choice of Ro. If [b(x,~W is the principal
Bessel potential operator of order II E R for 0 (briefly symbol of BV (cf. also Symbol of an operator), then
written as B E BPO(II, 0)) if [3]: [b(x,O]'" will be the principal symbol of B'". BV can be
i) B is translation invariant: BVh = VhB with chosen, among others, with principal symbols from the
VhCP(X) = cp(x - h), x, hE Rn; Hormander class SV(Rn) [3], [4].
ii) there exists a continuous and invertible extension 6) The operators B V and B'" from the above asser-
B: H;(Rn) --+ H;-r(Rn) for all s E R, 1 < p < 00; tion can be applied to the lifting of pseudo-differential
iii) B and its inverse B- 1 preserve supports within 0: operators: if a(x, V): iI;(n) --+ H;-r(o) is a pseudo-
supp B±lcp C 0, provided cp E C8"(R n ) and supp cp E O. differential operator with principal symbol a(x, 0, then

116

BS-ra(x, V)B- s : Lp(n) -7 Lp(n) will be an equiva-
lent pseudo-differential operator, with principal symbol
[b(x"W-ra(x,,)[b(x,')t s [3], [4].
References
[1] ARONSZAJN, N., AND SMITH, K.T.: 'Theory of Bessel poten-
tials, Part 1', Ann. Inst. Fourier 11 (1961),385-475.
[2] CALDERON, A.P.: 'Lebesque spaces of differentiable functions
and distributions', in C.B. MORREY (ed.): Partial Differen-
tial Equations, Amer. Math. Soc., 1961, pp. 33-49.
[3] DUDUCHAVA, R., AND SPECK, F.-O.: 'Pseudo-differential op-
erators on compact manifolds with Lipschitz boundary',
Math. Nachrichten 160 (1993), 149-191.
[4] SCHNEIDER, R.: 'Bessel potential operators for canonical Lip-
schitz domains', Math. Nachrichten 150 (1991),277-299.
[5] STEIN, E.: Singular integrals and differentiability properties
of functions, Princeton Univ. Press, 1970.
[6] TRIEBEL, H.: Interpolation theory, function spaces, differen-
tial operators, North-Holland, 1978.
R. Duduchava
MSC 1991: 35Sxx, 33ClO, 47B38
BESSEL PROCESSES - A family of continuous
Markov processes (cf. Markov process) (Rt, t ~ 0)
taking values in R+, parametrized by their dimension
8.
When 8 = d is an integer, (Rt, t ~ 0) may be rep-
resented as the Euclidean norm of Brownian motion
in Rd. Let Q~ be the law of the square, starting from
x ~ 0, of such a process (Rt, t ~ 0), considered as a
random variable taking values in n = C(R+,R+).
This law is infinitely divisible (cf. [7] and Infinitely-
divisible distribution). Hence, there exists a unique
family (Q~; x ~ 0, 8 ~ 0) of laws on n such that
Qx
8
* Qx'8' _ 8+8'
- Qx+x' for a1l8,8',x,x' ~ 0
(* indicates the convolution of probabilities on n), which
coincides with the family (Q~, x ~ 0), for integer dimen-
sions d.
The process of coordinates (Xt, t ~ 0) on n, under
Q~, satisfies the equation
Xt = x + 21t ..;x: d{3s + Ot, t ~ 0,
with ({3s, s ~ 0) a one-dimensional Brownian motion.
Equation (2) admits a unique strong solution, with val-
ues in R+. Call its square root a 8-dimensional Bessel
process.
Bessel processes also appear naturally in the Lam-
perti representation of the process (exp(Bt + vt), t ~ 0),
where v E Rand (Bt, t ~ 0) denotes a one-dimensional
Brownian motion. This representation is:
exp(Bt + vt) = R f~ exp(2(B.+vs» ds' t ~ 0,
where R is a 8 = 2(1 + v)-dimensional Bessel process.
This representation (3) has a number of consequences,
among which absolute continuity properties of the laws
BEST LINEAR UNBIASED ESTIMATOR
Q~ as 8 varies and x > 0 is fixed, and also the fact that
a power of a Bessel process is another Bessel process, up
to a time-change.
Special representations of Bessel processes of dimen-
sions one and three, respectively, have been obtained
by P. Levy, as (St - B t , t ~ 0), and by J. Pitman as
(2St - Bt, t ~ 0), where St = sUPs~t B s , and (Bt, t ~ 0)
is a one-dimensional Brownian motion.
Finally, the laws of the local times of (Bt, t ~ 0) con-
sidered up to first hitting times, or inverse local times,
can be expressed in terms of Q~ and Q~, respectively:
this is the content of the celebrated Ray-Knight theo-
rems (1963; [1], [5]) on Brownian local times. These the-
orems have been extended to a large class of processes,
including real-valued diffusions.
References
[1] KNIGHT, F.B.: 'Random walks and a sojourn density process
of Brownian motion', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 107 (1963),
56-86.
[2] PITMAN, J.W.: 'One-dimensional Brownian motion and the
three-dimensional Bessel process', Adv. Applied Probab. 7
(1975), 511-526.
[3] PITMAN, J.W., AND YOR, M.: 'Bessel processes and infinitely
divisible laws', in D. WILLIAMS (ed.): Stochastic Integrals,
Vol. 851 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1981.
[4] PITMAN, J.W., AND YOR, M.: 'A decomposition of Bessel
bridges', Z. Wahrsch. verw. Gebiete 59 (1982), 425-457.
[5] RAY, D.B.: 'Sojourn times of a diffusion process', Illinois J.
Math. 7 (1963), 615-630.
[6] REVUZ, D., AND YOR, M.: Continuous martingales and
Brownian motion, second ed., Springer, 1994.
[7] SHIGA, T., AND WATANABE, S.: 'Bessel diffusions as a one-
parameter family of one-dimensional diffusion processes', Z.
Wahrsch. verw. Gebiete 27 (1973), 37-46.
(1) M. Yor
MSC 1991: 60J65
BEST LINEAR UNBIASED ESTIMATOR, BL UE -
Let
(1)
(2) be a linear regression model, where Y is a random col-
umn vector of n 'measurements', X E Rnxp is a known
non-random 'plan' matrix, (3 E RPx 1 is an unknown
vector of the parameters, and E is a random 'error', or
'noise', vector with mean EE = 0 and a possibly un-
known non-singular covariance matrix V = Var(E). A
model with linear restrictions on (3 can be obviously re-
duced to (1). Without loss of generality, rank(X) = p.
Let K E RkXp; a linear unbiased estimator (LUE) of
K {3 is a statistical estimator of the form MY for some
non-random matrix M E R kxn such that EMY = K{3
(3)
for all {3 E RP Xl, i.e., M X = K. A linear unbiased es-
timator M* Y of K (3 is called a best linear unbiased
estimator (BLUE) of K{3 if Var(M*Y) :::; Var(MY)
for all linear unbiased estimators MY of K{3, i.e., if
117
BEST LINEAR UNBIASED ESTIMATOR
Var(aM.Y) ~ Var(aMY) for all linear unbiased esti-
mators MY of K{3 and all a E RIxk.
Since it is assumed that rank(X) = p, there exists a
unique best linear unbiased estimator of K {3 for any
K. It is then given by the formula K/3, where /3 =
riv = (XTV-1X)-lXTV-1y, which coincides by the
Gauss-Markov theorem (cf. Least squares, method
of) with the least square estimator of (3, defined as
argmin,8(y - X(3)Tv- 1 (y - X(3)j as usual, T stands
for transposition.
Because V = Var{t:) is normally not known, Yu.A.
Rozanov [3] has suggested to use a 'pseudo-best' estima-
tor {3"w in place of riv, with an appropriately chosen W.
This idea has been further developed by A.M. Samarov
[4] and LF. Pinelis [1]. In particular, Pinelis has ob-
tained duality theorems for the minimax risk and equa-
tions for the minimax solutions V assumed to belong
to an arbitrary known convex set V of positive-definite
(n x n)-matrices with respect to the general quadratic
risk function of the form
R(V, W) = Ev(/3w - (3)T B(/3w - (3),
VEV, W EV,
where B is any non-negative-definite (p x p )-matrix and
Ev stands for the expectation assuming Var(t:) = V.
Asymptotic versions of these results have also been given
by Pinelis for the case when the 'noise' is a second-order
stationary stochastic process with an unknown spectral
density belonging to an arbitrary, but known, convex
class of spectral densities and by Samarov in the case of
contamination classes.
References
[1] PINELIS, I.F.: 'On the minimax estimation ofregression', Th.
Probab. Appl. 35 (1990), 500-512.
[2] RAO, C.R.: Linear statistical inference and its applications,
Wiley, 1965.
[3] ROZANOV, Yu .A.: 'On a new class of estimates': Multivariate
Analysis, Vol. 2, Acad. Press, 1969, pp. 437-441.
[4] SAMAROV, A.M.: 'Robust spectral regression', Ann. Math.
Stat. 15 (1987), 99-111.
I. Pinelis
MSC 1991: 62J05
BETTI RECIPROCAL THEOREM - A theorem re-
lating two equilibrium states in the theory of small de-
formations of an elastic body [2] (cf. also Elasticity,
mathematical theory of). In physical terms, the the-
orem equates the work which would be done by the
surface tractions and body force of one state acting
through the displacements of the other state to the work
of the tractions and body force of the second state acting
through the displacements of the first.
Small displacements from the unstressed state re-
ferred to a rectangular Cartesian system Xi are denoted
118
by Ui(X). The stress components tij are symmetric and
depend only on the strains, the symmetric part of the
deformation gradient aUi / ax j. The elastic coefficients of
the linearized stress-strain relation tij = CijklUk,1 then
possess the symmetries Cijkl = Cjikl = Cijlk. The equi-
librium equations are:
a
-a
Xj
(CijkIUk,l) + Fi = 0
throughout the region V occupied by the body, where
Fi are the body force components. On the surface B of
the body, the components of traction are given by
Ti = CijkIUk,lnj,
where ni is the unit surface normal.
For an elastic body, the work required to deform an
element must depend only on the final state of strain, so
that a strain energy density exists and the elastic coef-
ficients possess the additional symmetry Cijkl = Cklij. It
follows that the differential operator in the equilibrium
equations is self-adjoint (cf. also Self-adjoint opera-
tor). For two equilibrium states Ui, u~ with body forces
F i , F[ and tractions Ti , T[, the divergence theorem and
the equilibrium equations then lead to the reciprocal
theorem
Is TiU~ dB + Iv FiU~ Iv CijkIUi,jU~,1
dV = dV =
= Is + Iv
T[Ui dB F[Ui dV,
under suitable smoothness conditions.
E. Betti used this theorem to provide a formula for
the average strain produced in a body by given forces
and to apply the method of singularities to the solution
of elastic problems (for a discussion, see [3]). The the-
orem has also been used to specify the deformation of
least strain energy among a class of deformations [4], and
to determine the resultant force and moment over part
of a surface where displacements are known by means of
certain auxiliary solutions [5]. The latter approach has
been extended to determine load-displacement relations
in problems in second-order elasticity theory [1].
References
[1] BAI, Z., AND SHIELD, R.T.: 'Load-deformation relations in
second order elasticity', Z. Angew. Math. Phys. 46 (1995),
479-506.
[2] BETTI, E., Nuovo Cimento (2) 7-8 (1872).
[3] LOVE, A.E.H.: A treatise on the mathematical theory of elas-
ticity, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1927, Reprint: Dover, 1944.
[4] SHIELD, R.T., AND ANDERSON, C.A.: 'Some least work prin-
ciples for elastic bodies', Z. Angew. Math. Phys. 17 (1966),
663-676.
[5] SHIELD, R. T.: 'Load-displacement relations for elastic bod-
ies', Z. Angew. Math. Phys. 18 (1967),682-693.
R. T. Shield
MSC 1991: 73Cxx

BEZIER CURVE ~ A parametric polynomial defined
by a degree, n, and a sequence of n + 1 'control points',
' curve IS
Po0, ... , Pn' The resu It Ing . then
t
B(t) = (~)tk(l- tt~k Pk, t E [0,1].
k=O
See Fig. 1 for an example of a cubic Bezier curve. These
curves are closely related to Bernstein polynomi-
als, and are sometimes called Bernstein~Bezier curves.
The major difference between Bezier curves and Bern-
stein polynomials is that Bezier curves are a paramet-
ric vector-valued representation based on control points,
whereas Bernstein polynomials are usually thought of as
a sequence of real-valued approximants to another func-
tion.
Fig. 1: A cubic Bezier curve
Bezier curves appear in such areas as mechanical
computer aided design (CAD). They are named after
P. Bezier, who used a closely related representation in
Renault's UNISURF CAD system in the early 1960s
(similar, unpublished, work was done by P. de Castel-
jau at Citroen in the late 1950s and early 1960s). The
1970s and 1980s saw a flowering of interest in Bezier
curves, with many CAD systems using them, and many
important developments in their theory.
The usefulness of Bezier curves resides in their many
geometric and analytical properties. There are elegant
and efficient algorithms for evaluation, differentiation,
subdivision of the curves, and conversion to other use-
ful representations. Moreover, Bezier curves interpolate
their end-points (Po and Pn ), have derivatives at the
end-points depending only on the first few or last few
control points (e.g., B'(O) = n(PI - Po)), are invariant
under affine transformations (the transformed curve is
identical to the curve obtained by applying the transfor-
mation to the control points, and then calculating the
resulting Bezier curve), lie in the convex hull of their
control points, and oscillate no more than the piecewise
linear interpolant to their control points. Bezier curves
also extend to surfaces (which are even more impor-
tant for design purposes, cf. Bezier surface), volumes,
BEZIER SPLINE
etc. in a natural manner. There is also a rational ext en-
sion of Bezier curves that allows exact representation
of conic sections. These properties and algorithms make
the curves popular in areas where shape is important. In
addition to CAD, examples of such areas include com-
puter animation and font design.
Bezier curves are not the only representation used
in these areas. One drawback of Bezier curves is that
they approximate their control points, while some de-
signers prefer to use an interpolating representation. A
larger drawback is that Bezier curves are a polynomial
representation and do not have the flexibility and gen-
erality of piecewise-polynomial representations such as
B-spline curves (cf. also Bezier spline; Box spline).
For example, Bezier curves do not have the local con-
trol property possessed by many piecewise-polynomial
representations: changing one control point of a Bezier
curve affects the entire curve. Using the end-point de-
rivative property, it is possible to join Bezier curves to
obtain piecewise-polynomial curves, but doing so creates
additional concerns not present in the B-spline represen-
tation.
Therefore, some CAD systems use Bezier curves and
surfaces, some employ the B-spline representation or
NURBS (rational B-splines), and a few use still other
representations. There is actually an elegant link be-
tween B-spline and Bezier representations, since Bezier
curves can be thought of as B-spline curves with all the
B-spline knots clustered at the end-points of a single
interval. Because of this, many algorithms for B-spline
and Bezier curves and surfaces share the same general
form, and many CAD systems based on B-splines or
NURBS contain Bezier curves and surfaces as a special
case.
There are a number of references on Bezier curves
and surfaces, with [1] the most commonly used one.
References
[lJ FARIN, G.: Curves and surfaces for computer aided geometric
design. A practical guide, Acad. Press, 1993.
Ph. Barry
MSC 1991: 65D17, 68U07
BEZIER SPLINE ~ A spline curve in R 3 , where
each polynomial spline segment is expressed in terms
of Bernstein polynomials of a fixed degree. If the
Bezier spline consists of only one segment, one speaks
of a Bezier curve (cf. also Bezier curve). Bezier splines
and curves are mainly used in the field of computer aided
geometric design (CAGD), which is concerned with the
design, approximation and representation of curves and
119
BEZIER SPLINE
surfaces by a computer. The Bezier representation over-
comes numerical and geometric drawbacks of other poly-
nomial forms. Bezier curves and surfaces were indepen-
dently developed by P. de Casteljau at Citroen (about
1959) and by P. Bezier at Renault (about 1962) for the
construction of car bodies.
Given an interval [s, t], s < t, the Bernstein polyno-
°
mials over [s, t] of degree 71. > (cf. Bernstein poly-
nomials) are defined by
~Br(u) = (t _1s)n (71.)
i (u . - u)n-".
- s)'(t
= 0, ... ,71..
i Special representations of cubic CC 2 Bezier splines are
In many applications, [s, t] = [0,1] and then Br(u) =
6Br(U) = (7)u i (1 - u)n-i. Every polynomial of de-
gree ::; 71. can be uniquely expressed in terms of Br (u),
i = 0, ... ,71.. Now, given 71. + 1 points h o, ... ,hn in R3
(or R m, m 2: 2), the polynomial parametric curve
n [2] ENCARNAGAO, .I., STRASSER, W., AND KLEIN, R.: Daten-
q(u) = L ~Br(u) . hi, UE[s,t],
i=O
is said to be a Bezier curve of degree 71. over [s, t]. The
points ho, ... ,hn are called Bezier points of q and they
form the vertices of its so-called Bezier polygon. For ev-
ery u E [s, t] the point q(u) lies in the convex hull of
h o, ... ,hn . Moreover, q(s) = ho, q(t) = hn' and the
lines hohl and hn-Ih n are tangent to q at u = s, re-
spectively u = t. The following de Casteljau algorithm
is an efficient and stable method for evaluating q( u) at
u E [s, t]: Setting h?(u) = hi, u = (u - s)/(t - s), and
hi(u) = (1 - U)h~-I(U) + uh~+f(u)
for r = 1, ... ,71. and i = 0, ... ,71. - r, one has ho (u) =
q(u).
Now, let l + 1 real values to, ... ,tl be given with
ti < ti+l' i = 0, ... ,l. Then a piecewise-polynomial
continuous curve q: [to, ttl ~ R3 (or Rm, m 2: 2) is
called a Bezier spline of degree 71. if and only if each
curve segment qi = ql[ti,ti+d, i = 0, ... ,l, is a Bezier
curve of degree 71., that is, it has a representation
n m
qi(U) = L ~:+1 Bj(u) . hi,j,
j=O
The CO-continuity of q is equivalent to hi,n = hHI,O,
i = 0, ... ,l - 1. There are two concepts of continuity for
the inner knots h, ... ,tl- I . First, one can use the usual
Ck-continuity of q at the inner knots with respect to the
given parameter u for each coordinate function of q (cf.
Spline). C 2-continuous (Bezier) splines are sufficient for
many practical applications.
But, since a C k Bezier spline can have singularities,
the weaker concept of geometric continuity was intro-
duced. It is known that each rectifiable curve can be
reparametrized so that the new parameter s is arc length
120
(see Natural parameter). A curve q is called CC k -
continuous at a point q(so) if and only if it is C k _
continuous at this point with respect to arc length s.
Ck-continuity implies CCk-continuity. A CC k (Bezier)
spline is CCk-continuous at its inner knots. For instance,
CCl-continuity can be characterized by tangent conti-
nuity. Furthermore, a Bezier spline q is CC 2-continuous
if and only if it has a continuous Frenet frame (cf.
Frenet trihedron) and a continuous curvature at each
inner knot. Explicit formulas for CC 2-continuity involv-
ing Bezier points can be found in the references below.
cubic ,(3-splines and cubic I'-splines (see [3] or [4]). For
rational Bezier splines see the references below.
References
[1] BOEHM, W., FAlUN, G., AND KAHMANN, J.: 'A survey of curve
and surface methods in CAGD', Computer Aided Geometric
Design 1 (1984), 160.
verarbeitung 1. Geriitetechnik, Programmierung und Anwen-
dung graphischer Systeme, R. Oldenbourg, 1996.
[3] FARIN, G.: Curves and surfaces for computer aided geometric
design. A practical guide, Acad. Press, 1993.
[4] HOSCHEK, J., AND LASSER, D.: Grundlagen der ge-
ometrischen Datenverarbeitung, second ed., Teubner, 1992.
[5] MORTENSEN, M.E: Geometric modeling, Wiley, 1985.
E.F. Eisele
MSC 1991: 65D17, 68U07, 41A15, 41A50, 65D05,
65D07, 65D10, 65D15, 68U05, 68U10
BEZIER SURFACE, Bezier patch A parametric
3
polynomial surface in R that can be expressed in terms
of certain Bernstein polynomials defined over a rec-
tangle or triangle. Bezier surfaces (also called Bezier
patches) are used in the field of computer-aided geomet-
ric design (CAGD); for historical remarks see Bezier
spline. There are two types of Bezier surfaces: tensor
product Bezier surfaces and triangular Bezier surfaces.
1) Given degrees m, 71. > 0 and points h ij E R 3,
i = 0, ... ,m and j = 0, ... ,71., the parametric surface
q: [0, 1]2 ~ R3 defined by
n
q(7.t,1I) = L L Bf'(u)Bj(v) . h ij , U, v E [0,1]'
;=0 j=O
is called a tensor product B ezier surface, where Bf' (u)
and Bj (v) are Bernstein polynomials of degree m, re-
spectively 71. (see also Bezier spline). The points h ij
are called control points or Bezier points. The net of
control points is said to be the control net or Bezier net
of the surface q. Analogously as for Bezier curves (see
Bezier curve), tensor product Bezier surfaces having
an arbitrary rectangle [0,7'] X [s, t] as domain may be
introduced.
Many propmties of Bezier curves carryover to ten-
sor product Bezier surfaces. Any isoparametric curve

v = Vo = const of q is a Bezier curve p(u) = q(u,vo) =
2:::00=7=0 Bj(vo)bij ) ·Bi(u) of degree m. The Bezier
points ofp can be obtained by applying m+1 de Castel-
jau algorithms using Bezier points b ij , j = 0, ... ,n
(see Bezier spline). A point q(uo, vo) on the surface
is then obtained by performing one more de Casteljau
algorithm. Furthermore, the surface lies in the convex
hull of its Bezier points. The boundary curves of the
surface are Bezier curves whose Bezier points are the
corresponding boundary points of the Bezier net.
2) Triangular Bezier surfaces have a triangle as do-
main, therefore they are also called Bezier triangles.
Thus, let there be given an arbitrary, non-degenerate tri-
angle with vertices r, s, t E R 2 . Then any point pER2
has unique barycentric coordinates u, v, wE R with
respect to r, s, t, i.e., p = ur+vs+wt with u+v+w = 1.
For any n > 0, the bivariate Bernstein polynomials Bfjk
are defined by
n _ n! i j k
Bijk(U,V,w) - ~k' u v w
LJ . .
for all i, j, kENo, i + j + k = n, u + v + w = 1. Now,
given points bijk E R 3 , a triangular Bezier surface of
degree n is defined by
q(u,v,w) = L Bfjk(U,V,W)' bijk,
i+j+k=n
where u + v + w = 1 and u, v, w 2: 0; these conditions
characterize the barycentric coordinates of any point p
of the closed triangle r, s, t.
The notions of control (or Bezier) point and net are
defined as above. Triangular Bezier surfaces have simi-
lar properties as tensor product Bezier surfaces; in par-
ticular, there exists a modified de Casteljau algorithm,
the surface is contained in the convex hull of its Bezier
points, and the boundary curves of the surface are Bezier
curves of degree n whose Bezier points are the corre-
sponding boundary points of the Bezier net.
In analogy to Bezier curves, it is possible to build
up smooth, complex surfaces from a number of rectan-
gular or triangular Bezier patches. This leads to spline
surfaces. For rational Bezier surfaces see the references
below; higher-dimensional Bezier surfaces are treated in
[4].
References
[1] BOEHM, W., FAlUN, G., AND KAHMANN, J.: 'A survey of curve
and surface methods in CAGD', Computer Aided Geometric
Design 1 (1984), 1-60.
[2] ENCARNAgAO, J., STRASSER, W., AND KLEIN, R.: Daten-
verarbeitung 1. Geratetechnik, Programmierung und Anwen-
dung graphischer Systeme, R. Oldenbourg, 1996.
[3] FARIN, G.: Curves and surfaces for computer aided geometric
design. A practical guide, Acad. Press, 1993.
[4] HOSCHEK, J., AND LASSER, D.: Grundlagen der ge-
ometrischen Datenverarbeitung, second ed., Teubner, 1992.
[5] MORTENSEN, M.E: Geometric modeling, Wiley, 1985.
BHATTACHARYYA DISTANCE
E.F. Eisele
MSC 1991: 65D17, 68U07, 41A15, 41A50, 41A63,
65D05, 65D07, 65DlO, 65D15, 68U05, 68U10
BHATTACHARYYA DISTANCE - Several indices
have been suggested in the statistical literature to reflect
the degree of dissimilarity between any two probability
distributions (cf. Probability distribution). Such in-
dices have been variously called measures of distance be-
tween two distributions (see [1], for instance), measures
of separation (see [17]), measures of discriminatory in-
formation [8], [14], and measures of variation-distance
[13]. While these indices have not all been introduced
for exactly the same purpose, as the names given to
them imply, they have the common property of increas-
ing as the two distributions involved 'move apart'. An
index with this property may be called a measure of
divergence of one distribution from another. A general
method for generating measures of divergence has been
discussed in [2].
The Bhattacharyya distance is a measure of diver-
gence. It can be defined formally as follows. Let (n, B, v)
be a measure space, and let P be the set of all prob-
ability measures (cf. Probability measure) on B that
are absolutely continuous with respect to v. Consider
two such probability measures PI, P 2 E P and let PI and
P2 be their respective density functions with respect to
v.
The Bhattacharyya coefficient between PI and P2 ,
denoted by p(P I , P 2 ), is defined by
where dP;j dv is the Radon-Nikodym derivative (cf.
Radon-Nikodym theorem) of Pi (i = 1,2) with
respect to v. It is also known as the Kakutani coeffi-
cient [12] and the Matusita coefficient [15]. Note that
p(P I , P 2 ) does not depend on the measure v dominating
PI and P2 .
It is easy to verify that
i) 0 ~ p(P I , P 2 ) ~ 1;
ii) p(P I , P 2 ) = 1 if and only if PI = P 2 ;
iii) p(P I , P 2 ) = 0 if and only if PI is orthogonal to P 2 .
The Bhattacharyya distance between two probability
distributions PI and P2 , denoted by B(1, 2), is defined
by
Clearly, 0 ~ B(l, 2) ~ 00. The distance B(I,2) does
not satisfy the triangle inequality (see [U]). The Bhat-
tacharyya distance comes out as a special case of the
121
BHATTACHARYYA DISTANCE
Chernoff distance (taking t = 1/2):
-In inf
O~t~l
(rin pip~-t dV) .
The Hellinger distance [10] between two probability
measures Pl and P2 , denoted by H(I,2), is related to
the Bhattacharyya coefficient by the following relation:
B(I,2) is called the Bhattacharyya distance since it is
defined through the Bhattacharyya coefficient. It should
be noted that the distance defined in a statistical con-
text by A. Bhattacharyya [3] is different from B(l, 2).
The Bhattacharyya distance is successfully used in
engineering and statistical sciences. In the context of
control theory and in the study of the problem of signal
selection [11], B(I, 2) is found superior to the Kullback-
Leibler distance (cf. also Kullback-Leibler-type dis-
tance measures). If one uses the Bayes criterion for
classification and attaches equal costs to each type of
misclassification, then it has been shown [16] that the
total probability of misclassification is majorized by
exp{ - B(I, 2)}. In the case of equal covariances, maxi-
mization of B(I, 2) yields the Fisher linear discriminant
function. The Bhattacharyya di~tance is also used in
evaluating the features in a two-class pattern recog-
nition problem [18]. Furthermore, it has been applied
in time series discriminant analysis [6], [7], [5], [4].
See also [9] and the references therein.
References
[IJ ADHIKARI, B.P., AND JOSHI, D.D.: 'Distance discrimina-
tion et resume exhaustif', Publ. Inst. Statist. Univ. Paris 5
(1956), 57-74.
[2J ALI, S.M., AND SILVEY, S.D.: 'A general class of coefficients of
divergence of one distribution from another', J. Roy. Statist.
Soc. B 28 (1966), 131-142.
[3J BHATTACHARYYA, A.: 'On a measure of divergence between
two statistical populations defined by probability distribu-
tions', Bull. Calcutta Math. Soc. 35 (1943),99-109.
[4J CHAUDHURI, G.: 'Some results in Bhattacharyya distance-
based linear discrimination and in design of signals', Ph.D.
Thesis Dept. Math. Indian Inst. Technology, Kanpur, India
(1989).
[5J CHAUDHURI, G.: 'Linear discriminant function for complex
normal time series', Statistics and Probability Letters 15
(1992), 277-279.
[6J CHAUDHURI, G., BORWANKAR, J.D., AND RAO, P.R.K.:
'Bhattacharyya distance-based linear discriminant function
for stationary time series', Comm. Statist. (Theory and Meth-
ods) 20 (1991), 2195-2205.
[7J CHAUDHURI, G., BORWANKAR, J.D., AND RAO, P.R.K.:
'Bhattacharyya distance-based linear discrimination', J. In-
dian Statist. Assoc. 29 (1991), 47-56.
[8J CHERNOFF, H.: 'A measure of asymptotic efficiency for tests
of a hypothesis based on the sum of observations', A nn. Math.
Stat. 23 (1952), 493-507.
122
[9J GOOD, I.J., AND SMITH, E.P.: 'The variance and covariance
of a generalized index of similarity especially for a generaliza-
tion of an index of Hellinger and Bhattacharyya', Commun.
Statist. (Theory and Methods) 14 (1985), 3053-3061.
[lOJ HELLINGER, E.: 'Neue Begrundung der Theorie quadrat is-
cher Formen von unendlichvielen Veriinderlichen', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 36 (1909), 210-271.
[l1J KAILATH, T.: 'The divergence and Bhattacharyya distance
measures in signal selection', IEEE Trans. Comm. Techn.
COM-15 (1967), 52-60.
[12J KAKUTANI, S.: 'On equivalence of infinite product measures',
Ann. Math. Stat. 49 (1948), 214-224.
[13J KOLMOGOROV, A.N.: 'On the approximation of distributions
of sums of independent summands by infinitely divisible dis-
tributions', Sankhya 25 (1963), 159-174.
[14J KULLBACK, S.: Information theory and statistics, Wiley,
1959.
[15J MATUSITA, K.: 'A distance and related statistics in multi-
variate analysis', in P.R. KRISHNAIAH (ed.): Proc. Internat.
Symp. Multivariate Analysis, Acad. Press, 1966, pp. 187-200.
[16J MATUSITA, K.: 'Some properties of affinity and applications',
Ann. Inst. Statist. Math. 23 (1971), 137-155.
[17J RAO, C.R.: Advanced statistical methods in biometric re-
search, Wiley, 1952.
[18J RAY, S.: 'On a theoretical property of the Bhattacharyya
coefficient as a feature evaluation criterion', Pattern Recog-
nition Letters 9 (1989), 315-319.
G. Chaudhuri
MSC 1991: 62H30, 62Pxx
BIANCHI GROUP - For a positive square-free inte-
ger d > 0, the Bianchi group r d is the group PSL 2 (Od),
where Od is the ring of integers in the imaginary qua-
dratic number field Q( R). This class of groups is
of interest in may different areas. In algebra they arise
as the simplest numerically defined discrete groups. In
number theory they have been used to study the zeta-
functions of binary Hermitian forms over the rings Od.
Finally, they are of interest in the theory of Fuchsian
groups (cf. Fuchsian group) and the related theory of
Riemann surfaces (cf. Riemann surface). The Bianchi
groups can be considered as the natural algebraic gener-
alization of the classical modular group PSL 2 (Z). A
good general reference for the Bianchi groups and their
relation to the modular group is [2]. For d = 1,2,3,7,11
the rings Od have Euclidean algorithms (cf. Euclidean
algorithm) and the corresponding groups r d are the
Euclidean Bianchi groups. As is to be expected, these
are much closer in properties to the modular group than
in the non-Euclidean cases. Of particular interest is the
group rI, which is called the Picard group.
A general method to determine finite presentations
for each r d was developed by R. Swan [5] based on ge-
ometrical work of L. Bianchi, while a separate purely
algebraic method was given by P.M. Cohn [1]. A com-
puter implementation of Swan's method was derived by
R. Riley [3].

Algebraic interest centred on two questions raised in
the work of J.-P. Serre. First, Serre showed (see [4]) that
for d -I- 3 these groups do not satisfy property FA. It was
thus conjectured that they were all non-trivial free prod-
ucts with amalgamation. This was proved by B. Fine in
the Euclidean cases and by Fine and C. Frohmann in
general using topological methods. In summary:
1) For each d -I- 3, the Bianchi group r d decom-
poses as a non-trivial free product with amalgamation.
If d -I- 1,2,7,11, one has r d = PE2 (Od) *Hd G d , where
P E 2 ( Od) is the group of projective elementary matrices
over Od, G d is a group depending on d, and the amalga-
mated subgroup Hd is an amalgam of two copies of the
modular group.
The second of Serre's questions involved the congru-
ence subgroup property. If R is a commutative ring and
I is an ideal in R, the mapping R ---+ RI I induces a map-
ping SLn(R) ---+ SLn(RI1). The kernel of this mapping
is called the principal congruence subgroup modulo I.
A congruence subgroup is a subgroup of finite index
containing a principal congruence subgroup. H. Bass, J.
Milnor and Serre proved that in SLn(R) for n 2': 3, every
subgroup of finite index is a congruence subgroup. This
is false in the modular group and Serre proved that:
2) For each d the Bianchi group r d contains non-
congruence subgroups of finite index.
Another proof of this using the theory of pro-finite
groups was given by A.E. Lubotzky.
Other questions on the Bianchi groups involved their
Fuchsian subgroups. Fine determined the structure of
such Fuchsian imbeddings while C. Maclachlan and A.
Reid dealt with arithmetic Fuchsian groups (see [2]).
Work has also been done on the homology of the group
r d and on the structure of the 3-manifolds }l3 Ir d, where
}l3 is hyperbolic 3-dimensional space (see [2] for com-
plete references).
References
[1] COHN, P.M.: 'A presentation for SL2 for Euclidean quadratic
imaginary number fields', Mathematika 15 (1968), 156-163.
[2] FINE, B.: Algebraic theory of the Bianchi groups, M. Dekker,
1989.
[3] RILEY, R.: 'Applications of a computer implementation of
Poincare's theorem on fundamental polyhedra', Math. of
Compo 40 (1983), 1607-632.
[4] SERRE, J.P.: Trees, Springer, 1980.
[5] SWAN, R.G.: 'Generators and relations for certain special lin-
ear groups', Adv. in Math. 6 (1971), 1-77.
B. Fine
MSC 1991: 20G20
BIBD - An abbreviation of 'balanced incomplete
block design'. See Block design.
MSC 1991: 05B05
BILLARD METHOD
BILLARD METHOD for random covering - The Bil-
lard method was originally used to obtain a necessary
condition for almost surely covering the circle T by ran-
dom intervals of given lengths h, i2' ... (see Dvoretzky
problem). Surprisingly, this necessary condition also
turned out to be sufficient, not only in this case, but
also in many extensions of the Dvoretzky problem. Un-
aware of this fact, P. Billard chose to give a weaker and
more manageable condition, namely [1]:
L i;' exp(l1 + ... + In) =
ex:>
00, (1)
n=1
while the necessary and sufficient condition, stated by
L. Shepp in 1972 is [3]:
ex:> 1
"~n2
- exp(h + ... + in) = 00 (2)
n=1
when 1 > l1 2': l2 2': ... > 0 (see Dvoretzky problem).
Conditions (1) and (2) are quite close, but different; (2)
implies (1), but (1) does not imply (2). Both are of in-
terest when trying to cover the d-dimensional torus Td
almost surely by random translates of given convex sets
gn with volumes Vn = in (n = 1,2, ... ). In that case,
whatever d may be, (1) is necessary and (2) is sufficient.
The necessary and sufficient condition lies in between;
it is (2) when d = 1 and changes, tending to (1), as d in-
creases to infinity, at least if one restricts to homothetic
simplices [2].
The general setting for Billard's method is as follows:
X is a space, e.g., T, T d , R, or Rd; (0, A, P) is a prob-
ability space; the G n = Gn(w) (n = 1,2, ... ; W E 0)
are random independent subsets of X; and K is a fixed
subset of X. One writes Gn(w,x) = 1 if x E G n and
Gn(w,x) = 0 otherwise. The problem of covering K al-
most surely in such a way that each point belongs to
infinitely many G n reduces to verifying that the series
ex:>
diverges almost surely on K. Billard's method is to con-
sider the infinite product
IT 1- Gn(w,x) ,
n=1 1 - EGn(w, x)
where E(·) denotes mathematical expectation. If K
carries a probability measure a such that the martin-
gale
SN = f n=1
ITN
1 - Gn(w, x) a(dx)
1 - EGn(w, x)
converges in L 2 (0), then the infinite product cannot
vanish on K almost surely, and then finite covering can-
not take place. This happens whenever E(SF,r) = 0(1),
123
BILLARD METHOD
that is, when
ff kN(X, y) a(dx) a(dy) < 00,
where
= rrN 1 - EGn(w, x) - EGn(w, y)+ EGn(w, x)EGn(w, y)
n=l
(1- EG n (w,x))(1- EGn(w,y))
Therefore, K is not covered by infinitely many G n when-
ever K carries a probability measure of bounded en-
ergy with respect to the kernels kN(X, y).
In all cases of interest, this means that K has a
strictly positive capacity with respect to a kernel
k( x, y) (= koo (x, y)). In the general setting, this is not
a necessary and sufficient condition. However, it proves
necessary and sufficient in the following cases:
1) X = K = T and G n = (O,ln) + wn , with Wn in-
dependent and Lebesgue-distributed on T (the original
Dvoretzky problem; here k(x, y) = ko(x, y) and the
condition reads ko (j. Ll (T));
2) X = T, K is a compact subset of X and G n as
above;
3) X = K = Td and Gn = gn +Wn , where the gn are
homothetic simplices and the Wn are independent and
Lebesgue-distributed on Td.
The Billard method gives a rough idea of the relation
between random coverings and potential theory. To
go further, more powerful methods are needed [2] (see
Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp theorem).
For additional references, see Dvoretzky problem.
References
[1] BILLARD, P.: 'Series de Fourier aleatoirement bornees, con-
tinues, uniformement convergentes', Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm.
Sup. 82 (1965), 131-179.
[2] KAHANE, J.-P.: 'Recouvrements aJeatoires et theorie du po-
tentiel', Coli. Math. 60/1 (1990),387-411.
[3] SHEPP, L.A.: 'Covering the circle with random arcs', Israel
J. Math. 11 (1972), 328-345.
J.-P. Kahane
MSC 1991: 60D05, 60J45
BINARY TREE - A (planar) rooted tree for which
every node has a left child, a right child, neither, or both.
Three examples are:
These three are all different.
The number of binary trees with n nodes, p left chil-
dren, q right children (p + q = n - 1) is
124
The numbers n- l (;) (P~l) are called Runyon numbers
or Narayama numbers.
A complete binary tree is one in which every node
has both left and right children or is a leaf (i.e., has no
children). E.g., there are two complete binary trees with
five nodes:
A complete binary tree has an odd number of nodes,
say 2k + 1, and then the number of leaves is k + 1.
Label the k + 1 leaves from left to right with symbols
Xl, ... ,Xk+l' Then the various complete binary trees
with their k + 1 leaves labelled in this order precisely
correspond to all the different ways of putting brack-
ets in the word :1:1'" Xk+1, each way corresponding to
a computation of the product by successive multiplica-
tions of precisely two factors each time. The number of
ways of doing this, and hence the number of binary trees
with k + 1 nodes, is the Catalan number
k! 1 C:). k = 1,2, ....
The problem of all such bracketings of a product (of
numbers) was considered by E. Catalan in 1838 [1].
The correspondence between complete binary trees
and (complete) bracketings gives a bijection between
complete binary trees with leaves labelled with elements
from a set X and the free magma on X.
References
[1] CATALAN, E.: 'Note sur lIne equation alIX differences finies',
J. Math. Pures Appl. 3 (1838), 508-516.
[2] COMTET, L.: Advanced combinatorics, Reidel, 1974.
[3] GESSEL, I.M., AND STANLEY, R.P.: 'Algebraic enumeration',
in R.L. GRAHAM, M. GROTSCHEL, AND L. LOVACZ (eds.):
Handbook of Combinatorics, Vol. II, Elsevier, 1995, pp. 1021-
1062.
[4] STANLEY, R.P.: Enumerative combinatorics, Wadsworth and
Brooks/Cole, 1986.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 20M05, 05C05, 05A15
BIN ATE GROUP A group G in which ev-
ery finitely-generated subgroup H (d. also Finitely-
generated group) admits a homomorphism a =
(tH: H ---+ G and an element u = UH E G such that
for all h E H,
h = [a(h), u].
(Here, the commutator [a, b] may be taken to mean
either aba-lb- 1 or a-lb-lab.) Thus, the subgroup H is
imbedded in G both by a and by inclusion. Such groups
G arc also called pseudo-mitotic [6]. Every binate group

is both infinitely generated and an acyclic group. This
fact seems to be involved in most proofs of acyclicity of
presently known acyclic groups [2]. Existentially closed
groups are binate. Every group is a normal subgroup of
a normal subgroup of a binate group.
The structure of binate groups is revealed by the
study of a binate tower, i.e., a chain of groups Go :::;
G 1 :::; " ' , homomorphisms ai: G i -+ Gi+l and non-
trivial structure elements Ui E G i + 1 subject to rela-
tions of the above form. There is a universal binate
tower U(G o ), obtained from Go by a sequence of HNN-
extensions, with the characteristic property that every
binate tower with base Go admits a unique smallest
sub-binate tower, and this is a quotient binate tower
of U(G o ) in a unique way [5]. In particular, the group
U (1) is highly non-Hopfian and non-co-Hopfian (cf. also
Hopf group). Its properties allow one to prove that bi-
nate groups admit no non-trivial finite-dimensional lin-
ear representation over any field [1], and similarly for
many acyclic groups of automorphisms [3], [4].
References
[IJ ALPERIN, R.C., AND BERRICK, A.J.: 'Linear representations
of binate groups', J. Pure Appl. Algebra 94 (1994), 17-23.
[2J BERRICK, A.J.: 'Universal groups, binate groups and acyclic-
ity': Proc. 1987 Singapore Group Theory Conj., W. de
Gruyter, 1989.
[3J BERRICK, A.J.: 'Groups with no nontrivial linear representa-
tions', Bull. Austral. Math. Soc. 50 (1994), 1-11.
[4J BERRICK, A.J.: 'Corrigenda: Groups with no nontrivial linear
representations', Bull. Austral. Math. Soc. 52 (1995), 345-
346.
[5J BERRICK, A.J., AND VARADARAJAN, K.: 'Binate towers of
groups', Arch. Math. 62 (1994),97-111.
[6J VARADARAJAN, K.: 'Pseudo-mitotic groups', J. Pure Appl.
Algebra 37 (1985), 205-213.
A.J. Berrick
MSC 1991: 20E06, 20E07, 20Jxx
BINGHAM FLUID - A material for which, III Ulll-
directional shear flow, the shear stress T and the shear
rate (velocity gradient) e satisfy the constitutive law
T = TO + 7]oe (T > TO), (1)
e = 0 (T < TO),
when T :::: 0, with the obvious extension to T < O. This
can be written in terms of an 'effective viscosity' 7]eff,
defined by T = 7]effe, taking the form
+ R (ITI > TO),
TO
7]eff = 7]0 (2)
7]eff = 00 (ITI < TO).
This model is seen to incorporate a characteristic stress,
the 'yield stress', below which the material is regarded
as absolutely rigid.
The Bingham model is a reasonable description of
many pastes, slurries and gels; such materials include
BINGHAM FLUID
grease, paint, mud, lava, and many food and other con-
sumer products.
The extension of the model to a fully three-
dimensional description was derived by J.G. Oldroyd [5],
who proposed that the unyielded material be regarded
as a linear elastic solid and showed that the effective
viscosity and yield criterion must be
(3)
where Tij is the deviatoric stress tensor and eij is the
rate of strain tensor.
A review of elementary flow problems can be found
in [3]. The attempt to solve problems with more com-
plex kinematics has led to theoretical and computational
difficulties, stemming from over-idealized modelling (in
(1)) of the fluid below the yield point.
One should expect the flow field to contain yielded
and unyielded (rigid) zones, separated by yield sur-
faces whose location is not known a priori. These sur-
faces would be difficult to track numerically and ad hoc
smoothed out models have been proposed as a remedy
in finite-element simulations [2], [6].
These models permit some viscous creep of the un-
yielded material, as a byproduct, so to speak; but there
is a general theoretical need for some such relaxation
of the model. For in asserting that the unyielded ma-
terial is absolutely rigid, one is deprived of any means
of determining the stress distribution within it, since
the stress equilibrium equations are statically indeter-
minate, in general ([3] gives all the obvious exceptions).
This indeterminacy makes it impossible to give a satis-
factory discussion of the so-called squeeze flow paradox,
for example [4]; here, Bingham material squeezed be-
tween parallel discs should be rigid on the central plane
(because the shear stress vanishes) but must move ra-
dially outwards. In this context, the bi-viscosity model
(in which the unyielded fluid is treated as a Newtonian
liquid of large viscosity) has been used to obtain approx-
imate analytical solutions [7], and so clear up some of
the difficulties.
Some experimental justification for the use of
smoothed-out models has been provided in [1].
References
[IJ BARNES, H.A., AND WALTERS, K.: 'The yield stress myth',
Rheol. Acta 24 (1985), 323-326.
[2J BERCOVIER, M., AND ENGELMAN, M.: 'A finite element
method for incompressible non-Newtonian flows', J. Camp.
Phys. 36 (1980), 313-326.
[3J BIRD, R.B., DAI, G.C., AND YARUSSO, B.J.: 'The rheology
and flow of visco plastic materials', Rev. Chern. Eng. 1 (1983),
1-70.
[4J LIPSCOMB, G.G., AND DENN, M.M.: 'Flow of Bingham flu-
ids in complex geometries', J. Non-Newton. Fluid Mech. 14
(1984),337-346.
125
BINGHAM FLUID
[5) OLDROYD, J.G.: 'A rational formulation of the equations of
plastic flow for a Bingham solid', Proc. Cambridge Philos.
Soc. 43 (1947), 1OG-105.
[6) PAPANASTASIOU, T.C.: 'Flows of materials with yield', J.
Rheol. 31 (1987), 385-404.
[7) WILSON, S.D.R.: 'Squeezing flow of a Bingham material', J.
Non-Newton. Fluid Mech. 47 (1993), 211-219.
S.D.R. Wilson
MSC 1991: 76Dxx, 73Cxx
BIRCH-TATE CONJECTURE - Let OF be the ring
of integers of an algebraic number field F (cf. also Alge-
braic number). The Milnor K-group K 2 (OF), which is
also called the tame kernel of F, is an Abelian group
of finite order.
Let (F denote the Dedekind zeta-function of F.
If F is totally real, then (F( -1) is a non-zero rational
number, and the Birch-Tate conjecture is about a rela-
tionship between (F ( -1) and the order of K 2(0 F)'
Specifically, let w2(F) be the largest natural num-
ber N such that the Galois group of the cyclotomic
extension over F obtained by adjoining the Nth roots
of unity to F, is an elementary Abelian 2-group (cf. p-
group). Then W2 (F) . (F ( -1) is a rational integer, and
the Birch-Tate conjecture states that if F is a totally
real number field, then
A numerical example is as follows. For F = Q one has
W2(Q) = 24, (Q( -1) = -1/12; so it is predicted by the
conjecture that the order of K 2 (Z) is 2, which is correct.
What is known for totally real number fields F?
By work on the main conjecture of Iwasawa theory
[6], the Birch-Tate conjecture was confirmed up to 2-
torsion for Abelian extensions F of Q.
Subsequently, [7], the Birch-Tate conjecture was con-
firmed up to 2-torsion for arbitrary totally real number
fields F.
Moreover, [7] (see the footnote on page 499) together
with [4], also the 2-part of the Birch-Tate conjecture is
confirmed for Abelian extensions F of Q.
By the above, all that is left to be considered is the
2-part of the Birch-Tate conjecture for non-Abelian ex-
tensions F of Q. In this regard, for extensions F of Q
for which the 2-primary subgroup of K 2 (OF) is elemen-
tary Abelian, the 2-part of the Birch-Tate conjecture
has been confirmed [3].
In addition, explicit examples of families of non-
Abelian extensions F of Q for which the 2-part of the
Birch-Tate conjecture holds, have been given in [1], [2].
The Birch-Tate conjecture is related to the Lichten-
baum conjectures [5] for totally real number fields F. For
every odd natural number m, the Lichtenbaum conjec-
tures express, up to 2-torsion, the ratio of the orders of
126
K 2m (OF) and K 2m+! (OF) in terms of the value of the
zeta-function (F at -m.
References
[1) CONNER, P.E., AND HURRELBRINK, J.: Class number parity,
Vol. 8 of Pure Math., World Sci., 1988.
[2) HURRELBRINK, J.: 'Class numbers, units, and K2', in J.F.
JARDINE AND V. SNAITH (eds.): Algebmic K-theory: Connec-
tion with Geometry and Topology, Vol. 279 of NATO ASI
Series C, Kluwer Acad. Publ., 1989, pp. 87-102.
[3) KOLSTER, M.: 'The structure of the 2-Sylow subgroup of
K2(O) 1', Comment. Math. Helv. 61 (1986),376-388.
[4) KOLSTER, M.: 'A relation between the 2-primary parts of
the main conjecture and the Birch-Tate conjecture', Canad.
Math. Bull. 32, no. 2 (1989), 248-251.
[5) LICHTENBAUM, S.: 'Values of zeta functions, etale cohomol-
ogy, and algebraic K-theory', in H. BASS (ed.): Algebmic K-
theory II, Vol. 342 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1973, pp. 489-501.
[6) MAZUR, B., AND WILES, A.: 'Class fields of abelian extensions
of Q', Invent. Math. 76 (1984), 179-330.
[7) WILES, A.: 'The Iwasawa conjecture for totally real fields',
Ann. of Math. 131 (1990), 493-540.
J. Hurrelbrink
MSC 1991: 19Cxx, 19F27, 11S40
BIRKHOFF NORMAL FORM, BirkhofJ-Gustavson
normal form - Usually, a formal normal form (cf. Nor-
mal form of a system of differential equations) for a
time-independent Hamiltonian system in the neigh-
bourhood of a stationary point (cf. Normal form in a
neighbourhood of a fixed point) for which the linearized
system at the stationary point has only purely imagi-
nary eigenvalues.
Consider a Hamiltonian system on R 2n with
Hamiltonian H E c oo (R2n), i.e.
z = J dH(z) = ( (8H/8y)(x,y) )
(-8H/8x)(x, y)
with x ERn, y ERn, Z = (x,y),
J = (0-In In).
0
Suppose that H(O) = dH(O) = O. The origin is a station-
ary point and the Hamiltonian evaluated at the origin
is
H(z) = H2(Z) + H3(Z) + ... + Hk(z) + ... ,
where Hk(Z) denotes the homogeneous terms of de-
gree k. Furthermore, suppose that the matrix of the
linearized system, D(J dH)(O), is diagonalizable (over
C) with purely imaginary eigenvalues iWk, -iWk, k =
1, ... ,n. Let 0 = (Wl, ... ,wn ). The eigenvalues are
called resonant if they are rationally dependent, i.e. if
there is an integer-valued vector v such that (0, v) = 0,
where (,) is the standard inner product on R2n. The
eigenvalues are non-resonant if there is no such relation.

On Coo (R 2n), define Poisson brackets by {G, F} =
(dF, J dG), where G, F E Coo (R2n). Considering R 2n
with the symplectic structure given by the standard
symplectic form (see [1]), X H = { ,H} = J dH is the
Hamiltonian vector field generated by H.
H is said to be in normal form up to order k with
respect to H2 if {Hm' H 2 } = 0 for m = 2, ... ,k. H can
be transformed into normal form using transformations
of the type exp( X F)' These transformations can be con-
sidered as the time-1 flow of the vector field X F ( Z ), and
therefore as symplectic diffeomorphisms on R 2n. They
can also be considered as differential operators acting
on the space of homogeneous polynomials of degree k.
These two points of view are related by the fact that
Hk 0 exp(X F ) = exp(XF )(Hk)' Applying a transforma-
tion exp(XF3 ) with generating function F3 homogeneous
of degree three gives
exp(X F3 )(H) = H2 + XF3H2 + H3 + h.o.t ..
The terms of degree three are {H2, F3 } + H 3. Conse-
quently all terms in H3 that are in the image of X H2
can be removed by making the appropriate choice for
the generating function F 3 . After having made a choice
for F3 one gets
exp(XF3)(H) = H = H2 + H3 + H4 + h.o.t.,
with H3 in some complement of imXH2 .
Next, consider a transformation exp(XF4 ) now taking
a generating function F4 homogeneous of degree four.
This gives
exp(XFJ(H) = H2 + H3 + X F4 H 2 + H4 + h.o.t ..
Thus, now one can remove all terms in H4 that are in the
image of X H2 . Repeating this process means that up to
arbitrary degree one can remove all terms of H that are
in the image of X H 2 • This leads to the following idea of
normal form: H = H2 + H3 + ... is in normal form up
to degree k with respect to H2 if H m , m = 3, ... ,k,
are in some complement of im(X H2 ). When the lin-
earized system is diagonalizable, ker(X H2 ) can be cho-
sen as a complement to im(X H2 ), giving {H2' Hm} = 0,
m = 2, ... ,k. Letting k -+ 00, one gets a formal normal
form.
More on the basic ideas sketched above can be found
in [9], [1], [2]. The above idea was first used, although in
an implicit way, by G.D. Birkhoff [3] for deriving a nor-
mal form in the non-resonant case. Attention was again
drawn to normal forms by F.G. Gustavson's paper [7],
where he obtained a formal normal form for the resonant
cases. A similar normal form was obtained earlier by J.
Moser [8]. Gustavson emphasized that by normalizing
up to infinite order extra formal integrals are obtained.
The normal form has more symmetry than the original
system.
BISHOP-PHELPS THEOREM
The above ideas have been extended to the case where
the linearized system has purely imaginary eigenvalues
but is not diagonalizable [11]. A normal form theory for
non-Hamiltonian vector fields has also been developed
along the above lines by using the Lie bracket of vec-
tor fields rather than Poisson brackets of functions [4],
[6]. The most general context to formulate the theory is
that of reductively filtered Lie algebras [10].
Normal forms are of importance in the qualitative
theory of differential equations. In particular, they
playa role in bifurcation theory. Using Lyapunov-
Schmidt reduction and the theory of singularities of
differentiable mappings one can determine which
number of terms of the normal form is sufficient to de-
scribe the bifurcation of stationary points and periodic
solutions up to topological equivalence [5], [6], [11].
References
[1] ABRAHAM, R., AND MARSDEN, J.E.: Foundations of mechan-
ics, Benjamin/Cummings, 1978.
[2] ARNOL'D, V.I., KOZLOV, V.V., AND NEISHSTADT, A.I.: Math-
ematical aspects of classical and celestial mechanics, Dynam-
ical systems III. Springer, 1988. (Translated from the Rus-
sian.)
[3] BIRKHOFF, G.D.: Dynamical systems, Vol. IX of Amer. Math.
Soc. Colloqium Publ., Amer. Math. Soc., 1927.
[4] CUSHMAN, R.H., AND SANDERS, J.A.: 'Nilpotent normal
forms and representation theory of sl(2, R)', in M. GOLU-
BITSKY AND J. GUCKENHEIMER (eds.): Multiparameter Bifur-
cation Theory, Vol. 56 of Contemporary Mathematics, Amer.
Math. Soc., 1986, pp. 31-5l.
[5] GOLUBITSKY, M., AND SCHAEFFER, D.G.: Singularities and
groups in bifurcation theory I, Vol. 51 of Applied Math. Sci.,
Springer, 1985.
[6] GOLUBITSKY, M., STEWART, I., AND SCHAEFFER, D.G.: Sin-
gularities and groups in bifurcation theory II, Vol. 69 of Ap-
plied Math. Sci., Springer, 1988.
[7] GUSTAVSON, F.G.: 'On constructing formal integrals of a
Hamiltonian system near an equilibrium point', Astron. J.
71 (1966), 670-686.
[8] MOSER, J.: 'New aspects in the theory of Hamiltonian sys-
tems', Comm. Pure Appl. Math. 9 (1958),81-114.
[9] MOSER, J.: Lectures on Hamiltonian systems, Vol. 81 of
Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1968.
[10] SANDERS, J.A.: 'Versal normal form computations and rep-
resentation theory', in E. TOURNIER (ed.): Computer Alge-
bra and Differential Equations, Vol. 193 of London Math.
Soc. Lecture Notes, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994, pp. 185-
210.
[11] MEER, J.C. VAN DER: The Hamiltonian Hopf bifurcation,
Vol. 1160 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1985.
J.C. van der Meer
MSC 1991: 58F36
BISHOP-PHELPS THEOREM - Consider a real
Banach space E, its (closed convex) unit ball B = {y E
E: lIyll ~ I}, and its adjoint space of continuous lin-
ear functionals E* (cf. Linear functional). If x* E E*,
its norm is defined as its supremum on the closed con-
vex set B, that is, Ilx*11 = sup{x*(y): Ilyll ~ I}. The
127
BISHOP-PHELPS THEOREM

fundamental Hahn-Banach theorem implies that if [4] JAMES, R.C.: 'Reflexivity and the supremum of linear func-
x E E and Ilxll = 1, then there exists a continuous linear tionals', Israel J. Math. 13 (1972), 289-300.

functional x* E E* such that x*(x) = 1 = Ilx*ll. Thus,

[5] PHELPS, R.R.: Convex junctions, monotone operators and
differentiability, second ed., Vol. 1364 of Lecture Notes in
these 'Hahn-Banach functionals' attain their suprema Mathematics, Springer, 1993.
on B, and by taking all positive scalar multiples of such R. Phelps
functions, there are clearly 'many' of them. The Bishop- MSC 1991: 46A22
Phelps theorem [1] asserts that such norm-attaining
functionals are actually norm dense in E*. (James' the- BITSADZE-LAVRENT'EV PROBLEM, Tricomi-
orem [4] shows that if every element of E* attains its Bitsadze-Lavrent 'ev problem - The problem of finding
supremum on B, then E is necessarily reflexive, cf. Re- a function u = u(x,y) which satisfies
flexive space.) A more general Bishop-Phelps theorem sgn(y)u xx + U yy = 0 (1)
yields the same norm density conclusion for the set of
III a mixed domain that is simply connected and
functionals in E* which attain their supremum on an
bounded by a Jordan (non-self-intersecting) 'elliptic' arc
arbitrary non-empty closed convex bounded subset C of
gl (for y > 0) with end-points 0 = (0,0) and A = (1,0)
E (the support functionals of C). In fact, if C is any
and by the 'real' characteristics (for y < 0)
non-empty closed convex subset of E, its support func-
tionals are norm dense among those functionals which g2: x - y = 1, g3: x +y = 0
are bounded above on C; moreover, the points of C at of the BitsadzeLavrent'ev equation (1), which satisfy
which support functionals attain their supremum on C the characteristic equation
(the support points) are dense in the boundary of C.
_(dy)2 + (dx)2 = 0
(This contrasts with a geometric version of the Hahn
Banach theorem, which guarantees that every boundary and meet at the point P = (1/2, -1/2), and which as-
point of a closed convex set C is a support point, pro- sumes prescribed continuous boundary values
vided C has non-empty interior.) u = q(x) on g3, (2)
This last result leads to the Brlilndsted-
where s is the arc length reckoned from the point A and
Rockafellar theorem [2], fundamental in convex

{~
analysis, about extended-real-valued lower semi- for y > 0,
continuous convex functions f on E which are proper, in sgn(y) = for .Y =o ,
the sense that -00 < f :::; 00 and f(x) < 00 for at least
-1 for y < o.
one point x. The epigraph epi(f) = {(x, r): x E E, r 2
f(x)} of such a function is a non-empty closed convex Consider the aforementioned domain (denoted by D).
subset of the product space E x R (R the real numbers) Then a function u = u( x, y) is a regular solution of the
and the subgradients of f define support functionals of Bitsadze-Lavrent 'ev problem if it satisfies the following
epi(f). The set of all subgradients to f at x (where f (x) conditions:
is finite) form the subdifferential 1) u is continuous in D = D U 8 D, 8 D = gl U g2 U g3;
2) u x , u y are continuous in D (except, possibly, at
8f(x) == the points 0 and A, where they may have poles of order
== {x* E E*: x*(y - x) :::; f(y) - f(x) for ally E E} less than 1, i.e., they may tend to infinity with order less
than 1 as x --7 0 and x --7 1);
of f at x. The Br¢ndsted-Rockafellar theorem [2] yields 3) llxx, U yy are continuous in D (except possibly on
density, within the set of points where f is finite, of those OA, where they need not exist);
x for which 8f(x) is non-empty. 4) U satisfies (1) at all points D\OA (i.e., D without
See also [3] for the Bishop-Phelps and James the- GA);
orems, [5] for the Bishop-Phelps and Br¢ndsted- 5) u satisfies the boundary conditions (2).
Rockafellar theorems. Consider the normal curve (of Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev)
References
[1] BISHOP, E., AND PHELPS, R.R.: 'The support functionals of
g~: (x _ ~) 2 + y2 = ~, y > o.
a convex set', in P. KLEE (ed.): Convexity, Vol. 7 of Proc.
Note that it is the upper semi-circle and can also be
Symp. Pure Math., Amer. Math. Soc., 1963, pp. 27-35.
[2] BR0NDSTED, A., AND ROCKAFELLAR, R.T.: 'On the subdif- given by (the upper part of)
ferentiability of convex functions', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc.
16 (1965), 605-611.
[3] DIESTEL, J.: Geometry oj Banach spaces: Selected topics,
g~: Iz-~I=~'
Vol. 485 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1975. where z = x+iy. The curve gl contains g~ in its interior.

128

The idea of A.V. Bitsadze and M.A. Lavrent'ev for
finding regular solutions of the above problem is as fol-
lows. First, solve the problem N (in D, y > 0). That
is, find a regular solution of equation (1) satisfying the
boundary conditions:
• u=p(s)ongl;
• u y = r(x) on GA, where r = r(x) is continuous
for x, 0 < x < 1, and may tend to infinity of order less
than 1 as x --+ 0 and x --+ 1.
Secondly, solve the Cauchy-Goursat problem (in D,
y < 0). That is, find a regular solution of (1) satisfying
the boundary conditions:
• u = t(x) on GA;
• u y = r(x) on GA, where t = t(x) is continuous for
x, 0 < x < 1, and may tend to infinity of order less that
1 as x --+ 0 and x --+ 1.
Finally, take into account the boundary condition
u=q(x) on g3.
Therefore, one has a Goursat problem (in D, y < 0)
for (1) with boundary conditions:
• u = t(x) on GA;
• u = q(x) on g3.
Several extensions and generalizations of the above
boundary value problem of mixed type have been es-
tablished [6], [7], [3], [4], [5], [8]. These problems are
important in fluid mechanics (aerodynamics and hydro-
dynamics, [1], [2]).
References
[1] BITSADZE, A.V.: Equations of mixed type, MacMillan, 1964.
(Translated from the Russian.)
[2] FERRARI, C., AND TRICOMI, F.G.: Transonic aerodynamics,
Acad. Press, 1968. (Translated from the Italian.)
[3] RASSIAS, J.M.: 'The BitsadzeLavrentjev problem', Bull.
Soc. Roy. Sci. Liege 48 (1979), 424-425.
[4] RASSIAS, J.M.: 'The bi-hyperbolic Bitsadze-Lavrentjev-
Rassias problem in three-dimensional Euclidean space', C.R.
Acad. Sci. Bulg. Sci. 39 (1986), 29-32.
[5] RASSIAS, J.M.: The mixed Bitsadze-Lavrentjev--Tricomi
boundary value problem, Vol. 90 of Texte zur Mathematik,
Teubner, 1986.
[6] RASSIAS, J .M.: Mixed type equations, Vol. 90, Teubner, 1986.
[7] RASSIAS, J .M.: Lecture notes on mixed type partial differen-
tial equations, World Sci., 1990.
[8] RASSIAS, J.M.: 'The well posed Tricomi-Bitsadze-Lavrentjev
problem in the Euclidean plane', Atti. Accad. Sci. Torino 124
(1990),73-83.
1.M. Rassias
MSC 1991: 35Mxx, 76N15
BITSADZE-SAMARSKII PROBLEM - See Bit-
sadze equation.
MSC 1991: 35L20
BLASCHKE-SANTALO INEQUALITY
BLASCHKE-SANTALO INEQUALITY One of
the most important affine isoperimetric inequalities
(cf. Isoperimetric inequality). It has applications to
number theory, differential equations, differential geom-
etry, stochastic geometry, as well as in the study of
Banach spaces.
The Blaschke-Santal6 inequality states that if K is
a convex body (a compact convex subset with non-
empty interior) in Euclidean n-space R n such that the
centroid of K is at the origin, then
voln(K)voln(K*) -:; voln(B)voln(B*) = w~,
with equality if and only if K is an ellipsoid. Here, vol n
denotes n-dimensional volume, B denotes the unit ball
centred at the origin, Wn = voln(B), and K* denotes
the polar body of K:
K* = {x E R n : X· Y -:; 1, for all y E K},
where X· Y denotes the standard inner product of x and
yin Rn.
The Blaschke-Santal6 inequality was proven by W.
Blaschke in 1917, for n = 2,3, and by L. Santal6 in
1949, for all n 2: 2. Both proofs use the affine isoperi-
metric inequality of affine differential geometry and
the solution of the Minkowski problem. The fact that
only ellipsoids attain the upper bound in the Blaschke-
Santal6 inequality was demonstrated by J. Saint Ray-
mond in 1981 for the class of bodies symmetric about
the origin and, in general, by C. Petty in 1985. In the
1980s, new and simpler proofs of the Blaschke-Santal6
inequality were discovered by Saint Raymond, K. Ball,
and M. Meyer and A. Pajor. (All facts can be found in,
e.g., [2] and [3].)
In the plane (n = 2), the complementary inequality
to the Blaschke-Santal6 inequality was obtained by K.
Mahler in 1939. Mahler's inequality is the special case
n = 2 of the following conjectured inequality: If K is a
convex body in R n, then
* * (n + l)(n+l)
voln(K)voln(K ) 2: voln(T)voln(T ) = (n!)2
where T is a simplex whose centroid is at the origin. For
bodies K, symmetric about the origin, the conjectured
complementary inequality is
voln(K)voln(K*) 2: voln(C)voln(C*) = 4~,
n.
where C is the cube [-1, l]n. Again, for n = 2 this in-
equality was established by Mahler in 1939. Reisner's
inequality is precisely this last inequality for the special
case when K is a zonoid (cf. Zonohedron).
A major breakthrough occurred when J. Bourgain
and V. Milman [1] showed that this last conjectured
inequality is, at least asymptotically, correct. By using
techniques from the local theory of Banach spaces, they
129
BLASCHKE-SANTALO INEQUALITY
proved the existence of a constant e > 0, independent of
n, such that for each convex body K that is symmetric
about the origin:
en
voln(K)voln(K*) ~ "
n.
Of the many applications of the Blaschke-Santa16 in-
equality, one of its most immediate consequences pro-
vides an excellent upper bound for the volume of a con-
vex body in terms of the length of the projections of
the body onto lines. Consider the following conjectured
inequality: If K is a convex body in Rn, then
voln(K) ~ :/i
wi
{r .voli(KI~)-n d~}-l/i
lG(n,t)
,
with equality if and only if K is an ellipsoid. Here,
KI~ denotes the (image of) the orthogonal projection
of K onto ~ E G(n, i), and the integration is over
G(n, i), the Grassmann manifold (Grassmannian) of
i-dimensional subspaces of R n , with respect to its usual
invariant probability measure. For the special case i = 1
this inequality is an easy consequence of the Blaschke-
Santa16 inequality. In fact, for bodies symmetric about
the origin this inequality is the Blaschke-Santa16 in-
equality! For i = n - 1 this inequality was established
in 1972 and is known as the Petty projection inequality.
The complementary inequality to the Petty projection
inequality was established by G. Zhang in 1991. All the
cases where 1 < i < n - 1 are open.
In [2) it is shown how the Blaschke-Santa16 inequality,
the curvature image inequality, Petty's geo-minimal sur-
face area inequality, and the affine isoperimetric inequal-
ity of affine differential geometry, are very closely related
in that given anyone of these inequalities, then all the
others can be easily obtained by well-known methods.
References
[1] BOURGAIN, J., AND MILMAN, V.: 'New volume ratio proper-
ties for convex symmetric bodies in R n " Invent. Math. 88
(1987), 319-340.
[2] LUTWAK, E.: 'Selected affine isoperimetric inequalities', in
P.M. GRUBER AND J.M. WILLS (eds.): Handbook of Convex
Geometry, North-Holland, 1993, pp. 151-176.
[3] SCHNEIDER, R.: Convex bodies: the Brunn-Minkowski theory,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993.
E. Lutwak
MSC 1991: 52A40
BLOCH FUNCTION - Let D be the open unit disc in
C. A holomorphic function 1 on D is called a Bloch
function if it has the property that
1!,(z)1 (1 -lzI2) < C, (1)
for a positive constant C, independent of zED. The
Bloch norm of 1 is II/IIB = 11(0)1 + Cf, where Cf is
the infimum of the constants C for which (1) holds. The
130
Bloch norm turns the set of Bloch functions into a Ba-
nach space, B, and Cf is a Mobius-invariant semi-
norm on B (cf. also Fractional-linear mapping).
Bloch functions appear naturally in connection with
Bloch's theorem. Call a disc in C in the image of 1
schlicht if it is the univalent image of some open set (cf.
Univalent function). Bloch's theorem can be stated
as follows. There is a constant B (the Bloch constant)
such that the image of every holomorphic function 1
with 1(0) = 0, 1'(0) = 1 contains the schlicht disc
{w: Iwl < B}.
A disc automorphism leads to schlicht discs of radius
at least BI/'(z)l(l -lzI2) about I(z). The radii of the
schlicht discs of Bloch functions are therefore bounded.
The following properties of Bloch functions are well-
known.
i) Bounded holomorphic functions, and moreover an-
alytic functions with boundary values in BMO (cf.
BMO-space), are in B.
ii) B coincides with the class of analytic functions
that are in BMO of the disc.
iii) B is the largest Mobius-invariant space of hoiomor-
phic functions on D that possesses non-zero continuous
functionals that are also continuous with respect to some
Mobius-invariant semi-norm, cf. [3).
iv) Bloch functions are normal, i.e., if 1 is Bloch, then
{f 0 T: T E AUT(D)} is a normal family.
v) Boundary values of Bloch functions need not exist;
also, the radial limit function can be bounded almost-
everywhere, while the Bloch function is unbounded. (Cf.
[1], [2).)
The concept of a Bloch function has been extended
to analytic functions of several complex variables on a
domain n c cn. This can be done by replacing (1) by
the estimates
II'(P)(I < CFfl(P,().
Here Ffl (P, () denotes the Kobayashi metric of n at P
in the direction (. (Cf. [2], [4], [5J.)
References
[1] ANDERSON, J.M., CLUNIE, J., AND POMMERENKE, CH.: 'On
Bloch functions and normal functions', J. reine Angew. Math.
270 (1974), 12-37.
[2] KRANTZ, S.G.: Geometric analysis and function spaces,
Vol. 81 of CBMS, Amer. Math. Soc., 1993.
[3] RUBEL, L., AND TIMONEY, R.: 'An extremal property of the
Bloch space', Pmc. Amer. Math. Soc. 43 (1974),306-310.
[4] TIMONEY, R.: 'Bloch functions in several complex variables,
1', Bull. London Math. Soc. 12 (1980), 241-267.
[5] TIMONEY, R.: 'Bloch functions in several complex variables,
II', J. reine Angew. Math. 319 (1980), 1-22.
J. Wiegerinck
MSC 1991: 30D45

BLOCK - An ideal I of a ring A is said to be inde-
composable if, for any ideals X and Y of A, I = X EB Y
implies X = 0 or Y = O. The ideal I is called a direct
summand of A if A = IEBJ for some ideal J of A. A block
of A is defined to be any ideal of A which is an indecom-
posable direct summand of A. By a block idempotent of
A one understands any primitive idempotent of the
centre of A (cf. also Centre of a ring). An ideal B of
A is a block of A if and only if B = Ae for some (nec-
essarily unique) block idempotent e of A. Thus blocks
and block idempotents determine each other.
Any decomposition of A of the form A = Bl EB ... EB
B n , where each Bi is a block of A, is called a block decom-
position of A. In general, such a decomposition need not
exist, but it does exist if A is semi-perfect (cf. Perfect
ring). In the classical case where A is semi-primitive Ar-
tinian (cf. Primitive ring; Artinian ring), each block
of A is a complete matrix ring over a suitable division
ring, and the number of blocks of A is equal to the num-
ber of non-isomorphic simple A-modules.
The study of blocks is especially important in the
context of group representation theory (see Represen-
tation of a group; [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]). Here, the role of
A is played by the group algebra RG, where G is a finite
group and the commutative ring R is assumed to be a
complete Noetherian semi-local ring (cf. also Commu-
tative ring; Noetherian ring; Local ring) such that
R/ J(R) has prime characteristic p. The most important
special cases are:
• R is a complete discrete valuation ring of charac-
teristic 0 with R/ J(R) of prime characteristic p;
• R is a field of prime characteristic p.
One of the most useful aspects of modular represen-
tation theory is the study of the distribution of the irre-
ducible ordinary characters of G into blocks. The main
idea is due to R. Brauer and can be described as fol-
lows. Let G be a finite group and let p be a prime
number. Assume that R is a complete discrete valua-
tion ring of characteristic 0, K is the quotient field of
Rand R/ J(R) is of characteristic p. Let Irr( G) be the
set of all irreducible K-characters of G (cf. Character
of a group) and write B = B(e) to indicate that B is
a block of RG whose corresponding block idempotent is
e, i.e., B = RGe. The character X E Irr( G) is said to be-
long to the block B = B(e) of RG if x(e) =1= 0 (here X is
extended by K-linearity to the mapping X: KG -+ K).
It turns out that if B 1 , . .. ,Bn are all distinct blocks
of RG, then Irr( G) is a disjoint union of the Irr(Bi),
1 ::; i ::; n, where Irr(Bi) denotes the set of irreducible
K -characters of G belonging to B i . In the classical case
studied by Brauer, namely when K is a splitting field
BLOW-UP ALGEBRA
for G, the irreducible K-characters of G are identifiable
with the irreducible C-characters of G.
Assume that, in the context of the previous para-
graph, K is a splitting field for G. Let B be a block
of RG and let pa be the order of Sylow p-subgroups of
G (cf. Sylow subgroup). It turns out that there ex-
ists an integer d 2: 0, called the defect of B, such that
pa-d is the largest power of p which divides X(l) for
all X E Irr(B). The notion of the defect of B can be
defined by purely ring-theoretic properties under much
more general circumstances. Namely, it suffices to as-
sume that R is a complete Noetherian semi-local ring
such that RjJ(R) has prime characteristic p (see [5];
Noetherian ring).
For the classical case where K is a splitting field for G,
one has the following famous problem, frequently called
the Brauer k(B)-conjecture. Let B be a block of RG and
let k( B) = IIrr( B) I. Is it true that k( B) ::; pd, where d is
the defect of B? Although many special cases have been
attacked successfully, the general case is still far from be-
ing solved. So far (1996), Brauer's k(B)-conjecture has
not been verified for all finite simple groups. Moreover,
it is not known whether Brauer's k(B)-conjecture can be
reduced to the case of simple (or at least quasi-simple)
groups (see [5]).
References
[1] KARPILOVSKY, G.: Group representations, Vol. 1, North-
Holland, 1992.
[2] KARPILOVSKY, G.: Group representations, Vol. 2, North-
Holland, 1993.
[3] KARPILOVSKY, G.: Group representations, Vol. 3, North-
Holland, 1994.
[4] KARPILOVSKY, G.: Group representations, Vol. 4, North-
Holland, 1995 .
[5] KARPILOVSKY, G.: Group representations, Vol. 5, North-
Holland, 1996.
G. Karpilovsky
MSC1991: 16Dxx, 16L30, 20C20, 20D20
BLOW-UP ALGEBRA
Geometric description. Associate to the punctured
affine n-space Xo = An \ {O} over R or C, the submani-
fold Xo of An X p n - 1 of points (x, [x]), where x varies in
Xo and [x] denotes the equivalence class of x in the pro-
jective (n -1 )-dimensional space. The closure X of Xo is
smooth and is called the blow-up of X = An with centre
the origin. In the real case and for n = 2 it is equal to
the Mobius strip. The mapping 7r: X -+ X induced
by the projection An X pn-l -+ An is an isomorphism
over Xo; its fibre over 0 is pn-l, the exceptional divisor
of 7r.
The strict transform Y' of a subvariety Y of X is
the closure of the inverse image 7r- 1 (y \ {O}) in X.
For instance, if Y is the cuspidal curve x 3 = y2 in A 2
parametrized by (t 2 , t 3 ), then Y' is given by (t 2 , t 3 , t)
131
BLOW-UP ALGEBRA
and hence is smooth. This forms the simplest example
of resolution of singularities by a blow-up.
Higher-dimensional smooth centres C in An are
blown up by decomposing An locally along C into a
Cartesian product Xl x X 2 of submanifolds, where Xl
is transversal to C with Xl n C = {p} a point. Then
X is given locally as Xl x X 2 , where Xl denotes the
blow-up of Xl in p.
Algebraic description. See also [2]. Let A be a Noe-
therian ring and let I be an ideal of A. Define the
blow-up algebra (or Rees algebra) of I as the graded
ring S = ffik?oIk (where Ik denotes the kth power of
I, 10 = A). Then Bl[(A) = Proj S is the blow-up of
Spec A with centre I and coincides with the above con-
struction when A is the polynomial ring in n variables
over R or C. Here, Proj S denotes the algebraic vari-
ety or scheme given by all homogeneous prime ideals
of S not containing the ideal S+ = ffik>oIk, and Spec A
is the affine variety or scheme of all prime ideals of A.
Local description. Any generator system
of I gives rise to a covering
k be made to have cardinality c (see [8]). S. Baldwin (see
Bl[(A) = USpecA[I/xj] = the references of [4]) showed that it is consistent with
j=l
k be chosen to be uncountably dense; the set D cannot be
= USpecA[xi/xj, 1 <:::; i <:::; k]
j=l
by k affine charts, the quotients xi/Xj being considered
as elements of the localization of A at x j (cf. Local-
ization in a commutative algebra). In the jth chart
Xj , the morphism 7r: Xj -+ X is induced by the inclu-
sion A C A[I/xj]. For 1 an ideal of A contained in I,
the strict transform of 1 is 1f = Un>O xjn(J n In)A j .
The exceptional divisor has the equation Xj = O. If the
centre C given by the ideal I of A is smooth, I is gen-
erated by part of a regular parameter system of A and
7r: Xj -+ X is given by Xi -+ XiXj for i <:::; k, i =1= j, and
by Xi -+ Xi for i > k or i = j.
Properties. Different centres may induce the same
blow-up. A composite of blow-ups is again a blow-
up. Blowing up commutes with base change; the
strict transform of a variety equals its blow-up in the
given centre. The morphism 7r is birational, proper
and surjective (cf. Birational morphism; Proper
morphism; Surjection). Any birational projective
morphism of quasi-projective varieties (cf. Quasi-
projective scheme) is the blowing up of a suitable
centre. The singularities of varieties over a field of char-
acteristic 0 can be resolved by a finite sequence of blow-
ups of smooth centres [3]. In positive characteristic, this
has only been proven for dimension <:::; 3 [1]. See [4] for
132
a survey on resolution of singularities, and [5] for an ac-
count on the role of blow-up algebras in commutative
algebra.
References
[1] ABHYANKAR, S.: Resolution of singularities of embedded al-
gebraic surfaces, Acad. Press, 1966.
[2] HARTSHORNE, R.: Algebraic geometry, Springer, 1977.
[3] HIRONAKA, H.: 'Resolution of singularities of an algebraic va-
riety over a field of characteristic zero', Ann. of Math. 79
(1964), 109326.
[4] LIPMAN, J.: 'Introduction to resolution of singularities': Pmc.
Symp. Pure Math., Vol. 29, Amer. Math. Soc., 1975, pp. 187-
230.
[5] VASCONCELOS, W.: Arithmetic of blowup algebras, Vol. 195
of Lecture Notes Series, London Math. Soc., 1994.
H. Hauser'
MSC 1991: 14B05, 14E15
BLUMBERG THEOREM - In 1922, H. Blumberg [1]
proved that if X = Y = R, the real number set, then:
Vf: X -+ Y3D c X, dense inX: (1)
Xl,'" , Xk
flD continuous.
Even for functions f: R -+ R, the set D in (1) cannot
the axioms of set theory that the set D in (1) can always
necessarily chosen so that, for one-to-one functions, jlD
is a homeomorphism (C. Goffman; see the references
of [4]); further, the set D cannot necessarily be chosen
so as to make f ID differentiable or monotonic (see J.
Cedar; see the references of [4]). Despite the above, J.B.
Brown (see the references of [4]) proved that for every
f: R -+ R there exists a set NcR, N being c-dense
in R, such that fiN is pointwise discontinuous (relative
to N).
Blumberg spaces. Let Y = R. A space X is called a
Blumberg space if (1) holds for X. J.C. Bradford and
Goffman [2] proved that a metric space X is Blum-
berg if and only if X is a Baire space, i.e., a space in
which open, non-empty subsets are of the second cate-
gory. The key lemma in their proof is the Banach cate-
gory theorem. H.E. White [12] extended the Bradford-
Goffman theorem to topological spaces X which have
a-disjoint pseudo-bases (cf. also Topological space).
He also showed that the real number set R with the
density topology is a Baire space which is not Blum-
berg. W.A.R. Weiss (see the references of [3]) gave an
example of a compact Hausdorff space which is not
Blumberg. Z. Piotrowski and A. Szymanski [7] showed
that if X is a space for which (1) holds with Y = R,
then (1) holds for every second-countable space Y. The
following characterization is of interest (see [7]): A space
is Blumber)?; if and only if for every countable covering

P of X there exists a dense subset D of X such that
P n D is open in D for every PEP, see also [9] for
more characterizations. General references for this area
are [3], [4].
The simple example of the identity function from the
real number set with the Euclidean topology into the
real number set with the discrete topology exhibits the
necessity of certain restrictions placed upon the range
space. Spaces Y for which (1) holds, where X = R,
were studied in [5].
The dynamics of Blumberg spaces. It is easy to see
that a dense or closed subspace of a Blumberg space
need not be Blumberg. The Stone-Cech compact i-
fication of a dense subspace of a completely regular
Blumberg space is a Blumberg space, a result of R. Levy
and R.H. McDowell (see the references of [7]).
The Cartesian product of Blumberg spaces need not
be a Blumberg space, since there is a metric Baire space
(hence Blumberg space) whose square is not Baire. On
the other hand, S. Todorcevic [10] showed that there
is a first-countable compact space X that is not Blum-
berg, whereas X x X is a Blumberg space. It follows
from the above theorem that the image of a Blumberg
space under an open and continuous function need not
be Blumberg.
Consider the union X of the graph Z of the function
f defined by f(x) = l/q if x = p/q in lowest terms,
o < x < 1, and a copy Y of the rational number set
between 0 and 1. The natural projection of X onto Y
(which is constant on Y) shows that even perfect, con-
tinuous functions do not necessarily preserve Blumberg
spaces. In contrast, Blumberg spaces are preserved in
pre-images under irreducible surjections [7].
M. Valdivia [11] showed that (1) holds for linear
transformations, where X and Yare metrizable linear
spaces and X is of the second category. L. Drewnowski
subsequently proved that 'dense subset' in Valdivia's
theorem cannot be replaced by 'dense linear subspace'.
Blumberg sets, i.e. dense sets D appearing in (1),
have been studied in connection with characterizations
of certain almost-continuous functions, such as quasi-
continuous functions ([6]).
References
[1] BLUMBERG, H.: 'New properties of all real functions',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 3 (1922), 113-128.
[2] BRADFORD, J.C., AND GOFFMAN, C.: 'Metric spaces in which
Blumberg's theorem holds', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 11
(1960), 667-670.
[3] BROWN, J .B.: 'Variations on Blumberg's theorem', Real Anal.
Exchange 9 (1983/84), 123-137.
[4] BROWN, J.B.: 'Restriction theorems in real analysis', Real
Anal. Exchange 20 (1994/5), 510-526.
[5] BROWN, J.B., AND PIOTROWSKI, Z.: 'Co-Blumberg spaces',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 96 (1986), 686-688.
BMO-SPACE
[6] NEBRUNN, T.: 'Quasi-continuity', Real Anal. Exchange 14
(1988-89), 259-306.
[7] PIOTROWSKI, Z., AND SZYMANSKI, A.: 'Concerning Blum-
berg's theorem', Houston J. Math. 10 (1984), 109-115.
[8] SIERPINSKI, W., AND ZYGMUND, A.: 'Sur une fonction que
est discontinue sur tout ensemble de puissance de continue',
Fund. Math. 4 (1923), 316-318.
[9] SZYMANSKI, A.: 'On m-Baire and m-Blumberg spaces': Proc.
Conf. Topology and Measure II (Rostock- Warnemunde,
GDR, 1977), Vol. Part I, Greifswald, 1980, pp. 151-161.
[10] TODORCEVIC, S.: 'Stationary sets, trees and continuums',
Publ. Inst. Math. 27 (1981), 249-262.
[11] VALDIVIA, M.: 'On the closed graph theorem in topological
spaces', Manuscr. Math. 23 (1978), 173-184.
[12] WHITE, JR., H.E.: 'Topological spaces in which Blumberg's
theorem holds', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 44 (1974),454-462.
[13] WILHELM, M.: 'Nearly lower semicontinuity and its applica-
tions': General Topology and its Applications (Fifth Prague
Topology Symp.), Heldermann, 1981, pp. 692-698.
Z. Piotrowski
MSC 1991: 54C30, 26A15
BMO-SPACE, space of functions of bounded mean
oscillation - Functions of bounded mean oscillation were
introduced by F. John and L. Nirenberg [8], [12], in con-
nection with differential equations. The definition on R n
reads as follows: Suppose that f is integrable over com-
pact sets in R n , (i.e. f E Ltoc(R)), and that Q is any
ball in Rn, with volume denoted by IQI. The mean of f
over Q will be
fQ = k
I~I f(t) dt.
By definition, f belongs to BMO if
s~p I~I k
IIfll* = If(t) - fQI dt < 00,
where the supremum is taken over all balls Q. Here, Ilfll*
is called the BMO-norm of f, and it becomes a norm on
BMO after dividing out the constant functions. Bounded
functions are in BMO and a BMO-function is locally in
Lp(R) for every p < 00. Typical examples of BMO-
functions are of the form log IFI with P a polynomial
on Rn.
The space BMO is very important in modern har-
monic analysis. Taking n = 1, the Hilbert trans-
form H, defined by Hf(x) = lim,to ~tl>' f(x - t)/tdt,
maps Loo(R) to BMO boundedly, i.e.
IIHfll* :S c Ilfll oo ·
The same is true for a large class of singular integral
transformations (cf. also Singular integral), includ-
ing Riesz transformations [12]. There is a version of
the Riesz interpolation theorem (cf. also Riesz inter-
polation formula) for analytic families of operators
{Ts}, 0 :S Res :S 1, which besides the L 2 -boundedness
assumptions on IITit II involves the (weak) assumption
II THit (f) II * :S ell f II 00 instead of the usual assumption
133
BMO-SPACE
IITHit(f)lIoo ~ cll/iloo' cf. [12]. However the most fa-
mous result is the Fefferman duality theorem, [4], [5],
[12]. It states that the dual of HI is BMO. Here, HI
denotes the real Hardy space on R n (cf. also Hardy
spaces). The result is also valid for the usual space HI
on the disc or the upper half-plane, with an appropriate
complex multiplication on BMO, cf. [7].
Calder6n-Zygmund operators on Rn form an impor-
tant class of singular integral operators. A Calderon-
ZY9mund operator can be defined as a linear operator
T: V(Rn) -t V'(R n ) with associated Schwartz ker-
nel K(x, y) defined on n = {(x, y): x, y E Rn, x #- y}
with the following properties:
i) K is locally integrable on n and satisfies
IK(x,y)1 = O(lx - yl-n);
ii) there exist constants C > 0 and 0 < , ~ 1 such
that for (x, y) En and lx' - xl ::::: Ix - yl/2,
IK(x-, y) - K(x, y)1 ~ C lx' - xl1' Ix _ yl-n-1' .
Similarly, for (x,y) E nand Iy' - yl ~ Ix - yl/2,
IK(x, y') - K(x, y)1 ~ C Iy' - YI1' Ix _ yl-n-1' .
iii) T can be extended to a bounded linear operator
on L2(Rn).
This last condition is hard to verify in general. Thus,
it is an important result, known as the T(I)-theorem,
that if i) and ii) hold, then iii) is equivalent to: T is
weakly bounded on L2 and both T(I) and T*(I) are in
BMO, cf. [3], [11), [12). It is known that diagonal opera-
tors with respect to an orthonormal wavelet basis are of
Calder6n-Zygmund type. This connection with wavelet
analysis is treated in [11).
Many of the results concerning BMO-functions have
been generalized to the setting of martingales, cf. [9) (see
also Martingale).
The duality result indicates that BMO plays a role
in complex analysis as well. The class of holomorphic
functions (cf. Analytic function) on a domain D with
boundary values in BMO is denoted by BMOA, and is
called the BMOA-space, i.e., BMOA = BMO nH2.
Carles on 's corona theorem [7) for the disc states
that for given bounded holomorphic functions II, ... ,In
such that Ei Iii I > 8 > 0 there exist bounded holomor-
phic functions 91, ... ,9n such that Ei li9i = 1. So far
(1996), this result could not be extended to the unit ball
in em, m > 1, but it can be proved if one only requires
that 9i E BMOA, cf. [13).
The definition of BMO makes sense as soon as there
are proper notions of integral and ball in a space. Thus,
BMO can be defined in spaces of homogeneous type,
cf. [1], [2], [10]. In the setting of several complex vari-
ables, several types of BMO-spaces arise on the bound-
ary of (strictly) pseudo convex domains, depending on
134
whether one considers the isotropic Euclidean balls or
the non-isotropic balls that are natural in connection
with pseudo-convexity, cf. [10].
References
[1] COIFMAN, R.R., AND WEISS, G.: Analyse harmonique non-
commutative sur certains espaces homogenes, Vol. 242 of Lec-
ture Notes in mathematics, Springer, 1971.
[2] COIFMAN, R.R., AND WEISS, G.: 'Extensions of Hardy spaces
and their use in analysis', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 83 (1977),
569-643.
[3] DAVID, G., AND JOURNE, J.-L.: 'A boundedness criterion for
generalized Calder6n-Zygmund operators', Ann. of Math.
120 (1985), 371-397.
[4] FEFFERMAN, C.: 'Characterizations of bounded mean oscilla-
tion', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 77 (1971), 587-588.
[5] FEFFERMAN, C., AND STEIN, E.M.: 'HP spaces of several vari-
ables', Acta Math. 129 (1974), 137-193.
[6] GARCIA-CUERVAS, J., AND RUBIO DE FRANCIA, J.L.:
Weighted norm inequalities and related topics, Vol. 116 of
Math. Studies, North-Holland, 1985.
[7] GARNETT, J.: Bounded analytic functions, Acad. Press, 1981.
[8] JOHN, F., AND NIRENBERG, L.: 'On functions of bounded
mean oscillation', Comm. Pure Appl. Math. 14 (1961), 415-
426.
[9] KAZAMAKI, N.: Continuous exponential martingales and
BMO, Vol. 579 of Lecture Notes in mathematics, Springer,
1994.
[10] KRANTZ, S.G.: Geometric analysis and function spaces,
Vol. 81 of CBMS, Amer. Math. Soc., 1993.
[11] MEYER, Y.: Ondelettes et operateurs II. Operateurs de
Calder6n-Zygmund, Actual. Math. Hermann, 1990.
[12] STEIN, E.M.: Harmonic analysis: real variable methods, or-
thogonality, and oscillatory integrals, Vol. 43 of Math. Series,
Princeton Univ. Press, 1993.
[13] VAROPOULOS, N.TH.: 'SMO functions and the 8 equation',
Pacific J. Math. 71 (1977), 221-272.
J. Wiegerinck
MSC 1991: 26A45, 46Exx, 32A37
BOCHNER CURVATURE TENSOR - In 1949, while
studying the Betti number of a Kahler manifold, S.
Bochner [1) (see also [26)), ad hoc and without giving
any intrinsic geometric interpretation for its meaning
or origin, introduced a new tensor as an analogue of
the Weyl conformal curvature tensor in a Riemannian
manifold. In a complex local coordinate system in a
2n-dimensional Kiihlerian manifold M 2n(Jf, 9>'1l) , it is
defined as follows:
where R~llv' Rill' and S are the Riemannian curvature
tensor (cf. Riemann tensor), the Ricci tensor, and
the scalar curvature tensor, respectively. This tensor
is nowadays called the Bochner curvature tensor.

In 1967, S. Tachibana [16] gave a tensorial expres-
sion for B in a real coordinate system in a complex
m-dimensional (m = 2n) Kahler manifold M (J, g), as
follows:
B(X, Y) = R(X, Y) +
1
+ 2(n + 2) (QY 1\ X - QX 1\ Y + QJY 1\ JX +
-QJX 1\ JY + 2g(QJX, Y)J + 2g(JX, Y)QJ) +
S 2(n + 2) (cjJY
- 4(n + l)(n + 2) (Y 1\ X + JY 1\ JX + 2g(JX, Y)J),
X, Y, Z E X(M) (here, X(M) denotes the Lie algebra
of vector fields on M), where (X 1\ Y)Z = g(Y, Z)X -
g(X, Z)Y, and R, Q and S are the Riemannian curva-
ture tensor, the Ricci operator, and the scalar curvature
on M, respectively. Bochner proved that B has the com-
ponents of B with respect to complex local coordinates.
So, B is also called the Bochner curvature tensor. Since
then the tensors Band B have been intensively studied
on Kahler manifolds; see, e.g., [3], [16], [17], [22], [23],
[24], [25], [26], [27], [28] (in particular, in [22] B is iden-
tified with the fourth-order Chern-Moser tensor [4] for
CR-manifolds. )
Generalization. M. Sitaramayya [15] and H. Mori [12]
obtained a generalized Bochner curvature tensor LB as
a component in its curvature tensor L by considering
the decomposition theory of spaces of the generalized
curvature tensor L on a real 2n-dimensional Kahlerian
vector space V, using the method of LM. Singer and
J.A. Thorpe [14] (see also [13]). If M is a Kahler mani-
fold and V = Tz(M), then LB = B.
F. Tricerri and L. Vanhecke [21] generalized this no-
tion, that is, they succeeded in defining the general-
ized Bochner curvature tensor B(R) as a component
of the element of spaces of arbitrary generalized cur-
vature tensors R on a real 2n-dimensional Hermitian
vector space V. Of course, when M is a Kahler mani-
fold and V = TAM), B(R) = LB = B. Moreover, they
also showed that, like the case of the Weyl tensor, B(R)
is invariant under conformal changes (M(g) ~ M(fJ),
fJ = eU g, where (J is a COO-function on M) in an ar-
bitrary almost-Hermitian manifold M. In this context
it means that they gave a geometrical interpretation of
the Bochner curvature tensor. These results also show
B(R) to be a complete generalization of the Bochner
curvature tensor on Kahlerian manifolds to Hermitian
manifolds (cf. also Hermitian structure). Some inter-
esting applications for B(R) have also been given.
Bochner curvature tensor on contact metric manifolds.
In 1969, M. Matsumoto and G. Chilman [11] (see also
[25]) defined on a (2n+l)-dimensional Sasakian mani-
fold M(cjJ,~,'T},g) the contact Bochner curvature tensor,
which is constructed from the Bochner curvature tensor
BOCHNER CURVATURE TENSOR
in a Kahlerian manifold by considering the Boothby-
Wang fibering [2]. It is as follows:
BC(X, Y) = R(X, Y) +
1
+ 2(n + 2) (QY 1\ X - QX 1\ Y + QcjJY 1\ cjJX +
-QcjJX 1\ cjJY + 2g( QcjJX, Y)cjJ + 2g( cjJX, Y)QcjJ +
+'T}(Y)QX 1\ ~ + 'T}(X)~ 1\ QY) +
k+2n
1\ cjJX + 2g(cjJX, Y)cjJ) +
k-4
2(n + 2) Y 1\ X +
k
+ 2(n + 2) ('T}(Y)~ 1\ X + 'T}(X)Y 1\ ~),
where X, Y E X(M), k = (S + 2n)/2(n + 1).
They called this tensor the C-Bochner tensor. Then
they also proved that the C-Bochner tensor is invari-
ant under D-homothetic deformations M(cjJ,~,'T},g) ~
M(cjJ*,C,'T}*,g*), g* = ag + a(a - 1)'T} 0 'T}, cjJ* = cjJ,
C = a-l~, 'T}* = a'T}, a a positive constant (see [19]),
on a Sasakian manifold. After that many papers about
BC on Sasakian manifolds were published; see, e.g., [5],
[11], [25], [28].
The tensor BC is generally not invariant under D-
homothetic deformations in more general manifolds, for
example K -contact Riemannian manifolds and contact
metric manifolds. So, a natural problem arises here: Is
it possible to construct a 'Bochner curvature tensor' for
manifolds of more general classes than Sasakian mani-
folds?
In 1991, H. Endo [6] defined on a K-contact Riemann-
ian manifold the E-contact Bochner curvature tensor,
constructed from BC. The E-contact Bochner curvature
tensor is invariant under D-homothetic deformations on
a K -contact Riemannian manifold and becomes BC on
a Sasakian manifold. He also showed that a K -contact
Riemannian manifold with vanishing E-contact Bochner
curvature tensor is Sasakian. Moreover, in 1993 he con-
structed [7] on a manifold of more general class than K-
contact Riemannian manifolds (to wit, a contact metric
manifold), an extended contact Bochner curvature ten-
sor by using a new tensor Be" which modified BC. It
is called the E K -contact Bochner curvature tensor. Of
course, the EK-contact Bochner curvature tensor coin-
cides with BC on a Sasakian manifold and is invariant
under D-homothetic deformations on a contact metric
manifold. Furthermore, he proved that contact metric
manifolds with vanishing E K -contact Bochner curva-
ture tensor are Sasakian (see [8] for another study on
Be").
Bochner curvature tensor on almost-C( a) manifolds.
D. Janssens and L. Vanhecke [10] defined a Bochner
135
BOCHNER CURVATURE TENSOR
curvature tensor on a class of almost-contact met-
ric manifolds, i.e., almost-C(o:) manifolds, contain-
ing Sasakian manifolds, Kemmotsu manifolds, and co-
symplectic manifolds (cf. [10]) with a decomposition the-
ory of spaces of a class of the generalized curvature ten-
sor on a real vector space. Some geometrical applications
were also given.
Modified contact Bochner curvature tensor on almost
co-symplectic manifolds. Endo [9] considered a tensor
which modifies BC and introduced a new modified con-
tact Bochner curvature tensor which is invariant with
respect to D-homothetic deformations on an almost co-
symplectic manifold M. He called it the AC-contact
Bochner curvature tensor. If M is a co-symplectic man-
ifold, the AC-contact Bochner curvature turns into the
main part of B C • He also studied almost co-symplectic
manifolds with vanishing AC-contact Bochner curvature
tensor.
Bochner-type curvature tensor on the space defined by
1] = O. In 1988, S. Tanno [20] defined on a contact
metric manifold M the Bochner-type curvature tensor
(B~xy) for the space defined by 1] = 0, in such a way that
its change under gauge transformations (1] -+ ij = a1],
a = exp(2o:) is a positive function on M) is natural;
it has a generalized form of the Chern-Moser-Tanaka
invariant [4], [18] ((B~xy) is not a tensor on M). From
this he obtained a relation between (B~xy) and the CR-
structure corresponding to (1], ¢ ).
References
[1] BOCHNER, S.: 'Curvature and Betti numbers II', Ann. of
Math. 50 (1949), 77-93.
[2] BOOTHBY, W.M., AND WANG, H.C.: 'On contact manifolds',
Ann. of Math. 68 (1958), 721-734.
[3] CHEN, B.Y., AND YANO, K.: 'Manifolds with vanishing Weyl
or Bochner curvature tensor', J. Math. Soc. Japan 27 (1975),
106-112.
[4] CHERN, S.S., AND MOSER, J.K.: 'Real hypersurfaces in com-
plex manifolds', Acta Math. 133 (1974), 219-27l.
[5] ENDO, H.: 'On anti-invariant submanifolds in Sasakian mani-
folds with vanishing contact Bochner curvature tensor', Publ.
Math. Debrecen 38 (1991), 263-271.
[6] ENDO, H.: 'On K-contact Riemannian manifolds with van-
ishing E-contact Bochner curvature tensor', Colloq. Math.
62 (1991), 293-297.
[7] ENDO, H.: 'On an extended contact Bochner curvature ten-
sor on contact metric manifolds', Colloq. Math. 65 (1993),
33-4l.
[8] ENDO, H.: 'On certain tensor fields on contact metric mani-
folds. II', Publ. Math. Debrecen 44 (1994), 157166.
[9] ENDO, H.: 'On the AC-contact Bochner curvature tensor
field on almost cosymplectic manifolds', Publ. Inst. Math.
(Beograd) (N.S.) 56 (1994), 102110.
[10] JANSSENS, D., AND VANHECKE, L.: 'Almost contact structures
and curvature tensors', Kodai Math. J.4 (1981), 1 27.
[11] MATSUMOTO, M., AND CHUMAN, G.: 'On the C-Bochner cur-
vature tensor', TRU. Math. 5 (1967),21-30.
136
[12] MORI, H.: 'On the decomposition of generalized K-curvature
tensor fields', T8hoku Math. J. 25 (1973), 225-235.
[13] NOMlzu, K.: 'On the decomposition of generalized curvature
tensor fields': Differential Geometry (In Honour of K. Yano),
Kinokuniya, 1972, pp. 335-345.
[14] SINGER, I.M., AND THORPE, J.A.: 'The curvature of 4-
dimensional Einstein spaces': Global Analysis (In Honour of
K. Kodaira), Univ. Tokyo Press, 1969, pp. 355-365.
[15] SITARAMAYYA, M.: 'Curvature tensors in Kahler manifolds',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 183 (1973),341--353.
[16] TACHIBANA, S.: 'On the Bochner curvature tensor', Natur.
Sci. Rep. Ochanomizu Univ. 18 (1967), 15-19.
[17] TACIIIBANA, S., AND LIU, R.C.: 'Notes on Kaehlerian metrics
with vanishing Bochner curvature tensor', K6dai Math. Sem.
Rep. 22 (1970), 31332l.
[18] TANAKA, N.: 'On non-degenerate real hypersurfaces, graded
Lie algebras and Cartan connections', Japan. J. Math. (N.S.)
2 (1976), 131-190.
[19] TANNO, S.: 'Partially conformal transformations with respect
to (m - I)-dimensional distributions of m-dimensional Rie-
mannian manifolds', T 8hoku Math. J. 17 (1965), 358-409.
[20] TANNO, S.: 'The Bochner type curvature tensor of contact
Riemannian structure', Hokkaido Math. J. 19 (1990), 55-66.
[21] TRICERRI, F., AND VANHECKE, L.: 'Curvature tensors on al-
most Hermitian manifolds', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 267
(1981),365-398.
[22] WEBSTER, S.M.: 'On the pseudo-conformal geometry of a
Kaehler manifold', Math. Zeit. 157 (1977), 265-270.
[23] YANO, K.: 'Manifolds and submanifolds with vanishing Weyl
or Bochner curvature tensor': Vol. 27 of Proc. Symp. Pure
Mathematics, Amer. Math. Soc., 1975, pp. 253-262.
[24] YANO, K.: 'Differential geometry of totally real submani-
folds': Topics in Differential Geometry, Acad. Press, 1976,
pp. 173-184.
[25] YANO, K.: 'Anti-invariant submanifolds of a Sasakian man-
ifold with vanishing contact Bochner curvature tensor', J.
Diff. Geom. 12 (1977), 153-170.
[26] YANO, K., AND BOCHNER, S.: Curvature and Betti numbers,
Vol. 32 of Annals of Math. Stud, Princeton Univ. Press, 1953.
[27] YANO, K., AND ISHIHARA, S.: 'Kaehlerian manifolds with con-
stant scalar curvature whose Bochner curvature tensor van-
ishes', Hokkaido Math. J. 3 (1974), 297-304.
[28] YANO, K., AND KON, M.: Structures on manifolds, World
Sci., 1984.
H. Endo
MSC 1991: 53A45, 53B35, 53C15, 53C25
BODENMILLER THEOREM- Consider a complete
quadrilateral with four sides a, b, c, d intersect-
ing in the six points P, Q, R, S, T, U. Then the
three circles that have the three diagonals P S, QT
 BOHM-AHARONOV EFFECT

and RU as diagonals intersect in the same two points. goes as follows: F = dA so that the vanishing of F gives

U
dA =0 ::::} (A = df locally).
Hence A determines a de Rham cohomology class [A]
and one has

It is clear from Stokes' theorem (cf. Stokes theorem)

that the integral Ie
A only depends on the homotopy
d b class of the loop C. In addition, the loop C determines
a homology class [C], where

P a Q R

References This means that the integral Ie

A (which can be taken
[1] FRITSCH, R.: 'Remarks on Bodenmiller's theorem', J. of Ge- equal to the number n) is just the dual pairing (.,.)
ometry 47 (1993), 23-31. between cohomology and homology, i.e.

[2] WEISS, G.: 'Eine raumliche Deutung der Vierseiteigenschaft
von Bodenmiller', Elemente der Math. 37 (1982),21-23.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 51M04
BOHM-AHARONOV EFFECT - A phenomenon in
which the topological non-triviality of a gauge field is
measurable physically [1]. Moreover, this topological
non-triviality, which can be expressed as a number n,
say, is a global topological invariant and so is not ex-
pressible by a local formula; this latter point being in
contrast to a simpler topological invariant such as the
dimension of the underlying space, which is deducible
locally.
To demonstrate this effect physically, one arranges
that a non-simply-connected region n of space has zero
electromagnetic field F. This electromagnetic field F is
related to the gauge field A by the usual relation
F=dA,
where the usual differential form language has been
used for F and A so that, if xI-' are local coordinates on
n, one has
fa A.
([A], [C]) =
An experiment to test this for the electromagnetic
field was done in [3]. The experimental setup is of the
Young's slits type, where electrons replace photons and
with the addition of a very thin solenoid. The electrons
pass through the slits and on either side of the solenoid
an interference pattern is then detected. The interfer-
ence pattern is first measured with the solenoid off.
This pattern is then found to change when the solenoid
is switched on, even though the electrons always pass
through a region where the field F is zero.
Mathematically speaking one realizes the solenoid by
a cylinder L so that
n = R3 -L ::::}
::::} HI(n;R) = H I (R3 - L;R) = Z.
The loop C is the union of the electron paths PI and
P2 ·

Given this F and n, one can devise an experiment in

which one measures a diffraction pattern associated with
the parallel transport, or holonomy, of the gauge field
A round a non-contractible loop C in n (cf. also Ho-
lonomy group). The action of parallel transport on
multi-linear objects, viewed either as vectors, spinors,
tensors, etc., or as sections of the appropriate bundles,
is via the operator PT( C), where
PT(C) = exp [fa A] .
Differential topology provides immediately the
means to see that PT( C) is non-trivial. The argument
Source
Slits Screen
Fig. 1: A schematic Bohm-Aharonov experiment
The Bohm-Aharonov effect shows that the gauge po-
tential A is a more basic object than the electromagnetic
field F.
Geometrically speaking, A is a connection and F is
a curvature. Hence, in purely geometrical language one

137
BOHM-AHARONOV EFFECT
can describe the situation by saying that a fiat connec-
tion (i.e. one for which F = 0, cf. Parallel displace-
ment) need not be trivial if 0 is not simply connected,
i.e. if 7rl (0) =I- O. This non-triviality of flat connections
when 7rl (0) =I- 0 extends to the non-Abelian or Yang-
Mills case.
For a Yang-Mills G-connection A (with G non-
Abelian), the curvature F is given by
F = dA+AI\A.
Further, if A is defined on a bundle P over a manifold
o and if it is assumed that, as in the Abelian case,
F = 0 and 7rl (0) =I- 0,
then the integral Ie
A only depends on the homotopy
class of C, which is also denoted by [C] (the context
should prevent any confusion with homology classes).
Adding to this the fact that the parallel transport opera-
tor PT(C) = exp[Je A] has the property that PT(C) E
G, one can use A to define the following linear mapping:
M A : 7rl(O) --+ G, [C] f-t PT(C).
One can check that MA E Hom(7rl(O), G) so that, as
[C] varies, the flat G-connection A on 0 gives a repre-
sentation of the fundamental group 7rl (0) in G; it is
easy to verify that if A f-t Ag = g-l Ag + g-ldg un-
der a gauge transformation g E G, then this g acts on
PT(C) via the adjoint action Ad(G). In other words,
it acts by conjugation, i.e., PT( C) f-t g-l PT( C)g. But
this means that the representations defined by MA and
MA 9 are equivalent, thus the gauge equivalence class of
flat connections [A] is characterized by an element of the
quotient
Hom(7rl(O), G)j Ad(G).
Hence the moduli space of gauge-inequivalent flat con-
nections is the space
Hom(7rl(O), G)j Ad(G).
The holonomy group element PT( C) is also of central
interest elsewhere. It occurs in the study of the adiabatic
periodic change of parameters of a quantum system de-
scribed in quantum field theory, [2], [5], where it is
called a Wilson line or Wilson loop, and in mathemat-
ics. One of the most important of these concerns the
quantum field theory formulation of knot invariants [6],
such as the Jones polynomial [4]. Flat connections also
play a distinguished part in this theory.
See also Quantum field theory; Knot theory.
References
[IJ AHARONOV, Y., AND BOHM, D.: 'Significance of electromag-
netic potentials in quantum theory', Phys. Rev. 115 (1959),
485-491.
[2J BERRY, M.V.: 'Quantal phase factors accompanying adia-
batic changes', Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 392 (1984),45-57.
138
[3J BRILL, D.R., AND WERNER, F.G.: 'Significance of electro mag-
netic potentials in the quantum theory in the interpretation of
electron fringe interferometer observations', Phys. Rev. Lett.
4 (1960), 344-347.
[4J JONES, V.F.R.: 'A polynomial invariant for knots via von
Neumann algebras', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 12 (1985), 103-
111.
[5J SIMON, B.: 'Holonomy, the quantum adiabatic theorem and
Berry's phase', Phys. Rev. Lett. 51 (1983),2167-2170.
[6J WITTEN, E.: 'Topological quantum field theory', Comm.
Math. Phys. 117 (1988), 353-386.
C. Nash
MSC 1991: 81 Txx
BOHMAN-KoROVKIN THEOREM - The starting
point is the following theorem of P.P. Korovkin (1953)
[6], [7]: for a given sequence (Ln)n::;l of positive linear
operators on the space C(A) into itself (where A = [a, b]
is a compact interval and C(A) denotes the Banach
space of all continuous real-valued functions on A with
the supremum norm Ilgll = sup{llg(x)ll: x E A}), the
relations
lim Ilek - Lnekll = 0, k = 0, 1,2,
n--+oo
imply convergence:
lim
n--+oo
111- Ln/ll = 0 for any I E C(A).
Here, the functions ek are defined by ek(x) = xk and 11·11
is the supremum norm on the interval A. An element
I E C(A) is positive (denoted by I 2: 0) if I(x) 2: 0
for all x E A, and the linear operator Ln is positive
if I 2: 0 implies Lnl 2: o. One year earlier, in 1952, H.
Bohman [2] had proved this theorem for positive opera-
tors Ln having a representation
n
Lnl = L I(Xk,n) . 'l/Jk,n
k=O
with n + 1 knots Xk,n in the open interval (0,1), and
'l/Jk,n 2: 0 on A = [0,1].
One says that the functions eo, el, e2 are a Korovkin
set for (positive linear operators on) C[a, b]. Korovkin
proved that a set of three functions in C[a, b] that re-
places the set {eo, el, e2} must be a Chebyshev sys-
tem; he also proved that there are no sets of only two
functions such that convergence for these two functions
implies convergence for all IE C(A) (cf. also Korovkin
theorems; Korovkin-type approximation theory).
The results have been generalized to other compact
Hausdorff spaces A. For example, on the circle T, the
set of functions {to, t l , t2} with to = eo, tl (x) = cos(x),
t2(X) = sin(x) is a Korovkin set for C(T). As usual,
one identifies the functions in C(T) with the contin-
uous 27r-periodic functions on R (cf, [1], [4]). On the
d-dimensional cube A = [0, l]d, the set of 2d + 1 func-
tions eO,pl, ... ,Pd,ql,'" ,qd (with Pk(X) = Xk and
Qk(X) = x~ for x = (Xl, ... ,Xd) E A and k = 1, ... ,d)

is a Korovkin set for C(A), but not a minimal Korovkin
set.
There is also the following generalization. Let X
be a Banach lattice, let .c be the class of all posi-
tive linear operators on X, and let S be a fixed sub-
set of X. Then the K orovkin closure (or shadow, or
Korovkin hull) E(S) of S is the set of all f E X
with the property that for each sequence (Ln)n~l in
.c the relations limn400 Ilg - Lngll = 0, g E S, imply
limn400 Ilf - Lnfll = O. The problem is to find E(S)
for a given S; if E(S) = X, then S is a Korovkin set (cf.
[1], [5], [8]).
In some cases one can prove a quantitative form of
the Korovkin theorem, estimating the rate of conver-
gence Ilf - Lnfll in terms of the rate of convergence for
the elements of the Korovkin set. For A = [-1,1] one
has obtained estimates in terms of the first- or second-
order modulus of continuity Wi; for example:
Ilf - Lnfll ::::: Ilfll . an + c· wl(f, ~), n = 1,2, ... ,
with an = maxk=o,1,21Iek - Lnekll and some constant
C> O.
If some Ln is a polynomial operator, i.e., Lnf is a
polynomial of degree less than or equal to n, then at
least one of the functions ek can not be approximated
better than n- 2 .
Similar results can be obtained for A = T. Also, it
is possible to estimate If(x) - Lnf(x)1 in terms of the
moduli of smoothness corresponding to
Furthermore, quantitative Korovkin theorems for posi-
tive linear operators on Lp-spaces have been obtained
(cf. [3]' [4]).
References
[1] ALTOMARE, F., AND CAMPITI, M.: Korovkin-type approxima-
tion theory and its applications, de Gruyter, 1994.
[2] BOHMAN, H.: 'On approximation of continuous and of ana-
lytic functions', Arkiv. Mat. (2) 1 (1952), 43-56.
[3] DEVORE, R.A.: The approximation of continuous functions
by positive linear operators, Vol. 293 of Lecture Notes in
Mathematics, Springer, 1972.
[4] DEVORE, R.A., AND LORENTZ, G.G.: Constructive approxi-
mation, Springer, 1993.
[5] DONNER, K.: Extension of positive operators and Ko-
rovkin theorems, Vol. 904 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1982.
[6] KOROVKIN, P.P.: 'On convergence of linear positive opera-
tors in the space of continuous functions', Dokl. Akad. Nauk.
SSSR 90 (1953), 961-964. (In Russian.)
[7] KOROVKIN, P.P.: Linear operators and approximation theory,
Hindustan Publ. Corp., 1960. (Translated from the Russian.)
[8] LORENTZ, G.G., GOLITSCHEK, M. VON, AND MAKOVOZ, Y.:
Constructive approximation: advanced problems, Springer,
1996.
H.-B. Knoop
BOMBIERI PRIME NUMBER THEOREM
MSC 1991: 41Axx, 46Bxx, 47B65
BOMBIERI PRIME NUMBER THEOREM - For
many important problems in the theory of numbers
one needs information about the average distribution
of prime numbers in arithmetic progressions (cf. also
Number theory; Prime number; Dirichlet theo-
rem). Let 7r(x; q, a) denote the number of primes p ::::: x
satisfying p == a (mod q). One looks for inequalities of
the type (A > 0 arbitrary but fixed)
L max max 17r(y; q, a) _ li((Y)) I «
r.p q
(1)
q"5,Q=Q(x) y"5,x (a,q)=l
«x· (logx)-A,
where li(y) is the logarithmic integral (cf. also Distri-
bution of prime numbers) and r.p is the Euler totient
function (cf. Totient function).
The first attempt to obtain a 'non-trivial' estimate of
this kind was made by A. Renyi in 1948. He showed
that (1) is true with Q = XO for some small posi-
tive 8. Due to subsequent refinements of M.B. Bar-
ban, Pan Cheng Dong, A.I. Vinogradov and, finally, E.
Bombieri it is known that Q = x 1 / 2(logx)-B for some
B = B(A) > O. Somewhat later, P.X. Gallagher intro-
duced major simplifications in Bombieri's arguments.
More recently, R.C. Vaughan developed an ingenious
new method which gives a still simpler proof by essen-
tially elementary means; a general reference is [2].
The critical exponent 1/2 in Q can conjecturally
be replaced by 1 - 8 (the Halberstam conjecture). Un-
der certain restrictive conditions, Fouvry-Iwaniec and
Bombieri-Friedlander-Iwaniec have given refinements
to 11/21 and 4/7; see [1].
The main advantage of Bombieri's theorem becomes
clear by noting that the classical Page-Siegel-Walfisz
prime number theorem (cf. Page theorem) only leads
to the limit Q = (logx)C for the moduli q in (1). More-
over, Bombieri's bound Q is as good, apart from the
logarithmic factor, as one can obtain on the assumption
of the generalized Riemann hypothesis (cf. Riemann
hypotheses). This makes it often possible to circum-
vent the use of the extended Riemann hypothesis, which
has far-reaching implications in number theory; for ex-
ample, it gives approaches to such important results as
the Titchmarsh divisor problem, the Hardy-Littlewood
formula for the number of representations of an integer
as a sum of a prime and two squares or Chen's cele-
brated theorem that every sufficiently large even integer
is the sum of a prime and an almost-prime having at
most two prime factors; a general reference is [3].
Bombieri's result has also been generalized to alge-
braic number fields, by a number of scientists. There are
139
BOMBIERI PRIME NUMBER THEOREM
various ways in which this can be done, but the princi-
ple underlying the treatment is always that of the large
sieve. In view of applications Hinz's multi-dimensional
version of Bombieri's theorem is of some interest, see
[4]. This leads, among other things, to an analogue of
Chen's theorem in totally real fields, see [5].
See also Selberg sieve: Density theorems.
References
[lJ BOMBIERI, E., FRIEDLANDER, J., AND IWANIEC, H.: 'Primes
in arithmetic progressions', Acta Math. 156 (1986), 203-251.
[2J DAVENPORT, H.: Multiplicative number theory, Berlin, 1980.
[3J HALBERSTAM, H., AND RICHERT, H.-E.: Sieve methods, Acad.
Press, 1974.
[4J HINZ, J.: 'A generalization of Bombieri's prime number theo-
rem to algebraic number fields', Acta Arith. LI (1988), 173
193.
[5J HINZ, J.: 'Chen's theorem in totally real algebraic number
fields', Acta Arith. LVIII (1991), 335-361.
.!. Hinz
MSC 1991: llN13, llN36
BOMBIERI-WElL BOUND - Gauss sums (cf.
Gauss sum) were first introduced by J. Lagrange in
his work on algebraic equations. They were subsequently
named for and developed by C.F. Gauss in the 'Disqui-
sitiones' as part of his work on the division of the circle.
Since then, the study of special exponential sums has
been synonymous with the study of cyclotomy. In the
19th century other exponential sums were studied in
connection with the arithmetic of cyclotomic fields (cf.
Cyclotomic field), most notably Jacobi sums, which
are intimately connected with the multiplicative struc-
ture of finite fields (cf. also Finite field). Exponential
sums capture the relation between additive and multi-
plicative properties of finite fields and, together with the
language of harmonic analysis, provide a very power-
ful tool in many applications, particularly communica-
tion science and coding theory.
Other types of sums that have arisen in a natural
way from the study of additive problems are the so-
called Kloosterman sums, which appear in the study of
partitions of integers and in the more general Hardy-
Littlewood-Ramanujan methods. From the point of
view of harmonic analysis, Kloosterman sums can be
viewed as Fourier transforms of Gauss sums.
In the 20th century, the most significant break-
through in the study of exponential sums came from
the application of algebraic-geometric methods. First,
H. Hasse discovered a close connection between bounds
for certain cubic exponential sums that generalize qua-
dratic Gauss sums and the number of rational points
on certain elliptic curves (cf. also Elliptic curve). The
formulation of this relation given by E. Artin estab-
lishes a correspondence between bounds for exponential
140
sums and the so-called Riemann hypothesis (cf. Rie-
mann hypotheses) for function fields in the hyper-
elliptic case. The subsequent developments in algebraic
geometry, leading to Weil's proof of the Riemann hy-
pothesis for algebraic curves over finite fields, resulted
in renewed interest in the study of exponential sums.
A. Weil was the first to realize that many sums, in-
cluding Gauss and Kloosterman sums, could be viewed
as constructions over the projective line. For example, if
f (x) is a rational function on the projective line P, i.e.,
the quotient of two polynomials, then the sum
S(f) = L e 27ri .(tr f(q))/p,
XEFq
where the poles of f have been excluded, has a repre-
sentation as a trace, namely as a sum of the Frobenius
characteristic roots:
S(f) = 0'1 + ... + aD,
where {ai} is a subset of all the roots of the zeta-
function of the Artin-Schreier covering (cf. also
Artin-Schreier code; Artin-Schreier theory)
c: yp - Y = f(x).
This includes the special case where f is a polynomial
of degree n (and where the characteristic of the finite
field does not divide n) and the integer D can then be
calculated exactly as n - 1. Using the bound la i I = ql/2
(Weil's Riemann hypothesis), one obtains
IS(f)1 :::; (n - l)yq.
Exponential sums of Weil-Bombieri type. The
methods of Weil were later studied by E. Bombieri,
who not only saw how to replace the projective line by
more general algebraic curves, but began the system-
atic study of exponential sums in several variables using
Artin Schreier coverings (see [1] and Artin-Schreier
theory). Bombieri's estimates were strengthened and
applied to the solution of several significant problems in
coding theory (sec [2]).
In a typical application of the Riemann hypothesis,
one starts with an expression such as
S(f) = 0'1 + ... + aD·
It happens in many cases, especially in those that arise
in the application of codes over the binary field, that
the complex numbers ai not only satisfy lai I = ql/2, but
also appear in complex-conjugate pairs. Furthermore, as
algebraic integers, they are stable under the action of the
Galois group of the rational numbers. This realization,
first observed by J.- P. Serre, permits a finer utilization of
the inequality of arithmetic-geometric means to obtain
better Archimedean bounds for exponential sums than

those found by Weil and Bombieri. A typical improve-
ment has the following form: If f is a polynomial of odd
degree d, in which case the genus of the Artin-Schreier
covering y2 - Y = f(x) is (d - 1)/2, then
L (_l)tr !(x) :::; (d; 1) [2v'21].
xEF 2 !
This is a remarkable bound. It has application to coding
theory (see [5]) and improvements to it were suggested
by coding theory. The exponential sum over the binary
field has integer values and very often it also has di-
visibility properties that permit further improvements.
In pursuing these ideas further, one is lead to consider,
in addition to the Archimedean bounds, p-adic bounds
that reflect the divisibility properties that the sums sat-
isfy.
To carry these ideas further, another great theme in
the study of exponential sums has been incorporated,
namely the Chevalley-Warning theorem. The method-
ology can best be described as follows.
By using improved versions of the Chevalley-Warning
theorem and the Ax theorem (see [4]), sharp bounds for
the divisibility of the values of exponential sums over
different field extensions are obtained. In turn, these
are transferred, by arguments using formulas of New-
ton type, to divisibility properties of the roots of the L-
function associated with the exponential sum. Armed
with this new information, one can pull off some further
powers from the roots of the zeta-function without de-
stroying their integral nature. Subsequently, Serre's old
procedure can be applied to derive bounds.
These methods have many applications. One example
is as follows. Let f be a polynomial of degree 7. Then
(see [3] for examples)
L (_l)tr!(x) :::;6·2 m - 1 [2 l - m y'q].
xEF23~
A p-adic Serre bound. Looking at the original 1949
formulation of the Weil conjectures, one sees from the
structure of the zeta-function of a non-singular algebraic
variety as a kind of Euler-Poincare characteristic that
an algebraic variety of dimension d has an internal
skeleton very close to projective d-dimensional space.
More precisely, the difference between the number of
rational points on X over F q~ and on the projective
space p d is given by a formula of the type
= L
O:-:;i9d
(_l)i
(tWiJ) ,
J=l
BOMBIERI-WEIL BOUND
where, for i even, Bi is the dimension of the primitive
part of the ith cohomology group Hi and, for i odd,
Bi = dim Hi. The bound IWij I = qdi/2 is, of course,
the Riemann hypothesis for non-singular projective al-
gebraic varieties.
One of the principal aims of [5] and [3] is to describe a
development of Serre's ideas called a p-adic Serre bound.
A surprising consequence of this development is that
some of the inner sums in the above formula are empty,
in the sense that the modified Betti numbers are zero
(cf. Betti number). More precisely (see [6], [4] and [3]),
let V C pN be a smooth projective variety (cf. Projec-
tive scheme) defined by the vanishing of r polynomi-
als F l , ... ,Fr E Fq[xo, ... ,XN]. Let JL be the integer
defined by
JL=mu (f r N + 1 - I:~=l deg(Fi)l
.
mUl:-:;i:-:;r{deg(Fi)}
,
[f (Nm::l~i;~~P~;i(~i) ) ]) .
Then, for i odd, each eigenvalue a of Frob q acting on the
etale cohomology Hi (V, Ql) is divisible by pI-L. Con-
sequently, a = 0 whenever 2JL ::::: if. Furthermore, for
the trace one has
i
Itr(Frob q )I :::; PI-L[2. qi/2 p-I-L].
(Here, bi = dim Hi(V, Qt)j for the wp(Fi).) For i even,
each eigenvalue a of Frob q acting on the primitive co-
homology Primi(V, Ql) is divisible by pI-L. Consequently,
a = 0 whenever 2JL ::::: if.
Further developments of the ideas described above
work very well in situations that are geometrically very
similar to curves, e.g., complete intersections.
References
[1] BOMBIERI, E.: 'On exponential sums in finite fields', Amer.
J. Math. 88 (1966),71-105.
[2] MORENO, C.J., AND MORENO, 0.: 'An improved Bombieri-
Weil bound and applications to coding theory', J. Number
Theory 42, no. 1 (1992), 32-46.
[3] MORENO, 0., AND MORENO, C.J.: 'A p-adic Serre bound',
preprint
[4] MORENO, 0., AND MORENO, C.J.: 'An elementary proof of a
partial improvement to the Ax-Katz theorem', in G. COHEN,
T. MORA, AND O. MORENO (eds.): Pmc. of Applied Algebra,
Algebraic Algorithms and Error-Correcting Codes-AAECC-
10, Vol. 673 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer,
1993, pp. 257-268.
[5] MORENO, 0., AND MORENO, C.J.: 'The MacWilliams-Sloane
conjecture on the tightness of the Carlitz-Uchiyama bound
and the weights of duals of BCR codes', IEEE Trans. Inform.
Theory 40, no. 6 (1994), 1894-1907.
[6] MORENO, 0., AND MORENO, C.J.: 'Improvements of the
Chevalley-Warning and the Ax-Katz theorems', Amer. J.
Math. 117, no. 1 (1995), 241-244.
[7] WElL, A.: 'On some exponential sums', Pmc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
USA 34 (1948), 204-207.
o. Moreno
141
BOMBIERI-WEIL BOUND

MSC 1991: llT22, llT23, llT24, llT71, 14G15, as the method of inclusion-and-exclusion. However, each
94B27 of (2), (3) or (4) is a very useful tool with a generally
underlying probability in such widely ranging topics as
BONFERRONI INEQUALITIES - A solution of combinatorics, number theory, information theory, sta-
the classical matching problem and the counting tistics, and extreme value theory. For detailed descrip-
inclusion-and-exclusion method (cf. also Inclusion- tions of all such applications, see [2].
and-exclusion principle) can be given in a uni- Although the Bonferroni inequalities are very effec-
fied manner by the following set of inequalities. Let tive tools in several problems, they may become imprac-
Ai, ... ,An be events on a given probability space, tical in others. In particular, when the general terms of
and let mn(A) denote the number of Aj that occur. Set Sj are known with an error term, then, because of the
So = SO,n = 1 and large number of terms in Sj as a function of n, the er-
ror terms might dominate the sum of the main terms
Sj = Sj,n = L P(Ai1 n··· n AiJ, j :::: 1, (1)
in the Bonferroni bounds, making the results meaning-
where summation is over all subscripts 1 S i i < ... < less. Modifications of the Bonferroni inequalities, known
i j S n. The numbers Sj, j :::: 0, are known as the bino- as Bonferroni-type inequalities, overcome this diffi-
mial moments of mn(A), since, by turning to indicators, culty.
one immediately obtains that, with the expectation op- References
erator E, [1] BONFERRONI, C.E.: 'Teoria statistica delle classi e calcolo
delle probabilita', Istit. Sup. Sci. Econ. Commerc. Firenze
k:::: o. 8 (1936), 1-62.
[2] GALAMBOS, J., AND SIMONELLI, I.: Bonferroni-type inequali-
Now, the following inequalities are valid for all integers ties with applications, Springer, 1996.
o S 2k S n - 1 and 2 S 2t S n: [3] JORDAN, K.: 'The foundations of the theory of probability',
Mat. Phys. Lapok 34 (1927), 109-136. (In Hungarian.)
2k+i 2t
L (-I)j- i Sj S P(mn(A) :::: 1) s L( -1)j- i Sj. (2)
MSC 1991: 60C05
J. Galambos

j=i j=i

Inequality (2) can be rewritten for P(mn(A) = 0) in BONFERRONI-TYPE INEQUALITIES - The Bon-
the light of the elementary relation P (mn (A) = 0) = ferroni inequalities may become impractical as a re-
1 - P(mn(A) :::: 1). Furthermore, it can be extended to sult of the large number of terms in Sk (for notation, see
2k+1
L (-I)j r
( +.~ - 1) Sr+j S (3)
Bonferroni inequalities). In order to overcome this
difficulty, two kinds of modification can be performed:
j=O J

2t
S P(mn(A) :::: r) S L(-I)j
( +.
r ~-
1) Sr+j,
i) one can limit the number of Sk used in a bound
but combine this with 'better' coefficients than would
j=O J be provided by a Bonferroni bound;
and ii) one can modify the definition of Sk by limiting its

2k+1 (+ .)
L(-I)j r . J Sr+j S (4)
number of terms, but only to an extent that still pro-
duces the Bonferroni bounds for some 0 S r S n.
j=O J The new inequalities obtained in this manner are called

I)-I)j (r ~ j)Sr+j ,
Bonferroni-type inequalities. In other words, for i), given
S P(mn(A) = r) S the values Sk, k E T, where T is a given finite set, one
j=O J
seeks coefficients ak(n, r), bk(n, r), ck(n, r), and dk(n, r)
where r is an arbitrary integer with 0 S r S n and the such that, whatever the probability space and the
limits k and t satisfy 2k + 1 + r S nand r + 2t S n. events Aj on it,
Inequalities (2), (3) and (4) are known as the Bonfer-
roni inequalities because of their extensive use by C.E. L ak(n, r)Sk S P(mn(A) :::: r) S L bk(n, r)Sk' (1)
Bonferroni [1] in statistical settings; this work of Bon- T T
ferroni generated a considerable follow-up in later years. and
However, the inequalities above were known earlier: for
discrete probability spaces they go back to the eigh- LCk(n,r)Sk S P(mn(A) = r) S Ldk(n,r)Sk, (2)
teenth century, whilst for an abstract, and thus general, T T

probability space their validity appears in [3]. where LT signifies summation over k E T. In the follow-
When the probability P is just counting proportions ing simple example, all problems and difficulties arising
(a very typical case in number theory), then (2) is known in the solution of (1) and (2) are demonstrated.

142

Let T = {O, 1, 2}, so that one can use 8 0 = 1, 8 1 and
8 2 in setting the bounds in (1) or (2). Concentrating on
(2) and considering only r = 0, one looks for coefficients
c1(n,0), c2(n,0), d 1(n,0), and d 2 (n,0) (it easily follows
that co(n, O) = do(n,O) = 1) such that (2) be valid. It
turns out (and it is far from easy to arrive at such a
conclusion; see [7] and [2]) that with this choice of T
and r no better bounds can be found than
2 Here, multivariate means that one faces several se-
1 - 8 1 + -82 ~ P(mn(A) = 0) ~
n quences of events, and one establishes linear bounds on
2 2
< 1- - - 81 +
- j +1 j (j + 1) 8 2 ,
where 1 ~ j ~ n - 1 is an arbitrary integer.
For (2), the following remarkable result has been es-
tablished in [4]: It is valid on an arbitrary probability
space for every choice of the Aj if and only if it is valid
for independent Aj with each P(A j ) either equal to some
°
p, ~ p ~ 1, or zero. On the other hand, it was proved
in [6] that if (1) is valid for the independent structures
just mentioned, then (1) is valid on an arbitrary prob-
ability space whatever the choice of the A j . The above
results reduce both (1) and (2) to polynomial inequal-
ities. Amongst the several advantages of transforming
(1) and (2) to polynomials, known as the method of poly-
nomials for proving Bonferroni-type inequalities, is the
following reduction formula: Assume one has found coef-
ficients ck(n) = ck(n, 0) and dk(n) = dk(n, 0) such that
°
(2) holds for r = and some set T = To. Then both
(1) and (2) hold for arbitrary r, °
~ r ~ n, with the
set T = Tr obtained from To by adding r to each of its
elements, and the coefficients of 8k+r,n+r in (1) and (2)
satisfy the relations
Upon replacing (k~r) by (k~:~l) in the right-hand sides
above, one obtains ak+r(n + r, r) and bk+r(n + r, r), re-
spectively.
For modification ii) of the Bonferroni inequalities
there are very general and very effective graph sieves.
Choose an arbitrary graph with vertices {I, ... ,n}
(that is, the edge set is chosen in an arbitrary man-
ner). Now define 8Z by deleting many terms from 8k; in
fact, retain in 8Z+ r only those terms of 8k+r for which
(i1' ... ,ik+r) has no edge from the underlying graph
just chosen if k is even, and allow, for k odd, a well-
defined number of edges in (it, ... ,ik+r), the number
of which may depend on r but not on k. Define 8k*
in a similar manner, but interchange the role of 'even'
and 'odd'. It is proved in [8], for r = 0, and in [1], for
arbitrary r, that the Bonferroni lower bounds remain
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA WITH OPERATORS
valid with 8Z, whilst the upper bounds remain valid
with 8Z*. These new bounds found many applications in
random set selections, information theory, and extreme
value theory; see [5]. The basic idea of constructing 8Z
and 8Z* is similar to Brun's method in number theory
(cf. Brun sieve).
Extension of Bonferroni and Bonferroni-type inequal-
ities have also been studied in multivariate settings.
the joint distribution of the numbers counting the oc-
currences in each sequence of events. Bounds are again
in terms of binomial moments. Such multivariate studies
are quite new; see [3]. For a full coverage of the known
(1996) multivariate bounds, see [5].
References
[1] GALAMBOS, J.: 'On the sieve methods in probability theory.
1', Studia Sci. Math. Hungar. 1 (1966), 39-50.
[2] GALAMBOS, J.: 'Bonferroni inequalities', Ann. of Probab. 5
(1977), 577-581.
[3] GALAMBOS, J., AND KATAI, I. (eds.): Probability theory and
applications, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1992.
[4] GALAMBOS, J., AND MUCCI, R.: 'Inequalities for linear com-
bination of binomial moments', Publ. Math. Debrecen 27
(1980), 263-269.
[5] GALAMBOS, J., AND SIMONELLI, I.: Bonferroni-type inequali-
ties with applications, Springer, 1996.
[6] GALAMBOS, J., AND SIMONELLI, I.: 'An extension of the
method of polynomials and a new reduction formula for
Bonferroni-type inequalities', Statistics and Probability Lett.
28 (1996), 147-151.
[7] KWEREL, S.M.: 'Most stringent bounds on aggregated proba-
bilities of partially specified dependent probability systems',
J. Amer. Statist. Assoc. 70 (1975), 472-479.
[8] RENYI, A.: 'A general method for proving theorems of prob-
ability theory and some of its applications': Selected papers
of Alfred Renyi, Vo!' 2, Akad. Kiad6, 1976, Original (in Hun-
garian): MTA III Oszt. K6z!' 11 (1961),79-105.
J. Galambos
MSC 1991: 60C05
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA WITH OPERATORS - An
operator on a Boolean algebra B is a finitary operation
on the Boolean algebra that is additive, meaning that
in each of its arguments it preserves the sum/join op-
eration of B. An operator is normal if each argument
preserves the least element of B. Major examples of nor-
mal operators are as follows.
• Relation algebras: the algebra of binary relations
on a set X (i.e. the set of subsets of X2) has the bi-
nary operator R 0 8 of composition of relations and the
unary inverse operator R- 1. The axiomatic study of
these operators quickly leads to deep questions about
represent ability of equationally defined abstract alge-
bras as concrete algebras ofrelations (cf. [10], [7]).
143
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA WITH OPERATORS
• Cylindric algebras: on the algebra of subsets of a
Cartesian product set xm, let Ck be the operator assign-
ing to each A ~ xm the cylinder generated by trans-
lating A parallel to the k-th coordinate axis. If A is de-
fined by a formula cp having variables Vb • •. , V m , then
the cylinder ck(A) is defined by the existentially quan-
tified formula 3Vkcp. This observation leads to a com-
prehensive algebraic theory with many applications to
quantificational logic [6]. A related theory of polyadic
algebras, due to P.R. Halmos [5], emphasizes operators
corresponding to the logical operation of substitution of
terms for variables.
• Complex algebra..~: a binary relation R ~ X 2 de-
fines an an operator fR on the power set 2x, in which
fR(A) = {y: 3x E A(xRy)} is the R-image of the sub-
set A of X. This generalizes: each (n + 1)-ary relation
on X gives rises to an n-ary operation on 2x. Thus,
any relational structure X, comprising a collection of
finitary relations on a set X, determines a Boolean al-
gebra with operators B(X) based on 2x, known as the
complex algebra of X (the terminology originates with
G. Frobenius in the 1880s, referring to a collection of
elements of a group as a 'complex').
The case of binary relations (n = 1) is intimately
connected with the study of modal logic [2]. Another
connection is with the algebra of topology [11]: when
(X, R) is a partial ordering, the operator fR obeys the
Kuratowski axioms for the closure operator on subsets
of a topological space.
The general theory of Boolean algebras with operators
(BAOs) was introduced by B. Jonsson and A. Tarski
[9), who extended the Stone representation theory that
embeds a Boolean algebra B into a certain complete
and atomic Boolean algebra B<7, known as the perfect
or canonical extension of B (cf. also Boolean alge-
bra). They showed that any additive operator on B
lifts to a completely additive operator on B<7 preserv-
ing normality, and also that any normal complete and
atomic Boolean algebra with operators is isomorphic to
the complex algebra of some relational structure. Conse-
quently, each normal Boolean algebra with operators B
is isomorphically embeddable into the complex algebra
of some structure X B .
This representation extends to the level of mor-
phisms: an algebraic homomorphism Bl --+ B2 in-
duces a certain type of structure-preserving mapping
XB 2 --+ XB 1 , called a bounded morphism. This gives rise
to a categorical duality between Boolean algebras with
operators and (topological) relational structures that is
developed and applied in [1), [3]. A survey of the theory
of Boolean algebras with operators is given in [8).
Work in algebraic logic has identified a number of
structural properties of varieties (equational classes, cf.
144
Algebraic systems, variety of) of Boolean algebras
with operators that are related to natural properties of
logical systems. This is surveyed in [4). A variety V is:
i) elementary if generated by the complex algebras of
some first-order definable class of relational structures;
ii) complex if each of its members is isomorphically
embeddable into some complex algebra that belongs to
V;
iii) canonical if closed under canonical extensions.
Every elementary variety is canonical, and every canon-
ical variety is complex. All three notions coincide if the
class {X: B(X) E V} of all structures whose complex
algebra belongs to V is closed under ultrapowers.
The variety generated by the complex algebra B(R, <
, » (where R denotes the set of real numbers) is com-
plex but not canonical. In general, complexity of V cor-
responds to the property of strong completeness of a log-
ical system associated with V. The deepest unresolved
question in this area is whether every canonical variety
must be elementary: if V is closed under canonical exten-
sions, does it follow that there is a first-order definable
class of structures whose complex algebras generate V?
An answer either way would enhance the understand-
ing of the relationship between the equational properties
of Boolean algebras with operators and the first-order-
definable properties of relational structures.
References
[1] GOLDBLATT, R.: 'Varieties of complex algebras', Ann. Pure
and Applied Logic 44 (1989), 173-242.
[2] GOLDBLATT, R.: Mathematics of modality, Vo!' 43 of Lecture
Notes, Center for the Study of Language and Information,
Stanford Univ., 1993.
[3] GOLDBLATT, R.: 'Elementary generation and canonicity for
varieties of Boolean algebras with operators', Algebra Uni-
versalis 34 (1995), 551--607.
[4] GOLDBLATT, R.: 'Algebraic polymodallogic', in H. ANDREKA
ET AL. (eds.): Handbook of Algebraic Logic, Kluwer Acad.
Pub!., forthcoming, Research Report 96-175, Math. Dep. Vic-
toria Univ. of Wellington, Jan. 1996.
[5] HALMOS, P.R.: Algebraic logic, Chelsea, reprint, 1962.
[6] HENKIN, L., MONK, J.D., AND TARSKI, A.: Cylindric algebras
I-II, North-Holland, 1971-1985.
[7] JONSSON, B.: 'Varieties of relation algebras', Algebra Univer-
salis 15 (1982), 273-298.
[8] JONSSON, B.: 'A survey of Boolean algebras with operators':
Algebras and Order (Montreal, PQ, 1991), Vo!' 389 of NATO
Adv. Sci. Inst. Ser. C: Math. Phys. Sci., Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1993, pp. 239-286.
[9] JONSSON, B., AND TARSKI, A.: 'Boolean algebras with oper-
ators, 1', Amer. J. Math. 13 (1951), 891-939.
[10] JONSSON, B., AND TARSKI, A.: 'Boolean algebras with oper-
ators, II', Amer. J. Math. 14 (1952), 127-162.
[11] MCKINSEY, J.C.C., AND TARSKI, A.: 'The algebra of topol-
ogy', Ann. of Math. 45 (1944), 141-191.
R. Goldblatt
MSC 1991: 06Exx, 06E15, 03Gxx, 03G15

BOOLEAN DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - A
branch of mathematics dealing with the concepts of
differentials and derivatives of Boolean functions (cf.
Boolean function) and the manner of using these in
the study of such functions.
Boolean differential calculus originated from the
treatment of electrical engineering problems in the areas
of error-correcting codes (c:f. Error-correcting code)
and of design and testing of switching circuits; devel-
opment into a self-contained mathematical theory was
achieved in 1959 [1], [5], and continued in the time there-
after [6], [2], [3], [7]. Boolean differential calculus has also
found other engineering applications: e.g., it can be used
as a unifying framework for the modeling and investiga-
tion of finite automata (c:f. Automaton, finite) and of
discrete event dynamical systems [4] (cf. also Discrete
event system), i.e., dynamical systems with discrete
states and changes of states called events; such systems
arise e.g. in digital network communication protocols.
Many concepts in Boolean differential calculus are
in analogy to those of classical differential calculus
for real-valued functions of one or more real variables;
such are, e.g., the concept of a differential, describing
the change of the value of a function and variables, and
the concept of a derivative, describing how the value of
a function depends on changes of its argument(s).
The simplest and (with regard to applications) most
important case is based on the two-element Boolean al-
gebra with carrier set B = {O, I}, on Boolean or bi-
nary variables x E {O, I}, and on vectors of variables
x = (Xl, ... , xd in a Boolean space Bk. A Boolean
function f (x) is a mapping f: Bk -+ B, and a set of
n functions F = {h,... ,fn} can be represented as a
mapping F: Bk -+ Bn.
A Boolean equation of the general form fi (x) = 1; (x)
can always be written in homogeneous form f(x) = 0,
with f (x) = fi (x) EB 1; (x), and a set of n simultaneous
equations {h = 0, ... ,fn = O} can always be combined
into one single equation h + ... + f n = 0. Here and
below, EB denotes addition modulo 2, or the operation
of exclusive or, and the symbols +, . and I stand for
disjunction, conjunction and negation, respectively.
Derivatives. Suppose X E Band y E Bm. The
(Boolean) derivative of (x, y) I ax of a Boolean function
f(x, y) with respect to the variable x is the function
of lax: B m -+ B given by
:~ = f(O, y) EB f(l, y)
or, equivalently,
:~ = f(x,y) EB f(x',y).
BOOLEAN DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
It has the value 1 if and only if a change in x changes
the value of f.
The maximum and the minimum of the function
f(x, y) with respect to the variable x is defined as:
maxf = f(x,y) + f(x',y),
x
min f = f (x, y) . f (x' , y).
x
Suppose x E Bk and y E Bm. The derivative
ok f(x, Y)I ax of a Boolean function f(x, y) with respect
to the k variables in x is the function ok flax: B m -+ B,
:!J .
a;: = aXI ~~ ~aXk = a~l (- ..
Maxima and minima of a function with respect to
more than one of its variables are defined accordingly.
Differentials. The variable dx defined by
{~
if x changes its value,
dx = if x remains constant,
is called the differential of the variable x, and describes
changes in x. Likewise, the vector
ax = x EB x*
is called the differential of the vector x, and describes
the changes that occur in the components of x when
x changes to some other value x*; here, EB denotes
component-wise exclusive-or. In Bk, x is a point, and
dx is the direction from x to x*. The (total) differential
of a Boolean function f(x) is given by
df = f(x) EB f(x EB ax),
the partial differential of a Boolean function f(x, y) with
respect to x is given by
dxf = dfldy=o,
and the kth partial differential of f(x, y) with respect to
x is given by
Other useful operators include the various differen-
tial minima and maxima that can be derived from the
various differentials of functions by replacing 'EB' with
'.' or '+'.
Boolean differential equations f(x, dx) = 0, as well as
Boolean equations, can be solved and investigated with
the aid of differential operators. Numerical tools may
operate on the solution sets of equations rather than on
the equations themselves. A compact representation of
solution sets uses 1-, 0-, and 'do-not-care'-elements in
ternary-valued tables.
References
[1] AKERS, S.B.: 'On a theory of Boolean functions', SIAM 1. 7
(1959), 487-498.
[2] BOCHMANN, D.: 'Boolean differential calculus (a survey)', En-
gin. Cybernet. 15, no. 5 (1977), 67-75.
145
BOOLEAN DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
[3] BOCHMANN, D., AND POSTHOFF, C.: Biniire dynamische Sys-
teme, R. Oldenbourg, 1981.
[4] SCHEURING, R., AND WEHLAN, H.: 'On the design of discrete
event dynamic systems by means of the Boolean differential
calculus', in D. FRANKE AND F. KRAUS (eds.): Design Meth-
ods of Control Systems, Vol. 2, Pergamon, 1991, pp. 723-728.
[5] TALANTSEV, A.D.: 'On the analysis and synthesis of certain
electrical circuits by means of special logical operators', Av-
tomato i Telemeh. 20 (1959), 898-907. (In Russian.)
[6] THAYSE, A.: 'Boolean differential calculus', Philips Research
Reports 26 (1971), 229-246.
[7] THAYSE, A.: Boolean calculus of differences, Vol. 101 of Lec-
ture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, 1981.
H. Wehlan
MSC 1991: 06E30
BORSUK FIXED-POINT THEOREM - Let B be
an open bounded symmetric subset of Rn containing
the origin. Here, symmetric means that if x E B, then
-x E B also. Let cp: 8B -+ Rm be a continuous map-
ping and let m < n. Then there is an x E 8B such that
cp(x) = cp( -x).
The original version (K. Borsuk, 1933) was for B =
D , the n-dimensional ball in R n , n = m. The result
n
is also known as one of the Borsuk antipodal theorems
(see Antipodes) or as the Borsuk-Ulam theorem.
The central lemma for the Borsuk-Ulam theorem is
that an odd mapping f: sn
-+ sn
has odd degree (see
Degree of a mapping). A mapping f: -+ sn
is sn
called odd if f ( - x) = - f (x). Many people call this
odd-degree result itself the Borsuk-Ulam theorem. For
a generalization, the so-called Borsuk odd mapping the-
orem, see [1, p. 42J.
References
[1] LLOYD, N.G.: Degree theory, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1978.
[2] SPANIER, E.H.: Algebraic topology, McGraw-Hill, 1966.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 54H25, 55M20
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEM OF THE THIRD
KIND - The same as third boundary value prob-
lem.
See also First boundary value problem; Second
boundary value problem.
MSC 1991: 35Gxx
Box-Cox TRANSFORMATION - Transformations
of data designated to achieve a specified purpose, e.g.,
stability of variance, additivity of effects and symmetry
of the density. If one is successful in finding a suitable
transformation, the ordinary method for analysis will be
available. Among the many parametric transformations,
the family in [lJ is commonly utilized.
Let X be a random variable on the positive half-
line. Then the Box-Cox transformation of X with power
146
parameter A is defined by:
for A -I- 0,
XA-l
XU.) = ->.-
{
log X for A = O.
The formula (x>' - 1)/ A is chosen so that x(>') is contin-
uous as A tends to zero and monotone increasing with
respect to x for any A.
The power parameter A is estimated by a graphical
technique or by the maximum-likelihood method.
Unfortunately, a closed form for the estimator>' can be
rarely found. Hence, the plot of the maximum likelihood
against A is helpful. The value of >. obtained in this way
is treated as if it were a true value, and then one fits the
model to the transformed data. Such an approach may
be easily carried out, and an asymptotic theory associ-
ated with other parameters is useful. See [lJ and [3J.
This treatment has, however, some difficulties be-
cause ~ has a variability and depends on the given data
itself. It is known that estimation of A by maximum like-
lihood and related likelihood-ratio tests can be heavily
influenced by outliers (cf. also Outlier). Further, in cer-
tain situations, the usual limiting theory based on know-
ing A does not hold in the unknown case. Therefore, sev-
eral robust estimation procedures have been proposed
(see Robust statistics; and [5J and references therein).
In the literature, Box-Cox transformations are ap-
plied to basic distributions, e.g., the cubic root trans-
formation of chi-squared variates is used for accelera-
tion to normality (cf. also Normal distribution), and
the square-root transformation stabilizes variances of
Poisson distributions (cf. also Poisson distribution).
These results are unified by appealing to features of the
following family of distributions.
Consider a collection of densities of the form
satisfying «8) = /'\,~ (8)P with p = (2 - a)/(l- a). This
family is called an exponential dispersion model with
power variance function (EDM-PVF) of index a. The
existence of such a model was shown in [2J unless a > 2
or a = 1. It is a flexible family, including the normal,
Poisson, gamma-, inverse Gaussian, etc., distributions.
It is known that both of the normalizing and the
variance-stabilizing transformations of the exponential
dispersion model with power variance function are given
by Box-Cox transformations, see [4J. If Y follows the
exponential dispersion model with power variance func-
tion and with index a, the normalizing and variance-
stabilizing transformations are given by y(q), respec-
tively y(r), where q (the power for normalization) and
r (the power for variance-stabilization) are summarized
in the Table below (recall that p = (2 - a)/(l- a)). The
 BOYD INDEX

similar characteristics of familiar distributions are also For s = 1 and 3 = [1, ... ,1], Mg is the uniform or
tabulated there. For 0 < a < 1, it has been proved in cardinal B-spline. Correspondingly, the extant box spline
[4] that the density of y(q) has a uniformly convergent theory (see [1]) is a partial lifting of Schoenberg's car-
Gram-Charlier expansion (cf. also Gram-Charlier se- dinal spline theory [2]. Its highlights include a study of
ries). This implies that the normalizing transformation the linear independence of the integer translates of a
which is obtained by reducing the third-order cumulant box spline (with integer directions), the shift-invariant
reduces all higher-order cumulants as a result (cf. also spaces spanned by the integer translates of one or more
Cumulant). box splines, the dimension of the space of polynomials
Distribution index p q r contained in such a box spline space, the refinability of
Normal 2 0 1 1 such box splines and the related subdivision schemes
Poisson -00 1 2/3 1/2 and discrete box splines.
Gamma 0 2 1/3 0 References
Inverse Gaussian 1/2 3 0 -1/2 [1] BOOR, C. DE, HOLLIG, K., AND RIEMENSCHNEIDER, S.: Box
EDM-PVF 2-0 1-20 0 splines, Vol. 98 of Applied Math. Sci., Springer, 1993.
a 1-0 3 30 -2-20
[2] SCHOENBERG, 1.J.: Cardinal spline interpolation, CMBS.
The Box-Cox transformatIOns on EDM-PVF for
SIAM,1973.
normalization and variance-stabilization C. de Boor
MSC 1991: 41A05
Box-Cox transformations are also applied to link
functions in generalized linear models. The transforma-
BOYD INDEX - The lower and upper Boyd indices
tions mainly aim to get the linearity of effects of co-
of a rearrangement-invariant function space X on [0, 00)
variates. See [3] for further detail. Generalized Box-Cox
or [0,1] are defined by the respective formulas [1]
transformations for random variables and link functions
can be found in [5]. ax = lim log IIDtllx
See also Exponential distribution; Regression. t--+O log t
References and
[1] Box, G.E.P., AND Cox, D.R.: 'An analysis of transforma- (3x = lim log IIDtllx .
tions', J. Roy. Statist. Soc. B 26 (1964), 211-252. t--+oo log t
[2] J0RGENSEN, B.: 'Exponential dispersion models', J. Roy.
Statist. Soc. B 49 (1987), 127-162.
Here D t , t > 0, is the dilation operator, i.e.
[3] MCCULLAGH, P., AND NELDER, J.A.: Genemlized linear mod-
els, second ed., Chapman and Hall, 1990.
Dd(x) = f (T) ,
[4] NISHII, R.: 'Convergence of the Gram-Charlier expansion for a measurable function f on [0,00), while for an f
after the normalizing Box-Cox transformation', Ann. [nst.
on [0,1]'
Statist. Math. 45, no. 1 (1993), 173-186.

{~(~)
[5] SEBER, G.A.F., AND WILD, C.J.: Nonlinear regression, Wi- if x ::; min(1, t),
ley, 1989. Dd(x) =
R. Nishii ift<x::;1.
MSC 1991: 62E20 This operator is bounded in every rearrangement-
invariant space X and the expression IIDtllx is its norm
Box SPLINE - The box spline Ms associated with in X. The limits exist and 0 ::; ax ~ (3x ~ 1. Some-
the (sxn)-matrix3 = [6, ... ,en] of its directions (as-ei times the indices are taken in the form p x = 1/(3x and
sumed non-zero) is the distribution defined inductively qx = 1/ax [4].
by There are many applications of Boyd indices. The

M[s,(] = 11 Me(· - t() dt

first one was made by D.W. Boyd [1], who proved an
interpolation theorem which gives, in terms of ax and
(3x, the conditions for a linear operator of a weak
with M[] the point evaluation at 0 E RS. This implies
type to be bounded in X (cf. also Interpolation of
that Ms¢ = J ¢(3t) dt, with the integral taken over the
operators).
half-open unit n-cube [0, 1)n.
A necessary and sufficient condition for some clas-
Ms is (representable as) a piecewise-polynomial func-
sical operators to be bounded in X may be also ob-
tion on the linear hull ran 3 of its directions, with sup-
tained in terms of Boyd indices. For example, the Hardy-
port in the convex hull of its directions, its polynomial
Littlewood operator

11
degree being equal to s - dim ran 3, its discontinuities
on hyperplanes in ran 3 spanned by its directions, and Hf(x) =- x
f(t) dt
its smoothness across such a hyperplane determined by x 0

the number of directions lying in that hyperplane. is bounded in X if and only if (3x < 1 [3].

147
BOYD INDEX
An important property of the class of rearrangement-
invariant spaces with non-trivial Boyd indices was dis-
covered in [2]. Let X be a rearrangement-invariant space
on [0, 1] and denote by Y the space of all measur-
able functions on [0,00) such that 1*X[O,l] E X and
1*X(1,oo) E L2(1,00), where 1* is the decreasing re-
arrangement (cf. also Marcinkiewicz space) of If I and
XA denotes the indicator of the set A. Put
n'1
Ilflly =
~ max { IIrXlo,'lllx' (~(t'
f'(x) dx
If the strong inequalities a < ax ::; !3x < 1 take place,
then the spaces X and Yare isomorphic. In other words,
X admits a representation as a rearrangement-invariant
space on [0,00).
References
[1] BOYD, D.W.: 'Indices of function spaces and their relation-
ship to interpolation', Canadian .!. Math. 21 (1969), 1245
1254.
[2] JOHNSON, W.B., MAUREY, B., SCHECHTMAN, G., AND
TZAFRIRI, L.: Symmetric structures in Banach spaces,
Vol. 217 of Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1979.
[3] KREIN, S.G., SEMENOV, E.M., AND PETUNIN, YU.I.: Inter'-
polation of linear operators, Vol. 54 of Transl. Math. Mono-
graph, Amer. Math. Soc., 1982. (Translated from the Rus-
sian.)
[4] LINDENSTRAUSS, J., AND TZAFRIRI, L.: Classical Banach
spaces, Vol. II. Function spaces, Springer, 1979.
M. Braverman
MSC 1991: 46B20
BRADLEY-TERRY MODEL The names of R.A.
Bradley and M.E. Terry are associated with a model
that is widely employed in paired comparisons. In paired
comparison experiments, observations are made by pre-
senting pairs of objects to one or more judges. This
method is used in experimental situations where ob-
jects are judged subjectively (d. also Paired compari-
son model). The basic model was presented in [4]. The
model is mostly formulated as follows (see, e.g., [3]).
The paired comparison experiment has t objects
T 1 , ... , T t with nij comparisons of Ti and T j , nij ;::: 0,
nii = 0, nji = nij, i,j = 1, ... , t. Some of the nij may
be zero, but the design should be connected, i.e., there
must not be any subset of the treatments such that no
treatment in this subset is compared with any treatment
of the complementary subset. The model postulates the
existence of treatment parameters 7ri for Ti (7ri ;::: 0),
Li 7ri = 1, such that the probability of selecting T i ,
when compared with T j , is equal to 7r;/(7ri + 7rj).
148
The likelihood method can be used to estimate the
parameters 7ri (cf. Likelihood equation). If the com-
parisons are independent, the likelihood function L is
L = ITi 7rfi
ITi<j( 7r i + 7rj)nij ,
where ai = Lj ni.ij and ni.ij is the number of times Ti
has been preferred to T j when Ti and T j were compared
(ni.ij + nj.ij = nij). In [2], large-sample results and the
asymptotic distribution of the maximum-likelihood es-
timators are given. L.R. Ford has described an iterative
solution of the likelihood equations (see [5]). R.J. Beaver
has presented, [1], a weighted least-squares approach to
paired comparison models. He has also used a method,
described in [6], which presents a unified approach to
the analysis of data resulting from an experiment in-
volving multinomial populations. Thus, general results
from weighted least-squares methods can be used. A.
Springall (sec [7]) has considered the case where the pa-
rameters 7ri (i = 1, ... ,t) are functions of continuous
variables XI, ... ,:1: 8 , He has formulated a model that is
linear in the unknown parameters log7ri = Lk xikf3k. In
this case the parameters 13k have to be estimated. He
has given results concerning the asymptotic variance-
covariance matrix of the estimators.
A linear model like the one above can be used to
answer optimal design questions.
See also Paired comparison model.
References
[1] HEAVER, H..J.: 'Weighted least squares analysis of several uni-
variate Bradley Terry models', J. Amer. Statist. Assoc. 72
(1977), 629-634.
[2] HRADLEY, I-LA.: 'Rank analysis of incomplete block designs.
III. Some large-sample results on estimation and power for a
method of paired comparisons', Biometrika 42 (1955), 450-
170.
[3] BRADLEY, !l.A., AND EL-HELBAWY, A.T.: 'Treatment con-
trasts in paired comparisons: basic procedures with applica-
tion to factorials', Biometrika 63 (1976), 255 262.
[4] BRADLEY, !l.A., AND TERRY, M.E.: 'The rank analysis of
incomplete block designs. I. The method of paired compar-
isons', Biometrika 39 (1952), 324-345.
[5] FORD, JR., L.R.: 'Solution of a ranking problem from binary
comparisons', Amer. Math. Monthly 64 (1957), 28-33.
[6] GRlhhLE, J.E., STARMER, C.F., AND KOCH, G.G.: 'Analysis
of categorical data by linear models', Biometrics 25 (1969),
489-504.
[7] SPRINGALL, A.: 'Response surface fitting using a generaliza-
tion of the Bradley-Terry paired comparison model', Appl.
Stati8t. 22 (197:l), 59 68.
E.E.M. van Berkurn
MSC 1991: 62.115
BRAFMAN POLYNOMIALS - Polynomials given by
Bf,(al, ... ,a,.;b 1 , ... ,b8 ;x) =
=1'+" P,[~(p;-n),al'''' ,a,.,b 1 , ... ,bs;x],

where p is a positive integer, ~(p; -n) abbreviates the
set of p parameters
-n (n - 1) (n-p+1)
, , ... ,
p p p
and for non-negative integers rand s, rFs denotes the
generalized hypergeometric function (cf. also Hyperge-
ometric function), defined by
~ (aIh··· (ar)k xk
rFs(al,'" ,ar ; bl , ... ,bs ; x) = ~ (bdk'" (bs)kkl .
The Brafman polynomials arise in the study of generat-
ing functions of orthogonal polynomials, [1].
There are extensions. H.W. Gould and A.T. Hopper
[2] have considered special cases which sometimes re-
duce to the Hermite polynomials; see [4] for a gener-
alization. It is known [3] that, in general, the Brafman
polynomials cannot form an orthogonal set with respect
to any weight function.
References
[1] BRAFMAN, F.: 'Some generating functions for Laguerre and
Hermite polynomials', Canadian J. Math. 9 (1957), 180-187.
[2] GOULD, H.W., AND HOPPER, A.T.: 'Operational formulas
connected with two generalizations of Hermite polynomials',
Duke Math. J. 29 (1962),51-63.
[3] MANGERON, D., KRALL, A.M., AND FERNANDEZ, D.L.:
'Weight functions for some new classes of orthogonal poly-
nomials', R. Acad. Cien. (Madrid) 11 (1983), 597-607.
[4] SHRESHTHA, R.M.: 'On generalized Brafman polynomials',
Compo R. Acad. Bulgar. Sci. 32 (1979), 1183-1185.
A.M. Krall
MSC 1991: 33C45
BRANCH-AND-BOUND ALGORITHM - Consider
a (mixed) integer linear programming problem
v(P) =
= min {cT x: Ax 2: b, Xj E Z, j E N' c {l, ... ,n}} ,
X~O
where N' is the set of variables that are required to be
integer, x, cERn, bERm, and A is an (m X n)-matrix.
For convenience and without loss of generality, assume
that P is bounded. Let F(P) be the feasible set of P
and F*(P) the set of optimal solutions, i.e.,
F(P) = {x ERn: Ax 2: b,x 2: O,Xj E Z,j EN'},
F*(P) = {x* E F(P): cT X* = min cT x} .
xEF{P)
In branch-and-bound methods, the above problem is
split up into a number of subproblems by partitioning
the feasible set in some way. These subproblems are ex-
amined in turn and can be further split up. This is the
branching part. Bounds on the optimal values of the
subproblems are used to discard certain subproblems as
irrelevant, or to perform a further decomposition.
In somewhat more detail, let L = {PI, ... ,Pr } be the
current list of subproblems, v(Pi ) = min{ cT x: Ai X 2:
BRANCH-AND-BOUND ALGORITHM
bi,x 2: O,Xj E Z,j EN'}. Let X* be the currently best
point of v(P), the incumbent, and z* = cT x* the cur-
rently best value, sometimes called the cutting value.
The process is begun from z* = 00, x* = unknown,
L = {Pl.
Now take a Pi and consider its linear programming
relaxation Pi:
- . {T
v(Pi)=mm c x:A i x2:b i ,x2:0 } ,
obtained by discarding the integrality constraint. Solve
Pi. If v(Pi ) 2: z*, no point of F(Pi ) does better than any
already obtained, and Pi can be discarded. One says that
in this case Pi has been fathomed.
If v(Pi ) < z*, there are two subcases:
a) xE F*(Pi ) and x E F(P). Then x is optimal in
F(Pi ) and Pi has also been fathomed. The new values
of x* and z* are x and cTx, and Pi is discarded.
b) x E F*(Pi ) and x (j. F(P) (i.e., an integrality con-
straint is violated). Then Pi is split up into certain sub-
problems, which are added to the list L, Pi is removed
and the incumbent and cutting value remain the same.
The algorithm ends when L = 0.
This description does not yet say anything about how
to split up a Pi. One method often used is to pick a
j E N' for which Xj is not integral and to split up Pi
into the two subproblems defined by the respective con-
straints:
Xj 2: [Xj] + 1,
Xj ::; [Xj],
where [Xj] denotes the en tier (or integral part) of xj,
the largest integer less than or equal to x j.
In the above, the linear programming relaxation Pi
has been used to obtain bounds on V(Pi). This can be re-
placed with other ideas, e.g., Lagrangean relaxation.
In [6], there is a useful flow chart of branch and
bound. The branch-and-bound idea was introduced in
[2] and improved in [1]. Some standard references are
[4], [5], [6], [3].
References
[1] DAKIN, R.J.: 'A tree-search algorithm for mixed integer pro-
gramming problems', Compo J. 8 (1965), 250-255.
[2] LAND, A.H., AND DOIG, A.G.: 'An automatic method for
solving discrete programming problems', Econometrica 28
(1960), 497-520.
[3] NEMHAUSER, G.L., AND WOLSEY, L.A.: 'Integer program-
ming', in G.L. NEMHAUSER, A.H.G. RINNOOY KAN, AND M.J.
TODD (eds.): Optimization, North-Holland, 1989, pp. 447-
528.
[4] PAPADIMITRIOU, C.H., AND STEIGLITZ, K.: Combinatorialop-
timization, Prentice-Hall, 1982.
[5] WALUKIEWICZ, S.: Integer programming, Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1991.
[6] ZIONTS, S.: Linear and integer programming, Prentice-Hall,
1974.
149
BRANCH-AND-BOUND ALGORITHM
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 90ClO
BRAUER CHARACTERIZATION OF CHARAC-
TERS - Let K be a field, let V be a finite-dimensional
vector space over K and let G be a finite group.
A representation of G over V is a group homomor-
phism X: G ~ GL(V/K) (the group of K-linear auto-
morphisms of V) or, equivalently, a module action of the
group algebra KG on V (the equivalence is defined by:
g. v = X(g)v for all g, v E V; cf. also Representation
of a group). The character Xv = char(X): G ~ K
is defined by: Xv (g) = tr( X (g)) for all g E G. Since
tr(AB) = tr(BA) for any two (n x n)-matrices A, B over
K, one finds that Xv(ghg- l ) = X(h) for all g, h E G,
and hence Xv is a class function on G: Xv E CF( G, K).
Equivalent representations have the same character and
Xv is the sum of the characters of the quotient KG-
modules in any KG-filtration of V. If G acts irreducibly
on V / K, then V is said to be an irreducible KG-module
and Xv is said to be an irreducible character.
If dim(V/ K) = 1, then V is said to be a linear rep-
resentation of G, and V is an irreducible KG-module;
Xv is said to be a linear character. There are at most
IGI inequivalent types of irreducible representations of
Gover K. Let IrrK(G) = {Xl, ... ,xd be the set of
irreducible characters of Gover K. Then IrrK(G) is K-
linearly independent in CF(G, K) and every character
of Gover K is a sum of elements of Irr K ( G).
Let H be a subgroup of G and let Y: H ~ GL(W/ K)
be a representation of H. Clearly, the restriction to H,
Res~(X): H ~ GL(V/ K), is a representation of Hand
induction to G, Ind~(Y): G ~ GL(KG 0KH W), is
a representation of G (cf. also Induced representa-
tion). If T is a transversal for the right cosets of H in
G, then, for g E G,
char(Ind~(Y))(g) = Lchar(Yt(tgC I ),
tET
where charO(y)(u) = Char(Y)(u) if u E Hand
charO(y)(u) = 0 if u E G - H.
If V and Ware KG-modules, then V 0K W is a
KG-module defined by 'diagonal action':
g(v 0K w) == (gv) 0K (gw)
for all v E V, W E Wand g E G, and char(V0K W) =
char(V) char(W).
Assume that K = C, the field of complex num-
bers. Then Irrc(G) is a C-basis of CF(G, C). Also, ev-
ery CG-module V is completely reducible (i.e., a di-
rect sum of irreducible submodules). Also, Xv(l) =
dim(V/C), X(g-l) = X(g) (complex conjugate) and X(g)
is a sum of X(I) Igl-th roots of unity for all g E G.
Also, there is a non-singular symmetric scalar product
150
(-,.): CF(G, C) x CF(G, C) ~ C defined by:
(h, h) = I~I L h(g)h(g-l).
gEC
Here, (Xi, Xj) = Jij (the Kronecker delta) for all Xi, Xj E
Irrc (G) and if V and Ware two finite-dimensional CG-
modules, then dim(Homcc(V, W)/C) = (xv,xw) and
hence the isomorphism type of V is determined by Xv.
If p is a prime integer, then a finite group that is the
direct product of a cyclic group and a p-group (or
equivalently of a cyclic pi_group and a p-group) is called
a p-elementary group. Any subgroup or quotient of such
a group is also p-elementary. A finite group is called el-
ementary if it is p-elementary for some prime number
p. It is well-known that each irreducible character X of
an elementary group E is of the form X = Ind~('l/J) for
some subgroup H of E and some linear character 'l/J of
H (cf. [8, Thm. 16]).
For a finite group G, let R( G) be the additive sub-
group of CF( G, C) generated by all characters of G. The
elements of R( G) are called virtual or generalized char-
acters of G and R( G) is a ring and also a free Abelian
group with free basis Irrc (G). Clearly,
Irrc(G) = {~E R(G): (~,~) = 1 and~(1) > O}.
In [2], R. Brauer proved the following assertions:
1) Every character X of a finite group G is a linear
combination with integer coefficients of characters in-
duced from linear characters of elementary subgroups
ofG.
Brauer used this result in [2] to prove that Artin L-
functions of virtual characters have a meromorphic ex-
tension to the entire complex plane. Then, in [3], he
proved that this assertion is equivalent to what is known
as the Brauer characterization of characters:
2) A class function ~ E CF (G, C) lies in R( G) if and
only if Res~(~) E R(E) for every elementary subgroup
E ofG.
An immediate consequence (cf. [8, Thm 22 and Corol-
lary]) is:
3) A class function ~ E CF ( G, C) lies in R( G) if and
only if for each elementary subgroup E of G and each
linear character X of E,
(Res~(~),X) E Z.
A sort of converse of 1) was given by J. Green ([8,
Thm. 23" ']). There are numerous applications of these
results (cf. [7, Lemma 8.14; Thm. 8.24]' [6, V, Hauptsatz
19.11], [8, Sect. 11.2; Chap. 12]).
Significant improvements to the proofs of these re-
sults have been obtained by several authors [4], [7, Chap.
8], [8, Chaps. 10, 11], [6, V, Sect. 19].

Let R+ (G) denote the free Abelian group whose
free basis is given by the G-conjugacy classes (H, ).),
where H is a subgroup of G and ). is a linear char-
acter of H. Clearly Ind~()') is a character of G and
hence induction induces an Abelian group homomor-
phism I: R+(G) --+ R(G), which is surjective by 1).
Some interesting recent results in [9] and [1] give explicit
(functorial) splittings of I (i.e., an explicit group homo-
morphism .:J: R( G) --+ R+( G) such that I·.:J = idR(c)).
Clearly, R( G) is the Grothendieck group of the
category of finitely generated CG-modules. Conse-
quently, 1) can be viewed as proving the surjectivity
of the induction mapping from one Grothendieck group
into another. By changing the coefficient ring C, or by
considering the modular context, etc., many important
analogues of these results emerge, cf. [8, Chaps. 12, 16,
17], [5, Thm. 2], [10].
References
[1] BOLTJE, R.: 'A canonical Brauer induction formula', Aster-
isque 181/2 (1990), 31~59.
[2] BRAUER, R.: 'On Artin's L-series with general group charac-
ters', Ann. of Math. 48 (1947), 502~514.
[3] BRAUER, R.: 'A characterization of the characters of a group
of finite order', Ann. of Math. 57 (1953), 357~377.
[4] BRAUER, R., AND TATE, J.: 'On the characters of finite
groups', Ann. of Math. 62 (1955), 1~7.
[5] BROUE, M.: 'Sur l'induction des modules indecomposables et
la projectraite relative', Math. Z. 149 (1976), 227~245.
[6] HUPPERT, B.: Endliche Gruppen, Vol. I, Springer, 1967.
[7] ISAACS, I.M.: Character theory of finite groups, Acad. Press,
1976.
[8] SERRE, J .-P.: Linear representations of finite groups,
Springer, 1977. (Translated from the French.)
[9] SNAITH, V.: 'Explicit Brauer induction', Invent. Math. 94
(1988), 455~478.
[10] ZHOU, X.: 'On the decomposition map of Grothendieck
groups', Math. Z. 206 (1991), 533~534.
M.E. Harris
MSC 1991: 20C15
BRAUER HOMOMORPHISM - The Brauer homo-
morphism was first used by R. Brauer [1], [2], and de-
veloped further by H. Nagao [4] to establish a connec-
tion between the p-blocks of a finite group G and of
the p-Iocal subgroups (cf. Block). Subsequently, it has
been used in a variety of other contexts within modular
representation theory (cf. also Finite group, repre-
sentation of a).
Let k be a field of characteristic p, and let G act by
conjugation on the group algebra kG with fixed points
(kG)C = Z(kG). The primitive idempotents eo, ... ,e s
in Z(kG) correspond to the blocks B o, ... ,B8 of kG, so
that Bi = eikG and kG = Bo EB··· EB B8 as a direct sum
of indecomposable two-sided ideals.
If H :S K are subgroups of G and M is a kG-module,
there is a relative trace mapping Tr H,K: M H --+ M K ,
BRAUER HOMOMORPHISM
given by m f--t L:i gim, where gi runs through a set of
coset representatives of H in K. One writes M/f for the
image of TrH,K' Applying this to the conjugation action
of G on kG, one says that D is a defect group for the
block Bi (cf. also Defect group of a block) if ei lies
in (kG)<Jy but not in (kG)g, for any proper subgroup
D' < D. The defect groups of a block form a single
conjugacy class of p-subgroups of G.
If D is any p-subgroup of G, still acting on G by
conjugation, then there is a decomposition
(kG)D = kCc(D) EB L (kG)g,
D'<D
as a direct sum of a subring and a two-sided ideal. This is
because the left-hand side has as a basis the orbit sums.
The orbits of length one span kCc(D), and the sums
of orbits of length greater than one are transfers from
proper subgroups of D. The Brauer homomorphism
BrD: (kG)D --+ kCc(D)
is the projection onto the first factor in the above de-
composition. Restricting to Z(kG) = (kG)C s::;: (kG)D,
one obtains the homomorphism
BrD: Z(kG) --+ Z(kCc(D))
originally considered by Brauer.
Brauer's first main theorem states that the Brauer
homomorphism BrD establishes a one-to-one correspon-
dence between the blocks of G with defect group D
and the blocks of Nc(D) with defect group D. To
make sense of this, first observe that every idempo-
tent in Z(kNc(D)) lies in Z(kCc(D)) (because the
other summand L:D'<D(kNc(D))g, is contained in the
Jacobson radical J(kNc(D))). A block idempotent
ei E Z(kG) has defect group D if and only if ei E (kG)<Jy
and BrD(ei) f. O. In the commutative diagram
(kG)D kCc(D)
TrD.C 1 1TrD.NC(D)
(kG)<Jy ------t kCc(D)~c(D)
BrD
the top- and right-hand mappings are surjective, and
hence so is the bottom mapping. It therefore induces
the bijection of block idempotents described in the first
main theorem.
In subsequent work, the Brauer homomorphism has
been generalized to arbitrary modules:
BrD: MD --+ MD / L Mg.
D'<D
The concept is especially useful if M is a G-algebra. L.
Puig [5], [7] has developed an extensive theory of 'inte-
rior G-algebras', where G is acting via inner automor-
phisms, and in which the Brauer homomorphism plays a
151
BRAUER HOMOMORPHISM
central role. His work has had extensive impact both on
module theory and on block theory, especially his classi-
fication of nilpotent blocks [6]. Further discussion of the
Brauer homomorphism in this context can be found in
[3] and [8].
References
[1] BRAUER, R.: 'Zur Darstellungstheorie der Gruppen endlicher
Ordnung', Math. Z. 63 (1956),406-441.
[2] BRAUER, R.: 'Zur Darstellungstheorie der Gruppen endlicher
Ordnung II', Math. Z. 72 (1959), 25-46.
[3] KULSHAMMER, B.: Lectures on block theory, Vol. 161 of Lon-
don Math. Soc. Lecture Notes Series, Cambridge Univ. Press,
1991.
[4J NAGAO, H.: 'A proof of Brauer's theorem on generalized de-
composition numbers', Nagoya Math. J. 22 (1963), 73-77.
[5J PUIG, L.: 'Pointed groups and construction of characters',
Math. Z. 170 (1981), 265-292.
[6] PUIG, L.: 'Nilpotent groups and their source algebras', In-
vent. Math. 93 (1988),77-116.
[7J PUIG, L.: 'Pointed groups and construction of modules', J.
Algebra 116 (1988), 7-129.
[8] THl1:VENAZ, J.: G-Algebras and modular representation the-
ory, Math. Monographs. Oxford Univ. Press, 1995.
D. Benson
MSC 1991: 20C20
BREDON COHOMOLOGY - An ordinary equivari-
ant cohomology for a finite group G, defined in [1],
on the category G-CW of G-complexes (cf. Complex;
CW-complex). The objects of G-CW are the CW-
complexes X with a cellular action of G, satisfying the
condition that, for every subgroup H of G, the fixed
point set X H is a sub complex of X. The morphisms are
the cellular G-mappings. Let OG be the full subcategory
of G-CW whose objects are the G-orbits G j H, where H
is a subgroup of G. For every contravariant functor M
from OG to the category Ab of Abelian groups, there
exists a Bredon cohomology theory {HG(-,M)}nEN
which, after restriction to OG, vanishes for n > 0 and is
equal to M for n = O.
Let c*(X) be the chain complex of functors from
OG to Ab such that, for every subgroup H of G,
c*(X)(GjH) = C*(X H ) is the ordinary cellular chain
complex of X H. Then
where Homo G ( - , - ) denotes the set of natural transfor-
mations of functors. The functors cn(X) are projective
objects in the category of coefficient systems and there
is a spectral sequence
Ext~G(hq(X),M) =? H~+q(X,M),
where hq(X)(GjH) = Hq(XH).
Let Y be a G-space with base point Yo (cf., e.g., Equi-
variant cohomology). Important examples of coeffi-
cient systems are the homotopy group functors 7r n (Y)
152
defined by 7rn(Y)(GjH) = 7r n (y H ,yo). The obstruc-
tion theory for G-mappings f: X ---+ Y is formulated in
terms of the cohomology groups HG(X, 7rm(Y))' For any
coefficient system M and natural number n > 0, there
is a pointed Eilenberg-MacLane G-complex K(M, n)
such that 7r n (K(M, n)) = M and 7r m(K(M, n)) van-
ishes whenever n f. m. For every G-complex X,
HG(X, M) = [X, K(M, n)]G, where [-, -]G denotes G-
homotopy classes of G-mappings.
If hc(-) is an equivariant cohomology theory defined
on the category G-CW, then there exists an Atiyah-
Hirzebruch-type spectral sequence
where h q is the restriction of h'/:;( -) to OG. Bredon co-
homology for an arbitrary topological group is studied
in [5] and [6]. Singular ordinary equivariant cohomology
is defined in [2] (the finite case) and in [3]. If a coeffi-
cient system M is a Mackey functor, then the Bredon
cohomology He (-, M) can be extended to an ordinary
RO(G)-graded cohomology [4].
References
[1] BREDON, G.E.: Equivariant cohomology theories, Vol. 34 of
Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1967.
[2] BROCKER, T.: 'Singuliire Definition der iiquivarianten Bredon
Homologie', Manuscripta Math. 5 (1971),91-102.
[3] ILLMAN, S.: Equivariant singular homology and cohomology,
Vol. 156 of Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1975.
[4] LEWIS, L.G., MAY, J.P., AND MCCLURE, J.: 'Ordinary
RO(G)-graded cohomology', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 4
(1981),208-212.
[5] MATUMOTO, T.: 'Eqllivariant cohomology theories on G-CW-
complexes', Osaka J. Math. 10 (1973), 51-68.
[6] WILSON, S.J.: 'Eqllivariant homology theories on G-
complexes', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 212 (1975), 155-171.
.1. Slomiriska
MSC 1991: 55N25
BREGMAN DISTANCE - Given a convex closed set
C eRn with non-empty interior Co and a Breg-
man function f with zone C, the Bregman distance
D f : C x Co ---+ R is defined as:
Df(X, y) = f(x) - f(y) - (\7 fry), x - Yl .
Bregman distances were introduced in [1]. For several
examples of Bregman distances for relevant sets C, see
Bregman function. It follows easily from the prop-
erties of Bregman functions that D f (x, y) 2: 0 for all
x E C and all y E Co, that Df(x,y) = 0 if and only
if :1: = y and that Dfe, y) is a convex function (of
a real variable) for all y E CO. In general, D f does
not satisfy the triangle inequality, it is not symmetric
(i.e. it is not true that Df(x, y) = Df(y, x) for all x, y)
and Df(x,·) is not convex. If C = R n and either D f is
symmetric or D f (x, .) is convex for all x E C, then f is

a quadratic function and D f is the square of an ellip-
tic norm. A basic property of Bregman distances, which
follows easily from the definition, is the following:
Df(X, y) + Df(Y, z) - Df(x, z) = Bregman's method for convex programming', J. Optimiza-
= (\1f(z) - \1f(y),x - y)
for all x E C, and all y, z E Co. Given a closed convex
set L c Rn such that LnC =I- 0, the Bregman projection
onto L, pI: Co --+ L, is defined as
p[(z) = argmin {Df(x, z): x E L n C}.
The properties of Bregman distances ensure existence
and uniqueness of pI(z) for all z E Co. Given closed
convex sets L 1 , ... ,Lm such that PI. (z) E Co for all
z E Co and all i (such sets are said to be zones con-
sistent with 1), it is interesting to consider a sequence
of successive Bregman projections onto the convex sets
L i , i.e. the sequence {xk} with XO E Co and iterative
formula given by
where i(k) is the index of the convex set used in the kth
iteration (for instance cyclically, i.e. i(k) = k mod m).
This algorithm, called Bregman's method, converges to
a point in L = n~IL; if L is non-empty (see [1]). It has
been proved in [1] that if all the sets Li are hyperplanes,
then the limit of the sequence {xk} is also the unique
solution of min f, subject to x E n~1 L;. This property
also holds for an underrelaxed version of the method, of
the type
where Hk is a hyperplane parallel to Li(k) and lying
between xk and Li(k) (see [3]). Under suitable modifica-
tions in the definition of the hyperplane Hk, the method
has been extended to the case of minimization of f sub-
ject to linear inequalities and linear interval constraints
(see [2], [5]). The entropy maximization method known
as MART (multiplicative algebraic reconstruction tech-
nique, see [4]) is a particular case of Bregman's method
with C = R+ (the non-negative orthant of Rn) and
f(x) = 2:7=1 Xj logxj, under a specific underrelaxation
strategy.
Bregman distances have also been used to gener-
ate generalized proximal point methods for convex op-
timization and variational inequalities (cf. Proximal
point methods in mathematical programming).
References
[1] BREGMAN, L.M.: 'The relaxation method of finding the com-
mon points of convex sets and its application to the solution
of problems in convex programming', USSR Comput. Math.
Math. Phys. 7, no. 3 (1967), 200 -217. (Translated from the
Russian.)
BREGMAN FUNCTION
[2] CENSOR, Y., AND LENT, A.: 'An iterative row-action method
for interval convex programming', J. Optimization Th. and
Applications 34 (1981), 321-353.
[3] PIERRO, A.R. DE, AND IUSEM, A.N.: 'A relaxed version of
tion Th. and Applications 51 (1986),421-440.
[4] GORDON, R., BENDER, R., AND HERMAN, G.T.: 'Algebraicre-
construction techniques (art) for three dimensional electron
microscopy and x-ray photography', J. Theoretical Biology
29 (1970),471-481.
[5] IUSEM, A.N., AND ZENIOS, S.A.: 'Interval underrelaxed Breg-
man method with an application', Optimization 35 (1995),
227-250.
A.N. Iusem
MSC 1991: 52Axx, 90Cxx, 90C25, 90C05
BREGMAN FUNCTION - Let C be a closed convex
subset of R n and Co its interior. Consider a real-valued
convex function (of a real variable) f whose effec-
tive domain contains C and let D f: C x Co --+ R be
defined as
Df(X, y) = f(x) - f(y) - (\1 f(y), x - y) .
f is said to be a Bregman function with zone C (and
D f the Bregman distance induced by 1) if the following
conditions hold:
Bl) f is continuously differentiable on Co;
B2) f is strictly convex and continuous on C;
B3) for all 8 E R the partial level sets f(x,8) = {y E
Co: Df(x,y)::; 8} are bounded for all x E C;
B4) if {yk} c Co converges to y*, then Df(Y*, yk) con-
verges to 0;
B5) if {xk} C C and {yk} C Co are sequences
such that {xk} is bounded, limk-roo yk = y* and
limk-roo D f (x k , yk) = 0, then limk-roo xk = y* .
Bregman functions were introduced in [1]. B4) and
B5) hold automatically when xk, y* are in Co, as a con-
sequence of Bl), B2) and B3), and so they need to be
checked only at points on the boundary BC of C. When
C = R n, a sufficient condition for a strictly convex dif-
ferentiable function f to be a Bregman function is
lim f(x) = 00
IIxll-roo Ilxll
(see [2]).
A Bregman function f is said to be boundary coer-
cive if for all {yk} C Co such that limk-roo yk = Y E BC
one has limk-roo Dg(x, yk) = 00 for all x E Co, and
zone coercive if the image of Co under \1 f is equal
to R n. Zone coerciveness implies boundary coerciveness
(see [3]). These notions are closely related to essential
smoothness, as defined in [5]. For a boundary-coercive
Bregman function f the zone C is uniquely determined
from f, i.e. f cannot be finitely extended outside C.
This property is essential in most applications of Breg-
man functions.
153
BREGMAN FUNCTION

Examples. Rt- denotes the non-negative orthant ofRn.
i) C = Rn, f(x) = Ilx112. In this case Df(x,y) =
Ilx - Y112. More generally, f(x) = xtMx, with M E
Rnxn symmetric and positive definite, in which case
Df(x, y) = (x - y)t M(x - y).
ii) C = Rt-, f(x) = 2:7=1 Xj logxj, extended by con-
tinuity to DRt- with the convention that 0 log 0 = O. In
this case
Df(x, y) = t (Xj log x J + Yj - Xj) ,
j=1 YJ
which is the Kullback-Leibler information divergence,
widely used in statistics (see Kullback-Leibler-type
distance measures; [4]).
iii) C = Rt-, f(x) = 2:7=1 (xj - xj) with IX ~ 1,
o < (J < 1. For IX = 2, (J = 1/2 one has
generalizations of the proximal point method for convex
optimization (cf. Proximal point methods in math-
ematical programming).
References
[1] BREGMAN, L.M.: 'The relaxation method of finding the com-
mon points of convex sets and its application to the solution
of problems in convex programming', USSR Comput. Math.
Math. Phys. 7, no. 3 (1967), 200-217. (Translated from the
Russian.)
[2] PIERRO, A.R. DE, AND IUSEM, A.N.: 'A relaxed version of
Bregman's method for convex programming', J. Optimiza-
tion Th. and Applications 51 (1986),421-440.
[3] IUSEM, A.N.: 'On some properties of generalized proximal
point methods for quadratic and linear programming', J. Op-
timization Th. and Applications 85 (1995), 593-612.
[4] LIESE, F., AND VAJDA, I.: Convex statistical distances, Teub-
ner, 1987.
[5] ROCKAFELLAR, R.T.: Convex analysis, Princeton Univ.
Press, 1970.

Df(x,y) = Ilx - Yl12 +t

j=1
[(VX;:::)2] ,
YJ
A.N. Iusem
MSC 1991: 52Axx, 90Cxx, 90C25, 90C05
and for IX = 1, (J = 1/2 one has
BRELOT HARMONIC SPACE - Roughly speaking,
a Brelot harmonic space is a locally compact space
endowed with an additional structure making it possible
to study notions known from classical potential the-
ory, such as harmonic and hyperharmonic functions,
potentials, minimum principle, the Dirichlet problem,
f(x) =
n
harmonic measure, balayage, fine topology, Martin com-
= L[(Xj - aj) log(xj - aj) + (b j - Xj) log(bj - Xj)]. pactification, etc. Standard examples are provided by
j=1 elliptic partial differential equations in Euclidean spaces
or on manifolds or by harmonic functions on a Riemann
In this case
surface. (Cf. also Harmonic space; Potential theory,
Df(X,y) = abstract.)
Let X be a locally compact, locally connected topo-
= t(Xj - aj)log (Xj - a j ) + logical space and let 1l be a sheaf of vector spaces
j=1 Yj - aj
of real-valued continuous functions. This means that to
+ ~(bj (b - x)
~ - Xj) log _J_ _J . every non-empty open set U eX, a vector space 1lu
j=1 ~-~ consisting of continuous functions on U is associated in
such a way that: i) if f E 1lu, V c U is a non-empty
v) C is a polyhedron with non-empty interior (i.e.,
C = {x ERn: Ax ::; b} with A E R m x n, b ERn open set, then the restriction f Iv E 1l v; and ii) if U =/:. 0
is a family of non-empty open sets with union V and f
and rank(A) = n (so that m ~ n)), f(x) = 2::':1 (b i -
is a function on V such that flu E 1lu for every U E U,
(ai, X)) log(bi - (ai, X)), where ai (1 ::; i ::; m) are the
then f E 1l v· (The elements of 1lu are called harmonic
rows of A. In this case
functions on U with respect to 1l; cf. also Harmonic
Df(X,y) = function.)
The sheaf 1l is called a Brelot harmonic structure
~ [(b i-\a,x
={;t i - (ai,x))
/ i ))1og (bbi-(ai,y) / i
+\a,x-y )]
. (the terminology from [1]) if the following three axioms
hold:
All the Bregman functions in the above examples are
zone coercive, except for iii) with IX = 1, which is only I) 1l is not degenerate, i.e., for every x E X there
boundary coercive. exists an open neighbourhood U of x and a strictly pos-
Bregman functions are used in algorithms for con- itive function h E 1lu;
vex feasibility problems and linearly constrained convex II) (the base axiom) the topology of X has a basis
optimization (cf. Bregman distance), as well as for consisting of regular sets. (Here, a set V C X is said to

154
 BROADWELL MODEL

be regular (with respect to 1£) if the Dirichlet prob- In the Broadwell model, each identical molecule of
lem on V is solvable in the following sense: For every mass m is allowed to move in space with one of the six
real-valued continuous function f on the boundary of V, unit velocity vectors U1 = (1,0,0), U2 = (-1,0,0), U3 =
there exists a uniquely determined harmonic function (0,1,0), U4 = (0,-1,0), U5 = (0,0,1), U6 = (0,0,-1).
HI E 1£v which extends f continuously. Furthermore, Gas particles are allowed to collide only in pairs, a realis-
°
f 2: implies HI 2: 0.)
III) the Brelot convergence axiom: for every increas-
tic assumption for gases which are not too dense, and the
collision must obey the usual conservation laws for mass,
ing sequence (h n ) of harmonic functions on a domain momentum and kinetic energy. Let (Vi, Vj) --+ (Vk' Vt)
U c X one has sup{ hn : n E N} E 1£u, provided that denote a collision of particles with initial velocities Vi
sup{hn(x): n E N} < 00 for some x E U. and Vj and final velocities Vk and Vt. Conservation of
momentum dictates that the only possible collisions are
The pair (X,1£) is then called a Brelot harmonic
then
space. (These spaces were introduced by M. Brelot in
1957; see [3]. Later on, more general axiomatic settings (V1' V2) --+ (V1'~2)'
for potential theory were developed, mainly by H. Bauer, (V1' V2) --+ (V3, V4),
C. Constantinescu and A. Cornea, J. Bliedtner and W.
(V1' V2) --+ (V5, V6),
Hansen, N. Boboc, Gh. Bucur and Cornea; see [1] and
[2].) (V3, V4) --+ (V1' V2),
Results of J.M. Bony (see e.g. [1]) show that, in (V3,V4) --+ (V3,V4),
a sense, the theory of Brelot harmonic spaces is close (V3, V4) --+ (V5' V6),
to potential theory for second-order partial differential
(V5, V6) --+ (V1' V2),
equations of elliptic type (cf. also Potential theory,
abstract). A great deal of results known from classi- (V5, V6) --+ (V3, V4),
cal potential theory (which corresponds to the Laplace (V5, V6) --+ (V5, V6).
equation) can be obtained in the framework of Brelot
In each of the above collisions, both mass and kinetic
harmonic spaces; sometimes additional hypotheses are energy are also preserved.
imposed. Moreover, there is an important and deep con-
Letting Ni = Ni(x, t) denote the number density of
nection between a class of Markov processes and Brelot
molecules with velocity Vi, the Boltzmann equation can
harmonic spaces (see [1] and [2] and Markov process).
be written as
References aNi
[1] BAUER, H.: 'Harmonic spaces; a survey', Conf. Sem. Mat. at '
-+u··\lN=G-L , , "
Univ. Bari 197 (1984).
[2] BLIEDTNER, J., AND HANSEN, W.: Potential theory; an ana- where G i and Li are the rates of gain and loss in Ni as
lytic and probabilistic approach to balayage, Springer, 1986. a result of collisions. Assuming spherical symmetry and
[3] BRELOT, M.: Axiomatique des fonctions harmoniques, collisional cross section a, one has, for example,
Presses Univ. Montreal, 1966.
I. Netuka
MSC 1991: 31D05
and
4
BROADWELL MODEL ~ Introduced in 1964 by J.E. L1 = 3aN1N2,
Broadwell, this model is the classic example of a dis-
crete velocity gas. A discrete velocity model consists of smce one-third of the (V3, V4) and (V5, V6) collisions
a collection of gas molecules with velocities Ui belonging yield (V1' V2) pairs.
to some finite set S of discrete velocity vectors in Rn. References
[1] BROADWELL, J .E.: 'Shock structure in a simple discrete ve-
The molecules collide with each other, obeying speci-
locity gas', Physics of Fluids 7 (1964), 1243-1247.
fied sets of transformation rules which must satisfy ba- [2] GATIGNOL, R.: Theorie cinetique d'un gaz repartition
sic conservation laws. The models generate systems of discrete de vitesses, Springer, 1975.
highly coupled semi-linear partial differential equations [3] MONACO, R., AND PREZIOSI, L.: Fluid dynamic applications
which approximate the Boltzmann equation, and are of the discrete Boltzmann equation, World Sci., 1991.
[4] PLATKOWSKI, T., AND ILLNER, R.: 'Discrete velocity models
particularly useful for studying problems in rarefied gas
of the Boltzmann equation: A survey on the mathematical as-
dynamics, such as Couette flow, Rayleigh flow and shock pects of the theory', SIAM Review 30 (2) (1988), 213-255.
structure, especially at high Mach number (cf. also Gas M.lkle
dynamics, numerical methods of; Gas flow the- MSC 1991: 82B40
ory; Gas dynamics, equations of).

155
BR0NDSTED-ROCKAFELLARTHEOREM
BR~NDSTED-RoCKAFELLAR THEOREM - An
extended-real-valued function f on a Banach space
E over the real numbers R is said to be proper if
-00 < f(x) ~ 00 for all x E E and f(x) < 00 for
at least one point x. The epigraph of such a function is
the subset of the product space E x R defined by
epi(f) = {(x,r) E E x R: x E E,r ~ f(x)}.
The function f is convex (cf. Convex function (of a
real variable» precisely when the set epi(f) is con-
vex (cf. Convex set) and f is lower semi-continuous
(cf. Semi-continuous function) precisely when epi(f)
is closed (cf. Closed set). A continuous linear func-
tional x* on E (that is, a member of the dual space
E*) is said to be a subgradient of f at the point x pro-
vided f(x) < 00 and x*(y - x) ~ f(y) - f(x) for all
y E E. The set of all subgradients to f at x (where
f(x) is finite) forms the subdifferential 8f(x) of f at x.
The Br!?lndsted-Rockafellar theorem [2] asserts that for
a proper convex lower semi-continuous function f, the
set of points where 8f(x) is non-empty is dense in the set
of x where f is finite (cf. Dense set). This is related to
the Bishop-Phelps theorem [1] (and the proof uses
techniques of the latter), since a subgradient at a point x
can be identified with a support functional (cf. Support
function) of epi(f) at the point (x, f(x». These tech-
niques were again applied to obtain minimization results
(the Ekeland variational principle) for non-convex lower
semi-continuous functions [3]; see [4] for a survey.
References
[1] BISHOP, E., AND PHELPS, R.R.: 'The support functionals of
a convex set', in P. KLEE (ed.): Convexity, Vol. 7 of Proc.
Symp. Pure Math., Amer. Math. Soc., 1963, pp. 27-35.
[2] BR0NDSTED, A., AND ROCKAFELLAR, R.T.: 'On the subdif-
ferentiability of convex functions', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc.
16 (1965), 605-611.
[3] EKELAND, I.: 'On the variational principle', J. Math. Anal.
Appl 47 (1974), 324-353.
[4] EKELAND, I.: 'Nonconvex minimization problems',
Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (NS) 1 (1979), 443-474.
R. Phelps
MSC 1991: 52A07
BROWN-PETERSON SPECTRUM - By the
Pontryagin-Thom theorem, there is a ring spectrum
MU (cf. Spectrum of a ring) whose homotopy is iso-
morphic to the graded ring of bordism classes of closed
smooth manifolds with a complex structure on their sta-
ble normal bundles (cf. also Cobordism). E.H. Brown
and F.P. Peterson [1] showed that, when localized at a
prime p, the spectrum MU is homotopy equivalent to
the wedge of various suspensions (cf. also Suspension)
of a ring spectrum BP, the Brown-Peterson spectrum.
156
The homotopy of this spectrum is the polynomial alge-
bra
7f*BP = Z(p)[Vl"" ,Vn,· .. J,
where the degree of Vn is 2(pn - 1). As a module over
the Steenrod algebra,
H* (BP;Z /)
p '::::: { Z/2[~r, ... ,~~, ...J, p=2,
Z/p[6""'~n""J, podd.
Four properties of BP have made it one of the most use-
ful spectra in homotopy theory. First, D. Quillen [5] de-
termined the structure of its ring of operations. Second,
A. Liulevicius [3] and M. Hazewinkel [2] constructed
polynomial generators of 7f*BP with good properties.
Third, the Baas-Sullivan construction can be used to
construct simple spectra from BP with very nice prop-
erties. The most notable of these spectra are the Morava
K -theories K (n), which are central in the statement
of the periodicity theorem. (See [7] for an account of
the nil potence and periodicity theorems.) Fourth, S.P.
Novikov [4] constructed the Adams-Novikov spectral
sequence, which uses knowledge of the Brown-Peterson
homology of a spectrum X to compute the homotopy of
X. (See [6] for a survey of how the Adams-Novikov spec-
tral sequence gives information on the stable homotopy
groups of spheres.)
An introduction to the study of BP is given in [8].
References
[1] BROWN, E.H., AND PETERSON, F.P.: 'A spectrum whose Zp-
homology is the algebra of reduced pth powers', Topology 5
(1966), 149-154.
[2] HAZEWINKEL, M.: 'Constructing formal groups III. Applica-
tions to complex cobordism and Brown-Peterson cohomol-
ogy', J. Pure Appl. Algebra 10 (1977/78), 1-18.
[3] LIULEVICIUS, A.: 'On the algebra BP.(BP)': Vol. 249 of Lec-
ture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1971, pp. 47-53.
[4] NOVIKOV, S.P.: 'The methods of algebraic topology from the
viewpoint of cobordism theories', Math. USSR Izv. (1967),
827-913. (Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Mat. 31 (1967), 855-
951.)
[5] QUILLEN, D.: 'On the formal group laws of unoriented and
complex cobordism theory', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 75
(1969), 1293-1298.
[6] RAVENEL, D.C.: Complex cobordism and stable homotopy
groups of spheres, Vol. 121 of Pure and Applied Mathematics,
Acad. Press, 1986.
[7] RAVENEL, D.C.: Nilpotence and periodicity in stable homo-
topy theory, Vol. 128 of Annals of Math. Stud., Prince-
ton Univ. Press, 1992.
[8] WILSON, W.S.: Brown-Peterson homology, an introduction
and sampler, Vol. 48 of Regional Conference Series in Math-
ematics, Amer. Math. Soc., 1982.
S.D. Kochman
MSC 1991: 55N22
BROWNIAN EXCURSION, Brownian excursion
process - The limiting process of a Bernoulli excur-
sion. If {7]0, ... ,7]2n} is a Bernoulli excursion, and if
 BROWNIAN FUNCTIONAL

n -t 00, then the finite-dimensional distributions of
the process {1][2nt] / ffn: 0 :::: t :::: I} converge to the
corresponding finite-dimensional distributions of a pro-
cess {1]( t): 0 :::: t :::: I} which is called a Brownian
excursion (process). The Brownian excursion process
{1](t): 0 :::: t :::: I} is a Markov process for which
P{1](O) = O} = P{ry(I) = O} = 1 and P{1](t) ;:: O} = 1
for 0:::: t :::: 1. If 0 < t < 1, then 1](t) has a density func-
tion f(t, x). Obviously, f(t, x) = 0 for x:::: O. If 0 < t < 1
and x > 0, then
f(t,x) = 2x2 e-x2/(2t(l-t))
y'27l't3(1 - t)3
If 0 < t < u < 1, then the random variables 1](t) and
1](u) have a joint density function f(t,x;u,y). One finds
thatf(t, x; u, y) = 0 if x :::: 0 or y :::: O. If 0 < t < u < 1
and x > 0, y > 0, then
f(t,x;u,y) =
[1] CHUNG, K.L.: 'Excursions in Brownian Motion', Arkiv fur
Math. 14 (1976), 157-179.
[2] ITO, K., AND McKEAN, H.P.: Diffusion processes and their
sample paths, Springer, 1965.
[3] LEVY, P.: Processus stochastiques et mouvement Brownien,
second ed., Gauthier-Villars, 1965.
[4] TAKACS, L.: 'A Bernoulli excursion and its various applica-
tions', Adv. in Probability 23 (1991), 557-585.
L. Takacs
MSC 1991: 60J65
BROWNIAN FUNCTIONAL - A certain random
variable defined on the Wiener space (cf. Wiener
. space, abstract). Let C be the space of continuous
functions from R+ to R n vanishing at zero, let H be its
Borel a-field and let m be the Wiener measure, which is
the probability measure on (C, H) making the coor-
dinate mappings a Brownian motion. Then a Brow-
nian functional is a measurable mapping defined on the
probability space (C, H, m) with (generally) real val-

y't3(U~~~ - up¢ (0) ¢ (~)

ues.
X Such random variables are distinguished for several

X [¢ (.;u=ty) ¢(.;u=t'
x - + y )] x
where
1 2/
¢(x) = _eX 2
~
is the normal density function (cf. Normal distribu-
tion; Density of a probability distribution). Since
{1]( t): 0 :::: t :::: I} is a Markov process, the density func-
tions f(t, x) and f(t, x; u, y) completely determine its
finite-dimensional distributions. For various properties
of the Brownian excursion process, see [3], [1], [4].
The distributions of various functionals of the Brow-
nian excursion {1]( t): 0 :::: t :::: I} frequently appear in
probability theory. In particular, many limit distri-
butions of the Bernoulli excursion {1]0, ... ,1]2n} can be
reasons:
a) they are met in a great number of applications,
including filtering and mathematical finance;
b) they arise in connection with classical potential
theory, cf. [8];
c) stochastic analysis naturally yields Brownian func-
tionals defined by stochastic integrals or stochastic dif-
ferential equations, cf. [9], [4].
In many recent works, the motivation to study Brow-
nian functionals comes from their irregularity even when
their definition is simple. A Wiener stochastic integral
with respect to the one-dimensional Brownian motion
is generally discontinuous, cf. [2]. From dimension two
onwards appears a particularly deep irregularity; for ex-
ample, Levy's area, [4], [11],

ior ior
expressed simply as the distributions of certain func-
tionals of the Brownian excursion. For example, if cln =
~ l
Bl dB 2 _ ~ l
B2 dB l
2 8 8 2 8 8

max(1]o, ... ,1]2n), then

is not Riemann-integrable, even when truncated, and
lim P {
n--+oo y
~::::
2n
x} = F( x), the same happens for solutions of stochastic differential
equations not satisfying the commutativity condition,
where [4]. This non-Riemann-integrability is essential and does
not depend on the Borelian version. It causes difficulties
F(x) = P { sup 1](t) :::: x} .
in numerical computations and simulation, [2].
0:St9
Explicitly, Some regularity results exist nevertheless. Brownian
functionals are often approximately continuous (cf. Ap-
I: (1 -
00

F(x) = 4j2x2)e-2j2X2 = proximate continuity) in a neighbourhood of a point

j=-oo of the Wiener space which is a regular function (e.g., be-
In 5/2 = longs to C=). This has been first proved by D. Stroock
= y 27l' ~ j 2e- j2 1f'2 /(2x2)
x3 ~ and S.R. Varadhan ([10] and [4]) for solutions of sto-
j=O
chastic differential equations (cf. Stochastic differen-
for x > 0 and F (x) = 0 for x :::: O. tial equation) with regular coefficients in connection
References with the theorem on the support of a diffusion. Hence

157
BROWNIAN FUNCTIONAL
it makes sense to define their values at such points. Al-
though the set of these regular Brownian paths is negli-
gible with respect to the Wiener measure, certain Brow-
nian functionals are completely determined by their re-
striction to this set. This fact is the keystone of several
recent works on the concept of a skeleton of a Brownian
functional, [12], [3].
Moreover, an important trend of research in the sto-
chastic calculus of variation, [14], [6], [1], allows one to
obtain regularity results for the laws of Brownian func-
tionals following ideas initiated by P. Malliavin. It is also
possible to pullback on the Wiener space measures or
distributions defined on Rd. This gives distributions in
the sense of Watanabe, [13], [14], which are generalized
Brownian functionals (similarly to Schwartz distribu-
tions, which are generalized functions, cf. Generalized
function).
An interesting tool for studying Brownian functionals
and generalized Brownian functionals are Wiener chaos
expansions (cf. also Wiener chaos decomposition;
[13], [6], [1], [15]), which, in classical form, express a
square-integrable Brownian functional as the sum of a
series of multiple Wiener-Ito integrals. Using this ap-
proach, the existence of the skeleton of a Brownian
functional is connected with transformation of multi-
ple Wiener-Ito integrals into multiple Stratonovich in-
tegrals (cf. also Stratonovich integral), which involves
questions about the existence of traces for certain oper-
ators or kernels, [5], [7].
References
[1] BOULEAU, N., AND HIRSCH, F.: Dirichlet forms and analysis
on Wiener space, W. de Gruyter, 1991.
[2] BOULEAU, N., AND LEPINGLE, D.: Numerical methods for sto-
chastic processes, Wiley, 1994.
[3] FANG, S., AND REN, J.: 'Sur les squelettes et les derivees de
Malliavin des fonctions holomorphes sur l'espace de Wiener
complexe', J. Math. Kyoto Univ. 33 (1993), 749-764.
[4] IKEDA, N., AND WATANABE, SH.: Stochastic differential equa-
tions and diffusion processes, North-Holland and Kodansha,
1981.
[5] LEANDRE, R., AND MEYER, P.A.: 'Sur Ie developpement
d'une diffusion en chaos de Wiener': Sem. de Probab. XXII,
Vol. 1372 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1989,
pp. 161-164.
[6] NUALART, D.: The Malliavin calculus and related topics,
Springer, 1995.
[7] NUALART, D., AND ZAKAI, M.: 'Multiple Wiener-Ito integrals
possessing a continuous extension', Probab. Th. Rel. Fields
85 (1990), 134-145.
[8] PORT, S.C., AND STONES, CH.J.: Brownian motion and clas-
sical potential theory, Acad. Press, 1978.
[9] PROTTER, PH.: Stochastic integration and differential equa-
tions, Springer, 1990.
[10] STROOCK, D., AND VARADHAN, S.R.: 'On the support of a dif-
fusion process with application to the strong maximum prin-
ciple': Proc. Sixth Berkeley Symp. Math. Stat. and Probab.,
Vol. III, Univ. California Press, 1972, pp. 333-359.
158
[11] SUGITA, H.: 'Various topologies on the Wiener space and
Levy's stochastic area', Probab. Th. Related Fields 91 (1992),
283-296.
[12] SUGITA, H.: 'Properties of holomorphic Wiener functions,
skeletons, contractions and local Taylor expansions', Probab.
Th. Related Fields 100 (1994), 117-130.
[13] WATANABE, SH.: On stochastic differential equations and
Malliavin calculus, Vol. 73, Springer, 1979.
[14] WATANABE, SH.: Malliavin calculus in term of generalized
Wiener functionals, Vol. 49 of Lecture Notes in Control and
Information Sciences, Springer, 1983.
[15] YAN, J .A.: 'Developpement des distributions suivant les chaos
de Wiener et applications a l'analyse stochastique': Sem. de
Probab. XXI, Vol. 1247 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1987, pp. 27-32.
N. Bouleau
MSC 1991: 60J65, 60H05, 60H07
BRUHAT-TITS BUILDING - A building (cf. also
Tits building) which is defined for a connected re-
ductive group over a field which is complete with re-
spect to a non-trivial discrete valuation and has a perfect
residue class field. It is the topological realization of the
(poly-) simplicial complex of all parahoric subgroups.
One way to define it more precisely is as follows.
Let K be a field which is complete with respect to
the non-trivial valuation w: K X -+ Z and has a per-
fect residue class field. Let G be a connected, reductive
K -group. First, assume G to be semi-simple (cf. Semi-
simple group).
Apartments. Let S be a maximal K-split torus in
G and denote by Z (respectively, N) the centralizer
(respectively, normalizer; cf. Normalizer of a sub-
set) of Sin G. Let X.(S) (respectively, X'(S)) denote
the group of co characters (respectively, characters) of
S and let (.,.): X'(S) X X.(S) -+ Z be the canonical
perfect pairing. Then there is a unique group homo-
morphism 1/: Z (K) -+ V = X. (S) ®z R such that
(X,I/(z)) = -w(X(z)) for all X E X'K(Z) (i.e., the group
of K-rational characters of Z). One can show that there
is a unique affine V-space A together with a group homo-
morphism 1/: N(K) -+ Aff(A) (i.e., the affine bijections
A -+ A) extending 1/: Z(K) -+ V c Aff(A), called the
(empty) apartment associated with S.
Filtrations of the root subgroups. Denote by <I> the
root system of G with respect to S and, for a E <1>, by
Ua the root subgroup of G associated with a. Then, for
u E Ua(K)\{1}, the set U_a(K)uU_a(K) n N(K) con-
tains exactly one element, denoted by m( u). An affine
mapping a: A -+ R is called an affine root if the vector
part a of a is contained in <I> and if there exists a u E
Ua(K)\{l} such that a-1(O) = {x E A: I/(m(u))(x) =
x}. In that case a is abbreviated as a(a,u). For x E A
and a E <1>, let Ua,x = {u E Ua(K): a(a, u)(x) ~ O}U{l}
and let Ux be the subgroup of G(K) generated by all
Ua,x for a E <1>.

Simplicial structures. Two points x, yEA are called
equivalent if a(x) and a(y) have the same sign or are
both equal to 0 for all affine roots a. One obtains a
(poly-) simplicial complex (i.e., a direct product of sim-
plicial complexes) in A by defining the faces to be the
equivalence classes.
Building. Let BT(G, K) = G(K) x A/ "', where
(g, x) '" (h, y) if there exists an n E N(K) such
that v(n)(x) = y and g-lhn E Ux ' There is a
canonical G(K)-action on BT( G, K) induced by left-
multiplication on the first factor of G(K) x A. One can
identify A with its canonical image in BT( G, K). The
subsets of the form gA, for g E G(K), are called apart-
ments and the subsets ofthe form gF, for g E G(K) and
F a face in A, are called faces. One can equip BT( G, K)
with a metric which is G(K)-invariant. This metric co-
incides on A with the metric induced by the scalar prod-
uct on V which is invariant under the Weyl group of <P.
The metric space BT( G, K) together with these struc-
tures is called the Bruhat-Tits building of G.
If G is not semi-simple, the Bruhat-Tits building of G
is, by definition, the Bruhat-Tits building of the derived
group (cf. Commutator subgroup) of G.
Example. Assume G = SL 2 , and denote by 0 and 7r
the valuation ring of K and a uniformizer of 0, respec-
tively. An O-lattice is a free O-submodule of K2 of rank
2. Then the Bruhat-Tits building of SL 2 is the topolog-
ical realization of the following simplicial complex: the
O-simplices are the O-lattices in K2 up to homothety
and the I-simplices are pairs L C L' of O-lattices in K2
up to homothety with 7r L' c L.
General references for Bruhat-Tits buildings are [1]
and [2]. (The situations considered there are more gen-
eral.) A good overview can be found in [3].
Originally, the Bruhat-Tits building was the essential
technical tool for the classification of reductive groups
over local fields (cf. Reductive group). There are fur-
ther applications, e.g. in the representation theory of re-
ductive groups over local fields, in the theory of p-adic
symmetric spaces and in the theory of Shimura varieties.
References
[1] BRUHAT, F., AND TITS, J.: 'Groupes n§ductifs sur un corps
local I, II', IHES Publ. Math. 41,50 (1972/84).
[2] LANDVOGT, E.: A compactification of the Bruhat-Tits build-
ing, Vol. 1619 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1996.
[3] TITS, J.: 'Reductive groups over local fields': Proc. Symp.
Pure Math., Vol. 33, Amer. Math. Soc., 1979, pp. 29-69.
E. Landvogt
MSC 1991: 20G25
BRUN-TITCHMARSH THEOREM - For coprime
integers q and a, let 7r(x; q, a) denote the number of
primes not exceeding x that are congruent to a modulo
BUCHBERGER ALGORITHM
q. Using analytic methods of the theory of L-functions
[8], one can show that the asymptotic formula
¢(q)~OgX (1 + 0Co~x))
7r(x;q,a) =
holds uniformly for q < logA x, where A is an arbitrary
positive constant. It is desirable to extend the validity
range for q of this formula, in view of its applications to
classical problems. The generalized Riemann hypothesis
(cf. Riemann hypotheses) is not capable of providing
any information for q > JX.
In contrast, a simple application of a sieve method
[8] leads to an upper bound which gives the correct order
of magnitude of 7r(x; q, a) for all q < x l -<, where f. is an
arbitrary positive constant. Because of its uniformity in
q, an inequality of this type turns out to be very useful
[3], [5], [8]; it is known as the Brun- Titchmarsh theorem.
By a sophisticated argument, [6], one finds that
2x
7r(x;q,a) < ¢(q)log(x/q)
for all q < x. The constant 2 possesses a significant
meaning in the context of sieve methods [2], [7]. By
adapting the Brun-Titchmarsh theorem [1], [4], if neces-
sary, it is possible to sharpen the above bound in various
ranges for q.
References
[1] FOUVRY, E.: 'Theoreme de Brun-Titchmarsh: application au
theoreme de Fermat', Invent. Math. 79 (1985),383-407.
[2] HALBERSTAM, H., AND RICHERT, H.E.: Sieve methods, Acad.
Press, 1974.
[3] HOOLEY, C.: Applications of sieve methods to the theory of
numbers, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976.
[4] IWANIEC, H.: 'On the Brun-Titchmarsh theorem', J. Math.
Soc. Japan 34 (1982), 95-123.
[5] LINNIK, Yu.V.: Dispersion method in binary additive prob-
lems, Nauka, 1961. (In Russian.)
[6] MONTGOMERY, H.L., AND VAUGHAN, R.C.: 'The large sieve',
Mathematika 20 (1973), 119-134.
[7] MOTOHASHI, Y.: Sieve methods and prime number theory,
Tata Institute and Springer, 1983.
[8] PRACHAR, K.: Primzahlverteilung, Springer, 1957.
H. Mikawa
MSC 1991: llN05, llN35, llM06
BUCHBERGER ALGORITHM - A Noetherian
ring R is called effective if its elements and ring opera-
tions can be described effectively as well as the problem
of finding all solutions to a linear equation Li aixi = b
with ai, b E R and unknown Xi E R (in terms of a
particular solution and a finite set of generators for the
module of all homogeneous solutions). Examples are the
rings of integers and of rational numbers, algebraic num-
ber fields, and finite rings. For such a ring R, the Buch-
berger algorithm (cf. [3], [4]) solves the following prob-
lem concerning the polynomial ring R[X] in the variables
X = {Xl,'" ,Xn }:
159
BUCHBERGER ALGORITHM

1) Provide algorithms turning R[X] into an effective GroebnerBasis(B) =

ring. P = {unordered pairs from B};
If R is a field, the algorithm also solves the following while P =f. 0 do
two problems: choose {f,g} E P;
2) Given a finite set of polynomial equations over R P=P\{{f,g}};
in the variables X, produce an 'upper triangular form' c = Reduce(B, 8(j, g));
of the equations, thus providing solutions by elimination i f c =f. 0 then
of variables. P=PU{{b,c}: bE B};
3) Given a finite subset B of R[X], produce an effec- B=BU{c};
tively computable R-linear projection mapping onto a fi;
complement in R[X] of (B), the ideal of R[X] generated od; return B.
byB. It terminates because the sequence of consecutive sets
Monomials. Denote by M the monoid of all monomi- {1mb: b E B}, produced in the course of the algorithm,
als of R[X]. For m E M there is an a E Nn such that descends with respect to <.
m = xa = Xfl ... X~n. A total order (cf. also Totally Note that (B) is an invariant of the algorithm. Conse-
ordered set) on M is called a reduction ordering if, for quently, if C is the output resulting from input B, then
all m,m',m" EM, (C) = (B). The output C has the following characteris-
• m =f. 1 implies 1 < m; tic property:
• m' < mil implies m m' < m mil.
({ltr f E (Cn) = ({ltf: f E C}).
An important example is the lexicographical ordering
(coming from the identification of M with Nn). Start- A subset C of R[X] with this property is called a
ing from any reduction ordering < and a vector c EN, a Grabner basis. Equivalently, a subset B of R[X] is a
new reduction ordering <c can be obtained by demand- Grobner basis if and only if, for all f, g E B, one has
ing that xa < X b if and only if either a . c < b . c or Reduce(B, 8(j, g)) = o.
a . c = b . c and xa < Xb. If c is the all-one vector, the Suppose that B is a Grabner basis. Then
order refines the partial order by total degree. Reduce(B, 1) is uniquely determined for each f E R[X].
Termination of the Buchberger algorithm follows A monomial is called standard with respect to an ideal I
from the fact that a reduction ordering on M is well if it is not of the form lmf for some f E I. The mapping
founded. f f-t Reduce(B,1) is an effectively computable projec-
These orderings are used to compare (sets of) polyno- tion onto the R-span of all standard monomials with
mials. To single out the highest monomial and coefficient respect to (B), which is a complement as in Problem 3)
from a non-zero polynomial f E R[ X], set above.
Imf = max{m E M: fm =f. O}, A reduction ordering < with Xl < ... < Xn is called

lef = the coefficient of the monomiallmf of f,

an elimination ordering if xl < X Hl for j E Nand
i = 1, ... ,n - 1. If C is a Grobner basis with respect to
Itf = lef lmf· an elimination ordering, then (C) n R[X b ... ,Xi] is the
The letters 1m, le, It stand for leading monomial, leading ideal of R[X l , ... ,Xi] generated by C n R[Xl' ... ,Xi].
coefficient and leading term, respectively. This is the key to solving Problem 2.
The Buchberger algorithm in its simplest form. The Buchberger algorithm can be generalized to ar-
Let R be a field and B a finite subset of R[X]. Let bitrary effective rings R. By keeping track of intermedi-
Reduce(B,1) denote a remainder of f with respect to ate results in the algorithms, it is possible to express the
B, that is, the result of iteratively replacing f by a poly- Grabner basis C coming from input B as an R[X]-linear
nomial of the form f - (ltf / Itb)b with b E B such that combination of B. Using this, one can find a particular
1mb Ilmf as often as possible. This is effective because solution, as well as a finite generating set for all homo-
< is well founded. The result is not uniquely determined geneous solutions to an R[X]-linear equation, and hence
by <. Given f, g E R[X], their 8-polynomial is a solution to Problem 1.
General introductions to the Buchberger algorithm
8(j,g) =0 iff = Oor g = 0, can be found in [1], [5], [7]. More advanced applications
8(f,g) -_ Itg f _ Itf g otherwise. can be found in [6], which also contains an indication of
gcd(lmf,lmg) gcd(lmf,lmg) the badness of the complexity of finding Grabner bases.
The following routine is the Buchberger algorithm in Buchberger algorithms over more general coefficient do-
its simplest form. mains R are dealt with in [8], and generalizations from

160

R[X] to particular non-commutative algebras (e.g., the
universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra) in [2J.
References
[1] ADAM, W.W., AND LOUSTAUNAU, P.: An introduction to
Grabner bases, Vol. 3 of Gmduate Studies in Math., Amer.
Math. Soc. and Oxford Univ. Press, 1994.
[2] APEL, J., AND LASSNER, W.: 'An extension of Buchberger's
algorithm and calculations in enveloping fields of Lie alge-
bras', J. Symbolic Compo 6 (1988), 361~370.
[3] BUCHBERGER, B.: 'An algorithmic criterion for the solvabil-
ity of algebraic systems of equations', Aequationes Math. 4
(1965), 374~383, This paper is a published version of the au-
thor's PhD Thesis (Innsbruck, 1965) under the advice of Prof.
W. Grabner.
[4] BUCHBERGER, B.: 'Grabner bases: an algorithmic method in
polynomial ideal theory', in N.K. BOSE (ed.): Recent Trends
in Multidimensional System Theory, Reidel, 1985, pp. 184~
232.
[5] Cox, D., LITTLE, J., AND O'SHEA, D.: Ideals, varieties, and
algorithms, Springer, 1992.
[6] ROBBIANO, L. (ED.): 'Computational aspects of commutative
algebra', J. Symbolic Compo special issue (1989).
[7] EISENBUD, D.: Commutative algebm with a view toward al-
gebmic geometry, Vol. 150 of GTM, Springer, 1995.
[8] TRINKS, W.: 'Uber B. Buchbergers Verfahren, Systeme alge-
braischer Gleichungen zu losen', J. Number Th. 10 (1978),
475~488.
A.M. Cohen
M8C 1991: 13PlO, 68Q40
BUCKLEy-LEVERETT EQUATION - An equa-
tion for fluid flow in a porous medium, proposed in
[1], that models the displacement of oil by water in a
one-dimensional porous medium (e.g., sand). If Sw =
Sw(x, t) denotes the saturation of water, i.e., the frac-
tion of pore volume occupied by water, and Aw(Sw) and
Ao(Sw) are the mobilities of water and oil, respectively,
Le., the ratio of relative permeability and viscosity, then
the Buckley-Leverett equation reads:
Under standard conditions, the flux function
Ao(Sw)/(Aw(Sw) + Ao(Sw)) has an '8' shape with one
inflection point. The equation is a quasi-linear hyper-
bolic partial differential equation (cf. Quasi-linear hy-
perbolic equations and systems and Hyperbolic
partial differential equation). In the case of displace-
ment of oil by water, the initial data are such that they
give rise to the Buckley-Leverett profile, consisting of a
shock (cf. Shock waves, mathematical theory of)
followed by a rarefaction wave. The solution method was
simplified by H.J. Welge [2], who showed that one could
get the shock speed by constructing a particular tangent
to the flux function. This technique is equivalent to the
Rankine-Hugoniot condition.
BUEKENHOUT-METZ UNITAL
The Buckley-Leverett equation is derived under the
assumptions of incompressible fluids and immiscible
flow. Capillary pressure and gravitation are neglected,
and the permeable medium is assumed to obey Darcy's
law, stating that the velocity of each phase is propor-
tional to the gradient of its pressure. Let ¢ denote the
porosity of the medium, and ¢a = ¢Sa, where 0: = 0, w
denotes the phase. Conservation of mass of each phase
gives that
ata (¢aPa) + V' . (¢aPava) =
0,
where Va and Pa denote the velocity and density of each
phase, respectively. Darcy's law reads:
Aa
Va = -K ¢a V'pa,
where K is the (absolute) permeability and Pa the pres-
sure of phase 0:. The pressures are identical in the ab-
sence of capillary forces. In one space dimension one can
eliminate the pressure, and subsequently scale the time
variable, making the total velocity constant, thereby ob-
taining the Buckley-Leverett equation.
References
[1] BUCKLEY, S.E., AND LEVERETT, M.C.: 'Mechanism of fluid
displacement in sands', Trans. AIME 146 (1942), 187~196.
[2] WELGE, H.J.: 'A simplified method for computing oil recov-
ery by gas or water drive', Trans. AIME 195 (1952), 97~108.
H. Holden
M8C 1991: 76805
BUEKENHOUT-METZ UNITAL - A type of uni-
tal constructed from PG( 4, q) via the construction of a
translation plane (cf. Translation surface). Let TI be
a hyperplane of PG (4, q) and let S be a spread, that is a
set of lines, necessarily q2 + 1 in number, partitioning TI.
Define an incidence structure I = (P, B) (cf. Incidence
system), where the elements of P are the q4 points of
PG(4,q)\TI and the q2 + 1 lines of S. The elements of
B are the q4 + q2 planes of PG(4, q) meeting TI in pre-
cisely a line of S and the single element S. Incidence is
inclusion. Then I is a projective plane, which is De-
sarguesian (cf. Desargues geometry) if S is regular,
that is, if it has the property that three tranversals of
three lines of S are transversals of q + 1 lines of S.
Now, let 0 be an ovoid, that is, a set of q2 + 1 points,
no three collinear, in a hyperplane TI' other than TI such
that 0 n TI is the single point P, where P is not on the
line TI n TI'. Let £ be the line of S through P and let Q
be a point of £ other than P. Then, with QO the cone
with vertex Q and base 0,
U = (QO\f) u {£}
is the eponymous unital in I. If I is Desarguesian, both
the Tits ovoid when q = 22e + 1 with e 2: 1 and a suitably
chosen elliptic quadric for arbitrary q with q > 2 give
161
BUEKENHOUT-METZ UNITAL

a unital, also called in this case a Hermitian arc, that
is not a Hermitian curve [1], [3]. An explicit equation of
degree 2q can be given [2].
References
[1] BUEKENHOUT, F.: 'Existence of unitals in finite translation
planes of order q2 with a kernel of order q', Geom. Dedicata
5 (1976), 189-194.
[2] HIRSCHFELD, J.W.P.: Finite projective spaces of three dimen-
sions, Oxford Univ. Press, 1985.
[3] METZ, R: 'On a class of unitals', Geom. Dedicata 8 (1979),
125-126.
J. W.P. Hirschfeld
MSC 1991: 51E20
BUKHSTAB FUNCTION - The continuous solution
of the system
1 deduced.
w(u) = - (1 ~ u ~ 2),
u
(uw(u))' = w(u - 1) (u> 2).
This function occurs in number theory as the limit
. q,(x, x 1 / u ) log x 1/ u
w(u) = hm (u> 1),
x--+oo x
where q,(x, y) denotes the number of positive integers
not exceeding x that are free of prime factors smaller
than y; see [1].
The function w(u) is positive-valued and converges to
the constant e-"I as u --+ 00, where "y is the Euler con-
stant. The difference w(u)-e-"I behaves asymptotically
like a trigonometric function with period 2 and decay-
ing amplitudes of size exp( -(1+o(l))u log u). These and
similar results have been exploited in the study of irreg-
ularities in the distribution of prime numbers; see
[2), [3).
References
[1] BUKHSTAB, A.A.: 'Asymptotic estimates of a general number-
theoretic function', Mat. Sb. 44 (1937), 1239-1246. (In Rus-
sian.)
[2] FRIEDLANDER, J., GRANVILLE, A., HILDEBRAND, A., AND
MAIER, H.: 'Oscillation theorems for primes in arithmetic
progressions and for sifting functions', J. Amer. Math. Soc.
4 (1991), 25-86.
[3] MAIER, H.: 'Primes in short intervals', Michigan Math. J.32
(1985), 221-225.
A. Hildebrand
MSC 1991: llN05, llN25
BUKHSTAB IDENTITY - A form of the Sylvester
inclusion-and-exclusion principle specialized to
sieve theory (cf. also Sieve method). Let A be a fi-
nite integer sequence and, for any integer q, denote by
Aq the subsequence of elements of A that are multiples
of q. Let 'P be a set of prime numbers (cf. also Prime
number), and, for z ~ 2, let P(z) = I1 p <Z,PEPP. Fi-
nally, let
S(A,'P,z) = #{a E A: (a,P(z)) = I}
denote the 'sifting function' associated with A and 'P.
The Bukhstab identity asserts that, for 2 ~ Zl ~ Z,
S(A q , 'P, z) = S(A q , 'P, zt) - S(Apq , 'P,p).
Zl ~ P<z
pE'P
(1)
The identity is useful for deriving a lower-bound sieve
estimate from an upper bound sieve estimate (or vice
versa) as follows. If the parameter Zl is sufficiently small,
then the quantity S(Aq , 'P, Zl) on the right-hand side of
(1) usually can be estimated asymptotically. Thus, if an
upper bound for each of the terms S(Apq , 'P,p) on the
right-hand side of (1) is known, then a lower bound for
the sifting function on the left-hand side of (1) can be
References
[1] HALBERSTAM, H., AND RICHERT, H.-E.: Sieve methods, Acad.
Press, 1974.
H. Diamond
MSC 1991: llN35
BUNYAKOVSKII CONJECTURE - Let f(x) be a
polynomial of degree ~ 1 with integer coefficients. Al-
ready in 1854, V. Bunyakovski'l [1) considered the prob-
lem whether f(n) represents infinitely many prime num-
bers as n ranges over the positive integers (cf. Prime
number). There are some obvious necessary conditions,
e.g., that the coefficients of f are relatively prime, that f
is irreducible (cf. Irreducible polynomial) and, triv-
ially, that the leading coefficient is positive. Are these
conditions sufficient?
As Bunyakovski'l remarked, the answer is 'no'. For
instance, for each prime number p one has
nP - n - p == 0 (mod p) for all integers n.
Replacing the constant term p by pk with a suitable in-
teger k, one can make x P - x - pk irreducible, say with
p = 2, p = 3, etc. Hence, one has to assume that the
values f(n) for positive integers n are not all divisible
by a prime number. Bunyakovskil's conjecture is that
these conditions are sufficient.
A special case of this conjecture is that the poly-
nomial x 2 + 1 represents infinitely many prime num-
bers. Similarly, the Dirichlet theorem about infinitely
many primes in an arithmetic progression comes from
considering the polynomial ax + b with relatively prime
integers a > 0 and b.
Bunyakovski'l's conjecture was rediscovered and gen-
eralized to several polynomials by A. Schinzel [3); see
also the comments in [2).
P. T. Bateman and R. Horn have conjectured an
asymptotic behaviour (cf. Bateman-Horn conjec-
ture).

162

References
[1] BOUNIAKOWSKY [v. BUNYAKOVSKI~, V.: 'Sur les diviseurs
numeriques invariables des fonctions rationelles entieres',
Mem. Sci. Math. et Phys. VI (1854/5), 307-329.
[2] HALBERSTAM, H., AND RICHERT, H.-E.: Sieve methods, Acad.
Press, 1974.
[3] SCHINZEL, A., AND SIERPINSKI, W.: 'Sur certaines hypotheses
concernant les nombres premiers', Acta Arithm. 4 (1958),
185-208.
s. Lang
MSC 1991: 11N05, 11N13, 11N32
BURKHOLDER-DAVIS-GUNDY INEQUALITY -
Consider a regular martingale (X n , Fn), n 2: 0, Xo =
o almost surely. Let X* and S = S(X) stand for
sUPn>O IXnl and the quadratic variation (L:i>l (Xi -
X i _ 1)2)1/2, respectively. - tegrable if the limit lim8(D)-+O L:IED ¢(I) exists and is
The following inequality in Lp -spaces was proved in
[3]:
(1)
where cp and C p are positive constants depending only
on p, 1 ::; p ::; +00.
In fact, this inequality was proved in three steps;
D.L. Burkholder [2] proved the cases 1 < p < +00;
Burkholder and R.F. Gundy [4] proved the cases 0 <
p ::; 1 for a large class of martingales, and Gundy [5]
proved the case p = 1 for all martingales.
Moreover, (1) was proved in a more general form in
Orlicz spaces (cf. Orlicz space) in [3]:
c~E(I1>(S(X))) ::; E(I1>(X*)) ::; C~E(I1>(S(X))), (2)
where c~ and C~ are positive constants depending only
on 11>.
The inequalities (1) and (2) are frequently used in
martingale theory, harmonic analysis and Fourier
analysis (cf. also Fourier series; Fourier transform).
For a different proof of these inequalities, see, e.g.,
[1].
References
[1] BASSILY, N.L.: 'A new proof of the right hand side of the
Burkholder-Davis-Gundy inequality': Proc. 5th Pannonian
Symp. Math. Statistics, Visegrad, Hungary, 1985, pp. 7-21.
[2] BURKHOLDER, D.L.: 'Martingale transforms', Ann. Math.
Stat. 31 (1966), 1494-1504.
[3] BURKHOLDER, D.L., DAVIS, B., AND GUNDY, R.F.: 'Integral
inequalities for convex functions of operators on martingales':
Proc. 6th Berkeley Symp. Math. Statistics and Probability,
Vol. 2, 1972, pp. 223-240.
[4] BURKHOLDER, D.L., AND GUNDY, R.F.: 'Extrapolation and
interpolation for convex functions of operators on martin-
gales', Acta Math. 124 (1970), 249-304.
[5] DAVIS, B.: 'On the integrability of the martingale square func-
tion', Israel J. Math. 8 (1970), 187-190.
MSC 1991: 42B30, 41A17
N.L. Bassily
BURKILL-CESARI INTEGRAL
BURKILL-CESARI INTEGRAL - An extension of
Burkill's integration process (for interval and rectangu-
lar functions; cf. Burkill integral) to set functions in
abstract settings, introduced by L. Cesari in [8], [7]. It
finds applications in the Weierstrass-type approach to
the calculus of variations (see [6], [10], [11], the survey
[9], and [4], [3], [5]).
Elementary integration process for interval func-
tions. Given an interval [a, b] C R, let {I} de-
note the collection of all closed subintervals. Let
D[a,b] be the family of finite partitions D = {xo =
a,Xl,.·· ,Xn-l,Xn = b} = {Id of [a,b] and let 8: D--+
R + be the mesh function defined by 8(D) = maxI ED III·
An interval function ¢: {I} --+ R is said to be in-
finite.
One of the main applications of this process is
to the Jordan length of a continuous rectifiable curve
x: [a, b] --+ R, which coincides with the integral of the
function ¢(I) = JIII2 + [x(iJ) - x(a)J2, 1= [a,iJ]·
Burkill integration process for rectangle func-
tions. Given a closed rectangle [a, b] x [c, d] c R 2 , let
{R} denote the collection of all closed subrectangles
with sides parallel to the axes. Let D = D[a,b] x D[c,d]
be the family of Cartesian subdivisions D = [R] of
[a, b] x [c, d] and let 8: {R} --+ R be the mesh function
defined by 8(D) = maxRED diam(R).
A rectangle function ¢: {R} --+ R is said to be Burkill
integrable if the limit
lim
8(D)-+0
L
RED
¢(R)
exists and is finite.
It has been proved that the area of a continuous sur-
face of bounded variation coincides with the Burkill in-
tegral of a suitable rectangular function.
Burkill-Cesari integration process in an abstract
setting. Given a topological space (A, Q), let M be
the family of all subsets of A. Let {I} C M be a given
class of sets, called 'intervals'. A finite system D =
[It, ... , In] is a finite collection of non-overlapping in-
tervals, i.e. IP =f. 0 and Ipul j = 0, i =f. j, i,j = 1, ... ,n,
where 10 and 1 denote the Q-interior and Q-closure, re-
spectively.
Let (DdtE(T,») be a given net of finite systems and
let s: M x M --+ {O, I} be the function defined by
s(H, K) = 1 when H C K and s(H, K) = 0 otherwise.
A function ¢: {I} --+ E, where E is a Banach space,
is said to be Burkill-Cesari integrable over M E M if
the limit
Iii? L
IED t
s(I, M)¢(I) = BC
}
r¢
M
exists.
163
BURKILL-CESARI INTEGRAL
An efficient condition for the existence of the Burkill-
Cesari integral is Cesari quasi-additivity: A function ¢
is said to be quasi-additive [8] over M if for each E > 0
there exists a it E T such that for every to » tl there
exists a t2 E T such that for every t » t2,
Ls(J,M) Ls(I,J)¢(I) - ¢(J) < E,
J I
~s(I,M) [1- ~s(I,J)S(J'M)lll¢(I)11 <
f,
where Dto = [J], D t = [1].
The function ¢ is said to be of bounded variation if
limsuPT 2:IED t II¢(I)II < +00.
A quasi-additive function is Burkill-Cesari inte-
grable. Moreover, if ¢ is quasi-additive and of bounded
variation on A, then both functions ¢ and II¢II are quasi-
additive on all subsets ME M.
An analogous Burkill-Cesari weak integration pro-
cess was introduced in [1].
Subject to a suitable strengthening of the setting, the
Burkill-Cesari integral admits extension to measures.
Moreover, the total variation of the Burkill-Cesari mea-
sure of a function ¢ coincides with the Burkill-Cesari
measure of II¢II.
Connections of the Burkill-Cesari process with mar-
tingale theory were presented in [2] (cf. also Mar-
tingale). A characterization of lower semicontinuity
for Burkill-Cesari integrals was proposed in [5]. The
integration processes of Riemann, Lebesgue-Stieltjes,
Hellinger, Bochner, Pettis, and Henstock can be re-
garded as particular Burkill-Cesari integrals (cf. also
Riemann integral; Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral;
Hellinger integral; Bochner integral; Pettis inte-
gral; Kurzweil-Henstock integral).
The variation, length and area of a curve or surface
of bounded variation (not necessarily continuous) find a
meaningful definition in terms of the Burkill-Cesari in-
tegral. Furthermore, a definition of weighted length and
area can be introduced by means of this process.
More generally, the Burkill-Cesari integral has im-
portant applications in the definition of Weierstrass-
type integrals in the calculus of variations (cf. Varia-
tional calculus). In fact the classical Lebesgue func-
tionals are valid only with respect to Sobolev's variety,
but the corresponding Weierstrass integrals provide a
good and meaningful extension to the bounded varia-
tion setting.
References
[1] BRANDI, P., AND SALVADORI, A.: 'Sull'integrale deb ole alia
Burkill-Cesari', Atti Sem. Mat. Fis. Univ. Modena 23
(1978), 14-38.
[2] BRANDI, P., AND SALVADORI, A.: 'Martingale ed integrale alia
Burkill-Cesari', Atti Accad. Naz. Lincei 67 (1979), 197-203.
164
[3] BRANDI, P., AND SALVADORI, A.: 'On the non-parametric
integral over a BV surface', J. Nonlinear Anal. 13 (1989),
1127-1137.
[4] BRANDI, P., AND SALVADORI, A.: 'A quasi-additive type con-
dition and the integral over a BV variety', Pacific J. Math.
146 (1990), 1-19.
[5] BRANDI, P., AND SALVADORI, A.: 'On the semicontinuity
of Burkill-Cesari integral', Rend. eirc. Mat. Palermo 63
(1994), 161-180.
[6] BRECKENRIDGE, J .C.: 'Burkill-Cesari integrals of quasi addi-
tive interval functions', Pacific J. Math. 37 (1971), 635-654.
[7] CESARI, L: 'Extension problem for quasi-additive set func-
tions and Radon-Nykodym derivatives', Trans. Amer. Math.
Soc. 102 (1962), 114-145.
[8] CESARI, L.: 'Quasi-additive set functions and the concept of
integral over a variety', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 102 (1962),
94-113.
[9] VINTI, C.: 'Nonlinear integration and Weierstrass integral
over a manifold: connections with theorems on martingales',
J. Opt. Theor. App 41 (1983), 213-237.
[10] WARNER, G.: 'The Burkill-Cesari integral', Duke Math. J 35
(1968),61-78.
[11] WARNER, G.: 'The generalized Weierstrass-type integral
J f(~,<p)', Ann. Scuola Norm. Sup. Pisa 22 (1968), 163-19L
P. Bmndz
MSC 1991: 26A45, 26B15, 28A75, 28B05, 49Q25
BUTCHER SERIES, B-series - Let y: R ---+ Rd be
an analytic function satisfying an ordinary differen-
tial equation y' (x) = f (y( x)). A Butcher series for y is
a series of the form
L a(t)F(t)(y(x))-(t)!'
hP(t)
B(a, y(x)) =
tET p
where T is the set of rooted trees, a(t) E R is the
coefficient for the series associated with the tree t,
F(t)(y(x)) E Rd is the elementary differential associ-
ated with the tree t, hER is a stepsize or x-increment,
and p(t), often called the order of the tree t, is the num-
ber of nodes in the tree t. All terms will be defined below.
For a more thorough discussion of Butcher series, see [1]
or [2].
Definitions. A tree is a connected acyclic graph (cf.
also Graph). A rooted tree is a tree with a distinguished
node called the root (which is drawn at the bottom of
the s~mple trees in the Table). Two rooted trees t and i
are isomorphic (i.e., equivalent) if and only if there is a
bijection a from the nodes of t to the nodes of i such
that a maps the root of t to the root of i and any two
nodes nl and n2 are connected by an edge in t if and
only if a(nd and a(n2) are connected by an edge in i.
The following bracket notation for rooted trees is very
useful. Let 0 and. be the trees with zero and one node,
respectively. For rooted trees t l , ... ,tm with p(ti) 2 1
for i = 1, ... ,m, let t = [t 1 , ... ,tm ] be the rooted tree
formed by connecting a new root to the roots of each of
it, ... ,t m . Clearly, p(t) = 1+ 2:;':1 p(ti) and any rooted
tree formed by permuting the subtrees t l , ... ,tm of t
 BUTCHER SERIES

is isomorphic to t. The rooted trees with at most four Runge-Kutta formula (cf. Runge-Kutta method)
nodes are displayed in the Table below. S

Yn+! = Yn + h L biki , (2)

to = 0 i=l

h= •
t2 = [tlJ =
'- for the ordinary differential equation y'(x) = f(y(x)).
t3 = [h,td = V Let b = (bl, ... ,bs)T E RS be the vector of weights and

>
A = [aijJ E RSXS the coefficient matrix for (2). Then it
can be shown that Yn+! can be written as the Butcher
t4 = [t2J =
series
hp(t)
t5 = [tl' t 1 , tlJ = '-l? Yn+l = L a(t)'ljI(t)F(t)(Yn) P(t)!' (3)

o
tET

where the coefficients 'ljI(t) E R, defined below, depend

y
only on the rooted tree t and the coefficients of the for-
mula (2).
To define 'ljI(t), first let

<
¢(0) = (1, ... ,If E R S ,
¢(.) = A¢(0),
Using this bracket notation for rooted trees, one can
and then, for t = [tl, ... ,tmJ with P(ti) > 1 for i
recursively define elementary differentials, as follows. 1, ... ,m, define ¢(t) recursively by
Let
F(0)(y(x)) = y(x), F(e)(y(x)) = f(y(x)), ¢(t) = p(t)A(¢(td··· ¢(tm)),

and, for t = [t 1, ... ,tmJ with p(ti) ~ 1 for i = 1, ... ,m, where the product of ¢'s in the bracket is taken
component-wise. Then
F(t)(y(x)) =
= f(m}(y(x))(F(t1)(y(x)), ... ,F(tm)(y(x))), 'ljI(0) = 1,
S
where f(m}(y(x)), the mth derivative of f with respect
'ljI(.) = Lbi'
to y, is a multi-linear mapping. i=l
Since y(x) satisfies y'(x) = f(y(x)), it is not hard to
show that and, for t = [tl, ... ,tmJ with p(ti) ~ 1 for i = 1, ... ,m,
y(i}(X) = L a(t)F(t)(y(x)),
tETi
where, again, the product of ¢'s in the bracket is taken
where y(i)(x) is the ith derivative of y with respect to
componentwise.
x, Ii = {t E T: p(t) = i}, and a(t) is the number of
Assuming that y(x) = Yn and that 'ljI(t) = 1 for all
distinct ways of labeling the nodes of t with the integers
trees t of order::; p, it follows immediately from (1) and
{I, ... ,p(t)} such that the labels increase as you follow
(3) that
any path from the root to a leaf of t. Consequently, one
can write the Taylor series for y(x) as a Butcher series: Yn+! = y(x + h) + O(hP+ 1 ).
00 hi
y(x + h) = Ly(i}(x)-:r = (1) The order of (2) is the largest such p.
z.
i=O
References
hp(t}
[1] BUTCHER, J.C.: The numerical analysis of ordinary differen-
= L a(t)F(t)(y(x)) (t)!·
tET P tial equations, Wiley, 1987.
[2] HAIRER, E., N0RSETT, S.P., AND WANNER, G.: Solving or-
The importance of Butcher series stems from their dinary differential equations I: nonstiff problems, Springer,
use to derive and to analyze numerical methods for dif- 1987.
ferential equations. For example, consider the s-stage K.R. Jackson

165
BUTCHER SERIES
MSC 1991: 65Lxx
BUTLER GROUP - A torsion-free Abelian group
of finite rank (cf. Rank of a group) that is a pure
subgroup of a completely decomposable group of finite
rank. Equivalently, a Butler group is an epimorphic im-
age of a completely decomposable group of finite rank
[5].
Clearly, all completely decomposable Abelian groups
of finite rank are Butler groups, and so are their ex-
tensions by finite groups. There are lots of other ex-
amples of Butler groups. Let A be a direct sum, A =
Al ED A2 ED A 3, where the Ai are rank-one torsion-
free groups such that the elements ai E Ai have
characteristics (00,00,0,0, ... ), (00,0,00,0,0, ... ) and
(0,00,00,0,0, ... ), respectively. The pure subgroup B
of A generated by the elements al - a2, a2 - a3, a3 - al
is a rank-two indecomposable Butler group. The class of
Butler groups is closed under the formation of finite di-
rect sums, pure subgroups and torsion-free epimorphic
images. The type-set (i.e., the set of types of the non-
zero elements) of a Butler group is always finite.
There are various other characterizations of Butler
groups.
i) The following properties characterize Butler
groups B among the finite-rank torsion-free groups [5]:
a) the type-set of B is finite; b) for each type t, the
subgroup B*(t) generated by the elements of type> t
in B has finite index in its purification B*(t)*; c) for
each type t, B(t) = B t ED B*(th where B(t) is the set
of elements of type ~ t in Band B t is a homogeneous
completely decomposable group of type t.
ii) A finite-rank torsion-free group B is a Butler
group if and only if there is a partition II = III U· .. uII k
of the set II of prime numbers such that for each i
(i = 1, ... ,k), the tensor product B®Zi is a completely
decomposable group with totally ordered type-set (here,
Zi denotes the localization of Z at the set IIi of primes)
[3].
iii) A finite-rank torsion-free group B is Butler exactly
if it satisfies Bextl(B, T) = ° for all torsion Abelian
groups T [4]. Here, Bext l denotes the group of equiv-
alence classes of extensions of T by B in which T is a
balanced subgroup.
The classification of Butler groups has not gotten too
far (1996). Two important classes have been character-
ized by invariants up to quasi-isomorphism. These are
the Butler groups of Richman type [13] and their duals.
(A Butler group B is of Richman type if it is a corank-
one pure subgroup in a completely decomposable group
of finite rank. See [2], [10], [11].)
166
It is worthwhile mentioning that there is a close con-
nection between Butler groups and representations of
finite partially ordered sets.
Butler groups B of countable rank were introduced
in [4]. Of the numerous equivalent characterizations, the
following are noteworthy:
°
i) Bextl(B, T) = for all torsion Abelian groups T;
ii) B is the union of an ascending chain of (finite-
rank) Butler subgroups which are pure in B;
iii) every finite-rank pure subgroup of B is a Butler
group.
The study of Butler groups of large cardinalities of-
ten requires additional set-theoretical hypotheses be-
yond the axioms of ZFC (cf. Set theory). There are
°
two kinds of Butler groups of arbitrary cardinality [4]: B
is a BI-grouP if Bextl(B, T) = for all torsion Abelian
groups T, and a B 2 -group if it is the union of a continu-
ous well-ordered ascending chain of pure subgroups Ba
such that, for all a, Ba+! = Ba+Ga for some finite-rank
Butler group Ga. All B 2-groups are Bl-groups, and the
converse is one of the major open problems in Abelian
group theory. It is known that the continuum hypoth-
esis, CH, guarantees that all Bl-groups of cardinality
~ Nw are B 2-groups [6], while in Godel's constructible
universe L (cf. also Godel constructive set), the same
holds without cardinality restrictions [9]. A useful crite-
rion is: assuming CH, a Bl-group B is a B 2-group if and
°
only if Bext 2 (B, T) = for all torsion groups T [12].
The other important problem is to find conditions
under which a pure subgroup A of a B 2-group B is
likewise a B 2-group. A necessary and sufficient condition
is the existence of a continuous well-ordered ascending
chain of B2-subgroups from A to B with rank-l factors
[8]. A related problem is whether or not Bext 2 (G, T) = °
for all torsion-free groups G and all torsion groups T.
In [7] it is shown that CH is a necessary condition for
the vanishing of Bext 2, while in [9] it is proved that the
hypothesis V = L is a sufficient condition. It should
be pointed out that Bext3 (G, T) always vanishes, pro-
vided CH is assumed [1]; more generally, Bext n +2 (G, T)
vanishes if Nn is the continuum for some integer n ~ 1
[8]. Another useful result, valid in ZFC, states that in a
°
balanced-projective resolution -t K -t C -t B -t of °
a Bl-group B (i.e., C is completely decomposable and
K is balanced in C), if one of B, K is a B 2-group, then
so is the other [8].
References
[1] ALBRECHT, U., AND HILL, P.: 'Butler groups of infinite rank
and Axiom 3', Czechosl. Math. J. 37 (1987), 293-309.
[2] ARNOLD, D., AND VINSONHALER, C.: 'Invariants for a class
of torsion-free abelian groups', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 105
(1989), 293-300.

[3] BICAN, L.: 'Purely finitely generated abelian groups', Com-
ment. Math. Univ. Carolin. 21 (1980), 209-218.
[4] BICAN, L., AND SALCE, L.: 'Butler groups of infinite rank':
Abelian Group Theory, Vol. 1006 of Lecture Notes in Math-
ematics, Springer, 1983, pp. 171-189.
[5] BUTLER, M.C.R.: 'A class of torsion-free abelian groups of
finite rank', Proc. London Math. Soc. 15 (1965), 680-698.
[6] DUGAS, M., HILL, P., AND RANGASWAMY, K.M: 'Infinite rank
Butler groups II', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 320 (1990), 643-
664.
[7] DUGAS, M., AND THOME, B.: 'The functor Bext and the nega-
tion of CH', Forum Math. 3 (1991), 23-33.
[8] FUCHS, L.: 'Butler groups of infinite rank', J. Pure Appl. Al-
gebm 98 (1995), 25-44.
BUTLER GROUP
[9] FUCHS, L., AND MAGIDOR, M.: 'Butler groups of arbitrary
cardinality', lsmel J. Math. 84 (1993), 239-263.
[10] FUCHS, L., AND METELLI, C.: 'On a class of Butler groups',
Manuscripta Math. 71 (1991), 1-28.
[11] HILL, P., AND MEGIBBEN, C.: 'The classification of certain
Butler groups', J. Algebm 160 (1993),524-551.
[12] RANGASWAMY, K.M.: 'A homological characterization of But-
ler groups', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 121 (1994),409-415.
[13] RICHMAN, F.: 'An extension of the theory of completely de-
composable torsion-free abelian groups', Trans. Amer. Math.
Soc. 279 (1983), 175-185.
L. Fuchs
MSC 1991: 20K15, 20K20, 03Exx, 04-XX
167
________ c ________
CALDERON COUPLES - Let A o and Al be two Ba-
nach spaces (cf. Banach space) embedded in a Haus-
dorff topological vector space. Such a pair of spaces
is termed a Banach couple or Banach pair. The theory
of interpolation of operators provides a variety of
interpolation methods or interpolation functors for gen-
erating interpolation spaces with respect to any such
couple (Ao, AI), namely normed spaces A (cf. Normed
space) having the property that every linear operator
T: A o+A 1 -+ A o+A 1 such that T: Aj -+ Aj boundedly
for j = 0, 1 also maps A to A boundedly.
A fundamental problem in interpolation theory is the
description of all interpolation spaces with respect to a
given Banach pair (Ao, Ad. In the 1960s, A.P. Calderon
[4) and B.S. Mityagin [10) independently gave charac-
terizations of all interpolation spaces A with respect
to the particular couple (Ao, Ad = (Ll' Loo). Calderon
showed that A is an interpolation space if and only if it
has the following monotonicity property: For every ele-
ment a E A and every element b E A o + A!, whenever
K(t, b) ::; K(t, a) for all t > 0, it follows that bE A and
IlbiiA ::; CllallA for some absolute constant C.
Here, K(t, 1) = K(t, f; Ao, Ad denotes the Peetre K-
functional of f with respect to the couple (Ao, AI)' In
this particular case, where the couple is (Ll' L oo ), there
is a concrete formula for K(t,x) (cf. Interpolation of
operators for further details).
Mityagin's result, though of course ultimately equiv-
alent to Calderon's, is formulated differently, in terms
of the effect of measure-preserving transformations and
multiplication by unimodular functions on elements of
A.
The work of Calderon and Mityagin triggered a long
series of papers by many mathematicians (many of these
are listed in [2) and in [5)) in which it was shown that
all the interpolation spaces of many other Banach pairs
(Ao, Ad can also be characterized via the Peetre K-
functionals for those pairs, by a monotonicity condition
exactly analogous to the one in Calderon's result above.
The Banach pairs (Ao, Ad for which such a character-
ization holds are often referred to as Calderon couples
or Calderon pairs. (They are also sometimes referred
to using other terminology, such as Calderon-Mityagin
couples, K -monotone couples or C-pairs.)
It is also convenient to use the terminology K -space
for any normed space A satisfying A o n Al cAe A o +
Al as well as the above-mentioned monotonicity prop-
erty with respect to the K-functional for (Ao, Ad. By
the important K -divisibility theorem of Yu.A BrudnYl
and N.Ya. Kruglyak [2), it follows that each such K-
space necessarily coincides, to within equivalence of
norms, with a space of the special form (Ao, Al)~ (as
defined in Interpolation of operators). Thus, for
Calderon pairs, all the interpolation spaces are of this
relatively simple form.
So, one can remark that, roughly speaking, for a Ba-
nach pair (Ao, Ad to be Calderon, the class of its in-
terpolation spaces has to be relatively small, and cor-
respondingly, the family of linear operators which are
bounded on both A o and Al has to be relatively large.
Those Banach pairs which are known to be Calderon
include pairs (Lpo (wo), LpI (wd) of weighted Lp spaces
for all choices of weight functions and for all exponents
PO,Pl E [1,00) (the Sparr theorem, [12)). Other exam-
ples include all Banach pairs of Hilbert spaces, various
pairs of Hardy spaces, or of Lorentz or Marcinkiewicz
spaces and all 'iterated' pairs of the form
In this last example (Bo, Bd can be taken to be an arbi-
trary Banach pair and OJ E (0,1) and qj E [1,00) can be
arbitrary numbers. Here, (Bo, Bd~,q denotes the Lions-
Peetre real-method interpolation space, consisting of all
elements b E B o + Bl for which the norm
is finite.

By choosing particular paIrs (Bo, Bd one obtains,
as special cases of this last result, that various pairs
of Besov spaces (cf. Imbedding theorems) or Lorentz
Lp,q spaces or Schatten operator ideals are all Calderon.
In parallel with all these positive results it has also
been shown that many Banach pairs fail to be Calderon.
These include (Lp(Rn), W~(Rn)) where p =1= 2 (here
W~ is a Sobolev space) and (C([O, 1]), Lip([O, 1]))
and also such simple pairs as (fil EEl fi 2 , fioo EEl fioo) and
(LI + L oo , LI n Loo).
In [3], Brudnyi and A. Shteinberg consider whether
pairs of the form (Fo(B o, B I ), FI (Bo, B I )) are Calderon,
where F o and FI are interpolation functors (cf. In-
terpolation of operators). Their results for the pair
(Bo,Bd = (C([O,I]),Lip([O,I])) lead them to conjec-
ture that the above-mentioned result about iterated
pairs of the form (1) cannot be extended, i.e., that
(Fo(Bo,Bd, FI(B o , Bd) is Calderon for every Banach
pair (Bo, Bd if and only if both functors Fj are of the
form Fj(Bo,BI) = (Bo,Bd:J, q.' J
As they also remark,
all Calderon pairs which have so far (1996) been identi-
fied are either couples of Banach lattices of measurable
functions on a given measure space, or are obtained from
such lattice couples as partial retracts or K-subcouples.
One can ask whether this might in fact be true for all
Calderon pairs.
N.J. Kalton [7] has given very extensive results about
pairs of rearrangement-invariant spaces which are or
are not Calderon, including a characterization of all
rearrangement-invariant spaces X for which (X, Loo) is
Calderon. Kalton's results, and also the following gen-
eral negative result from [5], suggest that in some sense
the Calderon property is very much linked to the spaces
of the pair having some sort of Lp structure or 'near-
Lp' structure. This result also shows that Sparr's the-
orem for weighted Lp spaces cannot be sharpened: Let
(Xo, Xd be a pair of saturated u-order continuous Ba-
nach lattices with the Fatou property on the non-atomic
measure space (O,~, /1,). Suppose that at least one of the
spaces X o and Xl does not coincide, to within equiva-
lence of norms, with a weighted LP space on O. Then
there exist weight functions Wj : 0 -+ (0,00) for j = 0, 1
such that the weighted Banach pair (Xo(wo), Xl (wd) is
not Calderon.
In most known examples of Banach pairs (Ao, Ad
which are not Calderon, this happens because the com-
plex interpolation spaces [Ao, AI]", (see Interpolation
of operators) are not K-spaces. But M. Mastylo and
V.I. Ovchinnikov have found examples (see [9]) of non-
Calderon couples for which all the spaces [Ao, AI]", are
K-spaces.
The notion of Calderon couples can also be consid-
ered in the wider context of operators T mapping from
CALDER6N COUPLES
the spaces of one Banach pair (Ao, AI) to a possibly dif-
ferent Banach pair (Bo, Bd. In such a context one says
that A and B are relative interpolation spaces if every
linear mapping T: A o + Al -+ B o + BI which maps Aj
boundedly into B j for j = 0,1 also maps A boundedly
into B. (In the notation of Interpolation of opera-
tors, {Ao,AI,A} is an interpolation triple relative to
{Bo,BI,B}.) One says that A and B are relative K-
spaces if, for all a E A and b E B o + B 1, the K -functional
inequality
K(t,b;Bo,BI)::; K(t,a;Ao,Ad for allt > °
implies that bE B with IlbilB ::; CllaiIA.
(Ao, Ad and (Bo, Bd are said to be relative Calderon
couples if A and B are relative interpolation spaces if
and only if they are relative K -spaces. J. Peetre has
shown (see [6]) that if (Bo, B I ) is any pair of weighted
Loo spaces, then (Ao, Ad and (Bo, Bd are relative
Calderon couples for all Banach pairs (Ao, Ad. Dually, if
(Ao, AI) is an arbitrary pair of weighted LI spaces, then
(Ao, Ad and (Bo, Bd are relative Calderon couples for
all Banach pairs (Bo, B I ) satisfying a mild 'closure' con-
dition. This latter result is another consequence of the
Brudny,(~Kruglyak K-divisibility theorem.
Finally, given that there are so many cases of couples
whose interpolation spaces cannot be all characterized
by a Calderon-style condition, one must also seek alter-
native ways to characterize interpolation spaces. See [11]
and [8] for some special cases. (Cf. also [1].)
References
[IJ ARAZY, J., AND CWIKEL, M.: 'A new characterization of the
interpolation spaces between LP and Lq" Math. Scand. 55
(1984), 253-270.
[2J BRUDNYI, Y.A., AND KRUGLJAK, N.JA.: Real interpolation
functors, North-Holland, 1991.
[3J BRUDNYI, Y., AND SHTEINBERG, A.: 'Calderon couples of Lip-
schitz spaces', J. Funct. Anal. 131 (1995),459-498.
[4J CALDERON, A.P.: 'Spaces between Ll and £"'0 and the theo-
rem of Marcinkiewicz', Studia Math. 26 (1966),273-299.
[5J CWIKEL, M., AND NILSSON, P.: Interpolation of weighted Ba-
nach lattices, Memoirs. Amer. Math. Soc., to appear.
[6J CWIKEL, M., AND PEETRE, J.: 'Abstract K and J spaces', J.
Math. Pures Appl. 60 (1981), 1-50.
[7J KALTON, N.J.: 'Calderon couples of re-arrangement invariant
spaces', Studia Math. 106 (1993), 233-277.
[8J MALIGRANDA, L., AND OVCHJNNIKOV, V.I.: 'On interpolation
between Ll + Loo and Ll n Loo', J. Funct. Anal. 107 (1992),
343-351.
[9J MASTYLO, M., AND OVCHINNIKOV, V.I.: 'On the relation be-
tween complex and real methods of interpolation', Studia
Math .. (to appear), Preprint Report 056/1996, Dept. Math.
Comput. Sci. Adam Mickiewicz Univ., Poznan, 1996.
[1OJ MITYAGIN, B.S.: 'An interpolation theorem for modular
spaces': Pmc. Conf. Interpolation Spaces and Allied Topics
in Analysis, Lund, 1983, Vol. 1070 of Lecture Notes in Math-
ematics, 1984, pp. 10-23. (Translated from the Russian.)
169
CALDERON COUPLES
[11] OVCHINNIKOV, V.l.: 'On the description of interpolation or-
bits in couples of Lp spaces when they are not described by
the K-method. Interpolation spaces and related topics': Is-
rael Math. Conf. Proc. Bar Ilan University, Vol. 5, Amer.
Math. Soc., 1992, pp. 187-206.
[12] SPARR, G.: 'Interpolation of weighted LP spaces', Studia
Math. 62 (1978), 229-271.
M. Cwikel
MSC 1991: 46B70
CALDERON-ToEPLITZ OPERATOR - An inte-
gral operator depending on two function parameters,
band 'ljJ, and defined by the formula
n,,p (I) = ['XO ( b( u, s) (I, 'ljJu,s) 'ljJu,s dp,( u, s),
Jo JRn
where (.,.) is the inner product in L 2 (R d ) (the space of
square-integrable functions), dp,( u, s) = s-(d+1) du ds,
and 'ljJu,s(x) = s-d/2'ljJ((X - u)/s).
For b == 1 and 'ljJ E L 2 (R d ) satisfying the admissi-
bility condition (i.e., for almost-every ~ E Rd one has
Jooo 1",&(s~)12 ds/s = 1, ",& being the Fourier transform
of 'ljJ), the operator n,,p becomes the identity. The for-
mula Tl ,';' (I) = f is known as the Calderon reproducing
formula.
The name 'Calder6n-Toeplitz operator' comes from
the fact that Tb,,;, (for admissible 'ljJ) is unitarily equiva-
lent to the Toeplitz-type operator
where Mb denotes the operator of multiplication
by band P,;, is the orthogonal projection from
L2(Rn x (O,oo),dp,) onto its closed subspace W,;, =
{(I, 'ljJu,s) : f E L2(Rd)}, called the space of Calderon
transforms.
Calder6n-Toeplitz operators were introduced by R.
Rochberg in [4J as a wavelet counterpart of Toeplitz op-
erators defined on Hilbert spaces of holomorphic func-
tions. They are the model operators that fit nicely in the
context of wavelet decomposition of function spaces and
almost diagonalization of operators (cf. also Wavelet
analysis). They also are an effective time-frequency lo-
calization tool [1 J.
Properties of the mapping b H n,,;, for fixed, suffi-
ciently smooth, 'ljJ are:
1) (correspondence principle, [5]). Suppose that 0 :::;
b :::; 1. Then Tb,';' is bounded, self-adjoint and 0 :::; Tb,';' :::;
1. Let PA,f be the spectral projection associated with the
interval (>. - E, >'+E). For any E > 0 there is an R = R(E)
so that if >. E [0, 1J and b == >. on N disjoint hyperbolic
balls of radius R, then the dimension of the range of PA,E
is at least N.
2) ([2]). Let b ~ 0 and b(u,s) = (Tb,';''ljJu,s,'ljJu,s)'
i) (boundedness). The operator n,,;, is bounded if
and only if b is bounded.
170
ii) (compactne~s). The operator Tb,';' is compact if
and only if b --+ 0 at infinity.
iii) (Schatten ideal behaviour). If n,,;, is compact,
then for p > 0,
L ISn(n,,;,W
n
9! 100 k.d Ib(u, s)I P
dp,(u, s),
where
Sn(Tb,,;,) = inf {IITb,,;, - Anll : An n-dimensional}
and the symbol 9! means that the quotient is
bounded above and below with constants inde-
pendent of b.
The eigenvalues of T b ,';' can be estimated as follows
([6]' [3]).
Suppose that b, 'ljJ have compact support, b( u, s) =
bl (u)b 2(s) being smooth with bl , b2 both non-negative,
and suppose that the support of the kernel of Tb,';' is
contained in a cube of side length one. Let a;v! be the
non-increasing rearrangement (with respect to m) of the
sequence
rOO b2 (s) 1",&(sMm) 12 -;-'
ds
Jo
where M is a natural number, m = (ml,'" ,md), and
ml, ... ,md are integers. There are positive constants c,
C and a natural number M such that
ca;v! :::; Sn (n,,;,) :::; Ca~.
In particular, for 'ljJ = X(O,l) - X( -1,0) the eigenvalues
satisfy two-sided estimates: Sn 9! n -2.
References
[1] DAUBECHIES, I.: Ten lectures on wavelets, Vol. 6 of CBMS-
NSF Regional Conference Series, SIAM, 1992.
[2] NOWAK, K.: 'On Calder6n-Toeplitz operators', Monatshefte
Math. 116 (1993),49-72.
[3] NOWAK, K.: 'Some eigenvalue estimates for wavelet related
Toeplitz operators', Colloquium Math. LXV (1993), 149-
156.
[4] ROCHBERG, R.: 'Toeplitz and Hankel operators, wavelets,
NWO sequences and almost diagonalization of operators', in
W.B. ARVESON AND R.G. DOUGLAS (eds.): Proc. Symp. Pure
Math., Vol. 51, Amer. Math. Soc., 1990, pp. 425-444.
[5] ROCHBERG, R.: 'A correspondence principle for Toeplitz and
Calder6n-Toeplitz operators', in M. CWIKEL ET AL. (eds.):
Israel Math. Conf. Proc., Vol. 5, 1992, pp. 229-243.
[6] ROCHBERG, R.: 'Eigenvalue estimates for Calder6n-Toeplitz
operators', in K. JAROSZ (ed.): Lecture Notes in Pure and
Applied Math., Vol. 136, M. Dekker, 1992, pp. 345-357.
K. Nowak
MSC 1991: 42Cxx, 47B35, 47B38
CALOGERO-MOSER-KRICHEVER SYSTEM,
Calogero-Moser-Sutherland-Krichever system A
finite-dimensional Hamiltonian system which is al-
gebraically completely integrable (cf. Completely-
integrable differential equation). It admits several

generalizations, which will be indicated below. During
the enormous activity on mathematical aspects of inte-
grable systems and soliton equations, starting in the
late 1960s, some prototypes that represent the main
features have emerged. For example, the Korteweg-
de Vries equation and the non-linear Schrodinger
equation for inverse scattering [11], rank-2 pertur-
bations for algebraic complete integrability [1], [2],
the Kadomtsev-Petviashvili equation (cf. Soliton) for
Grassmannians and Schur functions [29], and the modi-
fied Korteweg-de Vries equation for representation the-
ory [8], [18].
As a prototype, the Calogero-Moser-Krichever sys-
tem possesses all the standard features of algebraic com-
plete integrability: 1) a Lax pair, spectral curve, and
Abelian integrals; 2) a connection with soliton equa-
tions; 3) an r-matrix; 4) a geodesic-motion interpreta-
tion. However, it has also more unique features: 5) a link
with elliptic functions; 6) a more sophisticated interpre-
tation of the Lax pair, giving a link with the Hitchin
system, which is a more powerful source of algebraic
complete integrability over moduli spaces of vector bun-
dles; 7) the bispectral property.
A brief illustration of these terms follows.
1) The system has a Hamiltonian function
where (ql,'" ,qn;Pl,'" ,Pn) are position/momentum
variables (all quantities are complex numbers) and v is
an even function. If Land M are the (n x n)-matrices
with entries
Ljk = pjtSjk + H(1- tSjk)u(qj - qk),
Mjk = tSjk L w(qj - qd - (1 - tSjk)z(qj - qk),
l#j
where u is odd and w, z are even, then the equation
At = [M, L] implies z = -iL, v = u 2 + const, as well
as a functional equation for u and w with solutions
1 1 1 spectively; an Euler Calogero-Moser-Krichever system
u == -, -.-, --.
q smq snq
These three cases are referred to as rational (Calogero-
Moser system), trigonometric (Calogero-Sutherland
system) and elliptic (Calogero-Moser-Krichever sys-
tem), respectively; the first two can be viewed as limits
of the third as one or both periods of the Weierstrass
function sn (cf. Weierstrass elliptic functions) tend
to infinity. In each case, the invariants Fk = tr(Lk)/k,
k = 1, ... ,n, are (generically) functionally independent
and in involution (cf. Integrals in involution), so that
the system is completely integrable. This was the first
CALOGERO-MOSER-KRICHEVER SYSTEM
example [22] of a Lax pair with as parameter a func-
tion over a curve of genus > 0 (generalizations are still
(1996) quite rare, cf. [13] for hyperelliptic parameters).
2) By interpolating an eigenvector of L into a Baker-
Akhiezer function, it was shown in [22] that the solutions
correspond to elliptic (in x) solutions of the Kadomtsev-
Petviashvili equation Uyy = (Ut+uxxx-6uux)x' The first
breakthrough in this respect was made in [3], concern-
ing Korteweg-de Vries solutions and Lame equations (cf.
also Lame equation); moduli spaces ofthe correspond-
ing algebro-geometric configurations (tangential covers)
were described in [31] and their density was detected in
[5].
3) Several models of the r-matrix, both dynamic and
non-dynamic, recently (1990s) became available (for a
most complete set of references see [14]); however a
finite-dimensional geodesic motion interpretation 4) has
only been achieved for the rational and trigonometric
cases [20].
5) S.P. Novikov posed the following question:
Which algebro-geometric Kadomtsev-Petviashvili solu-
tions can be expressed in terms of elliptic functions (cf.
also Elliptic function)? These non-trivially overlap
with elliptic solitons and a state-of-the-art report can
be found in [10].
6) is the deep theory that ensues if the moving data
is viewed as a rank-n bundle over the elliptic curve, cf.
[6], [12].
Lastly, 7) is an extra property of the Baker function
in the rational case, defined by F.A. Griinbaum [9] in
connection with computerized tomography (roughly
stated, the Baker function is both an x- and a z-
eigenfunction for a pair of operators with eigenvalues
that are functions of z, x, respectively); its manifesta-
tion for the matrix Labove (cf. [3]) is investigated in
[19].
A final word about generalizations: [27] adapts the
geodesic problem 4) to other groups and metrics; [28]
defines a relativistic Calogero-Moser-Krichever sys-
tem; [24] and [25] provide discretized versions of the
Calogero-Moser-Krichever and Ruijsenaars system, re-
is related to a multi-component Kadomtsev-Petviashvili
equation in [23]; and the most recent application of the
Calogero-Moser-Krichever system is that conjecturally
it provides moduli for solutions to the Seiberg-Witten
equations, [7].
References
[IJ ADLER, M., AND MOERBEKE, P. VAN: 'Completely integrable
systems, Euclidean Lie algebras, and curves', Adv. in Math.
38 (1980), 267-317.
[2J ADLER, M., AND MOERBEKE, P. VAN: 'Linearization of Hamil-
tonian systems, Jacobi varieties and representation theory',
Adv. in Math. 38 (1980), 318-379.
171
CALOGERO-MOSER-KRICHEVER SYSTEM
[3] AIRAULT, H., McKEAN, H.P., AND MOSER, J.: 'Rational and
elliptic solutions of the Korteweg-de Vries equation and a re-
lated many-body problem', Commun. Pure Appl. Math. 30
(1977),95-148.
[4] BELOKOLOS, E.D., AND ENOL'SKII, V.Z.: Algebraically in-
tegrable nonlinear equations and Humbert surfaces, plasma
theory and nonlinear and turbulent processes in physics,
World Sci., 1988.
[5J COLOMBO, E., PIROLA, G.P., AND PREVIATO, E.: 'Density of
elliptic solitons', J. Reine Angew. Math. 451 (1994), 161-169.
[6J DONAGI, R., AND MARKMAN, E.: 'Spectral covers, alge-
braically completely integrable Hamiltonian systems, and
moduli of bundles': Integrable Systems and Quantum Groups,
Vol. 1620 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1996.
[7] DONAGI, R., AND WITTEN, E.: 'Supersymmetric Yang-Mills
systems and integrable systems', hep-th/9Sl0l0l (1995).
[8] DRINFELD, V.G., AND SOKOLOV, V.V.: 'Lie algebras and
equations of Korteweg-de Vries type', J. Soviet Math. 30
(1985), 1975-2005.
[9J DUISTERMAAT, J.J., AND GRUNBAUM, F.A.: 'Differential
equations in the spectral parameter', Comm. Math. Phys.
103 (1986), 177-240.
[lOJ KRICHEVER, LM. (ED.): 'Special issue on elliptic solitons,
dedicated to the memory of J.-L. Verdier', Acta Applic. Math.
36, no. 1-2 (1994).
[l1J FADDEEV, L.D., AND TAKHTAJAN, L.A.: Hamiltonian meth-
ods in the theory of solitons, Springer, 1987.
[12J FALTINGS, G.: 'Stable G-bundles and projective connections',
J. Algebraic Geom. 2 (1993), 507-568.
[13J FEDOROV, YU.N.: 'Integrable systems, Lax representations,
and confocal quadrics', Amer. Math. Soc. Transl. Ser. 2 168
(1995), 173-199.
[14J HASEGAWA, K.: 'Ruijsenaars' commuting difference operators
as commuting transfer matrices', q-alg/gS12029 (1995).
[15J HITCHIN, N.: 'Stable bundles and integrable systems', Duke
Math. J. 54 (1987), 91-114.
[16J INCE, E.L.: 'Further investigations into the periodic Lame
function', Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 60 (1940), 83-99.
[17J ITS, A.R., AND ENOL'SKII, V.Z.: 'Dynamics of the Calogero-
Moser system and the reduction of hyperelliptic integrals to
elliptic integrals', Functional Anal. Appl. 20 (1986), 62-64.
[18J KAC, V.G., AND LEUR, J.W. VAN DE: 'The n-component
KP hierarchy and representation theory': Important Devel-
opments in Soliton Theory, Springer, 1993, pp. 302-343.
[19J KASMAN, A.: 'Bispectral KP solutions and linearization of
Calogero-Moser particle systems', Comm. Math. Phys. 172
(1995), 427-448.
[20J KAZHDAN, D., KOSTANT, B., AND STERNBERG, S.: 'Hamilton-
ian group actions and dynamical systems of Calogero type',
Comm. Pure Appl. Math. 31 (1978),481-507.
[21J KRICHEVER, LM.: 'Rational solutions of the Kadomtsev-
Petviashvili equation and integrable systems of n particles
on a line', Functional Anal. Appl. 12 (1978),59-61.
[22] KRICHEVER, LM.: 'Elliptic solutions of the KP equation and
integrable systems of particles', Functional Anal. Appl. 14
(1980), 282-290.
[23J KRICHEVER, LM., BABELON, 0., BILLEY, E., AND TALON, M.:
'Spin generalizations of the Calogero-Moser system and the
matrix KP equation', Amer. Math. Soc. Transl. Ser. 2170
(1995),83-119.
[24J NIJHOFF, F.W., AND PANG, G.-D.: 'A time-discretized ver-
sion of the Calogero-Moser model', Phys. Lett. A 191 (1994),
101-107.
172
[25J NIJHOFF, F.W., RAGNISCO, 0., AND KUZNETSOV, V.B.:
'Integrable time-discretisation of the Ruijsenaars-Schneider
model', Comm. Math. Phys. 176 (1996),681-700.
[26J NOVIKOV, S.P.: 'A periodic problem for the KdV equation',
Functional Anal. Appl. 8 (1974), 236-246.
[27J OLSHANETSKY, M.A., AND PERELOMOV, A.M.: 'Classical in-
tegrable finite-dimensional systems related to Lie algebras',
Phys. Reports 71 (1981),313-400.
[28J RUIJSENAARS, S.N.M.: 'Complete integrability of relativis-
tic Calogero-Moser systems and elliptic function identities',
Comm. Math. Phys. 20 (1987), 191-213.
[29J SATO, M., AND SATO, Y.: 'Soliton equations as dynamical sys-
tems on infinite-dimensional Grassmann manifold': Nonlinear
Partial Differential Equations in Applied Science, Vol. 81 of
Math. Stud., North-Holland, 1983, pp. 259-271.
[30J SEGAL, G., AND WILSON, G.: 'Loop groups and equations of
KdV type', IHES Publ. Math. 61 (1985),5-65.
[31J TREIBICH, A., AND VERDIER, J.-L.: 'Solitons elliptiques': The
Grothendieck Festschrift, Vol. III, Birkhauser, 1990, pp. 437-
480.
[32J VESELOV, A.P.: 'Rational solutions of the KP equation and
hamiltonian systems', Russian Math. Surveys 35, no. 1
(1980),239-240.
E. Previato
MSC 1991: 58F07, 35Q53, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
14D20, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 70H20
CANADIAN LYNX DATA - The Canadian lynx data
set used in time series modelling is the annual record
of the number of the Canadian lynx 'trapped' in the
Mackenzie River district of the North-West Canada for
the period 1821-1934. These data are actually the total
fur returns, or total sales, from the London archives of
the Hudson's Bay Company in the years of 1821-1891
and 1887 -1913; and those for 1915 to 1934 are from de-
tailed statements supplied by the Company's Fur Trade
Department in Winnipeg; those for 1892-1896 and 1914
are from a series of returns for the MacKenzie River
District; those for the years 1863-1927 were supplied by
Ch. French, then Fur Trade Commissioner of the Com-
pany in Canada. By considering the time lag between
the year in which a lynx was trapped and the year in
which its fur was sold at auction in London, these data
were converted in [2] into the number that were presum-
ably caught in a given year for the years 1821-1934 as
follows:
269,321,585,871,1475,2821,3928,5943,4950,2577,
523, 98, 184, 279, 409, 2285, 2685, 3409, 1824, 409, 151,
45, 68, 213, 546, 1033, 2129, 2536, 957, 361, 377, 225,
360,731,1638,2725,2871,2119,684,299,236,245,552,
1623, 3311, 6721, 4254, 687, 255, 473, 358, 784, 1594,
1676, 2251, 1426, 756, 299, 201, 229, 469, 736, 2042,
2811, 4431, 2511, 389, 73, 39, 49, 59, 188, 377, 1292,
4031, 3495, 587, 105, 153, 387, 758, 1307, 3465, 6991,
6313, 3794, 1836, 345, 382, 808, 1388, 2713, 3800, 3091,
2985, 3790, 674, 81, 80, 108, 229, 399, 1132, 2432, 3574,
2935, 1537, 529, 485, 662, 1000, 1590, 2657, 3396.
 CANADIAN LYNX SERIES

The above time lag was not constant. It depended [3J TONG, H.: Nonlinear time series: a dynamical system ap-
on the month in which the animal was trapped and the proach, Clarendon Press, 1990.
date of shipment. It was also noticed that the catchment K.S. Lim
MSC 1991: 62MlO
area of the animal did not remain constant throughout
the period 1821-1934.
CANADIAN LYNX SERIES - A first time series
M.G. Bulmer [1] observed that the data on many an-
model of the Canadian lynx data was fitted by P.A.P.
imal populations in North Canada were periodic with a
Moran [13] in 1953. He observed that the cycle is very
period of 9.63 years for each cycle. The lynx population
asymmetrical with a sharp and large peak and a rela-
was one of them having this cycle. He also found that
tively smooth and small trough. The log transformation
the tendency to cycle is most pronounced in the Mid-
gives a series which appears to vary symmetrically about
west of Canada but this tendency became weaker (and
the mean. As the actual population of lynx is not exactly
later) as one moved away from this region. The simplest
proportional to the number caught, a better represen-
explanation for the cause of the cycle in all species which
tation would perhaps be obtained by incorporating an
is acceptable to biologists is their relation, through the
additional 'error of observation' in the model, thereby
food chain, with the corresponding cycle in the snow-
resulting in a more complicated model. The log transfor-
shoe hare population. For example, the snowshoe hare
mation substantially reduces the effect of ignoring this
is a dominant item in the food of the lynx, coyote, red
error of observation; therefore, after Moran, nearly all
fox, and fisher.
In the cycle of the Canadian lynx data it is noticed the time series analysis of the lynx data in the litera-
that the ascent periods exceed the descent periods as ture have used the log-transformed data. Let
below:
Xt =
ascent descent
= loglO(number recorded as trapped in year 1820 + t)
"27
4
6
(t = 1, ... ,114). Because of the apparently slow damp-
4 ing in the amplitude of the sample correlogram, Moran
6 discarded the idea of a sinusoidal-shape model and pro-
4 posed an AR(2)-model.
5
In 1977, M.J. Campbell and A.M. Walker [2] believed
4
5
that an appropriate model of the lynx data should be,
3 in some sense, 'between' a pure harmonic model and
6 a pure auto-regression. Subsequently this led them to
4 combining a harmonic component with an AR(2)-model.
6
Two models with frequencies 9.5, CW(9.5), and 9.63,
4
6
CW(9.63), were recommended. At about the same time ,
3 an AR(11)-model based on the Akaike information cri-
6 terion was fitted [20]. In the discussion of the above two
4 papers, D.R. Cox [4] suggested a polynomial model.
5-8
In 1979, R.J. Bhansali [1] used a mixed spectrum
6-3
6
analysis to analyze the lynx data.
4 Using the Canadian lynx data as a case study, H.
"25 Tong and K.S. Lim [24] fitted a class of non-linear
models called the self-exciting threshold auto-regressive
The marginal histogram of the data shows obvious
model (SETAR model) to the log-transformed lynx
bimodality and more analysis of the data can be found
data. They demonstrated that this model has interest-
in [3].
ing features in non-linear oscillations, such as jump res-
The Canadian lynx data also often serve as a testing
onance, amplitude-frequency dependency, limit cycles,
ground for predator-prey models (cf. also Predator-
subharmonics, and higher harmonics. Later, in 1981,
prey system). See also Canadian lynx series.
it was discovered that the self-exciting threshold auto-
References regressive model also generates chaos [11]. In the discus-
[1J BULMER, M.G.: 'A statistical analysis of the lO-year cycle in
sion of [24], T. Subba Rao and M.M. Gabr [16] proposed
Canada', J. Anim. Ecol. 43 (1974),701-715.
[2J ELTON, C., AND NICHOLSON, M.: 'The ten-year cycle in num-
a subset bilinear model, SBL(11), to the first one hun-
bers of the lynx in Canada', J. Anim. Ecol. 11 (1942),215- dred log-transformed lynx data and an SBL(9) to the
244. first one hundred original lynx data.

173
CANADIAN LYNX SERIES
In 1981, they used the maximum-likelihood estima-
tion coupled with the Akaike information criterion to fit
a subset bilinear model SBL(12) to the first one hundred
log-transformed lynx data [5]. Their model was able to
produce small values of the noise variance and the mean-
squared errors of the one-step-ahead predictions, but it
failed to detect the inherited behaviour of the data.
V. Haggan and T. Ozaki [8] fitted an exponential
auto-regressive model, EXPAR(11), another class of
non-linear models, to the mean-deleted log-transformed
lynx data in 1981. Ozaki [15] felt that the almost sym-
metric series generated by this model was unsatisfactory.
Subsequently, in 1982, he fitted two more exponential
auto-regressive models to the full set of log-transformed
lynx data with mean deleted. One of them, EXPAR(2),
could reproduce the asymmetric limit cycle structure of
the lynx data; the other, EXPAR(9), with smaller vari-
ance of fitted residuals, was believed to be more appro-
priate for forecasting.
D.F. Nicholls and D.G. Quinn [14], in 1982, fitted
another new class of time series models, called a ran-
dom coefficient auto-regressive model (RCA model) to
the first one hundred log-transformed lynx data, using
a maximum-likelihood method or the conditional least-
squares method.
In 1984, Haggan, S.M. Heravi and M.B. Priestley [7]
fitted a state-dependent model (SDM) of AR(2) to the
log-transformed lynx data.
Using the revised computer program in [21], a
SETAR(2; 5, 2) was fitted to the first one hundred log-
transformed lynx data, and a SETAR(2; 7, 2) was fitted
to the full set of log-transformed data as follows:
X t = 0.546 + 1.032Xt - 1 - 0.173Xt _ 2 +
+0.I71Xt - 3 - + 0.332Xt _ 5 +
0.431Xt _ 4
-0.284Xt _ 6 + 0.210Xt _ 7 + E?)
if X t - 2 ~ 3.116, and
X t = 2.632 + 1.492Xt _ 1 - 1.324Xt - 2 + Et(2)
if X t - 2 > 3.116. Here, var(E~1)) = 0.0258, var(f?))
0.0505 (pooled variance equals 0.0360).
This model was able to describe the biological fea-
tures of the Canadian lynx data such as:
1) its cyclical behaviour of about 9-10 years per cy-
cle;
2) the rise periods exceed the descent periods in the
cycles;
3) the delay parameter of 2 in X t - 2 ~ 3.116 is asso-
ciated with the biological cycle that a Canadian lynx is
fully grown in the autumn of its second year and births
of kittens (1-4 per litter) take place about 63 days after
breeding in March-April;
174
4) the threshold estimate, 3.116, lies in the vicinity of
the anti-mode of the histogram of the lynx data, which
implies that there is insufficient information in the data
to model more precisely the functional form of the dy-
namics over the state space near the sample mean.
A comparative study of some of the above models was
carried out in [12]. The SETAR models were ranked to
be the best among the models considered. For an exten-
sive discussion of the lynx data, see [22].
B.Y. Thanoon (1988) [18] fitted the two subset
SETAR (SSETAR) models which produced limit cycles
with two sub cycles giving an average period of 9.5 years.
He commented that the SSETAR detected the inherited
behaviour of the data better than the full SETAR model
in terms of the auto-covariance function.
In 1989, R.S. Tsay [25] fitted a two-thresholds
SETAR(3; 1,7,2) when proposing a new procedure for
testing and building TAR models. Around the same
time, techniques from multivariate analysis were ap-
plied, [23]; namely, the principal coordinate analysis and
dendograms to twelve time series models reported in the
literature.
In 1991, G.H. Yu and Y.C. Lin [29] suggested a sub-
set auto-regressive model, SAR(1, 3, 9,12), to the log-
transformed lynx data when proposing a method for se-
lecting a best SAR model automatically.
Applying the cross-validatory approach, in 1992, B.
Cheng and Tong [3] found the embedding dimension of
the lynx data to be 3.
Using the lynx data as an example, in 1993, J. Geweke
and N. Terui [6] proposed a Bayesian approach for
deriving the exact a posterior distributions of the delay
and threshold parameters.
In 1994, T. Terasvirta [17] fitted a logistic smooth
transition auto-regressive model (LSTAR(11)), which
had a limit cycle of 77 years with eight sub cycles of
lengths 9 and 10 years. The lynx data has been used
for the non-parametric identification of non-linear time
series in selecting significant lags [19]. The lynx data
for 1821-1924 has been used [28] to estimate fmO and
AmO, the m-step Lyapunov-like index, where Am(X) =
dfm/dx, and the last ten data to check the predicted
values. The data was also used [27] for subset selection
in non-parametric stochastic regression. The subset of
lags 1, 3, and 6 are selected from the original lynx data.
In 1995, C. Kooperberg, C.J. Stone and Y.K. Truong
[9] used their automatic procedure to estimate the mixed
spectral distribution of the log-transformed lynx data
and found the lynx cycle to be 9.5 years.
In 1996, D. Lai [10] used a ~DS statistic to
test the residuals from the models of Moran,
SETAR(2; 2, 2), SETAR(2; 7,2), SETAR(3; 1,7,2),
EXPAR(11), EXPAR(2), and Cox's polynomial model.

He concluded that Tong's SETAR(2; 7, 2) was found to
be the best. C. Wong and R. Kohn [26] used a Bayesian
approach for estimating non-parametrically an additive
auto-regressive model for the lynx data.
References
[1] BHANSALI, R.J.: 'A mixed spectrum analysis of the Lynx
data', J. Roy. Stat. Soc. A 142 (1979), 199-209.
[2] CAMPBELL, M.J., AND WALKER, A.M.: 'A survey of statistical
work on the McKenzie River series of annual Canadian lynx
trappings for the years 1821-1934, and a new analysis', J.
Roy. Stat. Soc. A 140 (1977), 411-431; discussion: 448-468.
[3] CHENG, B., AND TONG, H.: 'On consistent non-parametric or-
der determination and chaos', J. Roy. Stat. Soc. B 54 (1992),
427-449.
[4] Cox, D.R.: 'Discussion of papers by Campbell and Walker,
Tong and Morris', J. Roy. Stat. Soc. A 140 (1977), 453-454.
[5] GABR, M.M., AND SUBBA RAO, T.: 'The estimation and pre-
diction of subset bilinear time series models with applica-
tions', J. Time Ser. Anal. 2 (1981), 153-171.
[6] GEWEKE, J., AND TERUI, N.: 'Bayesian threshold autoregres-
sive models for nonlinear time series', J. Time Ser. Anal. 14
(1993), 441-454.
[7] HAGGAN, V., HERAVI, S.M., AND PRIESTLEY, M.B.: 'A study
of the application of state-dependent models in non-linear
time series analysis', J. Time Ser. Anal. 5 (1984),69-102.
[8] HAGGAN, V., AND OZAKI, T.: 'Modelling non-linear random
vibrations using an amplitude-dependent autoregressive time
series model', Biometrika 68 (1981), 189-196.
[9] KOOPERBERG, C., STONE, C.J., AND TRUONG, Y.K.:
'Logspline estimation of a possibly mixed spectral distribu-
tion', J. Time Ser. Anal. 16 (1995), 359-388.
[10] LAI, D.: 'Comparison study of AR models on the Canadian
lynx data: A close look at BDS statistic', Comm. Stat. Data
Anal. 22 (1996), 409-423.
[11] LIM, K.S.: On threshold time series modelling, Univ. Manch-
ester, 1981, Doctoral Thesis (unpublished).
[12] LIM, K.S.: 'A comparative study of various univariate time
series models for Canadian lynx data', J. Time Ser. Anal. 8
(1987), 161-176.
[13] MORAN, P.A.P.: 'The statistical analysis of the Canadian
lynx cycle. I: structure and prediction', Aust. J. Zool. 1
(1953), 163-173.
[14] NICHOLLS, D.F., AND QUINN, B.G.: Random coefficient au-
toregressive models: an introduction, Vol. 11 of Lecture
Notes in Statistics, Springer, 1982.
[15] OZAKI, T.: 'The statistical analysis of perturbed limit cycle
processes using nonlinear time series models', J. Time Ser.
Anal. 3 (1982), 29-41.
[16] SUBBA RAO, T., AND GABR, M.M.: 'Discussion of paper by
Tong and Lim', J. Roy. Stat. Soc. B 42 (1980),278-280.
[17] TERASVIRTA, T.: 'Specification, estimation, and evaluation of
smooth transition autoregressive models', J. Amer. Stat. As-
soc. 89 (1994), 208-218.
[18] THANOON, B.Y.: 'Subset threshold autoregression with ap-
plications', J. Time Ser. Anal. 11 (1990), 75-87.
[19] TJ0SHEIM, D., AND AUESTAD, B.: 'Nonparametric identifi-
cation of nonlinear time series: selecting significant lags', J.
Amer. Stat. Assoc. 89 (1994), 1410-1419.
[20] TONG, H.: 'Some comments on the Canadian lynx data-
with discussion', J. Roy. Stat. Soc. A 140 (1977), 432-435;
448-468.
CARATHEODORY INTERPOLATION
[21] TONG, H.: Threshold models in non-linear time series anal-
ysis, Vol. 21 of Lecture Notes in Statistics, Springer, 1983.
[22] TONG, H.: Non-linear time series: a dynamical system ap-
proach, Clarendon Press, 1990.
[23] TONG, H., AND DABAS, P.: Clusters of time series models:
an example, Techn. Report. Univ. Kent, June, 1989.
[24] TONG, H., AND LIM, K.S.: 'Threshold autoregression, limit
cycles and cyclical data (with discussion)', J. Roy. Stat. Soc.
B 42 (1980), 245-292.
[25] TSAY, R.S.: 'Testing and modelling threshold autoregressive
processes', J. Amer. Stat. Soc. 84 (1989), 231-240.
[26] WONG, C., AND KOHN, R.: 'A Bayesian approach to esti-
mating and forecasting additive non parametric autoregres-
sive models', J. Time Ser. Anal. 17 (1996), 203-220.
[27] YAO, Q., AND TONG, H.: 'On subset selection in non-
parametric stochastic regression', Statistica Sinica 4 (1994),
51-70.
[28] YAO, Q., AND TONG, H.: 'Quantifying the influence of ini-
tial values on non-linear prediction', J. Roy. Stat. Soc. B 56
(1994), 701-725.
[29] Yu, G.H., AND LIN, Y.C.: 'A methodology for selecting sub-
set autoregressive time series models', J. Time Ser. Anal. 12
(1991), 363-373.
K.S. Lim
MSC 1991: 62MlO
CARATHEODORY INTERPOLATION - Let p(z) =
ao + alz + ... + an_lZ n - 1 be a polynomial of de-
gree at most n - 1. Let Hoo be the Hardy space (cf.
Hardy spaces) formed by the set of all analytic func-
tions I in the open unit disc whose Hoo-norm 11/1100 =
sup{l/(z)l: Izl < I} is finite. One says that I(z) is an
interpolant ofp(z) if I is a function in H OO and {aj}~-l
are the first n Taylor coefficients of zj for I, that is,
I(z) = p(z) + znh(z) for some h in Hoo (cf. also Taylor
series).
The CaratModory interpolation problem is to find the
set of all interpolants I of p satisfying 11/1100 ::; 1. Of
course, this set can be empty. Let An be the (n X n)
lower triangular Toeplitz matrix defined by
jJ
o
ao
Then there exists a solution of the Caratheodory inter-
polation problem if and only if IIAnl1 ::; 1. Moreover,
there exists a unique solution of the Caratheodory in-
terpolation problem if and only if IIAnl1 = 1. In this case
the unique interpolant I of p satisfying 11/1100 ::; 1 is a
Blaschke product.
The Schur method lor solving the CaratModory inter-
polation problem [4], [5] is based on the Mobius trans-
formation (cf. Fractional-linear mapping) b",(z) =
(z + a)/(l + az) where lal < 1. By recursively unrav-
elling this Mobius transformation, I. Schur discovered
175
CARATHEODORY INTERPOLATION
that {aj }~-l uniquely determines and is uniquely de-
termined by {rj}~-l, where {rj}~-l forms a sequence
of complex numbers now referred to as the Schur num-
bers, or reflection coefficients, for {aj }~-l. The Schur
algorithm is a computational procedure, discovered by
Schur, which computes {rj}~-l from {aj}~-l, or vice
versa, in about n 2 computations. Moreover, Irjl < 1 for
all 0 ::; j < n if and only if II An II < 1. In this case the
set of all solutions I of the Caratheodory interpolation
problem is given by
where In is an arbitrary function in H oo satisfying
II/nlloo ::; 1. Furthermore, IIAnll = 1 if and only if
Irj I < 1 = irk I for 0 ::; j < k and r m = 0 for m > k. In
this case
is the unique solution of the Caratheodory interpolation
problem. If the reflection coefficients {rj }~-l do not sat-
isfy anyone of the previous conditions, then IIAnl1 > 1
and there is no solution of the Caratheodory interpola-
tion problem; see [2] for further details.
The Schur numbers {r j} are precisely the reflection
coefficients which naturally occur in certain inverse scat-
tering problems for layered media in geophysics. There-
fore, the Schur algorithm plays an important role in geo-
physics and marine seismology, see [1], [2], [3]. Finally,
it has been noted that the Schur algorithm can also be
used to obtain a Routh or Jury test for the open unit
disc, that is, the Schur algorithm can be used to deter-
mine whether or not a polynomial p( z) has all its roots
inside the open unit disc without computing the zeros
of p(z); see [5], [2].
References
[1] CLAERBOUT, J.F.: Fundamentals of geophysical data process-
ing, McGraw-Hill, 1976.
[2] FOIAS, C., AND FRAZHO, A.: The commutant lifting approach
to interpolation problems, Vol. 44 of Operator Theory: Ad-
vances and Applications, BirkhiLuser, 1990.
[3] ROBINSON, E.A., AND TREITEL, S.: Geophysical signal anal-
ysis, Prentice-Hall, 1980.
[4] SCHUR, I.: 'On power series which are bounded in the interior
of the unit circle', in 1. GOHBERG (ed.): Methods in Opera-
tor Theory and Signal Processing, Vol. 18 of Operator The-
ory: Advances and Applications, 1986, pp. 31-59, Original
(in Gennan): J. Reine Angew. Math. 147 (1917), 205-232.
[&] SCHUR, 1.: 'On power series which are bounded in the inte-
rior of the unit circle. II', in 1. GOHBERG (ed.): Methods in
Operator Theory and Signal Processing, Vol. 18 of Operator
Theory: Advances and Applications, 1986, pp. 68-88, Origi-
nal (in German): J. Reine Angew. Math. 184 (1918), 122-145.
A.,E. Frazho
MSC 1991: 30E05, 41A05, 46ElO, 47A57, 30D55,
26ClO,86A22
176
CARATHEODORY-SCHUR EXTENSION PROB-
LEM - Let aO+alz+" ·+an_IZ n - 1 be a given polyno-
mial. The Caratheodory-Schur extension problem is to
find (if possible) an analytic function I on the open
unit disc Izl < 1 such that I has a Taylor expansion (cf.
Taylor series) of the form
I(z) = ao + alz + ... + an_IZ n - 1 + O(zn), Izl < 1,
(1)
and I(z) is uniformly bounded by one on Izl < 1. In
other words, I is an Hoo-function with 11/1100 ::; 1 of
which the first n Taylor coefficients are prescribed. The
problem is solvable if and only if the lower-triangular
Toeplitz matrix
ao 0 0 0 0
al ao 0 0 0
a2 al ao 0 0
A=
an -2 an -3 an -4 ao 0
an-l an -3 an -3 al ao
has operator norm at most one. If IIAII = 1, the solu-
tion is unique. If IIAII < 1, then the number of solutions
is infinite, and the set of solutions can be parametrized
by a fractional-linear mapping. The necessary and suffi-
cient conditions for the existence of a solution can also
be expressed in terms of the so-called Schur numbers,
which can be constructed step-by-step from the given
coefficients ao, ... , an-l (cf. also Caratheodory inter-
polation). This latter approach, invented originally by
I. Schur [6], [7], in the beginning of the 19th century,
includes recursive methods to obtain the set of all solu-
tions. These recursive methods play an important role
in modern operator theory, electrical engineering and
geophysics (see [3], [4], [5]). A detailed account of the
Caratheodory-Schur problem and its solution may be
found in [3], Chapt. 1.
By multiplying both sides of (1) by z-n+l, one sees
that the Caratheodory-Schur extension problem for the
polynomial ao + alz + ... + an_IZ n - 1 is equivalent
to the Nehari extension problem for the sequence
an-I,'" , aI, ao, 0, 0, .... The problem may also be seen
as a Nevanlinna-Pick-type interpolation problem, where
one seeks f E H oo of Hoo-norm at most one such
that the function and its derivatives up to order n - 1
have prescribed values at zero (cf. also Nevanlinna-
Pick interpolation). The Caratheodory-Schur exten-
sion problem has natural generalizations for matrix-
valued and operator-valued polynomials (see [2]). The
problem has also a non-stationary variant, in which the
role of the polynomial is taken over by a lower-triangular
band matrix which has to be completed to a full lower-
triangular matrix of operator norm at most one. For this

non-stationary variant there is a natural analogue of the
Schur numbers, namely the choice sequences, which de-
termine the set of solutions (cf. [1]).
References
[1] CONSTANTINESCU, T.: Schur parameters, factorization and
dilation problems, Vol. 2 of Operator Theory: Advances and
Applications, Birkhiiuser, 1996.
[2] DUBOVOJ, V.K., FRITZSCHE, B., AND KIRSTEIN, B.: Matricial
version of the classical Schur problem, Teubner, 1992.
[3] FOIAS, C., AND FRAZHO, A.E.: The commutant lifting ap-
proach to interpolation problems, Vol. 44 of Operato7' Theory:
Advances and Applications, Birkhiiuser, 1990.
[4] GOHBERG, 1. (ed.): Schur methods in operator theory and
signal processing, Vol. 18 of Operator Theory: Advances and
Applications, Birkhiiuser, 1986.
[5] KAILATH, T., AND SAYED, A.H.: 'Displacement structure: the-
ory and applications', SIAM Review 37 (1995), 297~386.
[6] SCHUR, 1.: 'On power series which are bounded in the interior
of the unit circle', in 1. GOHBERG (ed.): Methods in Opera-
tor Theory and Signal Processing, Vol. 18 of Operator The-
ory: Advances and Applications, 1986, pp. 31~59, Original
(in German): J. Reine Angew. Math. 147 (1917), 205~232.
[7] SCHUR, I.: 'On power series which are bounded in the inte-
rior of the unit circle. II', in 1. GOHBERG (ed.): Methods in
Operator Theory and Signal Processing, Vol. 18 of Operator
Theory: Advances and Applications, 1986, pp. 68~88, Origi-
nal (in German): J. Reine Angew. Math. 184 (1918), 122~145.
I. Gohberg
M. A. K aashoek
MSC 1991: 30E05, 47 A57, 41A05
CARATHEODORY- TOEPLITZ EXTENSION
PROBLEM - Let ao, ... ,ap be given complex num-
bers. The Caratheodory~ Toeplitz extension problem is
to find (if possible) a function g, analytic on the open
unit disc Izl < 1 (cf. also Analytic function), such
that
a) g(z) = ao + 2alZ + ... + 2apz P + O(zp+l), Izl < 1;
b) Reg(z) ~ 0 for alllzi < 1.
Put a_j = aj for j = 1, ... ,p. The problem is solvable
if and only if the Toeplitz matrix
a_I
a_v )
C
al ao a_~+l
f= . (1)
ap ap-l ao
is positive semi-definite, and its solution is unique if and
only if, in addition, f is singular (cf. also Degenerate
matrix). The Caratheodory-Toeplitz extension prob-
lem can be restated as a Caratheodory-Schur ex-
tension problem. The Levinson algorithm from filter-
ing theory provides a recursive method to compute the
solutions of the problem. For these and related results,
see [1, Chapt. 2].
Instead of functions 9 satisfying a) and b), one may
also seek functions f, f(() = L~=_<Xlh(k, in the
Wiener algebra W with the property f(() ::::: 0 for every
1 CARATHEODORY- TOEPLITZ EXTENSION PROBLEM
(E T. (The Wiener algebra is defined as the Banach
algebra of complex-valued functions on the unit disc
having a Fourier series
<Xl <Xl
n=-oo n=-oo
using pointwise multiplication. The phrase 'Wiener al-
gebra' is also used for L1(R) with convolution as multi-
plication. There are also weighted versions; cf. [2].)
In this case, g(() = fo + 2 L~=o h(k satisfies con-
ditions a) and b). The Wiener algebra version of the
problem is of particular interest if the solution f is re-
quired to be strictly positive on the unit circle T. The
latter version of the problem is solvable if and only if
the Toeplitz matrix f in (1) is positive definite, and in
that case there are infinitely many solutions f, given by
l-lh((W
f(() = lu(() + h(()v(()12 (2)
Here, h is an arbitrary function in the Wiener algebra W
with Ih(()1 < 1 for every ( E T, and the functions u and
v are uniquely determined by the data in the following
way:
1
v(() = (yO + CIY_I + ... + CPY_p)y~2,
where
The central solution fcen(() = lu(()1- 2 , which appears
when the free parameter h in (2) is set to zero, is the
unique solution f with the additional property that the
jth Fourier coefficient of f~l is equal to zero for Ijl > p,
and for this reason the central solution is also referred
to as the band extension. The central solution fcen is
also the unique solution f that maximizes the entropy
integral
-1 111' log f(e it ) dt.
27l' -11'
Proofs of the above results may derived by applying the
band method (see [2, Sect. XXXV.3]), which is a gen-
eral scheme for dealing with a variety of positive and
contractive (operator) extension problems from a unified
point of view. (The word 'band' refers to a decomposi-
tion of an algebra with involution, reminiscent of the use
of bands as in the theory of decomposition or Riesz
spaces (cf. Riesz space). It refers, in fact, to a 'band
pattern', i.e. a band in a matrix {(i,j): Ii - jl :s:; m}, cf.
also Partially specified matrices, completion of.)
177
CARATHEODORY- TOEPLITZ EXTENSION PROBLEM
The CaratModory-Toeplitz extension problem has
natural generalizations for matrix- and operator-valued
functions. The problem also has a continuous analogue
(with the role of the open unit disc being replaced by the
upper half-plane) and non-stationary versions for finite
or infinite operator matrices.
References
[IJ FOIAS, C., AND FRAZHO, A.E.: The commutant lifting ap-
proach to interpolation problems, Vol. 44 of Operator Theory:
Advances and Applications, Birkhiiuser, 1990.
[2J GOHBERG, I., GOLDBERG, S., AND KAASHOEK, M.A.: Classes
of linear operators, Vol. II, Birkhiiuser, 1993.
I. Gohberg
M.A. Kaashoek
MSC 1991: 30E05, 47A57, 93Ell
CARLEMAN OPERATOR - A Carleman operator
on the space L 2 (X,M) is an integral operator T, i.e.,
Tf(x) = fT(x,y)f(y) dM(y) a.e. for f E L 2 (X,M),
such that IIT(x, ')112 < 00 a.e. on X. Self-adjoint Car-
leman operators have generalized eigenfunction expan-
sions (cf. Eigen function; Series expansion), which
can be used in the study of linear elliptic operators, see
[3J. A general reference for Carleman operators on L 2 -
spaces is [2J. The notion of a Carleman operator has
been extended in many directions. By replacing L2 by
an arbitrary Banach function space one obtains the so-
called generalized Carleman operators (see [4]) and by
considering Bochner integrals (cf. Bochner integral)
and abstract Banach spaces one is lead to the so-called
Carleman and Korotkov operators on a Banach space
([1]).
References
[IJ GRETSKY, N., AND UHL, J.J.: 'Carleman and Korotkov oper-
ators on Banach spaces', Acta Sci. Math 43 (1981), 111-119.
[2J HALMOS, P.R., AND SUNDER, V.S.: Bounded integral opera-
tors on L 2 -spaces, Vol. 96 of Ergebnisse der Mathematik und
ihrer Grenzgebiete, Springer, 1978.
[3J MAURIN, K.: Methods of Hilbert spaces, PWN, 1967.
[4J SCHEP, A.R.: 'Generalized Carleman operators', Indaga-
tiones Mathematicae 42 (1980), 49-59.
A.R. Schep
MSC 1991: 47B38
CARMICHAEL NUMBER - A composite natural
number n for which a n - 1 == 1 modulo n, whenever a is
relatively prime to n. Thus they are pseudo-primes (cf.
Pseudo-prime) for every such base a. These numbers
playa role in the theory of probabilistic primality tests
(cf. Probabilistic primality test), as they show that
Fermat's theorem, to wit aP - 1 == a modulo p, whenever
p is prime and a =f. 0 modulo p, is not a sufficient crite-
rion for primality (cf. also Fermat little theorem).
The first five Carmichael numbers are
561, 1105, 1729, 1905, 2047.
178
RD. Carmichael [2J characterized them as follows.
Let >.(n) be the exponent of the multiplicative group
of integers modulo n, that is, the least >. > 0 making
all .>.th powers in the group equal to l. (This is readily
computed from the prime factorization of n.) Then a
composite natural number n is Carmichael if and only if
>.(n) 1n - l. From this it follows that every Carmichael
number is odd, square-free, and has at least 3 distinct
prime factors.
Let C(x) denote the number of Carmichael numbers
:S x. W.R Alford, A. Granville and C. Pomerance [lJ
proved that C(x) > x 2 / 7 for sufficiently large x. This
settled a long-standing conjecture that there are infin-
itely many Carmichael numbers. It is believed on prob-
abilistic grounds that 10gC(x) rv log x [4J.
There is apparently no better way to compute C(x)
than to make a list of the Carmichael numbers up to
x. The most exhaustive computation to date (1996) is
that of RG.E. Pinch, who used the methods of [3J to
determine that C(10 16 ) = 246,683.
References
[IJ ALFORD, W.R., GRANVILLE, A., AND POMERANCE, C.: 'There
are infinitely many Carmichael numbers', Ann. of Math. 140
(1994),703-722.
[2J CARMICHAEL, R.D.: 'Note on a new number theory function',
Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 16 (1910), 232-238.
[3J PINCH, R.G.E.: 'The Carmichael numbers up to 10 15 ', Math.
Comp 61 (1993),381-391.
[4J POMERANCE, C., SELFRIDGE, J.L., AND WAGSTAFF, JR., S.S.:
'The pseudoprimes to 25.10 9 " Math. Comp 35 (1980), 1003-
1026.
E. Bach
MSC 1991: llYll, llA51, llN25
CASSON HANDLE - A certain kind of smooth man-
ifold pair (H, C) that, by a foundational theorem of
M. Freedman [3J, is homeomorphic to a 4-dimensional
open 2-handle (D2 x R 2 , 8 D2 X 0) (cf. Handle theory).
Casson handles are the key to understanding topologi-
cal 4-manifolds [4J. The fundamental theorems of high-
dimensional manifold topology (cf. Topology of man-
ifolds), namely the surgery and s-cobordism theorems,
fail for smooth 4-manifolds because they depend on find-
ing an embedded 2-dimensional disc D in a given man-
ifold M, with specified boundary 8D C 8M. In dimen-
sions 2: 5, such an embedding is easily constructed by
general position, but in dimension 4, immersed sur-
faces cannot be made embedded by perturbation (cf.
Immersion of a manifold; Immersion). By work of
A. Casson [2J, it is often possible to embed a Casson han-
dle in the required 4-manifold, with C mapping to the
required circle, so Freedman's theorem provides a home-
om orphic ally embedded disc. This leads to proofs of the
above fundamental theorems for topological 4-manifolds
(that is, manifolds without specified smooth structures),

provided that the fundamental groups involved are not
too 'large'. In particular, Freedman obtained a complete
classification of closed simply-connected topological 4-
manifolds in terms of the intersection pairing (cf. also
Intersection theory).
A Casson handle is constructed as a union of kinky
handles. A kinky handle (K, C) can be defined as the
smooth, oriented 4-manifold K arising as a closed reg-
ular neighbourhood of a generically immersed (but not
embedded) 2-disc D in an oriented 4-manifold, together
with the boundary circle C = oD c oK. For each pair
(k+, k_) of non-negative integers, not both 0, there is
a unique oriented diffeomorphism type of kinky han-
dle, corresponding to a disc D with k+ positive and k_
negative self-intersections. The attaching circle C has a
canonical framing of its normal bundle in oK, obtained
by restricting any normal framing of an embedded, com-
pact, oriented surface (F, of) c (K, C). Equivalently,
the framing is obtained from the normal framing of D by
adding 2(L - k+) right twists (relative to the boundary
orientation on oK). There is also a canonical (up to dif-
feomorphism) embedded collection of normally framed
circles ILl, ... ,ILk++k_ in oK\ C, with the property that
attaching 2-handles (D2 x D2, OD2 X 0) to K along these
circles (identifying OD2 x D2 with a neighbourhood of
ILi so that the framings correspond) transforms (K, C)
into a standard 2-handle.
An n-stage Casson tower (Tn' C) is defined induc-
tively, as follows: A I-stage tower is a kinky handle
(K, C) with canonical circles ILi, and for n > 1 an n-
stage tower (Tn, C) is obtained from an (n - I)-stage
tower (Tn - 1 , C) by attaching a kinky handle (Ki' C i ) to
each of the canonical circles ILi of T n - 1 , identifying tubu-
lar neighbourhoods (cf. Tubular neighbourhood) of
C i and ILi so as to match the canonical framings. The
canonical framed circles of Tn are those of the newly at-
tached kinky handles. If one continues this construction
to form an infinite sequence T1 C T2 C .. " the interior
of the resulting manifold
00
together with a tubular neighbourhood of the attaching
circle C of T 1 , is a Casson handle (H, C). According to
Freedman, (H, C) is homeomorphic to (D2 X R2, OD2 X
0) with the canonical framing on C corresponding to the
product framing on OD2 x 0 C OD2 X D2. A newer, more
powerful version of the theory [4 J relies on generalized
Casson handles that have occasionally been called Freed-
man handles. These have most layers of kinky handles
replaced by manifolds (F x D2, of x 0) for F a compact,
oriented surface with boundary a circle.
CENTRE MANIFOLD
Although all Casson handles are homeomorphic,
gauge theory shows that the differential topology
is much more complex. There are uncountably many
diffeomorphism types of Casson handles [6J. Casson
handles are indexed by based trees without any finite
branches, with signs attached to the edges. Each vertex
represents a kinky handle (with the base point repre-
senting Td and each edge represents a self-intersection.
It is not presently known whether different signed trees
can correspond to diffeomorphic Casson handles. While
it is also not known if there is any Casson handle (H, C)
that admits a smoothly embedded disc bounded by C,
such a disc cannot exist if the corresponding tree has
an infinite branch (from the base point) for which all
signs are the same [1], [7J. For any non-negative integers
k±, not both 0, there is a Casson handle with T1 having
exactly k+ positive and k_ negative self-intersections,
such that any generically immersed smooth disc in H
bounded by C also has at least k+ positive and k_ neg-
ative intersections [5J.
References
[1] BIZACA, Z.: 'An explicit family of exotic Casson handles',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 123 (1995), 1297-1302.
[2] CASSON, A.: 'Three lectures on new infinite constructions
in 4-dimensional manifolds': A la Recherche de la Topolo-
gie Perdue, Vol. 62 of Progress in Mathematics, Birkhiiuser,
1986, pp. 201-244, notes prepared by L. Guillou.
[3] FREEDMAN, M.: 'The topology of four-dimensional mani-
folds', J. Diff. Geom. 17 (1982), 357-453.
[4] FREEDMAN, M., AND QUINN, F.: Topology of 4-manifolds,
Vol. 39 of Princeton Mathematical Series, Princeton Univ.
Press, 1990.
[5] GOMPF, R.: 'Infinite families of Casson handles and topolog-
ical disks', Topology 23 (1984), 395-400.
[6] GOMPF, R.: 'Periodic ends and knot concordance', Topology
Appl. 32 (1989), 141-148.
[7] RUDOLPH, L.: 'Quasipositivity as an obstruction to sliceness',
Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 29 (1993), 51-59.
R. Gompf
MSC 1991: 57N13, 57RlO
CAUCHy-RIEMANN EQUATIONS - The equa-
tions that must be satisfied by the real and imaginary
parts of a complex-valued function of a complex variable
for it to be holomorphic (cf. Analytic function).
See also Cauchy-Riemann conditions.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 30A05, 32Axx, 30Exx
CENTRE MANIFOLD - Consider an autonomous
system of ordinary differential equations
x = I(x), (1)
where I: Rn -+ R n is sufficiently smooth, 1(0) = O. Let
the eigenvalues of the Jacobi matrix A evaluated at
179
CENTRE MANIFOLD
the equilibrium position Xo = 0 be Al,'" ,An. Sup-
pose the equilibrium is non-hyperbolic, i.e. has eigen-
values with zero real part. Assume also that there are
nu eigenvalues (counting multiplicities) with Re Aj > 0,
nc eigenvalues with Re Aj = 0, and ns eigenvalues
with Re Aj < O. Let T C denote the linear (generalized)
eigenspace of A corresponding to the union of the nc
eigenvalues on the imaginary axis. The eigenvalues with
Re Aj = 0 are often called critical, as is the eigenspace
T C • Let cpt denote the flow (continuous-time dynam-
ical system) associated with (1). Under the assump-
tions stated above, the following centre manifold theo-
rem holds [7], [9], [3], [11]: There is a locally defined
smooth nc-dimensional invariant manifold WC(O) of cpt
that is tangent to T C at x = O.
The manifold WC(O) is called the centre manifold.
The centre manifold WC(O) need not be unique. If f E
C k with finite k, WC(O) is a Ck-manifold in some neigh-
bourhood U of Xo. However, as k -+ 00 the neighbour-
hood U may shrink, thus resulting in the non-existence
of a Coo-manifold WC(O) for certain Coo systems.
In a basis formed by all (generalized) eigenvectors
of A (or their linear combinations if the corresponding
eigenvalues are complex), the system (1) can be written
as
it = Bu + g(u, v),
{ (2)
v=Cv+h(u,v),
where u ERne, v E Rnu+n., B is an (n c x nc)-matrix
with all its nc eigenvalues on the imaginary axis, while C
is an «nu +ns) x (nu +ns))-matrix with no eigenvalue on
the imaginary axis; g,h = O(II(u,v)11 2 ). A centre mani-
fold WC of (2) can be locally represented as the graph of
a smooth function V: Rnc -+ Rnu+n., V(u) = O(lluI1 2 ):
W C = ((u,v): v = V(u), lIull < c}.
The following reduction principle is valid (see [1], [8]):
The system (2) is locally topologically equivalent (cf.
Equivalence of dynamical systems) near the origin
to the system
it = Bu + g(u, V(u)),
{ (3)
v=Cv.
The equations for u and v are uncoupled in (3). The
first equation is the restriction of (2) to its centre man-
ifold. Thus, the dynamics of (2) near a non-hyperbolic
equilibrium are determined by this restriction, since the
second equation in (3) is linear and has exponentially
decaying/growing solutions. For example, if u = 0 is the
asymptotically stable equilibrium of the restriction and
the matrix C has no eigenvalue with positive real part,
then (u,v) = (0,0) is the asymptotically stable equilib-
rium of (2). If there is more than one centre manifold,
180
then all the resulting systems (3) with different V are lo-
cally topologically equivalent (actually, the V differ only
by flat functions).
The second equation in (3) can be replaced by the
standard saddle:
~ =-v
{ w=w, (4)
with (v, w) ERn., x R nu. In other words, near a non-
hyperbolic equilibrium the system is locally topologi-
cally equivalent to the suspension of its restriction to
the centre manifold by the standard saddle.
Consider now a system that depends smoothly on pa-
rameters:
x = f(x, 0:), (5)
Suppose that at 0: = 0 the system has a non-hyperbolic
equilibrium x = 0 with nc eigenvalues on the imaginary
axis and (n - nc) eigenvalues with non-zero real part.
Let ns of them have negative real part, while n,. have
positive real part. Applying the centre manifold theorem
to the following extended system:
{n
= 0,
(6)
x= f(x, 0:),
one can prove the existence of a parameter-dependent
local invariant manifold Ma in (5). The manifold has
dimension nc and Mo coincides with a centre manifold
WC(O) of the (5) at 0: = O. Often, the manifold Ma is
called the centre manifold for all 0:. For each small 10:1
one can restrict system (5) to Ma. Introducing a coor-
dinate system on Ma with u ERne as the coordinate,
this restriction will be represented by a smooth system:
it = <I>(u, 0:). (7)
At 0: = 0, the system (7) is equivalent to the restric-
tion of (5) to its centre manifold WC(O). The following
results are known as the Sositazsvili theorem [10] (see
also [1], [2], [8]): The system (5) is locally topologically
equivalent near the origin to the suspension of (7) by
the standard saddle (4). Moreover, (7) can be replaced
by any locally topologically equivalent system.
This theorem reduces the study of bifurcations of
non-hyperbolic equilibria (cf. also Bifurcation) to
those on the corresponding centre manifold of dimen-
sion equal to the number of critical eigenvalues. There
are analogues of the reduction principle and SositalSvili's
theorem for discrete-time dynamical systems defined by
iterations of diffeomorphisms (see, for example, [1], [8]).
Existence of centre manifolds has also been proved for
certain infinite-dimensional dynamical systems defined
by partial differential equations [9], [3], [6] and delay
differential equations [5], [4].

References
[1] ARNOL'D, V.I.: Geometrical methods in the theory of or-
dinary differential equations, Vol. 250 of Grundlehren der
mathematischen Wissenschaften, Springer, 1983. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[2] ARNOL'D, V.I., AFRAIMOVICH, V.S., IL'YASHENKO, Yu.S.,
AND SHIL'NIKOV, L.P.: 'Bifurcation theory', Dynamical Sys-
tems V, in V.I. ARNOL'D (ed.), Encycl. Math. Sci. Springer,
1994. (Translated from the Russian.)
[3] CARR, J.: Applications of center manifold theory, Springer,
1981.
[4] DIEKMANN, 0., GILS, S.A. VAN, VERDUYN LUNEL, S.M., AND
WALTHER, H.-O.: Delay equations, Springer, 1995.
[5] HALE, J., AND VERDUYN LUNEL, S.M.: Introduction to func-
tional differential equations, Springer, 1993.
[6] HENRY, D.: Geometric theory of semilinear parabolic equa-
tions, Springer, 1981.
[7] KELLEY, A.: 'The stable, center stable, center, center unstable
and unstable manifolds', J. Differential Equations 3 (1967),
546-570.
[8] KUZNETSOV, Yu.A.: Elements of applied bifurcation theory,
Springer, 1995.
[9] MARSDEN, J., AND MCCRACKEN, M.: Hopf bifurcation and
its applications, Springer, 1976.
[10] SOSITAISVILI, A.N.: 'Bifurcations of topological type of a vec-
tor field near a singular point', Proc. Petrovskii Sem., Vol. 1.
Moscow Univ., 1975, pp. 279-309. (In Russian.)
[11] VANDERBAUWHEDE, A.: 'Centre manifolds, normal forms and
elementary bifurcations', Dynamics Reported 2 (1989), 89-
169.
Yu.A. Kuznetsov
MSC 1991: 58Fxx, 58F14
CENTROID of a set of points in Euclidean space -
Consider m points ai, i = 1, ... ,m, in Rn, with positive
weights ti attached to them. Then the centroid of this
system is the point
2:::1 tiai
c= m bra. A recent survey of the development of this theory
2:i=j ti
This is also the centre of gravity, or barycentre, or centre
of mass (in the sense of mechanics) of these mass points.
The concept belongs to affine geometry rather than
to the vector space (Euclidean space) R n, in the sense
that the vector
x+ -,
(~t,) ~t,(a; -xl
is obviously independent of x.
If ti = 1, i = 1, ... ,m, the term equi-barycentre is
sometimes used. The concept can be extended to the
case of possibly negative ti (electric charges), see [1].
A related concept is that of the centre of a compact
set K with non-empty interior in R n, which is defined
L
as:
c = p,(K)-1 x dp"
where p, is Lebesgue measure. This is the centre of
mass, in the sense of mechanics, of the body K with
CHAIN GEOMETRY
uniform mass density. Here, a weight function (mass dis-
tribution) could be introduced.
For a triangle, the centroid of the three corners, each
with weight unity, is the intersection point of the three
medians of the triangle (see Plane trigonometry; Me-
dian (of a triangle)). This is also the centre of the
convex hull of the three corners (Archimedes' theorem).
This is no longer necessarily true for four points in the
plane.
The centroid of al,'" ,am with weights ti, i =
1, ... ,m, minimizes the weighted sum of the squared
distances 2:::1 tillx - ai11 2.
See also Chebyshev centre of a bounded set.
References
[1] BERGER, M.: Geometry, Vol. I, Springer, 1987. (Translated
from the French.)
[2] COXETER, H.S.M.: Introduction to geometry, second ed., Wi-
ley, 1969.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 51M04
CH - A commonly used abbreviation for the con-
tinuum hypothesis.
MSC 1991: 03E50
CHAIN GEOMETRY - An incidence system con-
structed by means of an algebra. Originally (1842), Ch.
von Staudt defined, on the projective line/plane over C,
a chain ('Kette') in a synthetic way as a sub line/plane
over R. Much later, in 1973, W. Benz [1] gave a common
frame for rather different phenomena (the geometries of
Mobius, Laguerre and Lie, and Minkowsky; cf. Benz
plane) using the concept of a geometry over an alge-
is [3].
Fundamental concepts. Let A be a ring (associa-
tive with one) and let A * be its group of units. To de-
fine the projective line P(A) over A, one introduces an
equivalence relation == on A x A, as for the projective
straight line over a skew-field:
(a,b)==(a',b') ¢} 3uEA*:a'=ua&b'=ub.
Let [a, b] denote the equivalence class of (a, b). Then
P(A) =
= {[a,b]: a,b E A,3x,y E A: (: ~) E GL 2 (A)}.
One says that [a, b] is distant to [c, d] if
~)
(: E GL2(A).
Let K be a commutative ring and A a K -algebra,
where K is imbedded in the centre of A via the map-
ping k I-? k· 1. Regard P(K) as a subset of P(A), and
181
CHAIN GEOMETRY
define ItK(A) = {P(K)"Y: 'Y E GL 2 (A)}. Then the inci-
dence system ~(K, A) = (P(A), ItK(A)), with E as inci-
dence relation, is called a chain geometry. The elements
of ItK(A) are called chains. Any three pairwise distant
points belong to exactly one chain. PGL 2 (A) is a group
of automorphisms of ~(K, A); it is transitive on the set
of triples of pairwise distant points, and hence transitive
on the set of chains. Four pairwise distant points belong
to a common chain, provided their cross ratio belongs
to K.
If K is a field, ~(K, A) is said to be a proper chain
geometry. A proper chain geometry is a chain space.
Below, K denotes a field.
Affine case. Let D = {[I, x]: x E A}. Then D is the
set of all points of P(A) distant to [0,1]. Consider the
traces of the chains in D:
I!:K(A) = {C n D: C E ItK(A), IC n DI 2 3}.
There is a natural bijection from D into the affine
space A over K via the mapping [1, aJ I---t a. Under
this mapping, I!:K(A) becomes the set
KK(A) = {K(a, b, c): a E A*, b, c E A, IK(a, b, c)1 23}
of affine chains, defined by
K(a,b,c) = {(at + b)-l + c: t E K,at + b E A*} U {c}.
This trace geometry is called the affine chain geome-
try, denoted by A(K, A) = (A, KK(A)). For a E A, the
set {K(a,O,c): c E A} is a bundle of parallel straight
lines in the affine space A. For an algebraic (especially,
finite-dimensional) K-algebra A (cf. also Algebraic al-
gebra), the affine chain geometry A(K, A) is an affine
chain space (cf. Chain space).
Structure of morphisms. Let A, A' be K-algebras. A
K -Jordan homomorphism a: A -+ A' is a K-semi-linear
mapping satisfying: i) 1" = 1; and ii) for all a, bE A one
has (aba)" = a"b"a". For a 'strong' algebra A (strong-
ness guarantees a great richness in units for A), any
point of P(A) can be written as [1 + ab, a] for suitable
a, b E A. Then a K-Jordan homomorphism a: A -+ A'
induces a well-defined mapping a: P(A) -+ P(A'),
[1 + ab, a] I---t [1 + a"b", a"], which preserves pairs of
distant points and maps chains to chains. Moreover,
under a: [1,0]1---t [1,0]' [O,lJ I---t [0,1], [l,lJ I---t [1,1].
Such a mapping is called a fundamental morphism from
~(K, A) to ~(K, A').
Conversely, any fundamental morphism ~(K, A) -+
~(K, A') having more than one chain in its image can
be obtained in this manner (see [2] for a more general
context).
Let AutK(A) be the group of K-Jordan automor-
phisms of A, and let F(K, A) be the group of funda-
mental automorphisms of ~(K, A). Then AutK(A)
F(K, A) and AutK ~(K, A) ~ F(K, A) . PGL 2 (A).
182
Rational representations. As in the affine case one
tries to find kinds of representations for chain geometries
~(K, A) on a part of a projective space where the chains
become curves, at least when A is finite dimensional. In
this way one has discovered incidence systems (V\ W, It)
isomorphic to ~(K, A), where V is a projective variety
(cf. also Projective scheme), W is a (Zariski-) closed
subset of V and It consists of rational curves on V \ W
(cf. also Incidence system; Rational curve).
For a K-algebra of K-dimension n, a representation
of ~(K, A) on a part of the Grassmann manifold
G 2n ,n(K) is obtained as follows. For [a, b] E P(A), the
set A( a, b) = {( xa, xb): x E A} is an n-dimensional sub-
space of the K-vector space A x A of dimension 2n.
Then A(a, b) is mapped to a point of G 2n ,n(K) (see Ex-
terior algebra). By this procedure, chains are mapped
to normal rational curves of order n, i.e., to images of
P(K) under the Veronese mapping V n , and V is the
intersection of G 2n ,n(K) with a linear subspace. Other
examples can be obtained from this by suitable projec-
tion.
A quadratic algebra A (i.e., any element of A \ K has
a quadratic minimal polynomial; cf. also Extension of
a field) has a representation as a quadric model (cf.
Chain space). Here, V = Q is the quadric and W is
its set of singular points; the chains are conics.
n-chain geometries. These are generalizations of chain
geometries (n = 1) to higher dimensions. E.g., let A be
a quadratic field extension of K (cf. Extension of a
field). Then, in the projective plane over A the 2-chains
are the subplanes over K; these are better known as
Baer subplanes, especially in finite geometries (cf. also
Geometry).
A Burau geometry is a projective space over A
(again a quadratic extension of K) together with all pro-
jective sublines over K. It can be characterized by the
property that the incidence system consisting of a pro-
jective line L over A (as a point set) and all sublines over
K contained in L (considered as blocks) for a Mobius
plane. A more general concept can be found in [4J.
References
[1] BENZ, W.: Vorlesungen iiber Geometrie der Algebren,
Springer, 1973.
[2] BLUNK, A.: 'Chain spaces over Jordan systems', Abh. Math.
Sem. Hamburg 64 (1994), 33-49.
[3] HERZER, A.: 'Chain geometries', in F. BUEKENHOUT (ed.):
Handbook of Incidence Geometry, North-Holland, 1995.
[4] PIECONKOWSKI, K.: Projektive Riiume iiber
Schie/korperpaaren, W und T, Wiss.- und Technik-VerI.,
1994.
A. Herzer
MSC 1991: 5IB05
CHAIN SPACE - An incidence system to axiomat-
ically describe chain geometries (cf. Chain geometry).

A weak chain space is an incidence system I = Veronese variety (cf. Veronese mapping). For the set
(P, I!:, I) satisfying the three conditions below. Here, the
elements of I!: are called chains and two different points
(i.e., elements of P) are called distant if they are inci-
dent with a common chain.
i) any three pairwise distant points are contained in
exactly one chain;
ii) any chain contains at least three points;
iii) any point lies in at least one chain.
For a point p, let Dp be the set of all points distant
to p and let (p) = {C E I!:: pIC}. Then the incidence
system.Lp = (Dp, (p), I) is called the residual space of I
at p.
A partial parallel structure (P,~, I, II) is an incidence
system (P,~, I) together with an equivalence relation
II on ~ satisfying the two conditions below. Here, the
elements of ~ are called lines.
a) two different points are incident with at most one
line;
b) for a line L and point p, there is exactly one line,
L', incident with p and such that L II L'.
Condition b) is the Euclid parallel axiom.
A partial parallel structure (P,~, I, II) is called a par-
tial affine space if there is an affine space A such that
P is the set of points of A, ~ is the set of straight lines
of A and II is the natural parallelism on A.
A weak chain space is called a chain space if all resid-
ual spaces of it are partial affine spaces.
Every proper chain geometry is a chain space. Con-
versely, the chain spaces that are proper chain geome-
tries can be characterized by suitable automorphism
groups [1].
A contact space C = (P,~, I, (PP)PEP) is a weak chain
space (P,~, I) together with a family (PP)PEP, where Pp
is an equivalence relation on (p) with the following prop-
erties:
1) if C PpC', then p is the only point common to C
and C';
2) if pIC and q is a point distant to p, then there is a
unique chain C' incident with p and q for which C ppC'.
Clearly, for a contact space (P,~, I, (PP)PEP) any
residual space of the incidence system (P,~, I) gives
rise to a partial parallel structure (Dp, (p), I, pp). Con-
versely, any chain space I is a contact space (taking
for Pp the natural parallelism of the affine space under-
lying I). One can characterize the contact spaces that
are chain spaces by certain configurations together with
richness conditions [3].
An affine chain space Ql = (P, I!:, I) is a contact space,
where P is the point set of an affine space A. The ele-
ments of I!: are called affine chains and are normal ra-
tional curves in A, i.e., affine parts of curves which are a
CHIRAL ANOMALY
,c of all affine chains that are straight lines, the structure
(P,,c, I, II) is a partial affine space. Affine chain spaces
can be constructed by means of Jordan algebras [2] (cf.
also Jordan algebra).
A classical example is the quadric model of a chain
space, constructed on a quadric Q by means of plane
sections. Moreover, the stereographic projection
from a simple point p of Q (to a hyperplane different
from the tangent plane of Q at p) then gives rise to an
affine chain space (cf. also Benz plane).
References
[lJ HERZER, A.: 'Chain geometries', in F. BUEKENHOUT (ed.):
Handbook of Incidence Geometry, North-Holland, 1995.
[2J HERZER, A.: 'Affine Kettengeometrien iiber Jordan-
Algebren', Geom. Dedicata 59 (1996), 181-195.
[3J MEUREN, S., AND HERZER, A.: 'Ein Axiomsystem fiir partielle
affine Raume', J. Geometry 50 (1994), 124-142.
A. Herzer
MSC 1991: 5IB05
CHEBYSHEV SERIES, Fourier-Chebyshev series -
The development of a function as a series in Chebyshev
polynomials.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 42ClO
CHIRAL ANOMALY - One of the quantum-field
theoretic manifestations of chiral dissymmetry or chi-
ral asymmetry. Chiral anomaly in 2-dimensional quan-
tum field theory means that the quantum field ob-
servables from the left and the right sectors of a field
model do not commute. Chiral anomaly is deeply re-
lated to non-commutative geometry and the theory of
anti-commutative algebras (cf. Anti-commutative al-
gebra), which are not Lie algebras [1], [2]. Namely, if
the chiral sectors admit symmetries described by a semi-
simple Lie algebra g, then the whole model possesses
symmetries, whose generators belong to the Borel-Lie
anti-commutative central extension of the double 9 + 9
(an anti-commutative algebra is called a Borel-Lie al-
gebra (or BL-algebra) if every solvable subalgebra of it
is a Lie algebra).
Field models with chiral anomaly are efficiently used
for anomalous stereo-synthesis (e.g., octonionic stereo-
synthesis) in real-time interactive binocular video-
systems.
References
[lJ JURIEV, D.: 'Noncommutative geometry, chiral anomaly in
the quantum projective sl(2, C)-invariant field theory and
jl(2, C)-invariance', J. Math. Phys. 33 (1992), 2819-2822.
[2J JURIEV, D.: 'Erratum', J. Math. Phys. 34 (1993), 1615.
D. V. Juriev (D. V. Yur'ev)
MSC 1991: 81Rxx, 81 Txx
183
CHOQUET BOUNDARY
CHOQUET BOUNDARY - Let X be a compact
Hausdorff space (cf. also Compact space), let C(X)
be the Banach algebra of all complex-valued contin-
uous functions on X with the supremum norm and let
A be a linear subspace of C(X) containing the constant
functions on X. For t EX, let 7t E A * be defined by
7t(f) = f(t) for all f E A and let K(A) denote the set
{x* E A*: Ilx*11 = x*(l) = I}.
The Choquet boundary for A is defined as the set
Ch(A) = {t EX: 7t E ext(K(A))} ,
where ext(K(A)) denotes the set of extreme points of
K(A).
Other relevant concepts involved in the study of the
Choquet boundary are the boundary and the Shilov
boundary. A boundary for A is a subset E of X such
that for each f E A, there exists atE E such that
If(t)1 = IIflioo (cf. also Boundary (in the theory
of uniform algebras)). If there is a smallest closed
boundary for A, then it is called the Shilov boundary
for Aj it is denoted by 8A.
The motivation for these concepts comes from the
classical theory of analytic functions (cf. also Analytic
function). If D denotes the closed unit disc and A(D)
is the linear subspace of C(D) consisting of all complex-
valued functions that are continuous on D and analytic
inside D, then, by the maximum-modulus princi-
ple, for each f E A(D) there exists atE r (the unit
circle) such that If(t)1 = IIflioo' In fact, r is the small-
est closed set having this property. A natural question
to ask is: Given an arbitrary linear subspace A of C(X),
does there exist a subset of X having properties simi-
lar to r? Investigations in this direction have led to the
introduction of the above concepts.
It is clear from the above discussion that Ch(A(D)) =
8(A(D)) = r. Also, Ch(C(X)) = X and Ch(P(D 2)) =
8(P(D2)) = r 2 , where D2 = D x D, r 2 = r x r, and
P(D 2) is the uniform closure on D2 of the algebra of all
polynomials in two complex variables (cf. also Uniform
space).
In general, Ch(A) is a boundary of A and hence
Ch(A) "# 0. If, in addition, A separates the points of
X (cf. Uniform algebra), then Ch(A) is dense in 8A.
Also, in this case, t E Ch(A) if and only if the lOt (the
unit mass concentrated at t) is the unique representing
measure for 7t. This equivalent description is used as a
definition of Choquet boundary in [1].
If A is a subalgebra of C(X) containing the constants
and separating the points of X, then the Bishop bound-
ary for A can be defined as the set of all peak points for
A, that is, the set
pA = {t E X: 3f E A: If(t)1 < If(s)l, "Is E X \ {t}}.
184
For any such algebra A, pA ~ Ch(A) ~ 8A and if, in
addition, X is metrizable (cf. Metrizable space), then
Ch(A) is a Go-set. However, if X is not metrizable, then
the following example [5] shows that Ch(A) need not
even be a Borel set. Let A be an uncountable index set
and for each A E A, let AA = {f E A(D): f(O) = f(l)}
and BA = r - {I}. Then for U = 0{AA: A E A} one has
Ch(U) = I1 {B A: A E A}, which is not a Borel set since
A is uncountable.
If A is a uniform algebra (i.e. a closed subalgebra
of C(X) containing the constants and separating the
points of X), then the following are equivalent
i) t E Ch(A)j
ii) for each open neighbourhood U of t there is an
f E A such that IIfli oo = 1 and If(s)1 < 1 for all
sEX \ Uj
iii) there exists a family of peak sets {E fa} for A such
that
where, for fa E A,
Efa = {t EX: Ifa(t)1 = IIfalloo} j
iv) given 0 < a < f3 < 1, if U is an open neighbour-
hood of t, then there is an f E A such that IIfli oo < 1,
If(t)1 > f3 and If(s)1 < a for sEX \ U.
If A is a uniform algebra and X is metrizable, then
Ch(A) = pA.
The concept of Choquet boundary can be extended to
any arbitrary commutative Banach algebra via Gel'fand
theory. If A is any commutative Banach algebra (cf.
Commutative Banach algebra) with identity, then
its maximal ideal space L},(A) is compact Hausdorff
and the Gel'fand representation A of A is a subalge-
bra of C(L},(A)) separating the points of X and contain-
ing the constants. Hence, one can define the Choquet
boundary of A as Ch(A).
The concept of Choquet boundary has been extended
to real function algebras in [2].
The notion of Choquet boundary is useful in charac-
terizing onto linear isometries of certain function spaces.
In particular, if A is a subalgebra of C(X) separating
points and containing the constants and if T: A -t A
is a linear isometric mapping (linear isometry) of A
onto A such that T(l) = 1, then one can show that T is
an algebra isometry of A onto A, [3, p. 243].
References
[1] BROWDER, A.: Introduction to function algebras, W.A. Ben-
jamin, 1969.
[2] KULKARNI, S.H., AND LIMAYE, B.V.: Real function algebras,
M. Dekker, 1992.
[3] LARSEN, R.: Banach algebras: an introduction, M. Dekker,
1973.

[4] PHELPS, R.R.: Lectures on Ghoquet's theorem, v. Nostrand,
1966.
[5] STOUT, E.L.: The theory of uniform algebras, Bogden and
Quigley, 1971.
V.D. Pathak
MSC 1991: 46J20
CHOQUET-KENDALL-~ATHERON THEOREM
- A theorem characterizing the distribution of a ran-
dom closed set in terms of the Choquet capacity func-
tional [1]. This theorem was established independently
by D.G. Kendall [2] and G. Matheron [3] in their work
on random closed sets.
Let F and K be the family of closed and compact
subsets of R d, respectively. The family F is endowed
with the hit-or-miss topology, which is generated by
;:K _ MSC 1991: 14Fxx
°=
G1, ... ,G
n -
= {F E F: F n G i =F (i 1, ... ,n), F n K
for a compact set K and open sets G i . Let ~F be the
Borel a-algebra generated by the hit-or-miss topology.
Then ~F is the smallest a-algebra of subsets of F con-
taining the sets
FK = {F E F: F n K =F 0}, K E K.
Now, a random closed set 3 is an F-valued random
element. Its distribution is described by the correspond-
ing probability measure P on ~F:
P(F§\, ... ,GJ =
= P(3 n K = 0, 3 n G; =F 0, i = 1, ... ,n).
This distribution can also be characterized by the func-
tional
Ts(K) = P(3 n K =F O), K E K.
The functional Ts is an alternating Choquet capacity of
infinite order. This means that:
i) Ts is upper semi-continuous (Kn J. K implies
Ts(Kn) J. Ts(K); cf. also Semi-continuous function);
ii) Sn(K; K 1 , ... ,Kn) ~ 0, n ~ 0, where
So(K) = 1 - Ts(K)
Sn(K; K 1 , .•. ,Kn) = Sn-l(K; K 1 , ••. ,Kn-d +
-Sn-l(KUKn;K1 , ... ,Kn-d
The values Sn(K; K 1 , ..• ,Kn) can be interpreted as the
probability that 3 does not intersect K but does inter-
sect K 1 , ... ,Kn.
The Choquet-Kendall-Matheron theorem asserts
that given a functional T on K, there exists a distri-
bution P on F with
P(FK ) = T(K), K E K,
if and only if T is an alternating Choquet capacity of
infinite order with 0 :::; T(K) :::; 1 and T(0) = o. This
distribution is necessarily unique.
CLAUSIUS-DUHEM INEQUALITY
See [4] for applications.
References
[1] CHOQUET, G.: 'Theory of capacities', Ann. Inst. Fourier V
(1953-54), 131-295.
[2] KENDALL, D.G.: 'Foundations of a theory of random sets',
Stochastic Geometry, in E.F. HARDING AND D.G. KENDALL
(eds.). Wiley, 1974, pp. 322-376.
[3] MATHERON, G.: Random sets and integral geometry, Wiley,
1975.
[4] STOYAN, D., KENDALL, W.S., AND MECKE, J.: Stochastic ge-
ometry and its applications, second ed., Wiley, 1995.
H.J.A.M. Heijmans
MSC 1991: 60D05, 28Cxx
CHOW GROUP - One of the groups making up the
graded Chow ring.
= 0},
CHV ATAL THEOREM, Chvatal watchman theorem
- The following question was posed by V. Klee: How
many guards are necessary (and sufficient) to guard (vi-
sually cover) a polygonal room (an art gallery) of n ver-
tices?
The question was answered by V. Chvatal [1]. He
proved that ln/3 J guards are sometimes necessary and
always sufficient to guard a polygonal room of n vertices.
A concise proof was later found by S. Fisk [2]. See
also Art gallery theorems.
References
[1] CHVATAL, V.: 'A combinatorial theorem in plane geometry',
J. Gombin. Th. Ser. B 18 (1975), 39-41.
[2] FISK, S.: 'A short proof of Chvatal's watchman theorem', J.
Gombin. Th. Ser. B 24 (1978), 374.
J. O'Rourke
MSC 1991: 51M20
CLAUSIUS-DuHEM INEQUALITY - Named after
one of the founding fathers of irreversible thermodynam-
ics, R. Clausius, and the famed proponent of energeti-
cism, P. Duhem, the Clausius-Duhem inequality is es-
sentially a global statement of the second law of contin-
uum thermodynamics in the following form:
Here, S is the total entropy pertaining to the actual
volume D t occupied by a material body at time t in
physical Euclidean space R 3 , aD t being its, suppos-
edly regular, boundary and D t its closure. The scalar
(J such that inf (J = 0, (J > 0, is the so-called thermo-
dynamical temperature, q is the heat flux per unit area,
h is the mass density of heat by radiation, a superim-
posed dot indicates the material time derivative, and
dm = p(x, t) dv is the mass element if p is the matter
density at the actual placement x at absolute time t of
185
CLAUSIUS-DUHEM INEQUALITY

a material point X of the material differentiable mani-
fold M3. Clausius' original form of (1) had zero for the
right-hand side. The surface contribution was added by
Duhem [2], and the bulk term by C.A. Truesdell and
RA. Toupin [15]. (1) holds when the thermodynamical
evolution is such that the relation between two nearby
thermodynamical states not necessarily in equilibrium
satisfies the axiom of local state. This axiom states that
the response times inherent in perturbations of a ther-
mal equilibrium, and permitting a subsystem such as D t
to revert to a new thermodynamical state, are supposed
to be much less than the characteristic times of the
kinematical and dynamical evolutions of this subsystem.
Consequently, one attributes to entropy its equilibrium
value, assuming that S is differentiable in the appropri-
ate time interval. Entropy being an extensive (propor-
tional to mass) state variable, the specific entropy Tj (x, t)
is introduced for sufficiently regular processes such that
for the idea that the Clausius-Duhem inequality should
be interpreted as an identical restriction on constitutive
relations (e.g., for 'IjJ,Tj,T and q) and as such should
lead to a proof of the existence of thermodynamic po-
tentials in certain cases (see [14], [4]; for generalizations
to complex electromagnetic phenomena in continua, see
[7], to plasticity and fracture, see [8], and to media with
microstructure, see [9]). The corresponding thermody-
namics is often called Coleman-Noll thermodynamics.
1. Miiller [10] introduced a more general framework,
where the entropy flux S is no longer assumed in its
classical form q/O from the start, but is itself a constitu-
tive field in need of a constitutive equation. Liu I-Shih
[6] has further elaborated on this by considering that
the Clausius-Duhem inequality holds under the mathe-
matical constraints of the field equations (e.g., balance
of mass, momentum, energy) of the problem, so that
these must be accounted for in the inequality statement

S(Dd = j D,
Tj dm.
Application of the Cauchy tetrahedron argument in con-
tinuum physics to (1) allows one to introduce the en-
tropy flux and heat flux, Sand q, respectively, such
that S = 0-l q , and q = q(n; x, t) = -q(x, t) . n, where
n is the unit outward normal to 8D t . The localization of
(1) for sufficiently regular fields then yields the follow-
ing pointwise local expression of the Clausius-Duhem
inequality:
pi! + V . S - 0- 1 ph 2: 0.
(1) holds while the total energy is balanced (first law of
thermodynamics). It has become customary to give the
name Clausius-Duhem inequality, per se, to the expres-
sion of equation (3) (also called the residual dissipation
inequality) obtained on account of the local statement of
the first law of thermodynamics and after introduction
of the Helmholtz free energy 'IjJ = e - TjO per unit mass at
every point (x, t) if e is the specific internal energy. E.g.,
for the so-called simple thermo-mechanical materials:
-p(~ + Tj8) + P(i) - 0-l q .g 2: 0,
where g = VO, and P(i) is the power expanded by
internal forces, such that P(i) = J- l tr(TF), where
F = 8X/8Xlt is the deformation gradient based on the
motion x = X(X, t), J = det F > 0, and T is the first
Piola-Kirchhoff stress or engineering stress.
C. Eckart [3] is considered to be the main original
contributor to the notion of thermodynamical admissi-
bility (a basic axiom of continuum physics), for which
the Clausius-Duhem inequality (3) or (4) is viewed as a
mathematical constraint on thermodynamical evolution.
But B.D. Coleman and W. Noll [1], viewing (1) as an a
priori postulate in true thermodynamics, are responsible
(2)
through the introduction of Lagrange multipliers (see
[11], [13]). The consideration of fluxes, such as stress
and heat flux, as independent variables in the entropy
function while they satisfy additional evolution-diffusion
equations in agreement with some views of kinetic the-
ory, then yields so-called extended irreversible thermody-
namics, which allows for a better satisfaction of causal-
ity of the related wave problem (see [12], [5]).
The 'arrow of time' dictated by the Clausius-Duhem
inequality and causality, represented mathematically by
the hyperbolicity of the studied system of field equa-
(3) tions, once closed by the prescription of thermodynam-
ically admissible constitutive equations, are thus inter-
related.
References
[1] COLf;MAN, B.D., AND NOLL, W.: 'The thermodynamics of
elastic materials with conduction and viscosity', Arch. Rat.
Mech. Anal. 13 (1963), 167-178.
[2] DUHEM, P.M.-M.: Traite d'energetique ou de thermody-
namique, Gauthier-Villars, 1911.
[3] ECKART, C.: 'The thermodynamics of irreversible processes
1. The simple fluid', Phys. Rev. 58 (1940), 267-269.
[4] ERINGEN, A.C.: Continuum physics, Vol. 2, Acad. Press,
(4) 1975.
[5] .Iou, D., CASAS-VASQUEZ, .I., AND LEBON, G.: Extended ir-
r'eversible thermodynamics, second ed., Springer, 1996.
[6] LIU, I-SHIH: 'Method of Lagrange multipliers for exploitation
of the entropy principle', Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal. 46 (1972),
131-146.
[7] MAUGIN, G.A.: Continuum mechanics of electromagnetic
solids, North-Holland, 1988.
[8] MAUGIN, G.A.: The thermomechanics of plasticity and frac-
ture, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992.
[9] MAUGIN, G.A., AND MUSCHIK, W.: 'Thermodynamics with
internal variables', J. Non-Equilib. Thermodyn. 19 (1994),
217-289.
[10] MULLER, 1.: 'On the entropy inequality', Arch. Rat. Mech.
Anal. 26 (1967), 118-141.
[11] MULLER,!.: Thermodynamics, Pitman, 1985.

186

[12] MULLER, I., AND RUGGERI, T.: Extended thermodynamics,
Springer, 1993.
[13] MUSCHIK, W.: Aspects of non-equilibrium thermodynamics,
World Sci., 1990.
[14] TRUESDELL, C.A.: Rational thermodynamics, Springer
(reprint), 1986.
[15] TRUESDELL, C.A., AND TOUPIN, R.A.: 'The classical field the-
ories', in S. FLUGGE (ed.): Handbuch der Physik, Vol. III/I,
Springer, 1960.
G.A. Maugin
MSC 1991: 80A05, 80A97, 73B30
CLIFFORD ANALYSIS - Clifford analysis studies
functions with values in a Clifford algebra, and, as
such, is a direct generalization to higher dimensions of
the classical theory of functions of one complex vari-
able (cf. Functions of a complex variable, theory
of). It has its roots in quaternionic analysis, which was
developed from the 1920s onwards as an, albeit mod-
est, counterpart of the theory of two complex variables.
The latter was to evolve into the vast and rich theory of
several complex variables. The former gained renewed
interest in the 1950s and led to hypercomplex function
theory (cf. also Hypercomplex functions), renamed
Clifford analysis in the 1980s, when it grew into an au-
tonomous discipline.
Clifford algebra, also called geometric algebra, was
introduced in 1878 by the English mathematician and
philosopher W.K. Clifford, generalizing W.R. Hamil-
ton's quaternions (cf. also Quaternion).
If Rp,q is a real n-dimensional (n = p + q) qua-
dratic space with non-degenerate bilinear form B of
signature (p, q), then, roughly speaking, the Clifford al-
gebra Rp,q over RP,q is the real, associative and non-
commutative algebra with identity eo, containing Rand
RP,q as subspaces, and with a multiplication governed
by the rule
xY + yx = 2B(x, y).
If (e1' ... ,en) is an orthonormal basis of RP,q, i.e.,
i l' j,
e; = 1, i= 1, ... ,p,
e; = -1, j = p+ 1, ... ,n,
then for vectors
in Rp,q, their (geometric) product splits into a scalar
and a so-called bivector part:
xy = x .y +x A y,
where
p n
X.Y = L XiYi - L XjYj
i=1 j=p+1
CLIFFORD ANALYSIS
and
x A Y = 2 L xiYjeiej.
i<j
Introducing conjugation as the anti-involution with ek =
-ek, the squared length of a vector can be factorized as
p n
x2 = LX; - L x; = xx.
i=1 j=p+1
This factorization implies the linearization of some fun-
damental partial differential operators of mathemati-
cal physics, such as the Laplace operator and the
d'Alembert operator, and turns out to be crucial to Clif-
ford analysis.
A general reference for Clifford algebra is [4].
In the so-called Euclidean case, when p = 0 and
q = n, two fundamental differential operators are m-
troduced: the Euclidean Dirac operator
n
D = Lei8xi
i=1
and the Euclidean Cauchy-Riemann operator
the latter being a generalization of the classical Cauchy-
Riemann operator which is obtained for n = 2, iden-
tifying e1 with the imaginary unit (cf. also Cauchy-
Riemann equations). These operators linearize the
Laplace operator in the sense that D2 = - ~n and
DD = ~n+1.
Clifford analysis essentially deals with the study of
null solutions of the operators D and D, both cases
showing many similarities, at least formally, as shown
in [2].
A function f, continuously differentiable in an open
domain n of Rn and taking values in Ro,n, is said to be
monogenic in n if D f = 0 in n.
Monogenicity thus leads to an overdetermined first-
order system, generalizing the Cauchy-Riemann system.
In particular, if f is RO,n-valued, the so-called Riesz sys-
tem is obtained.
If N(x) is a fundamental solution of the Laplace
operator ~n' then DN(x) = E(x) is an Ro,n-valued
fundamental solution of D.
The power of classical function theory of one com-
plex variable is based on the Cauchy integral formula
(cf. Cauchy integral theorem) and the Weierstrass
convergence theorem (cf. Weierstrass theorem) on
the one hand, and on Riemann's concept of confor-
mal mapping on the other; they constitute the nuclei
of the so-called analytic and geometric function theories,
respectively.
187
CLIFFORD ANALYSIS
In their turn, the basic analytic properties of mono-
genic functions are based upon the Cauchy formula,
r
J8M
E(y - x) deYyf(y) = f(x), x E intM,
where f is monogenic in 0, M is a compact n-
dimensional manifold with boundary in 0, and deY is
the vector-valued (n - I)-dimensional surface element
given by
n
deY = ~) -i)ieidxi'
i=l
dXi = dX1 /\ ... /\ [dXi]/\ ... /\ dx n .
References for function-theoretic results in Clifford anal-
ysis are [1] and [2].
Among others, the Cauchy operator associated with
the Dirac operator D, as defined by the left-hand side
of Cauchy's formula, is used in studying boundary value
problems in domains of Rn.
The Cauchy operator associated with the Cauchy-
Riemann operator 'D, when applied to functions in
Lp(E) (1 < p < +00), gives rise to the Cauchy trans-
forms C~ and the singular Cauchy transform Cr; on the
Lipschitz surface E C R n+l, i.e. on a surface of the form
where g: R n ---+ R is a Lipschitz function, possibly satis-
fying additional technical conditions (cf. also Lipschitz
condition). It turns out that the scalar part of Cr; is the
classical singular double-layer potential operator on
E. As, moreover, the projection operators (id ±Cr;)/2
determine the Hardy spaces Hi
(E) and the Hardy
decomposition of Lp(E), the singular Cauchy transform
CE may be viewed as a generalization of the classical
Hilbert transform on the real line. These results re-
veal the potentials of Clifford analysis for dealing with
problems of harmonic analysis in Euclidean space.
References for this area are [3] and [5].
Regarding the geometric viewpoint in Clifford analy-
sis, Mobius transforms in RP,q can be completely char-
acterized by specific (2 x 2)-matrices over the Clifford
group, the so-called Vahlen matrices. By means of this
characterization, transforms of metrics and operators
may be calculated. The introduction of Vahlen matri-
ces has even inspired the recent development of Clifford
analysis on hyperbolic spaces.
A reference for this area is [4].
References
[1] BRACKX, F., DELANGHE, R., AND SOMMEN, F.: Clifford anal-
ysis, Pitman, 1982.
[2] DELANGHE, R., SOMMEN, F., AND SOUCEK, V.: Clifford al-
gebra and spinor valued functions: a function theory for the
Dirac operator, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1992.
188
[3] GILBERT,J., AND MURRAY, M.: Clifford algebras and Dirac
operators in harmonic analysis, Cambridge Univ. Press,
1991.
[4] PORTEOUS, I.R.: Clifford algebras and the classical groups,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995.
[5] RYAN, J. (ed.): Clifford algebras in analysis and related top-
ics, CRC Press, 1996.
F. Brackx
MSC 1991: 15A66, 30G30, 30G35
CLIFFORD THEORY (for group representations) ~
Let N be a normal subgroup of a finite group G and
let RG be the group algebra of G over a commuta-
tive ring R. Given an RN-module V and 9 E G, let 9V
be the RN-module whose underlying R-module is V and
on which N acts according to the rule n*v = (g~lng)v,
v E V, where n * v denotes the module operation in 9V
and nv the operation in V. By definition, the inertia
group H of V is H = {g E G: V ~9 V}. It is clear
that H is a subgroup of G containing N; if H = G, it is
customary to say that V is G-invariant
Important information concerning simple and inde-
composable RG-modules can be obtained by applying
(perhaps repeatedly) three basic operations:
i) restriction to RN;
ii) extension from RN; and
iii) induction from RN.
This is the content of the so-called Clifford theory, which
was originally developed by A.H. Clifford (see [1]) for the
classical case where R is a field. General references for
this area are [2], [3].
The most important results are as follows.
Restriction to normal subgroups of representa-
tions. Given a subgroup H of G and an RG-module U,
let UH denote the restriction of U to RH. If V is an
RH-module, then V G denotes the induced module. For
any integer e 2' 1, let e V be the direct sum of e copies
of a given module V. A classical Clifford theorem, origi-
nally proved for the case where R is a field, holds for an
arbitrary commutative ring R and asserts the following.
Assume that U is a simple RG-module. Then there ex-
ists a simple submodule V of UN; for any such V and
the inertia group H of V, the following properties hold.
a ) UN ~ e( E!:l~ET V), where T is a left transversal for
H in G. Moreover, the modules tv, t E T, are pairwise
non-isomorphic simple RN-modules.
b) The sum W of all submodules of UN isomorphic
to V is a simple RH-module such that WN ~ eV and
U~WG.
The above result holds in the more general case where
G / N is a finite group. However, if G / N is infinite, then
Clifford's theorem is no longer true (see [3]).
Induction from normal subgroups of represen-
tations. The principal result concerning induction is
 CLOSURE SPACE

the Green indecomposable theorem, described below. As- 4) (e left eright) " "
= UQQ'UijeO·
- Q,j' - Q',j' b
sume that R is a complete local ring and a principal
Here b is a fixed (typically accretive) Clifford-algebra-
ideal domain (cf. also Principal ideal ring). An inte-
valued function in Rm and the pairing (-, ')b is defined
gral domain S containing R is called an extension, of R,
as

r
written S/ R, if the following conditions hold:
(h, h)b = h(x) b(x) h(x) dx.
A) S is a principal ideal domain and a local ring; JR=
B) S is R-free; Due to the fact that the Clifford algebra-valued mea-
C) J(s)e = J(R)S for some integer e 2: 1. sure b( x) dx in R m no longer enjoys the usual translation
One says that S / R is finite if S is a finitely generated and dilation properties of the Lebesgue measure, one
R-module. An RG-module V is said to be absolutely in- cannot obtain families of functions as such via the fa-
decomposable if for every finite extension S / R, S ® R V miliar translation and dilation operations performed on
is an indecomposable SG-module. some initial, fixed, function e as in the case of ordinary
Assume that the field R/ J(R) is of prime charac- wavelets. However, as the above conditions suggest, ev-
teristic p (cf. also Characteristic of afield) and that erything happens as if one could.
G / N is a p-group. If V is a finitely generated absolutely For many applications it is crucial that such families
indecomposable RN-module, then the induced module are L 2 -jrames, i.e. that
V G is absolutely indecomposable. Green's original state-
ment pertained to the case where R is a field. A proof
f = " eright / e 1eft
~ Q,J \ Q,J'
f) b =" I f
~\'
eright \ e 1eft
Q,J Ib Q,J'

in full generality is contained in [3].

Extension from normal subgroups of representa-
Ilfll~2(R=) ~ l: I\e~~j,f)l ~ l: l(f,eg:~t)J
tions. The best result to date (1996) is Isaacs theorem, for any square-integrable Clifford-algebra-valued func-
described below. Let N be a normal Hall subgroup of tion f in Rffi.
a finite group G, let R be an arbitrary commutative ring References
and let V be a simple G-invariant RN-module. Then V [1] AUSCHER, P., AND TCHAMITCHIAN, PH.: 'Bases d'ondelettes
extends to an RG-module, i.e. V ~ UN for some RG- sur des courbes corde-arc, noyau de Cauchy et espaces de
Hardy associes', Rev. Mat. Ibemamericana 5 (1989), 139-
module U. Originally, R. Isaacs proved only the special
170.
case where R is a field. A proof in full generality can be [2] MITREA, M.: Clifford wavelets, singular integrals, and Hardy
found in [3]. spaces, Vol. 1575 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1994.
References
M. Mitrea
[1] CLIFFORD, A.H.: 'Representations induced in an invariant MSC 1991: 42ClO
subgroup', Ann. of Math. (2) 38, 533-550.
[2] KARPILOVSKY, G.: Clifford theory for gmup representations,
North-Holland, 1989. CLOSURE SPACE - Let S be a set and P(S) the
[3] KARPILOVSKY, G.: Gmup representations, Vol. 3, North- set of subsets of S. A function K: P( S) -+ P( S) IS a
Holland, 1994. closure operation if for all A, BE P(S):
C. Karpilovsky
MSC 1991: 20C05, 20ClO
K1) A C K(A);
K2) K(K(A)) c K(A);
K3) K(A) C K(A U B);
CLIFFORD WAVELETS - A pair of families of
K4) K(A U B) c K(A) U K(B);
Clifford algebra-valued functions satisfying appropriate
smoothness, size, cancellation, and orthogonality condi-
K5) K(0) = 0.
tions (cf. also Clifford algebra). These are the K uratowski closure axioms, and a func-
Specifically, denote these two families by {e~~j} Q,j tion K satisfying these axioms is called a K uratowski
and {eg:~t}Q,j, where Q varies in the set of all dyadic closure operator (or K uratowski closure operation).
A pair (S, CI) is a closure space if and only if
cubes in Rm and j = 1, ... ,2 m - 1 (the latter indi-
cates that there correspond 2m - 1 wavelets, left- and CI: P( S) -+ P( S) satisfies:
right-handed, respectively, to each fixed dyadic cube Q; A C CI(B) {:} CI c CI(B).
cf. also Wavelet analysis). In the simplest case (that
This condition is equivalent to K1)-K3). A closure space
of piecewise-constant, or Haar-Clifford, wavelets) they
that satisfies K5) is a Frechet V -space. A Frechet V-
satisfy the following conditions:
space that satisfies K4) is a topological space.
1) supp e 1eft supp eright C Q' A tech closure operator is a mapping C: P(S) -+
Q,J' Q,J - ,
2) le~~jl, leg:~tl :S CIQI- 1 / 2 ; P(S) such that
3) (e 1eft
Q,J' 1) b = 0 and (1 , e right )
Q,J b = O·, C1) C(0) = 0;

189
CLOSURE SPACE
C2) (= Kl)) A c C(A);
C3) C(A U B) = C(A) U C(B).
A set endowed with a Cech closure operator is called a
pre-topological space.
References
[1] DIKRANJAN, D., AND THOLIN, W.: Categorical structures of
closure operators, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1996.
[2] KELLEY, J.L.: General topology, van Nostrand-Reinhold,
1955.
[3] MARTIN, N.M., AND POLLARD, S.: Closure spaces and logic,
Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1996.
M. H azewinkel
MSC 1991: 54A05
COARSE GRAINING, state lumping, aggregation -
Different names for a class of procedures that allows
one to reduce the state of the system of equations de-
scribing the time evolution of a random or deterministic
dynamical system.
If 8 denotes the state space of the system and
T(t): 8 -+ 8 denotes the (semi-) group describing its
time evolution, one is interested in a mapping R: 8 -+
8' and a (semi-) group (cf. Semi-group of operators)
T' (t): 8' -+ 8' such that the diagram
8~8
8' ----t 8'
T'{t)
is commutative.
Sometimes there is an additional structure to be pre-
served. For example, when T(t) acts on a class of mea-
sures defined on some measurable space E and is
induced by the action of a transition semi-group of a
Markov process X living in E. In this case the map-
ping R is induced by a measurable mapping A: E -+ E'
which reduces the 'size' of the Markov process. See [8],
[5], [2] for more. One also wants T'(t) to be Markovian.
In actual applications, heuristic reasoning leads to
mappings R: 8 -+ 8' for which the existence of a re-
duced time evolution is not clear, and one is confronted
with the problem of producing some sort of approxi-
mate (or reduced) flow Q(t): 8' -+ 8' with which to re-
place the unknown T'(t). Another outstanding problem
is to obtain standard kinetic equations from exact mi-
croscopic dynamics, that is, given the (unknown) micro-
scopic time flow T(t) and the known macroscopic T'(t),
the problem is to find the mapping R. In the physico-
chemical literature there are numerous instances where
the choice of the mapping R is dictated by the heuris-
tics of the situation, but regrettably the existence of the
reduced dynamics T'(t) is similarly inferred, and/or the
nature and quality of the approximation is missing. Nev-
ertheless, there have been numerous efforts to make the
190
results rigorous. See [1], and [7] or [6]. One of the most
successful examples of these techniques in projecting out
macroscopic transport equations from the kinetic equa-
tion is the derivation of the Boltzmann equation or
Navier-Stokes equations from the Euler equation
[3]. See [4] for an example of interest to physicists.
References
[1] BALESCU, R.: Equilibrium and nonequilibrium statistical me-
chanics, Wiley, 1975.
[2] BUCHHOLZ, P.: 'Exact and ordinary lumpability in Markov
chains', J. Appl. Prob. 31 (1994), 59-75.
[3] ELLIS, R., AND PINSKY, M: 'The projection of Navier-Stokes
equations from the Euler equations', J. Math. Pures Appl.
54 (1975), 157-182.
[4] FRANCOWICZ, M., AND JEDRZEJEK, C.: 'Solution of Friedrichs
model through exact master equations', Acta Phys. Pol. A54
(1978), 123-129.
[5] GLOVER, J.: 'Markov functions', Ann. [nst. H. Poincare 27
(1991), 221-238.
[6] KOROLYUK, V., AND TURBIN, A.: Mathematical foundations
of the state lumping of large systems, Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1993.
[7] SPOHN, H.: 'Kinetic equations from Hamiltonian dynamics:
Markovian limits', Rev. Mod. Phys. 53 (1980), 569-616.
[8] SYSKI, R.: Passage times for Markov chains, lOS Press, 1991.
H. Gzyl
MSC 1991: 80A05, 28DlO, 58Fxx, 54H20
CODIMENSION-TWO BIFURCATIONS - In a
generic autonomous system of ordinary differential
equations depending upon parameters,
x = f(x,a), (1)
where f: R n x RP -+ R n is smooth, two codimension-
one singularities of equilibria are possible:
1) fold or saddle-node, where the equilibrium has a
simple eigenvalue Al = 0 and no other eigenvalues with
zero real part, and the restriction of (1) to the centre
manifold near the equilibrium at the critical parameter
values has the form
(2)
with a i= O.
2) Hopf, where the equilibrium has a simple pair of
purely imaginary eigenvalues AI,2 = ±iwo, Wo > 0, and
no other eigenvalues with zero real part, and the restric-
tion of (1) to the centre manifold at the critical pa-
rameter values can be transformed near the equilibrium
to the form
p = Ilp3 + O(p4),
{ (3)
cp = 1,
where (p, cp) are polar coordinates and the first Lya-
punov coefficient II i= O. The transformation can be per-
formed by smooth invertible changes of variables and a
reparametrization of time.
 CODIMENSION-TWO BIFURCATIONS

These singularities take place at certain co dimension- Bifurcation nc Normal form

one manifolds in the parameter space of (1). Crossing cusp 1 = (31 + (32u + (Ju 3 + O(u 4 )
it,
these manifolds results in either fold or Hopf bifurca- generalized Hopf 2 P= (31P + (32p 3 + (Jp 5 +
tion (cf. Bifurcation). Along these manifolds, the co- +O(p6),
efficient of the corresponding normal form may vanish y:,=1
or extra eigenvalues may approach the imaginary axis, Bogdanov-Takens 2 Yl = Y2,
thus giving rise to the following five codimension-two bi-
Y2 = (31 + (32Yl + yr+
furcations of equilibria in ordinary differential systems
+(JY1Y2 + O(llyI1 3)
[1], [5]: fold-Hopf 3 it, = (31 + u 2 + (Jp2+
+O(II(u, p)11 4),
p = p((32 + Bu + u 2)+
+O(II(u, p)11 4),
~ = Wi + O(II(u, p)ll)
Name Bifurcation conditions double Hopf 4 1-1 = rl ((31 + Pllrr+
cusp .\1 = 0, a = 0 +p12r~ + Sl r i)+
generalized Hopf .\1,2 = ±iwo, h = 0, +O(II(rl, r2)11 6 ),
(Bautin) Wo > 0 1-2 = r2((32 + P21 r r+
Bogdanov- Takens '\1,2 = 0 +P22 r 22 + S2 r 4)
l +
fold-Hopf .\1 = 0, .\2,3 = ±iwo, +O(II(rl, r2)11 6 ),
(zero-Hop!) Wo > 0 y:,1 = Wi + O(II(rl, r2)11),
Hopf-Hopf '\1,2 = ± iWl, .\3,4 = ±iw2, y:,2 = W2 + O(II(rl,r2)11)
(double Hop!) Wl,2 > 0 Here, u and Yi are real variables, (p,'l/J) and (ri' 'Pi) are
polar coordinates, and (J = ± 1. Moreover, the functions
B = B((3), Wi = Wi ((3), Pij = Pij ((3), and Si = Si ((3)
are smooth for i,j = 1,2. The O-terms can depend
smoothly on the parameters ((31, (32), and are smooth
Each of these cases is characterized by two bifurcation
27r-periodic functions of 'l/J, 'Pi if polar coordinates are
conditions and, generically, appears on codimension-two
used.
manifolds in the parameter space of (1). For example,
To transform a generic system (4) restricted to its
in generic two-parameter systems, co dimension-two bi-
centre manifold to the corresponding normal form near
furcations happen at isolated points in the parameter
the origin, one should apply invertible, smooth and
plane.
smoothly dependent on the parameters changes of vari-
Assume that at a (0,0), the two- ables, time reparametrizations (possibly reversing time),
parameter system and invertible smooth parameter changes (see [6]).
For the cusp, generalized Hopf, and Bogdanov-
Takens bifurcations, the given normal forms are locally
topologically equivalent (cf. Equivalence of dynam-
ical systems) near the origin to the truncated normal
forms obtained by dropping the O-terms in the cor-
responding equations [1], [2]. On the contrary, for the
fold-Hopf and double Hopf bifurcations, the O-terms do
x = f(x, a), (4)
determine certain topological features of the parameter
and phase portraits and, in general, cannot be elimi-
nated. The bifurcation diagrams of the truncated nor-
mal forms can be found in [2], [4], [6], together with all
necessary non-degeneracy conditions.
Detection of co dimension-two equilibrium bifurca-
tions in a system of ordinary differential equations al-
has the equilibrium x = 0 exhibiting a co dimension-two lows one to predict such global phenomena as hysteresis,
bifurcation. A normal form of the restriction of a generic invariant tori, limit cycle and homo clinic bifurca-
system (4) to its nc-dimensional invariant centre man- tions, and chaotic attractors (cf. also Chaos) by means
ifold can be found using the following table: of algebraic computations at the critical equilibrium.

191
CODIMENSION-TWO BIFURCATIONS
In discrete-time dynamical systems, varIOUS
codimension-two bifurcations of fixed points are pos-
sible, including strong resonances (see [1], [3], [2], [6]).
References
[1] ARNOL'D, V.I.: Geometrical methods in the theory of or-
dinary differential equations, Vol. 250 of Grundlehren der
mathematischen Wissenschaften, Springer, 1983. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[2] ARNOL'D, V.I., AFRAIMOVICH, V.S., IL'YASHENKO, Yu.S.,
AND SHIL'NIKOV, L.P.: 'Bifurcation theory', Dynamical Sys-
tems V, in V.I. ARNOL'D (ed.), Encycl. Math. Sci. Springer,
1994. (Translated from the Russian.)
[3] ARROWSMITH, D.K., AND PLACE, C.M.: An introduction to
dynamical systems, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990.
[4J CHOW, S.-N., LI, C., AND WANG, D.: Normal forms and
bifurcations of planar vector fields, Cambridge Univ. Press,
1994.
[5J GUCKENHEIMER, J., AND HOLMES, PH.: Nonlinear oscilla-
tions, dynamical systems and bifurcations of vector fields,
Springer, 1983.
[6J KUZNETSOV, Yu.A.: Elements of applied bifurcation theory,
Springer, 1995.
Yu.A. Kuznetsov
MSC 1991: 58F14
COLLAPSIBILITY of a triangulation - Originally, a
property of simplicial complexes (cf. Simplicial com-
plex), extending naturally to simplicial sets (cf. Sim-
plicial set) and cell complexes (cf. Cell complex). For
a pair X :J Y of polyhedra or complexes (see Polyhe-
dron, abstract), one says there is an elementary col-
lapse of X on Y, and writes X ~ e Y, if X is the union
of Y with precisely two more simplexes en, en-I, one a
maximal face of the other. X collapses on Y if there is
a sequence, possibly transfinite, of elementary collapses
X = Xo \ / Xl ~e ••• ~e Xc< = y.
Here, X>. for a limit ordinal oX must be the intersection
ofthe preceding XI<. Then Y is called a spine of X, and
one writes X ~ Y. If X collapses to a point, one says
that X is collapsible and writes X ~ o.
Collapses were first introduced [18] for two appli-
cations which are fundamental for piecewise-linear
topology: description of the internal structure of a com-
plex, and the definition of simple homotopy type. The
'modern', functorial, definition is (see Simple homo-
topy type) that two complexes X, Y have the same
simple homotopy type if there exists a homotopy equiv-
alence (J: X --+ Y with zero Whitehead torsion. This
is equivalent to Whitehead's constructive definition: X
and Y can be joined by a 'zigzag' chain of collapses
(for finite complexes; it can be extended to infinite
complexes). It was clear at once that collapsible com-
plexes (and the underlying (piecewise-linear) polyhedra
and topological polyhedra) are an interesting class of
192
spaces: the best behaved contractible polyhedra. Every
I-dimensional contractible complex (topological tree) is
collapsible. However, there are simple examples of con-
tractible but not collapsible 2-dimensional complexes,
such as the house with two rooms [4] and the dunce hat
[19].
The centre of interest in collapsible polyhedra is the
Zeeman conjecture, stating that for every contractible
2-dimensional complex K, K x I is collapsible. This was
proposed by E.C. Zeeman [19], who showed that it im-
plies the Poincare conjecture. Nearly twenty years
later, D. Gillman and D. Rolfsen showed [7] that the
conjectures are equivalent, at least if the Zeeman con-
jecture is somewhat restricted, as explained below. This
equivalence has the happy effect of 'blowing-up' the
problem into something that has parts, unlike the origi-
nal Poincare conjecture, which merely says that certain
spaces cannot exist. Indeed, another part of Zeeman's
conjecture has been shown [13] to be equivalent to a
conjecture of J.J. Andrews and M.L. Curtis [1] on con-
tractible 2-dimensional complexes, which acquires much
greater interest because of its equivalence in turn with a
major conjecture in combinatorial group theory. These
things are explained below.
Note that there is another field in which collapsibility
is prominent, and which is less dependent upon conjec-
ture. It revolves around the question: What are the topo-
logical types of injective or hyperconvex metric spaces?
(See Metric space.) N. Aronszajn and P. Panitchpakdi
speculated [3] that they might be just the (metrizable)
AR's (see Retract of a topological space); and for
I-dimensional spaces it is true [16]. However, J. Isbell
showed [10] that a compact 2-dimensional polyhedron
underlies an injective metric space if and only if it under-
lies a collapsible complex, and observed that this might
extend to higher dimensions. At least half of it does, in
that finite collapsible complexes are homeomorphic with
injective metric spaces [12].
Why is the Zeeman conjecture restricted to 2-
dimensional contractible complexes? Zeeman did not
say, but soon there was speculation about an ex-
tended Zeeman conjecture in high dimensions. M. Cohen
showed in 1977 [6] that that is false beyond dimension
2.
Another point around the boundary of the Zeeman
conjecture is as follows. Of course, contractibility is a
topological property, while collapsibility is not. Never-
theless, it may well be true that for every triangulation
of a contractible 2-dimensional polyhedron K, K x I
is collapsible (the full Zeeman conjecture). In this con-
nection it is easy to show that for 2-dimensional poly-
hedra, collapsibility is a topological invariant. In fact,
for compact 2-dimensional polyhedra it is equivalent

[10] to topological collapsibility (defined below). For 3-
dimensional polyhedra, even the 3-dimensional ball, col-
lapsibility depends on the triangulation [8].
Here is a very rough sketch of Zeeman's proof
that his conjecture implies Poincare's. Given a fake
3-dimensional sphere (a simply connected closed 3-
dimensional manifold) M, remove an open piecewise-
linear 3-dimensional ball B. Then M\B collapses to a 2-
dimensional complex K which is easily shown to be con-
tractible. So, given the Zeeman conjecture, (M\B) xl ~
K x I ~ o. By a classical theorem of J.H.C. Whitehead
(see [17]) this makes (M \ B) x I a piecewise-linear 4-
dimensional ball, and the rest is easy.
It is known that the Poincare conjecture is equivalent
to the Zeeman conjecture restricted to special spines (of
3-dimensional manifolds with boundary). Special (also
standard) polyhedra are compact 2-dimensional poly-
hedra K having a piecewise-linear CW-decomposition
whose j-skeletons Kj are topologically defined as fol-
lows. K2 is the set of points where K is locally R2; Kl
is the set in K \ K2 where K is locally three half-planes
with a common edge; K O is the remainder, where K
must be locally four trihedral angles sharing six face an-
gles in pairs. Every connected 3-dimensional manifold
with boundary has a special spine [5].
The original Andrews-Curtis conjecture [1] concerns
balanced presentations of the I-element group, i.e., pre-
sentations by r generators ai and r relations R i . It states
that every such presentation can be reduced to the triv-
ial presentation in which Ri = ai by transformations
of four types, three from J. Nielsen's 1919 paper [14]
and, fourth, replacing a relation Ri with wRiw- 1 for
any word w. (See the expository paper [2].) A num-
ber of equivalent propositions are known [9]. The basic
topological one is that each 2-dimensional contractible
complex can be joined to a point by a zigzag chain of
collapses, all within 3-dimensional complexes. (If one re-
places '2' and '3' by 'n' and "n+l', with n > 2, this is a
theorem of Whitehead [19].) As for the Zeeman conjec-
ture, its specialization to contractible special polyhedra
which are not imbeddable in any 3-dimensional manifold
is equivalent to the Andrews-Curtis conjecture [13].
Topological collapsibility [15] is the existence of a free
contraction to a point, i.e., a homotopy {ht} with
h1(x) = X, ho(x) = const, and for all s, t hsht =
hmin{s,t}. For compact polyhedra, collapsibility implies
injectivity [12] and injectivity implies topological col-
lapsibility [10]. There seems to be no known example
(1996) of a topologically collapsible polyhedron which
has no collapsible triangulation.
References
[1] ANDREWS, J.J., AND CURTIS, M.L.: 'Free groups and handle-
bodies', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 16 (1965), 192-195.
COMMUTANT LIFTING THEOREM
[2] ANDREWS, J.J., AND CURTIS, M.L.: 'Extended Nielsen opera-
tions in free groups', Amer. Math. Monthly 73 (1966),21-28.
[3] ARONSZAJN, N., AND PANITCHPAKDI, P.: 'Extension of uni-
formly continuous transformations and hyperconvex metric
spaces', Pacif. J. Math. 6 (1956), 405-439.
[4] BING, R.H.: 'Some aspects of the topology of 3-manifolds
related to the Poincare conjecture': Vol. II of Lectures on
Modern Mathematics, Wiley, 1964, pp. 93-128.
[5] CASLER, B.G.: 'An imbedding theorem for connected 3-
manifolds with boundary', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 16
(1965), 559-566.
[6] COHEN, M.M.: 'Whitehead torsion, group extensions, and
Zeeman's conjecture in high dimensions', Topology 16 (1977),
79-88.
[7] GILLMAN, D., AND ROLFSEN, D.: 'The Zeeman conjecture
for standard spines is equivalent to the Poincare conjecture',
Topology 22 (1983), 315-323.
[8] GOODRICK, R.E.: 'Non-simplicially collapsible triangulations
of In" Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 64 (1968),31-36.
[9] HOG-ANGELONI, C., METZLER, W., AND SIERADSKI, A. (eds.):
Two-dimensional homotopy and combinatorial group theory,
Vol. 197 of Lecture Notes, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993.
[10] ISBELL, J .R.: 'Six theorems about injective metric spaces',
Comment. Math. Helv. 39 (1964),65-76.
[11] MAl, J., AND TANG, Y .: 'On the injective metrization for
infinite collapsible polyhedra', Acta Math. Sinica (N. S.) 7
(1991), 13-18.
[12] MAl, J., AND TANG, Y.: 'An injective metrization for collapsi-
ble polyhedra', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 88 (1983), 333-337.
[13] MATVEEV, S.V.: 'The Zeeman conjecture for non-thickenable
special polyhedra is equivalent to the Andrews-Curtis con-
jecture', Siberian Math. J. 28 (1987), 917-928. (Sibirsk. Mat.
Zh. 28 (1987),66-80;218.)
[14] NIELSEN, J.: '"Uber die Isomorphismen unendlicher Gruppen
ohne Relation', Math. Ann. 79 (1919), 269-272.
[15] PIERGALLINI, R.: 'Topological collapsing and cylindrical
neighborhoods in 3-manifolds', Topology Appl. 20 (1985),
257-278.
[16] PLUNKETT, R.L.: 'Concerning two types of convexity for met-
rics', Arch. Math. 10 (1959), 42-45.
[17] ROURKE, C.P., AND SANDERSON, B.J.: Introduction to
piecewise-linear topology, Springer, 1972.
[18] WHITEHEAD, J.H.C.: 'Simplicial spaces, nuclei and m-
groups', Proc. London Math. Soc. 45 (1939), 243-327.
[19] ZEEMAN, E.C.: 'On the dunce's hat', Topology 2 (1964),341-
358.
l.R. Isbell
MSC 1991: 57M20, 20F05, 57Q05
COMMUTANT LIFTING THEOREM - Let Tl be a
contraction on a Hilbert space HI, that is, IITll1 ::; l.
Recall that U is an isometric dilation of Tl if U is an
isometry (cf. Isometric operator) on a Hilbert space
K, 2 HI and HI is an invariant subspace for U* satis-
fying U* IHI = Tt. The Sz.-Nagy-ShiifJer construction
shows that all contractions admit an isometric dilation
[1], [5]. This sets the stage for the following result, known
as the Sz.-Nagy-Foias commutant lifting theorem [1], [4],
[5].
Let U on K, be an isometric dilation for a contrac-
tion Tl on HI. Let A be an operator from the Hilbert
193
COMMUTANT LIFTING THEOREM
space H into H1 and T an isometry on H satisfying
T1A = AT. Then there exists an operator B from H into
K satisfying the following three conditions: U B = BT,
IIBII = IIAII and P B = A, where P is the orthogonal
projection onto H 1 .
The commutant lifting theorem was inspired by
seminal work of D. Sarason [3] on Hoo interpola-
tion. It can be used to solve many classical and
modern Hoo interpolation problems, including the
Caratheodory, Nevanlinna-Pick, Hermite-Fejer, Nudel-
man, Nehari, and L6wner interpolation problems in
both their classical and tangential form (see [1] and also
Caratheodory interpolation; Nevanlinna-Pick in-
terpolation). The commutant lifting theorem can also
be used to solve problems in H OO control theory and
inverse scattering [1], [2].
There is a one-to-one correspondence between the set
of all solutions in the commutant lifting theorem and a
certain choice sequence of contractions. This choice se-
quence is a generalization of the Schur numbers used to
solve the Caratheodory interpolation problem or the re-
flection coefficients appearing in inverse scattering prob-
lems for layered media in geophysics. There is also a
one-to-one correspondence between the sets of all solu-
tions for the commutant lifting theorem and a certain
contractive analytic function in the open unit disc. This
characterization of all solutions has several different net-
work interpretations [1].
As an illustration of the commutant lifting theorem,
consider the Nehari interpolation problem
doo = inf {Ilf - hlloo : hE H OO } ,
where f is a given function in L oo . Here, L oo is the Ba-
nach space of all Lebesgue-measurable functions g on the
unit circle whose norm Ilglloo = esssup{lg(eit)l: O:S t <
211"} is finite, and Hoo is the subspace of LOO consisting
of all functions gin L OO whose Fourier coefficients at e int
are zero for all n < O. Likewise, L2 is the Hilbert space
of all Lebesgue-measurable, square-integrable functions
on the unit circle, and H2 is the subspace of L2 con-
sisting of all functions in L2 whose Fourier coefficients
at e int vanish for all n < O. Now, let A be the Han-
kel operator from H = H2 into H1 = L2 8 H2 defined
by Ax = P f x for x in H2. Let T be the isometry on
H2 and U the unitary operator on K = L2 defined by
Tx = eitx and Uy = eity, respectively. Let T1 be the
contraction on H1 defined by T1h1 = PUh 1 for h1 in
H 1 • Since T; = U* I H 1 , it follows that U is an iso-
metric lifting of T 1 . By applying the commutant lifting
theorem, there exists an operator B from H2 into L2
satisfying U B = BT, IIBII = IIAII and P B = A. There-
fore, the error d oo = IIAII, and there exists an h E H OO
such that doo = Ilf - hll oo '
194
References
[1] FOIAS, C., AND FRAZHO, A.E.: The commutant lifting ap-
proach to interpolation problems, Vol. 44 of Operator Theory:
Advances and Applications, Birkhauser, 1990.
[2] FOIAS, C., OZBAY, H., AND TANNENBAUM, A.: Robust control
of infinite-dimensional systems, Springer, 1996.
[3] SARASON, D.: 'Generalized interpolation in Hoc',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 127 (1967), 179-203.
[4] Sz.-NAGY, B., AND FOIAS, C.: 'Dilatation des commutants
d'operateurs', C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris A266 (1968), 493-495.
[5] Sz.-NAGY, B., AND FOIAS, C.: Harmonic analysis of opera-
tors on Hilbert space, North-Holland, 1970.
A.E. Frazho
MSC 1991: 47 A57, 30E05
COMPUTATIONAL GEOMETRY, CAD - A branch
of mathematics and computer science concerned with
finding efficient algorithms, or computational proce-
dures, for solving geometric problems. Such problems
can arise from computer graphics, computer-aided de-
sign, robotics and motion planning, cartography, etc.
The discipline was named and largely started in the mid-
dle of the 1970s.
In its broadest sense, computational geometry is the
study of geometrical problems from a computational
point of view, including design and analysis of algo-
rithms, data structures, geometric optimization, and
analysis of geometric configurations. It is impossible to
list all important problems and algorithms of compu-
tational geometry, and some basic concepts and results
are considered below.
Voronoi diagram and Delaunay triangulation.
There are several worst-case optimal 0 (n log n) algo-
rithms for the computation of a Voronol diagram (or
Delaunay triangUlation) DT(S) of a set S of n points
in the plane. For dimensions d > 2 there exist a number
of efficient polynomial-time algorithms for construct-
ing DT(S). Many problems in computational geometry
make use of DT(S). For example, the problem of finding
a closest pair of points in S. One of the basic proper-
ties of the Delaunay triangulation is that if Pi E S is a
nearest neighbour of Pj, then Pi and Pj are connected
by an edge in DT(S). This means one can first look
for DT(S), which is a planar graph, and subsequently
locate a closest pair using the edges of this graph. As
another example, the Delaunay triangulation contains
all minimum spanning trees of the point set. A mini-
mum spanning tree is a tree that connects all points of
S, such that the sum of the edge lengths in the tree is
as small as possible. One can find a minimum spanning
tree for a set S by first constructing its Delaunay trian-
gulation.There are linear-time algorithms for extracting
a minimum spanning tree from a planar graph.
See also Delaunay triangulation; Voronol dia-
gram.

Convex hull. The convex hull is the most ubiquitous
structure in computational geometry, surfacing in some
form in almost every application. The two-dimensional
problem is to compute the smallest convex polygon
containing a set of n points in the plane. The optimal
worst-case algorithm for solving this problem has time
complexity 0 (n log n). There are several efficient algo-
rithms in higher dimensions.
There is an interesting connection between Vorono!
diagrams and convex hulls, dating back to G.F. Vorono!'
Through an appropriate transformation, the Vorono!
diagram of a set S in R d corresponds to the convex
hull of the transformed set in Rd+l. Indeed, consider
the mapping T: Rd -+ Rd+1, T(x) = (x, IlxI1 2 ), which
'lifts' a point x E Rd onto the paraboloid y = Ilx11 2 •
Given a set S in R d, its image under T forms the ver-
tices of a convex polyhedron P. The projection of all
'downward-looking' faces of P gives precisely the faces
of the Delaunay triangulation of S. The relationship en-
ables one to use convex-hull algorithms in d + 1 dimen-
sions to obtain Delaunay triangulations in d dimensions.
Triangulation of polyhedra. The most outstanding
open problem in computational geometry has been to
find a linear algorithm for triangulating a given poly-
gon. This problem was solved in 1990 by the linear-time
Chazelle triangulation algorithm.
Arrangement. A finite collection of lines partition the
plane into convex regions, edges and vertices. The re-
sulting structure, including the incidence relations be-
tween the various pieces of the dissection, is called an
arrangement of lines. Similarly, in higher dimensions an
arrangement of hyperplanes may be defined. A few
O(n 2 ) algorithms for constructing an arrangement of
n lines have been discovered, and some of these have
been generalized to an O(n d ) algorithm in d dimen-
sions. These algorithms are worst-case optimal. There
is a rich connection between arrangements and Vorono!
diagrams.
Motion planning. The motion planning problem in its
most general form is to find a collision-free continuous
motion of a fixed geometric object (a robot) between
specified initial and final positions through a known
cluttered environment. If the moving object is a point,
this becomes a shortest path problem. Translation mo-
tion of an extended object can be reduced to the mo-
tion of a point by 'making the obstacles grow' using the
object via the Minkowski set difference operation (also
called the Minkowski sum; cf. Addition of sets). This
basic observation eventually led to O( n log n) algorithms
for moving a disc or a convex polygon in the plane with
polygonal obstacles. In higher dimensions this problem
COMPUTER ALGEBRA PACKAGE
is NP-hard. For the shortest path problem on poly-
hedral surfaces an O(n 2 10gn) algorithm has been ob-
tained.
References
[lJ EDELSBRUNNER, H.: Algorithms in combinatorial geometry,
Springer, 1987.
[2J MUSIN, O.R.: 'On some problems of computational geometry
and topology': Vol. 1520 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1992, pp. 57-80.
[3J O'ROURKE, J.: 'Computational geometry', Ann. Rev. Com-
put. Sci. 3 (1988), 389-411.
[4J PREPARATA, F.P., AND SHAMOS, M.I.: Computational geom-
etry: an introduction, Springer, 1985.
O.R. Musin
MSC 1991: 68U05, 52B55, 68Q20, 68Q25
COMPUTER ALGEBRA PACKAGE, computer al-
gebra system - A computer program focusing on exact
mathematical formula manipulation. It differs from nu-
merical packages in that it manipulates symbols rather
than numbers; thus, it does calculations in exact mode.
For instance, integers are regarded as strings of digits
of arbitrary length and v'3 is regarded as an algebraic
symbol with the property that it squares to 3. The early
computer algebra packages rose out of the need for heavy
computations in physics (Schoonschip by T. Veltman is
an example). The earliest among the widely available
systems is REDUCE, which runs on many platforms and
is still being further developed.
Two more early packages were MACSYMA and SMP,
both widely available by 1983. Maple was released in
1986, while Scratchpad II (later called AXIOM) and
Mathematica appeared by 1988.
The success of these packages has been made pos-
sible by the growth of computer memory, which could
handle better than before the enormous 'intermediate
expression swell' that so often takes place in exact com-
putations. Still, there are severe limitations on the size
of the mathematical computations that can be done ef-
fectively on a computer. For instance, the complexity of
the very useful Buchberger algorithm keeps it from
finding say, all solutions of a sufficiently generic set of
7 equations in 7 variables of degree 4 over the rational
numbers in a reasonable time.
Usually, a distinction is made between general-
purpose packages and special-purpose packages.
General-purpose packages. Among the objects han-
dled by these systems are polynomials over effective
rings (e.g., the integers, the rational numbers, alge-
braic number fields, finite rings), strings of characters,
vectors, matrices, solutions of equations, explicitly de-
scribed functions, series, etc. Additionally, there are
commands enabling the user to perform operations on
these objects. For instance, functions can be differen-
tiated, integrated, expanded in a series around a point,
195
COMPUTER ALGEBRA PACKAGE
simplified, brought into normal form, numerically evalu-
ated at a given point, etc. Common features are plotting
facilities, effective linear algebra, libraries with standard
and special functions (e.g., trigonometric and Gamma-
functions, Hermite polynomials) and (differential and
polynomial) equation solving.
Most packages provide a programming language in
which the built-in operations can be used with reserved
names. In this language, users have written complete
packages for particular fields of research; these pack-
ages constitute the so-called share library of the general-
purpose system.
The most important examples of general-purpose sys-
tems are (in alphabetical order) AXIOM, Derive, Maple,
Mathematica, and REDUCE. Their design features dif-
fer considerably. For instance, Mathematica is a rule-
based system, whereas Maple's language is procedural,
and AXIOM uses an object-oriented approach. Derive is
a symbolic calculator on a PC, but does not have strong
programming facilities.
Some examples of user-written packages for partic-
ular fields are, for commutative algebra: CALI (a RE-
DUCE package), CASA (a Maple package for construc-
tive algebraic geometry), IDEALS (a REDUCE pack-
age); for non-commutative algebra: NCALGEBRA (in
Mathematica) and the Grassmann package (in Maple);
for differential equations: PDEtools, StandardForm,
liesymm, and diffgrob2 (in Maple), DELiA and LIE
(in Mathematica), SYMMGRP.MAX and SYMDE (in
MACSYMA), CRACK and ODESOLVE (in REDUCE),
PDELIE (Lie symmetry group methods package in
MACSYMA); for tensor calculus: MathTensor and Ricci
(in Mathematica), Redten (in REDUCE), GRTensorII
(in Maple and in Mathematica).
Apart from the above five commercial products, there
are some freely available systems, although usually not
with such huge libraries of functions. An example is Mu-
PAD, the design of which resembles Maple's, although
it also allows for parallelism.
Further examples of general-purpose packages are
derivatives from MACSYMA (with names ALJABR,
MACSYMA (R), MAXIMA, PARAMACS, PARA-
MAX, PUNIMAX, VAXIMA; all of them are written in
Lisp), FORM (suitable for computing with extremely
large mathematical objects), Magma and to a certain
extent GAP (see below), and SENAC (a Software Envi-
ronment for Numerical and Algebraic Computation).
More and more packages come with ways to link
them to other software (e.g., MathLink for Mathemat-
ica, MathEdge for Maple) and allow for system calls to
be made from within. There is a tendency towards ad-
vanced user interfaces (discoupled from the mathemati-
cal engine part) in which mathematics can be edited in
196
very direct ways, with facilities to output mathematical
objects in anyone of the most common ways (HTML,
'lEX, or in the system's input format). This is supported
by the OpenMath movement, which strives for a protocol
for communicating mathematical data and instructions
among individual packages.
Special-purpose packages. In general, special-
purpose packages differ from general-purpose systems in
at least two ways. First, as the name suggests, the former
deal with a special part of mathematics. Second, this is
often compensated by the fact that they perform much
better in their field than the general-purpose packages.
Most special-purpose packages do not have powerful hu-
man interfaces.
Recently, the differences between the general-purpose
and special-purpose packages have become vaguer, par-
ticularly since some of the special-purpose packages have
been expanded enormously. Examples are the group-
theory packages Cayley (later turned into Magma) and
GAP. The latter system, for instance, has a share library
with packages such as ELIAS (for Lie algebra analysis),
GRAPE (for graphs), and GUAVE (for codes).
More typical examples of special-purpose packages
are LiE (for data regarding Lie group representations),
MeatAxe (for high-dimensional matrix groups defined
over finite fields), NAUTY (for the automorphism group
of a graph), and SISYPHOS (for p-groups and their
modular group algebras). All five can also be invoked
from GAP. In this manner the special-purpose packages
can be seen as modules, which can be plugged into big-
ger packages.
For group theory, besides those mentioned above,
there are ANU Software (for nilpotent and solvable quo-
tient determination), CHEVIE (for Chevalley groups),
Schur (for data regarding Lie group representations),
and Symmetric a (for representation theory, invariant
theory and combinatorics of the symmetric group).
For number theory, the best known special-purpose
packages are PARI (mainly written in C, very speedy,
but not a symbolic manipulation package in the strict
sense as, e.g., sin(x) is immediately expanded as a Tay-
lor series) and KANT. Version 2 of the latter has been
built into Magma and is written in Ansi-C (there is
a version with a shell of its own, called KASH). fur-
thermore, there are Galois (for teaching purposes, on
PC), MALM (built in TUrbo Pascal and UBASIC), and
SIMATH (written in C, also usable in FORTRAN pro-
grams).
For (non-) commutative algebra and algebraic ge-
ometry, several systems are available: Albert (for non-
associative algebras), Bergman (for calculating Grabner
bases from homogeneous input in terms of polynomials
in the commutative or the non-commutative polynomial

rings over the rationals or a finite prime field), CoCoA
(small but efficient, written in C), FELIX (PC version
only, for Grabner bases of non-commutative algebras),
GANITH (an algebraic geometry toolkit for the com-
putation and visualization of algebraic equations), GB
(dedicated to solving polynomial equations), GRB (for
algebraic and homological manipulations on algebras
and modules), KAN (for computations (e.g. Grabner
bases) in rings of polynomials, differential operators,
difference operators, q-difference operators), Macaulay
(dedicated to solving polynomial systems, syzygies, etc.
over fields of prime order), and SACLIB (a library of
C programs for computer algebra, supporting a package
GROEBNER for Grabner basis computations), Singu-
lar (for singularity theory and algebraic geometry; it can
compute with ideals and modules generated by polyno-
mials or polynomial vectors over polynomial or power
series rings and generalizations).
For differential equations one has: DESIR (comput-
ing the basis of formal solutions of ordinary homoge-
neous differential equations with polynomial coefficients
over the rationals), DIMSYM (for computing symme-
tries of distributions of vector fields or differential forms
on finite dimensional manifolds), and SPD E (for deter-
mining the Lie symmetries of a given system of partial
differential equations).
For tensor calculus, apart from the above mentioned
share library packages, there are SHEEP (primarily for
the needs of general relativity) and STENSOR (for ten-
sor and non-commutative algebra, using symbolic in-
dices), runnable independently and inside REDUCE.
A.M. Cohen
MSC 1991: 68Q40
CONFORMAL MEASURE The original definition
of a conformal measure (or density) is due to S.J. Pat-
terson [2] in the case of a Fuchsian group r acting on
the hyperbolic space B2 (cf. Poincare model). Its def-
inition carries over to any dimension (D. Sullivan, [3]):
Let r be a discrete group of transformations act-
ing on the hyperbolic space Bn of dimension n. A family
of probability measures {{Lx: x E Bn} (cf. Probabil-
ity measure) supported on the limit set L(r) is called
a-conformal if for every, E r and every x, y E Bn
the measures {Lx and {Ly are equivalent with Radon-
Nikodym derivative (cf. also Radon-Nikodym theo-
rem)
d{Lx(O_ (P(x,O)"
d{Ly - P(y,O '
where P(z,~) = (1-llzI12)/llz - ~112 denotes the Poisson
kernel (cf. Poisson integral).
Conformality of the measure can be described by re-
stricting to y = ,(x), where, is any Mobius function
CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM
leaving Bn invariant. In this case the definition reads:
{L·y-'(x) (r(E)) = Ie I,~(~)I" {Lx(d~),
where ,~(~) = P(r-l(x),~)IP(x,~) and E is any mea-
surable set. If, E rand {L,-'(x) = ,*{Lx, then {L = {Lx
is a conformal measure in the following sense (see [1]).
Let T be a measurable transformation (cf. Measur-
able mapping) acting on the measure space X with
cr-algebra E. A measure {L is called conformal for the
function cp: X -+ R+ if for every set E E E on which T
acts as a measurable isomorphism,
Thus, m is conformal for cp: X -+ R+ if and only if the
Jacobian of m under T is given by cpo The Frobenius-
Perron operator P can be defined as the restriction to
Ll(m) of the dual operator on L:x,(m), J Pf· 9 dm =
J f . goT dm, and it satisfies P*m = m. In many ex-
amples P can be written explicitly in the form
Pf(x) = L f(y)cp(y)-l,
T(y)=x
and this representation permits the application of Ru-
elle's thermodynamic formalism [4]. The importance of
the notion of a conformal measure can be seen from this.
Besides its use in the ergodic theory of dynamical
systems and statistical mechanics (including discrete
groups and geodesic flows), it allows one to study geo-
metric and number-theoretic problems like fractal di-
mensions, Diophantine approximations and recurrence.
References
[1] DENKER, M., AND URBANSKI, M.: 'On the existence of con-
formal measures', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 328 (1991), 563-
587.
[2] PATTERSON, S.J.: 'The limit set of a Fuchsian group', Acta
Math. 136 (1976),241-273.
[3] RUELLE, D.: Thermodynamic jormalism, Vol. 5 of Encycl.
Math. Appl., Addison-Wesley, 1976.
[4] SULLIVAN, D.: 'The density at infinity of a discrete group of
hyperbolic motions', IHES Publ. Math. 50 (1979), 171-202.
M. Denker
MSC 1991: 11 Fxx, 30Cxx, 32Nxx, 58Fxx, 28Dxx, 80-
XX
CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM -- A
pro blem in which a function f (x) is to be optimized
(i.e., minimized or maximized) subject to the require-
ment that the possible solutions lie in a so-called feasible
set X. The set X is usually determined by constraints.
Frequently occurring constraints are: g(x) :s; b, where 9
is a function; Xj E Z (where Xj is the jth component
of x), an integrality constraint; or Xj E {O, I}, a binary
constraint.
197
CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM

See also Linear programming; Mathematical of selectors, one-sided contexts, deterministic grammars,
programming; Discrete programming; Integer etc.). Details can be found in [1], [3], [4].
programming.
M. Hazewinkel
References
MSC 1991: 90Cxx [1] EHRENFEUCHT, A., PAUN, GH., AND ROZENBERG, G.: 'Con-
textual grammars', in G. ROZENBERG AND A. SALOMAA
(eds.): Handbook of Formal Languages, Springer, 1996.
CONTEXTUAL GRAMMAR A language- [2] MARCUS, S.: 'Contextual grammars', Rev. Roum. Math.
generating device based on the operation of adjoining Pures Appl. 14 (1969), 1525-1534.
contexts to strings, according to a selection procedure. [3] PAUN, GH.: Contextual grammars, Pub!. House of the Roma-
Such grammars were introduced (in the external vari- nian Acad., Bucharest, 1982. (In Romanian.)
[4] PAUN, GH.: 'Marcus contextual grammars. After 25 years',
ant, with the contexts adjoined at the ends of the cur-
Bull. EATCS 52 (1994),263-273.
rently generated string) in [2], with the explicit purpose [5] PAUN, GH., AND NGUYEN, X.M.: 'On the inner contextual
of obtaining an intrinsic generative mechanism, with- grammars', Rev. Roum. Math. Pures Appl. 25 (1980), 641-
out auxiliary symbols (as in Chomsky grammars) and 651.
Gh. Paun
making use of the string-context interplay which is fun-
MSC 1991: 68Q50, 68S05, 03D05
damental in all linguistic theories. For modelling natural
language-syntactical constructions, the internal contex-
CONVECTION EQUATIONS - Consider a fluid flow
tual grammars, introduced in [5], turned out to be more
in a layer of uniform depth where the temperature dif-
useful.
ference, To - T 1 , between the upper and lower bounding
Let F be a family of languages. An internal contex-
planes is kept constant. Such a system has a steady-
tual grammar with F -selection is a system
state solution in which there is no fluid motion and the
n:::: 1, temperature varies linearly. If this solution is unstable,
convection should develop. When all motion is parallel
where V is an alphabet, A is a finite language over V,
to the (x, z)-plane, the governing equations are [4]:
Si are languages (over V) in the family F, and Gi are
finite sets of contexts over V, i.e., pairs (u, v), u, v E V*, ~ \12.,. __ o( 1/;, \1 21/;) \14.,. o()
1 :'S i :'S n. The elements of A are axioms, Si are the at 'f/ - o( x, z) + 1/ 'f/ + ga ox '
selectors of the productions (Si, Gi ), 1 :'S i :'S n. With o() __ 0(1/;,()) + To - Tl 01/; + 1i\1 2 ()
respect to G, for x, y E V* one writes x :=:;, y if and only ot - o(x,z) h ox '
if x = XIX2X3, Y = XIUX2VX3, with (u, v) E Gi , Xi E Si, where h is the height of the layer (in the z-direction),
for certain Xl, X2, X3 E V*, 1 :'S i :'S n. (The contexts in
02 02
Gi can be adjoined to strings in the associated selector
\1 2 = ox 2 + Oz2'
Si.)
04 04
Denoting by:=:;,* the reflexive and transitive closure
\1 4 = ox4 + oz4'
of the language generated by G can be defined by
:=:;"
0(1, g) of og of og
L(G)={WEV*:x:=:;,*w, xEA}. o(x,z) ox oz oz ox
Let ICC(F) be the family of languages generated by in- stands for the Jacobian determinant, 1/; is a stream
ternal contextual grammars with F -selection. Denote by function for the two-dimensional fluid motion, and () is
FIN, REG, CF, CS, RE, ARB the families of finite, reg- the deviation of the temperature from the case where no
ular, context-free, context-sensitive, recursively enumer- convection occurs. The coefficients 1/, g, a, Ii are, respec-
able, and arbitrary languages, respectively. Some basic tively, kinematic viscosity, gravity acceleration, thermal
results for contextual grammars are as follows: expansion, and thermal conductivity. The part of the
1) ICC(FIN) C ICC(REG) c ICC(CF) c first equation that does not depend upon () is the third
ICC(CS) c ICC(RE); component of the vorticity equation
2) REG c ICC(FIN), ICC(CS) c CS; ow
8t = curl(u x w) - I/curl(curl(w)),
3) ICC(FIN) contains non-semi-linear languages;
4) all families ICC(F), F as above, are anti-AFL (cf. where U is the velocity vector and w = curl( u) is the
Trio; Abstract family of languages); vorticity.
5) every recursively enumerable language L can be See [5], [2], and also Curl and Vector product.
written in the form L = hI (h:;l (L')), where L' E By expanding 1/; and () in double Fourier series
ICC(FIN), hI is a weak coding and h2 is a morphism. with coefficients depending on t and truncating to three
A lot of variants have been considered (left-most, pre- terms, the Lorenz equations result [3].
fix, parallel, blocked derivation, maximal or minimal use References

198

[lJ BATCHELOR, G.K.: An introduction to fluid dynamics, Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1967.
[2J GOLDSTEIN, S. (ed.): Modern developments in fluid dynam-
ics, Dover, reprint, 1965.
[3J LORENZ, E.N.: 'Deterministic non-periodic flow', J. Atmos.
Sci. 20 (1963), 130-14l.
[4J SALTZMAN, B.: 'Finite amplitude free convection as an initial
value problem.!', J. Atmos. Sci. 19 (1962), 329-34l.
[5J SHIVAMOGGI, B.K.: Theoretical fluid dynamics, Martinus Ni-
jhoff, 1985.
M. H azewinkel
MSC 1991: 76C05, 76E15
CONVERGENCE, A.S., almost-sure convergence -
See Convergence, almost-certain.
MSC 1991: 60-XX
CONVEX SUBGROUP OF A PARTIALLY OR-
DERED GROUP- A subgroupHofapo-group {G;·, j}
such that for all x, y, Z,
(x j y j z)&(x,z E H,y E G):::} y E H.
Many properties of po-groups can be described in terms
of convex subgroups. If H is convex subgroup of a po-
group G, then the set GIN of right cosets of G by H is
partially ordered with the induced order: H x j H y if
there exists an element h E H such that x j hy.
The set C(G) of all convex subgroups of a totally or-
dered group G (cf. o-group) is well investigated. It is
a complete chain, i.e., it is closed with respect to join
and intersection. The system C(G) is infra-invariant,
i.e., x- i Hx E C(G) for all H E C(G), x E G. If
x·y1ixYi ... y;;lxYn E H for HE C(G), Yi, ... ,Yn E G,
then x E H. For an element a E G there exist a maximal
subgroup H(a) E C(G) with the property a ~ H a , and
a minimal subgroup H(a) with the property a E H(a).
The subgroup H(a) is normal in H(a) (cf. Normal sub-
group) and the quotient group H (a) I H (a) is order iso-
morphic to some subgroup of the additive group R of
real numbers. If N(H) is the normalizer of the subgroup
H (cf. also Normalizer of a subset), then N(H(a)) =
N(H(a)) and [[N(H(a)), N(H(a))], H(a)) ~ H(a) for
every element a E G, a =f. e. Here, [X, Y) denotes the
commutator subgroup of X and Y. If, in a group G,
one can find a system ~ with the properties listed above,
then it is possible to turn G into an o-group such that
~ is the system of convex subgroups for G.
If G is a locally nilpotent o-group, then the system
C(G) is a central system of subgroups.
The set C(G) of all convex I-subgroups (i.e., sub-
groups of G that are sublattices of the lattice G) is
very important for the description of the structure of
an I-group G. It is a complete sublattice of the sub-
group lattice of G. If H E C(G), then H is isolated,
i.e., xn E H :::} x E H. A subset H of an I-group G
COPULA
is the kernel of an I-homomorphism of G if and only if
HE C(G); in that case it is a normal subgroup of G.
Also very important for describing the structure of
an I-group G are the prime I-subgroups, i.e., the con-
vex I-subgroups H of G such that the partially ordered
set G I H of right cosets is a chain. An I-subgroup H
is prime if and only if it is convex and x E H when
x I\y = e for elements X,Y E G, y ~ H. If a E G, a =f. e,
H(a) E C(G) and H is maximal with respect to the
property a ~ H(a), then H(a) is prime. If H E C(G),
then H is the intersection of a suitable set of prime
subgroups. If H E C(G), then there exists a natural 1-
homomorphism from G onto a transitive I-subgroup of
the I-group Aut(GIH), where Aut(GIH) is the group
of order automorphisms of the totally ordered set GIN
of right cosets.
If M ~ G in an I-group G, then the set
M-L = {x E G: x orthogonal to allm EM}
is called a polar and M -L E C(G).
This article complements and updates the article
Convex subgroup (in Volume 2).
References
[lJ BIGARD, A., KEIMEL, K., AND WOLFENSTEIN, S.: Groupes et
anneaux retiqules, Springer, 1977.
[2J FUCHS, L.: Partially ordered algebraic systems, Pergamon,
1963.
[3J GLASS, A.M.W., AND HOLLAND, W.CH. (eds.): Lattice-
ordered groups: advances and techniques, Kluwer Acad.
Pub!., 1989.
[4J KOPYTOV, V.M., AND MEDVEDEV, N.YA.: The theory of
lattice-ordered groups, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1994. (Translated
from the Russian.)
V. M. K opytov
MSC 1991: 06F15, 20F60
COPULA - A function that links a multi-
dimensional probability distribution function to its
one-dimensional margins. Such functions first made
their appearance in the work of M. Fnkhet, W.
H6ffding, R. Feron, and G. Dall'Aglio. However, their
explicit definition and the recognition that they are im-
portant in their own right is due to A. Sklar. Presently
(1996), the best sources for information are [1) and [4).
A (two-dimensional) copula is a function C from the
unit square [0,1) x [0,1) onto the unit interval [0,1) such
that:
1) C(a,O) = C(O, a) = 0 and C(a,l) = C(l, a) = a
for any a E [0,1);
2) C(a2' b2) - C(ai' b2) - C(a2' bd + C(ai' bi ) ~ 0
whenever ai :S a2 and bi :S b2.
If C is a copula, then C is non-decreasing in each
place and continuous, and hence a continuous bivariate
distribution function on the unit square, with uni-
form margins. Furthermore, setting W(a, b) = max(a +
199
COPULA
b -1,0), one has W(a,b) :s: C(a,b) :S min(a,b) for all
a, bin [0,1]. The functions Wand min are copulas, as
is the function 7r given by 7r(a, b) = abo
The central Sklar theorem states that if H is a two-
dimensional distribution function with one-dimensional
marginal distribution functions F and G, then there ex-
ists a copula C such that for all x, y E R,
H(x,y) = C(F(x),G(y)).
If F and G are continuous, then C is unique; otherwise C
is uniquely determined on (range F) x (range G). It fol-
lows that if X and Yare real random variables (cf. Ran-
dom variable) with distribution functions Fx and Fy
and joint distribution function H xy, then there is a cop-
ula CXy such that Hxy(x,y) = Cxy(Fx(x),Fy(y)).
The random variables X, Y are independent if and only
if it is possible to take C = IT.
Sklar's theorem shows that much of the study of
joint distribution functions can be reduced to the study
of copulas. Furthermore, under a.s. strictly increasing
transformations of X and Y, the copula C Xy is invari-
ant, while the margins may be changed at will. Thus
(for random variables with continuous distribution func-
tions) the study of rank statistics (insofar as it is the
study of properties invariant under increasing transfor-
mations, cf. Rank statistic) may be characterized as
the study of copulas and copula-invariant properties.
For random variables with continuous distribution
functions, the extreme copulas min and Ware attained
precisely when X is a.s. an increasing (respectively, de-
creasing) function of Y. Hence, copulas can be used to
construct non-parametric measures of dependence. One
such is the quantity
a(x, y) = 1211 11 ICxy(u, v) - uvl du dv.
Furthermore, in terms of copulas, the two best known
non-parametric measures of dependence, namely Spear-
man's measure of dependence p and Kendall's measure
of dependence r, are given by
p(X, Y) = 1211 11 (CXy(u, v) - uv) du dv
and
r(X, Y) = 411 11 CXy(u,v) dCxy(u, v) - 1;
and the fact that X and Yare positively quadrant de-
pendent is succinctly expressed by the condition C Xy 2':
IT.
Several classes of copulas merit special attention.
First, there are the Archimedean copulas, which admit
the representation C(u,v) = h- 1 (h(u) + h(v)) with h
a continuous decreasing convex function from [0, 1] into
200
[0,00] satisfying h(l) = O. These may be used to gener-
ate various (generally, one- or two-parameter) families of
bivariate distribution functions, and, as a consequence,
play an important role in modelling non-normal depen-
dence and testing for such dependence [3].
Next, there are the shuffles of min. These are ob-
tained by redistributing the mass distribution of min
(which is uniformly distributed on the main diagonal of
the unit square) in such a way that the resultant mass
distribution remains singular. These shuffles are dense in
the space of all copulas. Nevertheless, it is still true that
if X and Yare random variables whose copula is a shuf-
fle of min, then there is an invertible function g such that
Y = g(X). This yields the striking fact that for any pair
of independent random variables X, Y there is a pair of
random variables U, V having the same individual distri-
bution functions as X, Y and having a copula arbitrarily
close to IT, but such that each is completely determined
by the other. (See the Mikusinksi-Sherwood-Taylor pa-
per in [1].)
Lastly, a copula determines a doubly-stochastic mea-
sure on the unit square. Such measures have been of
interest for a long time and considerable effort has been
devoted to finding extreme points of this convex set.
Here, an approach using copulas has led to several new
classes of such extreme points, the hairpins and gen-
eralized hairpins, as well as to further insight into the
general problem. (See the Mikusinksi-Sherwood-Taylor
paper in [1].)
Let * be the binary operation defined on the set of
two-dimensional copulas by
where A,2 denotes the partial derivative of A with re-
spect to its second argument and B,l the partial deriva-
tive of B with respect to its first argument (these partial
derivatives exists almost everywhere). Then A * B is a
copula, and the set of copulas is a semi-group under
the operation *. The salient fact concerning this opera-
tion is the following: If {Xt : t E T} is a real stochastic
process with parameter set T and if Cst is the copula of
Xs and X t , then the transition probabilities of the pro-
cess satisfy the Kolmogorov-Chapman equation if
and only if Cst = C su * Cut for all s, u, t E T such that
s < u < t. This result is the key to a new approach to
the theory of Markov processes (cf. Markov process)
and to a new way of constructing them. It also leads to
an interesting area of functional analysis: the study of
Markov algebras, [2].
Finally, the concept of a copula can be extended to
n dimensions. An n-copula may be viewed as an n-
dimensional distribution function whose support is in

the unit n-cube and whose one-dimensional margins are
uniform. If H is an n-dimensional distribution function
with one-dimensional margins Fl, ... ,Fn , then there is
an n-copula C such that
for all (Xl, . .. ,xn ) E Rn. Moreover, for any n-copula:
max(Xl + ... + Xn - n + 1,0) :S
:S C(Xl, ... ,xn ) :S min(xl' ... ,xn );
however, the upper function is an n-copula for any n,
while the lower function is not an n-copula for any n > 2.
A basic problem in the theory of copulas is that of
compatibility, i.e., to determine which sets of copulas (of
possible different dimensions) can appear as margins of
a single higher-dimensional copula.
References
[1] DALL'AGLIO, G., KOTZ, S., AND SALINETTI, G. (eds.): Ad-
vances in probability distributions with given marginals: be-
yond the copulas, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1991.
[2] DARSOW, W.F., NGUYEN, B., AND OLSEN, E.T.: 'Copulas and
Markov processes', Ill. J. Math. 36 (1992), 600-642.
[3] GENEST, C., AND RIVEST, L.-P.: 'Statistical inference proce-
dures for bivariate Archimedean copulas', J. Amer. Statist.
Assoc. 88 (1993), 1034-1043.
[4] TAYLOR, M.D., SCHWEIZER, B., AND RUSCHENDORF, L.
(eds. ): Distributions with fixed marginals and related topics,
Vo!' 28 of Lecture Notes Monograph Series, Inst. Math. Stat.,
1996.
B. Schweizer
A. Sklar
MSC 1991: 60Exx, 60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20
CORRELATION INEQUALITIES - Correlation
between variables in multivariate statistics (cf. also
Multi-dimensional statistical analysis) [19] has mo-
tivated classes of inequalities on subsets of a base set 8
that are referred to as correlation inequalities. They are
often stated deterministically but usually have proba-
bilistic interpretations. For example, suppose 8 is the
family of all subsets of a finite set {I, ... ,n}, and let A
and B be order ideals or down-sets in (8, c): a C bE A
implies a E A, a C b E B implies a E B, with A, B ~ 8.
Then, [13], [16], 2n IA n BI ~ IAI . IBI. When JL is the
uniform probability meaSUre (cf. also Probability mea-
sure) on 28 , so that JL(a) = JL({a}) = 2- n for every a E
8, and JL(A) = IAI2- n , one has M(A n B) ~ JL(A)JL(B).
Hence, with respect to JL, A and B are correlated when-
ever both are down-sets.
As general definitions, one says with respect to a
probability measure JL on an algebra £ of subsets of 8
that A, B E £ are positively correlated if JL(A n B) >
JL(A)JL(B) and non-negatively correlated if JL(A n B) ~
JL(A)JL(B). Inequality reversals define negative corre-
lation and non-positive correlation, respectively. The
CORRELATION INEQUALITIES
instances of these inequalities and generalizations de-
scribed below assume that 8 is a finite set partially or-
dered by -< so that -< is irreftexive (never a -< a) and
transitive: a -< band b -< c imply a -< c.
Inequalities for distributive lattices. Let (8, -<) be
a distributive lattice with join a V b and meet a 1\ b
defined by
a V b = min {z E 8: a ~ z, b ~ z} ,
a 1\ b = max {z E 8: z ~ a, z ~ b} .
Distributivity says that a 1\ (b V c) = (a 1\ b) V (a 1\ c) for
all a, b, c E 8. A mapping f: 8 -+ R is non-decreasing
if a -< b implies f(a) :S f(b) for all a, bE 8, and f(A) is
defined as LaO f(a) for A ~ 8, with f(0) = o. The join
and meet V and 1\ can be extended to subsets A, B ~ 8
by
A V B = {a V b: a E A,b E B},
AI\B = {al\b: a E A,b E B},
with the understanding that A V B = A 1\ B = 0 if A or
B is empty.
The pre-eminent correlation inequality is the
Ahlswede-Daykin inequality [1], also called
the four-functions inequality [2]. It says that if
h, 12, h, f4: 8 -+ [0,00) satisfy
h(a)12(b) :S h(a V b)f4(a 1\ b) for all a, bE 8,
then
h(A)12(B) :S h(A V B)f4(A 1\ B) for all A, B ~ 8.
This is a very powerful result that allows effi-
cient proofs of many other correlation inequalities
[2], [7], [10], [23]. One unusual application [8] con-
cerns match sets of orders of a deck of 52 cards
numbered 1 through 52. For each order, M
{k: card k is the kth card from the top of the deck}. Let
A = {M: an even k E M} and B = {M: an odd k E
M}. When JL is the uniform distribution on the 52! or-
ders, JL(AnB) ~ JL(A)JL(B). Hence, if the match set of a
well-shuffled deck contains an odd number, this can only
increase our confidence that it contains an even number.
The most important correlation inequality histori-
cally is the FKG inequality [9] (also known as the
Fortuin-Kasteleyn-Ginibre inequality), which says that
if 1]: 8 -+ [0,00) is log supermodular, i.e.,
1](a)1](b) :S 1](a V b)1](a 1\ b) for all a, bE 8,
201
CORRELATION INEQUALITIES
and if I: 8 -+ Rand g: 8 -+ R are non-decreasing,
then
[~1](a)/(a)] [~1](a)g(a)] ~
~ [~1](a)] [~1](a)/(a)g(a)].
This can be written in terms of the mathematical ex-
pectation operation E1) as E1)(f)E1)(g) ~ E1)(fg), when
8 is a Boolean algebra and 1] is a log supermodular
probability measure with V = U and 1\ = n. Suitable
definitions of I and 9 with {O, I} co-domains show that
A, B ~ 8 are non-negatively correlated when both are
up-sets or order filters, given log supermodularity.
Another notable result is the Holley inequality [12].
Suppose 1]1: 8 -+ [0,(0) and 1]2: 8 -+ [0, (0) satisfy
Ls 1]1 (a) = Ls 1]2 (a) along with the following inequal-
ity that generalizes log supermodularity and is itself gen-
eralized by the four-function Ahlswede-Daykin hypoth-
esis:
Then the Holley inequality says that for every non-
decreasing I: 8 -+ R,
LI(a)1]l(a) ~ LI(a)1]2(a).
s s
Simple proofs of the FKG and Holley inequalities fol-
low from the Ahlswede-Daykin inequality by suitable
choices of II through 14. Also, when Ii = 1] for all i,
log supermodularity on 8 implies log supermodularity
on the subsets of 8; when /; == 1 for all i, one obtains
IAI . IBI :S IA V BI . IA 1\ BI for all A, B ~ 8, which
is equivalent to distributivity [5] for an ordered lattice
(8, -<).
Systems of subsets. Several inequalities for (8, C)
when 8 is the family of subsets of {I, ... ,n} have al-
ready been given. Log supermodularity lor a probability
measure f.1 on 2s is defined as f.1(a)f.1(b) :S f.1(aUb)f.1(anb)
for all a, b E 8, and when this holds, the FKG inequal-
ity says that E,..(f)E,..(g) ~ E,..(fg) for non-decreasing
I: 8 -+ Rand g: 8 -+ R and implies that f.1(A)f.1(B) ~
f.1(AV B)f.1(AI\B) for all A, B ~ 8. In addition, if A and
B are down-sets or up-sets, then f.1(AnB) ~ f.1(A)f.1(B).
When f.1 is uniform, in which case log supermodularity
is automatic, 2n lA n BI ~ IAI ·IBI if A is an up-set and
B is a down-set, so the two are non-positively correlated
when the complementary orientations obtain.
Another inequality involves set differences [14]. Let
A - B = {a \ b: a E A,b E B} for A,B ~ 8.
Then IA - BI . IB - AI ~ IAI . IBI, and, in particular,
lA-AI ~ IAI·
202
The match set 01 a permutation a on {I, ... ,n} is de-
fined as M(a) = {i E {I, ... ,n}: a(i) = i}. Assuming
that all n! permutations are equally likely, let f.1( a) for
a <;;; {I, ... ,n} be the probability that M(a) = a. Note
°
that f.1(a) = when lal = n - 1 and hence that f.1 is not
log supermodular. However, there still is an FKG-like
inequality [8], because f.1(A n B) ~ f.1(A)f.1(B) whenever
A, B <;;; 8 are up-sets. This illustrates the non-necessity
of log supermodularity in certain cases for a correlation
inequality to hold.
Linear extensions. Another class of correlation in-
equalities arises when 8 is the set of linear extensions
of a finite partially ordered set (X, -<) and all members
of 8 are equally likely. (X, <0) is a linear extension of
(X, -<) if (X, <0) is a partially ordered set, -< ~ <0 and,
for all distinct x, y EX, x <0 y or y <0 x. Let N be the
number of linear extensions of (X, -<), so the probability
law for 8 is f.1(a) = liN. By additivity, f.1(A) = LA f.1(a)
for each subset A of linear extensions.
A premier correlation inequality in this setting is the
Fishburn-Shepp inequality [6], [18]' also known as
the xyz inequality. One says that x, y E X are incompa-
rable if x i- y and neither x -< y nor y -< x, and denotes
by (Xl <0 Yl, ... ,x m <0 Ym) the set of all linear exten-
sions of (X, -<) that satisfy the Xi <0 Yi relations. The
Fishburn-Shepp inequality says that if X, Y and z are
mutually incomparable in (X, -<), then
f.1(x <0 y)f.1(x <0 z) < f.1(x <0 y, X <0 z),
so events A = (x <0 y) and B = (x <0 z) are positively
correlated. Rewritten as f.1(A n B)If.1(A) > f.1(B), one
sees that the probability of x <0 z in a randomly cho-
sen linear extension increases when it is true also that
x <0 y. Examples in [10], [17], [18] show that other plau-
sible positive or non-negative correlations need not be
true.
Inequalities involving two-part partitions of X are
featured in [11], [17]. Suppose {X l ,X2 } is a non-trivial
partition of X. Let A = (al <0 bl , ... ,aj <0 bj )
and B = (Cl <0 dl ,··· ,Ck <0 dk) for ai,Ci E Xl and
bi , di E X 2. If the restriction of -< in (X, -<) to each Xi is
a linear order (cf. also Order (on a set)), then A and B
are non-negatively correlated, i.e. f.1(AnB) ~ f.1(A)f.1(B).
The same is true if -< = -< 1 U -<2, where -<i is a partial
order on Xi.
Other inequalities which use two ordering relations
on a fixed Y <;;; X that are associated with -< are in
[3]' [4], [7], [22], [23]. One of these, [3]' shows that the
plausible inequality
f.1(x <0 y <0 z <0 w) :S f.1(x <0 y <0 z)f.1(z <0 w),

which is suggested by the non-strict rendering {l(x <0
Y <0 z) :S {l(x <0 Y){l(Y <0 z) of the Fishburn-Shepp
inequality, can be contradicted whenever n 2 5.
An inequality from percolation theory. A final in-
equality comes from percolation theory [20], [21] and
provides a nice contrast to the FKG inequality version
IAI . IBI :S 2nlA n BI when A and B are up-sets in the
family of subsets of {I, ... ,n}. For convenience, the sub-
sets of {1, ... ,n} are written in characteristic vector
form, so that S = {O, 1} n. The cylinder set determined
by xES and K S;;; {I, ... ,n} is defined as
c(x,K) = {y E S: Yj = Xj for allj E K},
and the disjoint intersection of A, B S;;; S is defined by
ADB = {x E S: c(x,K) S;;; A,
c(x,{l, ... ,n} \K) S;;; B for someK}.
The inequality, conjectured in [20]' [21] and proved in
[15], is
2n IADBI :S IAI . IBI for all A, B S;;; S.
Thus, whereas some A, B S;;; S are positively correlated
by the usual definition based on An B, all A, B S;;; S are
'non-positively correlated' with respect to the disjoint
intersection ADB.
References
[IJ AHLSWEDE, R., AND DAYKIN, D.E.: 'An inequality for the
weights of two families, their unions and intersections', Z.
Wahrsch. verw. Gebiete 43 (1978), 183-185.
[2J BOLLOBAS, B.: Gombinatorics, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986.
[3J BRIGHTWELL, G.R.: 'Universal correlations in finite posets',
Order 2 (1985), 129-144.
[4J BRIGHTWELL, G.R.: 'Some correlation inequalities in finite
posets', Order 2 (1986),387-402.
[5J DAYKIN, D.E.: 'A lattice is distributive if and only if IAIIBI S
IA V BIIA 1\ BI', Nanta Math. 10 (1977), 58-60.
[6J FISHBURN, P.C.: 'A correlational inequality for linear exten-
sions of a poset', Order 1 (1984),127-137.
[7J FISHBURN, P.C.: 'Correlation in partially ordered sets', Dis-
crete Appl. Math. 39 (1992), 173-191.
[8J FISHBURN, P.C., DOYLE, P.G., AND SHEPP, L.A.: 'The match
set of a random permutation has the FKG property', Ann.
of Probab. 16 (1988), ll94-1214.
[9J FORTUIN, C.M., KASTELEYN, P.N., AND GINIBRE, J.: 'Cor-
relation inequalities for some partially ordered sets', Gomm.
Math. Phys. 22 (1971),89-103.
[IOJ GRAHAM, R.L.: 'Applications of the FKG inequality and its
relatives': Proc. 12th Intemat. Symp. Math. Programming,
Springer, 1983, pp. ll5-131.
[llJ GRAHAM, R.L, YAO, A.C., AND YAO, F.F.: 'Some monotonic-
ity properties of partial orders', SIAM J. Alg. Discrete Meth-
ods 1 (1980),251-258.
[12J HOLLEY, R.: 'Remarks on the FKG inequalities', Gomm.
Math. Phys. 36 (1974), 227-231.
[13J KLEITMAN, D.J.: 'Families of non-disjoint sets', J. Gombin.
Th. 1 (1966), 153-155.
[14J MARICA, J., AND SCHONHEIM, J.: 'Differences of sets and a
problem of Graham', Ganad. Math. Bull. 12 (1969),635--637.
[15J REIMER, D., in preparation.
CORRELATION PROPERTY FOR SEQUENCES
[16J SEYMOUR, P .D.: 'On incomparable collections of sets', Math-
ematika 20 (1973), 208-209.
[17J SHEPP, L.A.: 'The FKG property and some monotonicity
properties of partial orders', SIAM J. Alg. Discrete Meth-
ods 1 (1980), 295-299.
[18J SHEPP, L.A.: 'The XYZ conjecture and the FKG inequality',
Ann. of Probab. 10 (1982), 824-827.
[19J TATE, R.F.: 'Correlation methods', in W.H. KRUSKAL AND
J.M. TANUR (eds.): Intemat. Encycl. Stat., Vol. 1, Free Press,
1978, pp. 615-628.
[20J BERG, J. VAN DER, AND FIEBIG, U.: 'On a combinatorial con-
jecture concerning disjoint occurrences of events', Ann. of
Probab. 15 (1987), 354-374.
[21J BERG, J. VAN DER, AND KESTEN, H.: 'Inequalities with ap-
plications to percolation and reliability', J. Appl. Probab. 22
(1985), 556-569.
[22J WINKLER, P.M.: 'Correlation among partial orders', SIAM
J. Alg. Discrete Methods 4 (1983), 1-7.
[23J WINKLER, PM.: 'Correlation and order', Gontemp. Math. 57
(1986),151-174.
P. C. Fishburn
MSC 1991: 60E15, 06AlO
CORRELATION PROPERTY FOR SEQUENCES -
Complex-valued n-periodic sequences (i.e. sequences a =
(ai)~o with ai+n = ai, ai E C) with 'good' correlation
properties have many applications in signal processing
(spread spectrum and code division multiple access com-
munication systems, see [10]). A good survey is [9]. Peri-
odic sequences are recurring or shift register sequences,
see [2].
If a and bare n-periodic sequences, one defines
Ca,b(t) = E~:Ol aibi+t. These numbers are called the
periodic correlation coefficients (in case a = b, periodic
autocorrelation coefficients). Sometimes also the aperi-
odic correlation Aa,b(t) = E~:Ol-t aibi+t is of inter-
est. The odd correlation of (ai) and (b i ) is Oa,b(t)
Ax,y(t) - Ax,y(t - n), t = 1, ... , n.
The goal is the design of large sets S
{a(l), ... , a(m)} of n-periodic sequences such that
m(S) = max {ICa(i),b(j) (t)1 :
t = 0, ... ,n - 1, i, j = 1, ... , s, t i= 0 if i = j)
(or the respective value for the aperiodic correlation) is
small. Sequences with Ca,a(t) = 0, t = 1, ... ,n - 1, are
called perfect. Perfect sequences whose entries are tth
roots of unity (t > 2) are known for many periods n, but
no example of a ±1-sequence with period n > 4 is known
(the perfect sequence conjecture: there are no perfect bi-
nary sequences with n > 4). In the aperiodic case, the
±l-sequences with odd period n and aperiodic correla-
tion coefficients 0 and ±1 (Barker sequences) have been
classified [12]. If n is even, the existence of an n-periodic
Barker sequence implies the existence of an n-periodic
perfect ±l-sequence.
203
CORRELATION PROPERTY FOR SEQUENCES
If one assumes that the sequences are normalized, i.e.
Ca(i),a(i)= n, then it is known that for k ~ 0,
m(S)2k ~ 1 {n 2k (nm)2 _ mn2k+1}
nm(nm - 1) (k+n-l)
n-l
and, if the entries of the sequences are just ±1:
m(S)2 > (2k + l)(n _ k) + k(k + 1) _ 2;n2k~~)
2 m 2k)! k
for 0 :S k < 2n/5. If the entries of the sequences are tth
roots of unity (t > 2), then the bound is
k +1 2k n 2k +1
m(S) > -2-(2n - k) - m(k!)2e;) ' k ~ O.
The first bound is due to L.R. Welch, the second two
bounds are due to V.M. Sidel'nikov. In all cases, k is an
integer. Some improvements of these bounds are known.
Similar bounds hold for the maximum odd correlation
coefficient [7].
Important classes of sequences are derived from 80-
called m-sequences (ai) = (trace( oJ)), where a is
a primitive element of the finite field GF(qe) and
trace(x) = l::~~ xqi. The sequence (ai) is defined over
a finite field. The complex-valued sequences correspond-
ing to such finite field sequences are (x(ai)), where X is
a homomorphism from the additive group of the field
into the multiplicative group of C. The m-sequences
yield complex sequences with autocorrelation coeffi-
cients -l. The s-decimation of an n-periodic sequence is
as.i (mod n)' Systematic investigations of the correlation
properties between m-sequences and their decimations
can be found in [4] and [11]. The m-sequences are recur-
ring sequences of maximum period length. Their good
autocorrelation properties show that they have good
'random' properties (pseudo-noise sequences).
In many cases, variations of the construction of m-
sequences yield sets of sequences with optimal correla-
tion properties with respect to the Welch and Sidel'nikov
bounds: The cases m ::;:::; nand m ::;:::; Vii have been
investigated intensively. Regarding binary sequences,
both the Gold sequences (m = n + 2 = 2e + 1)
and the Kasami sequences (m = Vn+1 = 2e / 2 ) are
asymptotically optimal. (One says that a family Sn of
sets of n-periodic sequences is asymptotically optimal if
limn--+oo m(Sn)/Vii = b, is best possible. If ISnl ::;:::; n, the
lower bounds show that b ~ v'2 for binary and b ~ 1
for arbitrary complex valued sequences. For ISnl : ;: :; Vii,
one has b ~ l.) Sequences whose entries are tth roots
of unity (t =1= 2) and which are optimal have been con-
structed (m ::;:::; n, t prime [5]; m ::;:::; n, t = 4 [1]). The
latter construction is of particular interest in view of
its connection with Kerdock and Preparata codes (cf.
Kerdock and Preparata codes) and their linearity
204
as codes over Z4, see [3]. More sequences with good cor-
relation properties where t is not a prime number can be
constructed. In these constructions, sequences over Ga-
lois rings instead of finite fields are converted via homo-
morphisms X into complex-valued sequences. A system-
atic investigation of shift register sequences over rings
can be found in [6].
Other important classes of sequences with good cor-
relation properties are bent function sequences, [8].
References
[1] BOZTAS, S., HAMMONS, A.R., AND KUMAR, P.V.: '4-phase
sequence with near optimum correlation properties', IEEE
Trans. Inform. Th. 38 (1992), 1101-1113.
[2] GOLOMB, S.W.: Shift register sequences, revised ed., Aegean
Park, Laguna Hills (California), 1982.
[3] HAMMONS, A.R., KUMAR, P.V., CALDERBANK, A.R.,
SLOANE, N.J.A., AND SOLl~, P.: 'The Z4-linearity of Kerdock,
Preparata, Goethals, and related codes', IEEE Trans. Infor-
mation Th. 40 (1994), 301-319.
[4] HELLESETH, T.: 'Some results about the cross-correlation
function between two maximal linear sequences', Discrete
Math. 16 (1976), 209-232.
[5] KUMAR, P.V., AND MORENO, 0.: 'Prime-phase sequences
with periodic correlation properties better than binary se-
quences', IEEE Trans. Information Th. 37 (1991), 603-616.
[6] KURAKIN, V.I.., KUZMIN, A.S., MIKHALEV, A.V., AND
N8CHAEV, A.A.: 'Linear recurring sequences over rings and
modules', J. Math. Sci. 76 (1995),2793-2915.
[7] Mow, W.H.: 'On the bounds on odd correlation of sequences',
IEEE Trans. Information Th. 40 (1994), 954-955.
[8] OLSEN, J.D., SCHOLTZ, R.A., AND WELCH, L.R.: 'Bent-
function sequences', IEEE Trans. Information Th. 28 (1982),
858-864.
[9] SARWATE, D.V., AND PURSLEY, M.B.: 'Crosscorrelation prop-
erties of pseudorandom and related sequences', Proc. IEEE
68 (1980), 593619.
[10] SIMON, M., OMURA, J., SCHOLTZ, R., AND LEVITT, B.: Spread
Spectrum Communications, Vol. I, Computer Sci. Press,
Rockville, MD, 1985.
[11] TRACHTENBERG, H.M.: 'On the cross-correlation functions of
maximal recurring sequences', Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Southern
California (1970).
[12] TURYN, R., AND STORER, J.: 'On binary sequences',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 12 (1961),394-399.
D. Jungnickel
A. Pott
MSC 1991: 94Bxx, 11B37, 11B83
COSTAS ARRAY of order n - An (n x n) permu-
tation matrix in which the n( n - 1) /2 line segments
connecting pairs of ones in the matrix are distinct as
vectors, i.e., no two agree in both magnitude and slope.
Thus, if aij = akl = 1 and a mn = a pq = 1 in the matrix,
with (i, j) =1= (k, /), (m, n) =1= (p, q), and at least three of
these four ordered pairs are distinct, and if I(aij , akl) 12 =
(k-i)2+(l- j)2 equals I(a mn , a pq )12 = (p_m)2+(q_n)2,
then
1
I ~I
(k-i)
=1= (q-n)
(p-m)
I·

All known (1996) general constructions for Costas ar-
rays (see [6], [3], [4]) involve primitive roots in finite
fields (cf. Field). The Welch construction, for every
prime p > 2, gives a Costas array of order p-l by setting
aij = 1 when j = gi (mod p), where 9 is a primitive
root modulo p. Removing row p - 1 and column 1 from
this construction leaves a Costas array of order p - 2.
When 9 = 2 is used as the primitive root modulo p, the
array can be further reduced to order p - 3.
In Golomb's construction, if 0: and (J are any two
primitive elements in GF(q), for q > 2, a Costas array
of order q - 2 is obtained by setting aij = 1 whenever
o:i + (Jj = 1. (The case 0: = (J had been discovered by
A. Lempel.) If 0: + (J = 1, then all = 1, so that by re-
moving the first row and first column, a Costas array or
order q - 3 is obtained. As shown in [7], for every q > 2
one can find primitive roots 0: and (J (not necessarily
distinct) with 0: + (J = 1.
For q = 4,5,9, or any prime p == ±1 (mod 10), and
for no other finite fields, there is a primitive root 0:
with 0: + 0: 2 = 1. Thus, in the Lempel construction,
al2 = a21 = 1, so that if the first two rows and first
two columns are removed, a (symmetric) Costas array
or order q - 4 results. For q = 4,5,9, or any prime
p == 1,9 (mod 20), there are primitive roots 0: and (J
with 0: + (J = 1 and 0: 2 + (J-l = 1. In this case, all = 1,
a2,q-2 = 1 and aq-2,2 = 1. By successive removal of
rows and columns Costas arrays of orders q - 2, q - 3,
q - 4, and q - 5 are obtained for these values of q.
In some cases a Costas array of order n + 1 can be
obtained from one of order n by adjoining a 1 in an
exterior corner, i.e., in one of the positions aDO, aO,n+l,
a n+l,O, or a n+l,n+l. Several prime-order examples were
obtained in this way from a Welch example of order p-l.
The total number C (n) of Costas arrays of order n
is known (1996) for n S 23 (see the table), with a local
maximum at n = 16.
n C(n) n C(n)
2 2 13 12828
3 4 14 17252
4 12 15 19612
5 40 16 21104
6 116 17 18276
7 200 18 15096
8 444 19 10240
9 760 20 6464
10 2160 21 3536
11 4368 22 2052
12 7852 23 872
For a prime number p there are ¢(p - 1) primitive
roots, each of which leads to a different Costas array
of order p - 1. Since ¢(p - 1) can be arbitrarily large,
limsuPn-too C(n) = 00. It has been conjectured, but not
COTORSION-FREE GROUP
proved, that liminfn-too C(n) = O. This would require
C(n) = 0 infinitely often. No case of C(n) = 0 is yet
known, but no examples of Costas arrays of orders 32,
33, or 43 have yet been found. (Many larger orders also
lack examples.)
J.P. Costas [1] first proposed these arrays for an ap-
plication to frequency hopping sonar signals. Let the
n rows represent n equally spaced frequencies, and the
n columns n equal duration time intervals. Then the
Costas array specifies a permuted order for the n fre-
quencies to be transmitted in n consecutive time inter-
vals. As a sonar (or radar) signal this design has an ideal
'thumb-tack' ambiguity function (the two-dimensional
auto-correlation function in time and frequency). The
horizontal (time) shift measures range (the distance to
the target) and the vertical (frequency) shift measures
the Doppler (the velocity of the target relative to the ob-
server). For any non-zero shift parallel to the coordinate
axes a Costas array has at most one 'hit' (coincidence of
a 1 with a 1), and thus gives the least ambiguous read-
ing of the correct range and Doppler in the presence of
nOIse.
References
[1] COSTAS, J.P.: Project medior. A medium-oriented approach
to SOnar signal processing, HMED Tech. Pub!. R66EMH12.
General Electric, 1966.
[2] COSTAS, J.P.: 'A study of a class of detection waveforms hav-
ing nearly ideal range-doppler ambiguity properties', Proc.
IEEE 72 (1984),996-1009.
[3] GOLOMB, S.W.: 'Algebraic constructions for Costas arrays',
J. Comb. Th. A 37 (1984), 13-2l.
[4] GOLOMB, S.W.: 'The T4 and G4 constructions for Costas ar-
rays', IEEE Trans. Inform. Th. 38 (1992), 1404-1406.
[5] GOLOMB, S.W., AND TAYLOR, H.: 'Two-dimensional synchro-
nization patterns with minimum ambiguity', IEEE Trans.
Inform. Theory 28 (1982), 600-604.
[6] GOLOMB, S.W., AND TAYLOR, H.: 'Constructions and prop-
erties of Costas arrays', Proc. IEEE 72 (1984), 1143-1163.
[7] MORENO, 0., AND SOTERO, J.: 'Computational approach
to conjecture A of Golomb', Congressus Numerantium 70
(1990), 7-16.
S. W. Golomb
MSC 1991: 05B30
COTORSION-FREE GROUP - An Abelian group
is cotorsion-free if it does not contain any non-zero
cotorsion group. More explicitly, this means that it
contains no subgroup isomorphic to the additive group
Q of rational numbers, or to the additive group of p-
adic integers for any prime p, and contains no cyclic
group of prime order (thus, it is torsion-free). Equiva-
lently, an Abelian group A is cotorsion-free if and only
if Hom(Z, A) = 0, where Z denotes the completion of
the group Z of integers in its Z-adic topology. Cotorsion-
free rings are rings (cf. Ring) whose additive groups are
205
COTORSION-FREE GROUP
cotorsion-free Abelian groups. These rings playa distin-
guished role in the realization of rings as endomorphism
rings of Abelian groups.
The celebrated theorem of Corner [1] states that any
countable cotorsion-free ring R with identity is isomor-
phic to the endomorphism ring of a countable reduced
torsion-free Abelian group A. Moreover, if the additive
group of R has finite rank n, then A can be chosen to
have rank at most 2n. Corner's theorem has been gener-
alized in various directions, notably to rings of arbitrary
cardinality. The best result is due to R. Gobel and S.
Shelah [3]: Let R be a cotorsion-free ring with identity
and A a cardinal number such that A = ANa 2 IRI.
There are 2.\ cotorsion-free groups Ai of cardinality A
whose endomorphism rings are isomorphic to R such
that Hom(Ai, Aj) = 0 for i =j:. j.
These results have several applications to the con-
struction of counterexamples for torsion-free Abelian
groups, e.g. to Kaplansky's test problems. Another con-
sequence is the existence of arbitrarily large indecom-
posable Abelian groups. There is a topological version
of the above theorem. If the endomorphism ring of an
Abelian group A is equipped with the finite topology,
then it becomes a complete Hausdorff topological ring
(cf. also Hausdorff space). The Corner-Gobel theorem
[2] states that a topological ring R with identity is iso-
morphic to the finitely topologized endomorphism ring
of a cotorsion-free Abelian group A if and only if R is
complete Hausdorff in its topology and admits a base
of neighbourhoods of 0 consisting of left ideals N such
that A/N is cotorsion-free (the endomorphisms act on
the left). The Gobel-Shelah theorem [3] generalizes to
cotorsion-free algebras over commutative domains. The
proof relies on the most useful black box principle.
References
[1] CORNER, A.L.S.: 'Every countable reduced torsion-free ring is
an endomorphism ring', Pmc. London Math. Soc. 13 (1963),
687-710.
[2] CORNER, A.L.S., AND GOBEL, R.: 'Prescribing endomor-
phism algebras, a unified treatment', Proc. London Math.
Soc. 50 (1985), 447-479.
[3] GOBEL, R., AND SHELAH, S.: 'Modules over arbitrary do-
mains', Math. Z. 188 (1985), 325-337.
L. Fuchs
MSC 1991: 20K20
COTORSION GROUP - An Abelian group C is
a cotorsion group if Ext( G, C) = 0 for all torsion-free
Abelian groups G, i.e. every extension of C by a torsion-
free group G splits (cf. also Extension of a group).
For C to be a cotorsion group it suffices to assume that
Ext(Q, C) = O. The importance of cotorsion groups lies
in the facts that Ext(B, A) is a cotorsion group for all
206
Abelian groups A and B, and that they have several
nice features.
Cotorsion groups can also be characterized by their
injective property with respect to those exact sequences
o -+ G -+ H -+ K -+ 0 of Abelian groups which split
when K is restricted to its torsion part t(K) (cf. also
Exact sequence).
Epimorphic images of co torsion groups are cotorsion,
and so are the extensions of cotorsion groups by cotor-
sion groups. A direct product of groups is cotorsion if
and only if each summand is cotorsion.
Examples of cotorsion groups are: 1) divisible (i.e.,
injective) Abelian groups, like Q, Z(pOO) (cf. also Di-
visible group); and 2) algebraically compact groups,
like finite groups and the additive group of the p-adic
integers (for any prime p); cf. also Compact group. A
torsion Abelian group is cotorsion if and only if it is a di-
rect sum of a divisible group and a bounded group (the
Baer-Fomin theorem), and a torsion-free Abelian group
is cotorsion exactly if it is algebraically compact. Ulm
subgroups of cotorsion groups are cotorsion, and the Ulm
factors of cotorsion groups are algebraically compact.
For a reduced cotorsion group C, there is a natural
isomorphism Ext(Q/Z, C) ~ C. This fact is relevant in
showing that every Abelian group A can be imbedded
as a subgroup in a cotorsion group C such that the co-
kernel C / A is torsion-free and divisible. If A is reduced,
then C can be chosen as Ext(Q/Z, A); this is the small-
est cotorsion group in which A can be imbedded in this
manner. It is called the cotorsion hull of A, and is unique
up to isomorphism over A.
A cotorsion group is said to be adjusted if it is reduced
and contains no non-trivial torsion-free summand. The
cotorsion hull of a reduced torsion group is adjusted,
and the correspondence T f-t Ext(Q/Z, T) between the
class of reduced torsion groups T and the class of ad-
justed cotorsion groups is a bijection; its inverse is the
formation of the torsion part. As a consequence, the clas-
sification of reduced torsion groups and that of adjusted
cotorsion groups are equivalent problems. The Harrison
structure theorem [2] states that every cotorsion group
C is a direct sum of three groups: C = D EB G EB A,
where D is a divisible group, G is a reduced torsion-free
algebraically compact group and A is an adjusted cotor-
sion group. Such a decomposition of C is unique up to
isomorphism.
Some authors use 'cotorsion' as 'cotorsion in the
above sense + reduced'.
A general reference is [1]. See [3] for a generalization
to cotorsion modules over commutative domains.
See also Cotorsion-free group.
References
[1] FUCHS, L.: Infinite abelian groups, Vol. 1, Acad. Press, 1970.

[2] HARRISON, D.K.: 'Infinite abelian groups and homological
methods', Ann. of Math. 69 (1959), 366-391.
[3] MATLIS, E.: Cotorsion modules, Vol. 49 of Memoirs, Amer.
Math. Soc., 1964.
L. Fuchs
M8C 1991: 20Kxx
CR-MANIFOLD - In 1907, H. Poincare wrote a sem-
inal paper, [8], in which he showed that two real hy-
persurfaces in C 2 are, in general, biholomorphically in-
equivalent (cf. Biholomorphic mapping; Hypersur-
face). Later, E. Cartan [3], [4] found all the invariants
that distinguish one real hypersurface from another. The
general solution for complex dimensions greater than
two was given by 8.8. Chern and J. Moser [5] and N.
Tanaka [10], [9].
The concept of a CR-manifold (CR-structure) has
been defined having in mind the geometric structure in-
duced on a real hypersurface of cn, n ~ 2.
Let M be a real differentiable manifold and T M
the tangent bundle of M. One says that M is a CR-
manifold if there exists a complex subbundle H of the
complexified tangent bundle C ® T M satisfying the con-
ditions:
• HnH={O};
• H is involutive, i.e., for any complex vector fields
U and V in H the Lie bracket [U, V] is also in H.
Alternatively, by using real vector bundles it can be
proved (cf. [1]) that M is a CR-manifold if and only
if there exists an almost-complex distribution (D, J) on
M (i.e., D is a vector subbundle of T M and J is an
almost-complex structure on D) such that
• [JX, JY]- [X, Y]lies in D;
• [JX, JY]- [X, Y]- J([JX, Y] + [X, JY]) = 0
for any real vector fields X, Y in D.
Thus the CR-structure on M is determined either by
the complex vector bundle H or by the almost-complex
distribution (D, J). The abbreviation CR refers to A.
Cauchy and B. Riemann, because, for M in cn, H
consists of the induced Cauchy-Riemann operators (cf.
Cauchy-Riemann conditions).
A C 1 -function f: (M, H) -t C is called a CR-
function if Lf = 0 for all complex vector fields L in
H. A C 1-mapping F: (M,H) -t (M,iI) is said to be a
CR-mapping if F*H c iI, where F* is the tangent map-
ping of F. In particular, if F is a diffeomorphism, one
says that F is a pseudo-conformal mapping and that M
and Mare CR-diffeomorphic or, briefly, that they are
equivalent. A CR-structure on M is said to be realiz-
able if M is equivalent to some real hypersurface of a
complex Euclidean space.
Let 71": C®TM -t (C®TM)/(HfBH) be the natural
projection mapping. Then the Levi form for M is the
CR-8UBMANIFOLD
mapping
h: H -t (C ® TM)/(H fB H),
1 -
h(U) = 2i 7I"([U, U]),
for any complex vector field U in H. If M is the real hy-
persurface in cn given by the equation g(z) = 0, where
g: cn -t R is smooth, then the Levi form for M is
identified with the restriction of the complex Hessian of
9 to H (cf. also Hessian matrix). When h is positive-
or negative-definite on M, one says that M is strictly
pseudo-convex.
The differential geometry of CR-manifolds (cf. [6])
has potential applications to both partial differential
equations (cf. [2]) and mathematical physics (cf. [7] and
[11]).
References
[1] BEJANCU, A.: Geometry of CR submanifolds, Reidel, 1986.
[2] BOGGESS, A.: CR manifolds and tangential Cauchy-
Riemann complex, CRC, 1991.
[3] CARTAN, E.: 'Sur I'equivalence pseudo-conforme des hyper-
surfaces de I'espace de deux variables complexes I.', Ann.
Mathem. 11 (1932), 17-90.
[4] CARTAN, E.: 'Sur l'equivalence pseudo-conforme des hyper-
surfaces de I'espace de deux variable complexes II.', Ann.
Scuola Norm. Sup. Pisa 1 (1932), 333-354.
[5] CHERN, S.S., AND MOSER, J.: 'Real hypersurfaces in complex
manifolds', Acta Math. 133 (1974), 219-271.
[6] JACOBOWITZ, H.: An introduction to CR structures, Vol. 32
of Math. Surveys and Monogmphs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1990.
[7] PENROSE, R.: 'Physical space-time and non-realizable CR
structures': Proc. Symp. Pure Math., Vol. 39, Amer. Math.
Soc., 1983, pp. 401-422.
[8] POINCARE, H.: 'Les functions analytiques de deux variables
et la representation conforme', Rend. Cire. Mat. Palermo 23
(1907), 185-220.
[9] TANAKA, N.: 'On the pseudo-conformal geometry of hyper-
surfaces of the space of n complex variables', J. Math. Soc.
Japan 14 (1962), 397-429.
[10] TANAKA, N.: 'On non-degenerate real hypersurfaces, graded
Lie algebras and Cartan connections', Japan J. Math. (N.S.)
2 (1976), 131-190.
[11] WELLS, JR., J.R.: 'Complex manifolds and mathematical
physics', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 1 (1979), 296-336.
A. Bejancu
M8C 1991: 32C16, 53C15
CR-SUBMANIFOLD - Let (M, J,g) be an almost
Hermitian manifold (cf. also Hermitian structure),
where J is an almost-complex structure on M and 9
is a Riemannian metric on M satisfying g( J X, JY) =
g(X, Y) for any vector fields X and Y on M. A real sub-
manifold N of M is said to be a complex (holomorphic)
submanifold if the tangent bundle TN of N is invariant
under J, i.e. J(TxN) = TxN for any x E N. Let TNl.
be the normal bundle of N. Then N is called a totally
real (anti-invariant) submanifold if J(TxN) c TxNl.
for any x E N.
207
CR-SUBMANIFOLD
In 1978, A. Bejancu [1] introduced the notion of a CR-
submanifold as a natural generalization of both complex
submanifolds and totally real submanifolds. More pre-
cisely, N is said to be a CR-submanifold if there exists
a smooth distribution Don N such that:
• D is a holomorphic distribution, that is, J(Dx) =
Dx for any x E N;
• the complementary orthogonal distribution D.L of
D is a totally real distribution, that is, J(D';) C TxN.L
for any x E N.
The above concept has been mainly investigated from
the viewpoint of differential geometry (cf. [2], [3], [5],
[6], [7]).
Let h be the second fundamental form of the CR-
submanifold N. Then one says that N is D-geodesic,
D.L-geodesic or mixed geodesic if h vanishes on D or
D.L, or h(X, Y) = 0 for any X in D and Y III D.L,
respectively.
From the viewpoint of complex analysis, a CR-
submanifold is an imbedded CR-manifold in a com-
plex manifold. In this case a real hypersurface N of a
complex manifold (M, J) is a CR-submanifold (cf. [4]).
References
[1] BEJANCU, A.: 'CR submanifolds of a Kaehler manifold I',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 69 (1978), 134-142.
[2] BEJANCU, A.: Geometry of CR submanifolds, Reidel, 1986.
[3] BLAIR, D.E., AND CHEN, B.Y.: 'On CR sub manifolds of Her-
mitian manifolds', Ismel J. Math. 34 (1979),353-363.
[4] BOGGESS, A.: CR manifolds and tangential Cauchy-
Riemann complex, CRC, 1991.
[5] CHEN, B.Y.: Geometry of submanifolds and its applications,
Tokyo Sci. Univ., 1981.
[6] YANO, K., AND KON, M.: CR submanifolds of Kaehlerian and
Sasakian manifolds, Birkhauser, 1983.
[7] YANO, K., AND KON, M.: Structures on manifolds, World
Sci., 1984.
A. Bejancu
MSC 1991: 53C15, 53C56, 53C40
CREDIBILITY THEORY - A branch of actuarial
mathematics which explores principles for individual ex-
perience rating of insurance contracts by certain linear
formulas. It emanated in 1918 from a work of A.W.
Whitney [7], who proposed that the rate of premium
currently charged for an individual insurance contract
be a weighted average of the form
m = zm + (1 - z)/L,
where m is the observed mean claim amount per unit
of risk exposed for the individual and /L is the corre-
sponding overall mean in the insurance portfolio (cf.
also Risk theory). The weight z, which is a number
between 0 and 1, was soon named credibility (or credi-
bility factor), since it measures the 'amount of credence
208
attached to the individual experience', and m was called
the credibility premium (or credibility premium rate).
Attempts to establish a theoretical basis for rating by
credibility formulas bifurcated into two branches. First,
the so-called limited fluctuation credibility theory took
the point of view that the underlying true individual
premium, m, say, is a fixed, unknown parameter to be
estimated. It focused in particular on developing crite-
ria for 'full credibility', z = 1. This branch of the theory
faded around 1960. For an overview see [4].
The other branch of credibility theory stuck to Whit-
ney's original view of m as a random variable and de-
veloped into what, in the wider perspective of contem-
porary (1996) statistical decision theory, is linear
Bayes and linear empirical Bayes estimation applied to
insurance problems (cf. also Bayesian approach). The
basic paradigm was already set up in Robbins' empirical
Bayes theory and Kalman's linear filtering theory when,
at the end of the 1960s, H. Biihlmann in two seminal pa-
pers [1], [2] formulated the credibility problem as that of
minimizing the mean-squared error E[ (m - m )2] over all
inhomogeneous linear functions m = am + b, with a and
b constants. Under the assumption of conditional unbi-
asedness of the individual claims ratio, E[m I m] = m,
the solution is the credibility premium m above, with
/L = E[m] and z = (1 + EVar[m I ml/Var[m])-l. The
mean-squared error criterion applied to linear formu-
las amounts to minimizing a positive-definite quadratic
form in the coefficients. This simple optimization prob-
lem could readily be carried over to more complex mod-
els and wider classes of linear premium formulas, and
a rapid development now followed in this branch of the
theory, which received the name greatest accuracy cred-
ibility theory. Its evolutionary history paralleled, and
partly preceded, that of its statistics counterpart, no-
tably as regards Hilbert space methods [3], hierarchical
and dynamical models, and schemes for recursive com-
putation.
A survey of the history of credibility theory up to
1979 is given in [5]. An up-to-date introduction to the
field is [6].
References
[1] BUHLMANN, H.: 'Experience rating and credibility', ASTIN
Bull. 4 (1967), 199-207.
[2] BUHLMANN, H.: 'Experience rating and credibility', ASTIN
Bull. 5 (1969), 157-165.
[3] VYLDER, F. DE: 'Geometrical credibility', Scand. Actuarial J.
(1976), 121-149.
[4] LONGLEy-COOK, L.H.: 'An introduction to credibility the-
ory', Proc. Casualty Actuarial Soc. 49 (1962), 194-221.
[5] NORBERG, R.: 'The credibility approach to experience rating',
Scand. Actuarial J. (1979), 181-221.
[6] SUNDT, B.: An introduction to non-life insumnce mathemat-
ics, VVW e. V. Karlsruhe, 1993.
 CYCLIC COHOMOLOGY

[7] WHITNEY, A.W.: 'The theory of experience rating', Proc. Ca- and called periodic cyclic cohomology. Both cyclic and
sualty Actuarial Soc. 4 (1918), 274-292. periodic cyclic co homologies admit external products:
R. Norberg
MSC 1991: 62P05, 62Cxx

CYCLIC COHOMOLOGY - Cyclic cohomology was Some examples are:

developed as a replacement of the de Rham theory in the
context of non-commutative algebras. It was discovered
independently by B. Feigin and B. Tsygan as a non-
commutative analogue of de Rham cohomology and
by A. Connes as the cohomological structure involved in
the computation of indices of elliptic operators (cf. In-
dex formulas) and the range of a Chern character
defined on K -homology (cf. also K - theory). It plays
a fundamental role in various generalizations of index
theorems to foliations and coverings (higher indices of
Connes and H. Moscovici). Among the more classical
applications there are the proof of the Novikov conjec-
ture for a large class of groups and local formulas for
Pontryagin classes.
Suppose that A is a unital algebra over a field k of
characteristic zero. Let
Cn(A, A*) = Homk(A®n, A*),
A* = HomdA, k);
b1>(xo, ... ,Xn+l) =
n (fo, ... ,Ik)t-+T(fo,dh,··· ,dlk)·
•
ifn is even,
if n is odd.
• Any tracial functional T (i.e. T(ab) = T(ba) for
all a, b E A) on the algebra A defines an element of
HCO(A).
• Let M be a smooth, closed manifold and A =
COO(M). Restricting to the continuous (in the c oo _
topology) cochains, one finds
HCk(A) ~ EBi'!,lHk-2i,DR(M) EB Ker dt I(Ok(M))"
where (nk(M))* is the space of de Rham k-currents on
M and the operator B coincides with the transpose of
the de Rham differential dt . In particular, the periodic
cyclic cohomology of A coincides with de Rham homol-
ogy of M. An explicit mapping is given by
Kerdtl(ok(M))' '3 T,

i=O The definitions given above can be easily extended to

+( -1) n+l1>(x n+lXo, ... ,xn ); non-unital algebras.
Properties of periodic cyclic cohomology.
T1>(xo, ... ,x n ) = (_1)n1>(xn,XO, ... ,xn-d·
• Stability. The mapping
The complex (C* (A, A*), b) computes the Hochschild
cohomology HH*(A) of A with values in the dual A-
bimodule A*. The subspace of cyclic cochains,
is an isomorphism. This holds also for (non-periodic))
CC*(A) = {1> E C*(A,A*): T1> = 1>} cyclic cohomology. Here, Tr # is the mapping induced
is closed under the Hochschild co boundary mapping b by Tr: Mn(A) -+ A from the algebra of (n x n)-matrices
and the cohomology of the induced complex (CC*(A), b) over A to A.
is called the cyclic cohomology of the algebra A, denoted • Excision. Given an exact sequence of algebras
by H C* (A). This is a contravariant functor from the
category of associative algebras to the category of lin- o -+ I -+
•
A -+
11"
A / I -+ 0,
ear spaces. The inclusion of complexes there exists an associated six-term exact sequence
(CC*(A), b) c (C*(A, A*), b) HCpeVer(A)
H C ;~r (A/I)
HC(1I") HC(.)
gives a long exact sequence of cohomology which, in
this case, has the form r
... ~ HC n - 2 ~ HC n l-t HH n ~ HC n - 1 ~ ... , HCOdd(I)
per +----- HC~~~(A) t - - HC~~~(A/ 1).
HC(.) HC(1I")
and is usually called the Connes-Gysin exact sequence.
The excision holds also in the case of Frechet algebras
The induced spectral sequence is one of the main tools
(cf. also Frechet algebra) if the quotient mapping 7r
for the computation of cyclic cohomology. The periodic-
has a continuous (linear) lifting. For cyclic cohomol-
ity operator S gives rise to the stabilized version (Z/2Z-
ogy, under a certain condition on the ideal I (called
graded) of cyclic cohomology given by the direct limit
H -unitality) there exists a corresponding long exact se-
HC;er(A) = lim(HC*(A), S) quence.
--+

209
CYCLIC COHOMOLOGY
• Homotopy invariance. Suppose that, in the con-
text of topological algebras and continuous cochains, a
differentiable family of homomorphisms is given:
[O,1]3t-+¢t: A-+B.
The corresponding mappings HC;er(¢t) on the periodic
cyclic cohomology are t-independent. In the context of
cyclic cohomology the corresponding result says that in-
ner derivations act trivially.
• Pairing with K-theory. Suppose that A is a Ba-
nach algebra and that A is a dense subalgebra closed
under holomorphic functional calculus in A. Suppose
that A has been given a Frechet topology under which
its imbedding into A is continuous. Restricting to con-
tinuous cochains, there exists a pairing
K*(A) x HC;er(A) -+ C.
On the level of idempotents e E Mn(A), this pairing is
given by
([e],¢) = Tr#¢(e, ... ,e), ¢ E HC~~r(A).
210
This pairing is consistent with the six-term exact se-
quences in periodic cyclic cohomology and K-theory.
• Bott periodicity. In the topological context, let
SA = S(R) ®11" A be the projective tensor product of
A with the algebra of rapidly decreasing functions on
R. Let T denote the cyclic cocycle on S(R) given by the
current
The mapping
HC;er(A) 3 ¢ t-+ T#¢ E HC;:./(SA)
is an isomorphism.
References
[1] CONNES, A.: Noncommutative geometry, Acad. Press, 1994.
[2] CUNTZ, J., AND QUILLEN, D.: Algebra extensions and non-
singularity, Vol. 8, Amer. Math. Soc., 1995.
[3] LODAY, J-L.: Cyclic homology, Springer, 1991.
R. Nest
MSC 1991: 16E40, 55N35, 46L85, 58G12
________ D ________
DAVENPORT CONSTANT - For a finite Abelian
group G, Davenport's constant D(G) of G is the small-
est positive integer d such that for any sequence 8 =
(g1. ... ,9d) of not necessarily distinct elements of G
there is a non-empty subsequence 8' ~ 8 with sum
zero (i.e., there is some 0 =j:. I ~ {I, ... , d} with
L,iEI gi = 0).
It is reported in [6] that in 1966 H. Davenport pro-
posed the problem of finding D( G) in the following con-
nection. Let K be an algebraic number field (cf. also
Algebraic number; Field) with ring of integers Rand
ideal class group G. Then D(G) is the maximal number
of prime ideals (counted with multiplicity) which can di-
vide an irreducible element of R. This is the reason why
D( G) is a crucial invariant in the theory of non-unique
factorizations [2].
Let Cn denote the cyclic group with n elements and
suppose G = C nt EEl·· 'EElCnr with 1 < nil·· 'In r and with
rank r(G) = r. Then
1 + ~(ni
r
-1) ~ D(G) ~ nr (IGI)
+ ~
1 log .
.=1
In the left-hand inequality, equality holds for p-groups
and for groups G with r( G) ~ 2 (proved independently
by J.E. Olson [6] and D. Kruyswijk [7]; cf. also p-
group). However, the left-hand inequality can be strict
[3], [4]. For the right-hand inequality, cf. [5]. It is still
(1996) an open question whether the left-hand inequal-
ity can be strict for groups of rank 3 or for groups of the
form G = C~.
The problem of determining D( G) belongs to the area
of zero-sum sequences, a subfield of additive number
theory, respectively additive group theory. For related
problems cf. [1] and the literature cited there.
References
[1] ALON, N., AND DUBINER, M.: 'Zero-sum sets of prescribed
size', in D. MIKLOS, V.T. 50S, AND T. SZONYI (eds.): Com-
binatorics, Paul Erdos is Eighty, Vol. 1 of Bolyai Society
Mathematical Studies, Keszthely (Hungary), 1993, pp. 33-
50.
[2] CHAPMAN,S.: On the Davenport's constant, the cross num-
ber and their application in factorization theory, Vol. 171 of
Lecture Notes in Pure and Appl. Math., M. Dekker, 1995.
[3] GEROLDINGER, A., AND SCHNEIDER, R.: 'On Davenport's con-
stant', J. Comb. Th. Ser. A 61 (1992),147-152.
[4] MAZUR, M.: 'A note on the growth of Davenport's constant',
Manuscripta Math. 74 (1992), 229-235.
[5] MESHULAM, R.: 'An uncertainty inequality and zero sub-
sums', Discrete Math. 84 (1990), 197-200.
[6] OLSON, J.E.: 'A combinatorial problem on finite abelian
groups I-II', J. Number Th. 1 (1969),8-10; 195-199.
[7] EMDE BOAS, P. VAN, AND KRUYSWIJK, D.: 'A combinatorial
problem on finite abelian groups III', Report Math. Centre
ZW-1969-008 (1969).
A. Geroldinger
MSC 1991: llBxx, 20K01
DE FINETTI THEOREM - Consider a sequence of
N independent identically-distributed random variables
(X j ), j = 1, ... ,N, with N ~ 00 (cf. Random vari-
able). Clearly, their law is invariant under permutation,
i.e. for any finite subset F of {I, ... ,N} and for any
permutation 1f of F, the joint distribution of (X".(j))
(j E F) is the same as the joint distribution of (Xj)
(j E F). Denoting by P the joint law of the (Xj)'s, one
can express the above-stated invariance property as fol-
lows: Po 1f = P. Clearly, this property of P is preserved
under convex combinations. A sequence of random vari-
ables (or, equivalently, their probability distribution)
whose finite-dimensional joint laws are invariant under
permutations is called exchangeable or symmetric.
The following question may be asked: Are the con-
vex combinations of laws of independent identically-
distributed random variables the only exchangeable
probability measures? The answer is no if N < 00, and
yes if N = 00. The latter statement is De Finetti's theo-
rem. Thus, an equivalent statement of De Finetti's the-
orem is that the extremal points of the convex set of
exchangeable probability measures on an infinite prod-
uct space are the laws of sequences of independent
identically-distributed random variables.
DE FINETTI THEOREM
De Finetti's theorem asserts, moreover, that this con-
vex set is a simplex, i.e. any of its points is the barycen-
tre of a unique probability measure, called the mix-
ing measure, concentrated on the extremal points. This
statement remains true for probability measures that
are invariant under groups much more general than the
(finite) permutations on the natural integers, while the
product structure of the extremals seems to be specific
to the permutation group.
A slightly tronger statement is as follows: exchange-
able random variables are conditionally independent on
the O"-algebra at infinity.
The following inequality, which might be called the
conditional De Finetti theorem and is valid for any
finite sequence of exchangeable random variables, ex-
plains why De Finetti's theorem (in its stronger formu-
lation) holds exactly if N = 00 but only approximately
if N < 00:
IIEN(b l ... bm ) - EN(bd··· EN(bm)11 <
m2
::; ]V Ilbl ... bmll ,
where EN is the conditional expectation onto the 0"-
algebra generated by the symmetric measurable func-
tions of the first N random variables; 11·11 is the sup-
norm; and bj is a bounded measurable function of the
jth random variable (1 ::; j ::; m). Intuitively, as N -+
00, EN -+ Eoo (the conditional expectation onto the
fixed point O"-algebra of the whole permutation group),
while the right-hand side of (1) tends to zero. Thus, the
inequality (1) implies that Eoo factorizes in products of
functions of the single random variable. This is the con-
ditional independence asserted in De Finetti's theorem.
The triviality of the fixed-point O"-algebra characterizes
the extremal symmetric measures which, therefore, also
factorize. The Hewitt-Savage lemma, often quoted in
connection with De Finetti's theorem, asserts that the
fixed-point O"-algebra coincides with the tail O"-algebra,
i.e. the fixed-point O"-algebra of the shift (which maps the
jth random variable into the (j + 1)st), whose trivial-
ity characterizes ergodic measures (cf. Invariant mea-
sure).
De Finetti's theorem has been generalized in a num-
ber of ways, in particular:
1) for finitely-additive measures ([7], cf. also the sub-
tle counterexample in [4]);
2) replacing independence by m-dependence [8];
3) for Markov chains [3];
4) for conditional expectations rather than measures;
for a continuous (even multi-dimensional) index set
rather than N [1];
5) for measures that are quasi-invariant, rather than
invariant, under the permutation group;
212
6) to quantum versions [10].
Moreover, active research is still (1996) devoted to the
problem of characterizing the extremal points of various
types of symmetric finite sequences of random variables,
the so-called finite De Finetti theorem.
Since the symmetric random variables are convex
combinations of independent identically-distributed ran-
dom variables, many theorems (e.g. limit theorems)
which are valid for the latter continue to be true for the
former; however, the corresponding proofs often require
additional ingenuity.
In physics, the main application of De Finetti's theo-
rem is to the so-called mean field models, characterized
as follows: One starts from a homogeneous product mea-
sure /to, called the free measure and interpreted as the
distribution of a sequence of independent identically-
distributed random variables (X j ). One perturbs it by
a Radon Nikodym density (Gibbs factor) of the form
(1) exp{ - H N }/ Z N, where Z N is a normalization factor and
HN is a function of Xl + ... + X N . Such a function is
called a mean field type interaction (when the sum is re-
placed by an arbitrary symmetric function of the Xj's,
one speaks of generalized mean field models). Under mild
growth conditions on the H N, the sequence of perturbed
probability measures
exp{ -HN} )
/tN=/to ( ZN .
has a limit which is necessarily a symmetric probability
measure hence, by De Finetti's theorem, the barycen-
tre of a family of homogeneous product measures. The
a priori knowledge of the structure of the limit and the
simplicity of this structure allows one to calculate or
estimate explicitly many quantities of physical interest.
The multi-dimensional and the m-dependent versions
of De Finetti's theorem have both been proved directly
by a quantum probabilistic approach (a further confir-
mation of the fruitfulness of this approach for most tra-
ditional problems in classical probability; cf. Quantum
probability) .
The independent increment stationary processes are
the continuous analogue of the independent identically-
distributed sequences. Moreover, on the general class
of increment processes, i.e. random-variable-valued
finitely-additive measures indexed by bounded closed in-
tervals of R, one can naturally define an action of the
permutation group by permuting among themselves in-
tervals that are translates of each another. An increment
process is called exchangeable if it is invariant under
the above-mentioned action of the permutation group.
The continuous version of De Finetti's theorem asserts
that the extremal points of an exchangeable increment
process are independent increment stationary processes.

With minor verbal changes in the assumptions, the re-
sult can be extended by replacing the I-dimensional in-
dex set R, acted upon by translations, by a more general
topological space acted upon by a more general group.
A natural generalization of the notion of indepen-
dence is the notion of m-dependence. A sequence (Xj)
of random variables is called m-dependent (cf. m-
dependent process) if the random variables whose
indices are more than m apart are independent. This
means that, for any natural integer K and for any se-
quence of intervals [m1' n1], ... ,[mK, nK] ~ N such
that
dist([m""n",], [m"",n",/])?: m
if [m"" n",] "# [m"", n",/] (a, a' = 1, ... ,K), the blocks
of random variables (X j ), j E [m""n",], a = 1, ... ,K,
are independent (these definitions are formulated so as
to make clear the multi-dimensional generalization).
The sequence (Xj) is called m-symmetric if, for any
KEN and for any permutation 7r on {I, ... ,K}, one
has
<p(a[7I"(mt},7I"(nt}]··· a[7I"(mK),7I"(nK)]) =
= <p(a[m"n,]'" a[mK,nK])
for any function a[mj,nj] of the random variables X""
a E [mj,nj] (j = 1, ... ,K).
Clearly, I-independence is usual independence.
Denote by Sm the set of all shift-invariant m-
symmetric probability measures with the weak topology.
The De Finetti theorem for m-symmetric random vari-
ables states that the closed extremal boundary of the
compact convex set Sm consists of all the shift-invariant
m-dependent states. Every <p E Sm admits an integral
decomposition
<p(a) = I p(a) dl/(p) (a E A)
with a unique probability Radon measure 1/ on the shift-
invariant m-dependent states.
The proof [8] depends on Ressel's characterization
of completely positive-definite bounded functions on an
Abelian semi-group S, [9]' according to which for any
such function there exists a unique Radon measure 1/
over the space of non-negative semi-characters on S such
that F(s) = I p(s) dl/(p), Recall that, for an Abelian
semi-group S written additively, a function f: S ---+ C
is called completely positive-definite if 'E.7,k CjckF( s +
Sj + Sk) ?: 0 for all n ?: 1, S,Sl, ... ,Sn E Sand
C1, ... ,Cn E C and that a semi-character is a function
p: S ---+ C for which p(s + t) = p(s)p(t) and p(O) = 1. ;
References
[1] ACCARDI, L., AND Lu, Y.G.: 'A continuous version of De
Finetti's theorem', Ann. of Probab. 21 (1993), 1478-1493.
DE HAAN THEORY
[2] BiiHLMAN, ?: 'Austauschbare Stochastische Variablen und
ihre Grenzwertsatze', Univ. California Publ. Stat. (1960),31-
36.
[3] DIACONIS, P., AND FREEDMAN, D.: 'A dozen De Finetti-style
results in search of a theory', Ann. [nst. Henri Poincare
Suppl. au N.2 23 (1987),397-423.
[4] DUBINS, L.E., AND FREEDMAN, D.A.: 'Exchangeable pro-
cesses need not be mixtures of independent, identically dis-
tributed random variables', Z. Wahrscheinlichkeitsth. verw.
Gebiete 48 (1979), 115-132.
[5] FREEDMAN, D.A.: 'Invariance under mixing which general-
ize De Finetti's theorem: continuous time parameter', Ann.
Math. Stat. 33 (1962), 916-923.
[6] FREEDMAN, D.A.: 'Invariance under mixing which general-
ize De Finetti's theorem: continuous time parameter', Ann.
Math. Stat. 34 (1963), 1194-1216.
[7] HEWITT, E., AND SAVAGE, L.F.: 'Symmetric measures on
Cartesian products', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 80 (1955),
470-501.
[8] PETZ, D.: 'A De Finetti-type theorem with m-dependent
states', Prob. Th. Rei. Fields 85 (1990),65-72.
[9] RESSEL, P.: 'De Finetti-type theorems: an analytical ap-
proach', Ann. of Probab. 13 (1985),898-922.
[10] STORMER, E.: 'Symmetric states of infinite tensor products
of CO-algebras', J. Funct. Anal. 3 (1969),48-68.
L. Accardi
MSC 1991: 60G09
DE HAAN THEORY - A branch of the theory of reg-
ular variation, initiated in 1930 by the Yugoslav math-
ematician J. Karamata. This theory studies asymptotic
relations of the form
f(>.x)
f(x) ---+ g(>.) E (0,00) (x ---+ 00), V>' > 0, (1)
and has many interesting properties. For instance, under
mild conditions (e.g., f measurable) one has: i) uniform
convergence on compact >.-sets in (0,00); ii) g(>.) == >,P
for some p. In this case f is said to vary regularly with
index p:
One can work instead with the more general relation
f(>'X;(:/(x) ---+ h(>') E R (x ---+ 00), V>' > 0, (2)
the case 9 == 1 of which (the 'Karamata case') reduces
to (1) on exponentiation and change of notation. This
theory goes back to R. Bojanic and Karamata in techni-
cal reports of 1963, but was studied extensively by L. de
Haan [2] in his 1970 thesis and subsequently. One finds
that 9 varies regularly: 9 E Rp. If p "# 0, nothing new is
obtained, but p = 0 leads to a new function class, the de
Haan class II, a proper subset of RD. It, and the class
r containing inverses of its members, have been studied
in detail (uniform convergence theorem as above, etc.);
see e.g. [1, Chap. 3].
The resulting theory (de Haan theory) is both a di-
rect generalization of the Karamata theory above and
213
DE HAAN THEORY
what is needed to fill certain gaps, or boundary cases,
in Karamata's main theorem. The original motivation
was probabilistic, arising (following the disastrous floods
in the Netherlands in 1953) in the study of extreme
values (of sea levels, wind speeds, etc.). This study of
extremes goes back to R.A. Fisher and L.H.C. Tip-
pett in 1928, and was known to lead to three types
of limit distribution, the Wei bull distribution wex ,
(0: > 0), the Frichet distribution <I> ex (0: > 0) and the
Gumbel distribution (or double-exponential distribution)
A(x) = exp( _e- X ). It was known from earlier work,
using Karamata theory, which distributions lead to
Weibull or Frechet limits. The original motivation for
de Haan theory, and its first achievement, was a cor-
respondingly complete solution for the case of Gumbel
limits ([2]; [1, §8.13]). This case is particularly impor-
tant in applications, as it includes so many commonly
occurring cases, including the normal distributions (cf.
Normal distribution). It is also needed for related
problems such as those of the statistics of records. An ex-
tensive theory of the probability and statistics involved
in extremes has now been developed (see e.g. [3], [4]).
This is largely complete in the classical case (indepen-
dent readings, one dimension), and has been much stud-
ied also in more general settings (dependence, higher
dimensions) .
De Haan theory is also powerful within pure math-
ematics. For instance, it leads to a particularly rapid
proof of the prime number theorem (see e.g. [1, §6.2];
see also de la Vallee-Poussin theorem), among many
other things.
References
[1] BINGHAM, N.H., GOLDIE, C.M., AND TEUGELS, J.L: Regular
variation, second ed:, Vol. 27 of Encycl. Math. Appl., Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1989.
[2] HAAN, L. DE: On regular variation and its application to
the weak convergence of sample extremes, Vol. 32 of Tracts,
Math. Centre, Amsterdam, 1970.
[3] LEADBETTER, M.R., LINDGREN, G., AND ROOTZEN, H.: Ex-
tremes and related properties of random sequences and pro-
cesses, Springer, 1983.
[4] RESNICK, S.I.: Extreme values, regular variation and point
processes, Springer, 1987.
N.H. Bingham
MSC 1991: 26A12, 60G70
DE SITTER SPACE, complete space-like submani-
folds in a - Let R;+P+1 be an (n + p + 1)-dimensional
Minkowski space of index p, i.e., R;+P+1
{(Xl, ... ,Xn+p+r) E Rn+ p+1} and is equipped with
the Lorentz metric L:~~:(dxi)2 - L:~=I(dXn+1+j)2. For
c> 0, let
S;+P(c) = {x E R;+P+1:
x~ + ... + x~+1 - X~+2 - ... - x~+P+1 = lie}.
214
Thus, S;+P (c) is an (n + p)-dimensional indefinite Rie-
mannian manifold of index p and of constant curva-
ture c. It is called an (n+p)-dimensional de Sitter space
of constant curvature c and of index p. E. Calabi, S.Y.
Cheng and S.T. Yau proved that a complete maximal
space-like hypersurface in a Minkowski space R~+1 pos-
sesses a remarkable Bernstein property. As a generaliza-
tion of the Bernstein-type problem, S. Ishihara proved
that a complete maximal space-like sub manifold in a
de Sitter space S;+P(c) is totally geodesic (cf. Totally-
geodesic manifold). It was proved by K. Akutagawa
[1], Q.M. Cheng [2] and K.G. Ramanathan that com-
plete space-like sub manifolds with parallel mean cur-
vature vector in a de Sitter space S;+P(c) are totally
umbilical (cf. also Differential geometry) if
1) H2 ~ c, when n = 2;
2) n 2 H2 < 4(n - l)c, when n ::::: 3.
The conditions 1) and 2) are best possible. When n = 2,
Akutagawa and Ramanathan constructed many exam-
ples of space-like submanifolds in Sf(c) that are not
totally umbilical. When n ::::: 3, Hl(Cr) X sn-l(C2),
where Cl = (2 - n)c and C2 = [(n - 2)/(n - l)]c, is
a complete space-like hypersurface in S~+1(c) of con-
stant mean curvature H that is not totally umbilical and
satisfies n 2H2 = 4(n - l)c. Cheng gave a characteriza-
tion of complete non-compact hypersurfaces in S~+l(C)
with n 2H2 = 4(n - l)c: a complete non-compact hy-
persurface in S~+1(c) with n 2H2 = 4(n - l)c is either
isometric to Hl(Cr) X sn-l(C2) or its Ricci curvature
is positive and the squared norm of the second fun-
damental form is a subharmonic function. Therefore,
the Cheeger-Gromoll splitting theorem implies that a
complete non-compact hypersurface M in S~+1(c) with
n 2H2 = 4(n - l)c is isometric to Hl(Cr) X sn-I(C2) if
the number of its ends is not less than 2. S. Montiel
[4] has proved that a compact space-like hypersurface in
S~+1 (c) of constant mean curvature is totally umbilical,
and Aiyama has generalized this to compact space-like
submanifolds in S;+P(c) with parallel mean curvature
vector and flat normal bundle. Complete space-like hy-
persurfaces in S~+1(c) with constant mean curvature
have also been characterized under conditions on the
squared norm of the second fundamental form.
Cf. also Anti-de Sitter space.
References
[1] AKUTAGAWA, K.: 'On space-like hypersurfaces with constant
mean curvature in the de Sitter space', Math. Z. 196 (1987),
13-19.
[2] CHENG, Q. M.: 'Complete space-like submanifolds in a de
Sitter space with parallel mean curvature vector', Math. Z.
206 (1991), 333-339.
[3] CHENG, Q. M.: 'Hypersurfaces of a Lorentz space form', Arch.
Math. 63 (1994), 271-281.

[4] MONTIEL, S.: 'An integral inequality for compact space-like
hypersurfaces in a de Sitter space and application t.o the
case of constant mean curvature', Indiana Univ. Math. J.
37 (1988), 909-917.
Qingming Cheng
MSC 1991: 53C20, 53C42
DEDEKIND COMPLETION of a Riesz space -
A Riesz space is called Dedekind complete if every
non-empty subset that is bounded from below (re-
spectively, above) has an infimum (respectively, supre-
mum). A Dedekind-complete Riesz space is automati-
cally Archimedean. Hence, so are its Riesz subspaces.
Given an Archimedean Riesz space L, a Dedekind
completion of L is a pair (M, T) where M is a Riesz
space and T: L -+ M is a mapping such that
1) M is Dedekind complete;
2) T is a Riesz isomorphism of L onto a Riesz sub-
space T(L) of M;
3) as a mapping L -+ M, T is normal, i.e., it pre-
serves arbitrary suprema and infima;
4) for all a EM,
a= sup {x E T(L): x ~ a} = inf{x E T(L): x;::: a}.
Every Archimedean Riesz space L has a Dedekind
completion, whose underlying partially ordered set
can be obtained from the MacNeille completion (cf.
Completion, MacNeille (of a partially ordered
set») of L by removing its largest and smallest ele-
ments. The Dedekind completion is unique in the follow-
ing sense. If (MI' Td and (M2' T 2) are Dedekind comple-
tions of L, then there exists a unique Riesz isomorphism
S of MI onto M2 with T2 = S 0 T I . More generally, if
(M, T) is a Dedekind completion of L, then every normal
Riesz homomorphism of L into any Dedekind-complete
Riesz space K can uniquely be extended to a normal
Riesz homomorphism M -+ K.
The Riesz spaces Lp (p,) (1 ~ p < 00) are Dedekind
complete; so is Loo (p,) if p, is a-finite. The space
C(X) (X a compact Hausdorff space) is Dedekind
complete if and only if X is extremally disconnected
(cf. Extremally-disconnected space). There are few
non-trivial instances of Riesz spaces whose Dedekind
completions are to some extent 'understood'. The
Dedekind completion of the space c of all converging
sequences is loo. That of C(X) is the quotient B(X)/N,
where B(X) is the space of all bounded Borel functions
and N is the ideal of all functions that vanish off mea-
ger sets (cf. Category of a set). (In either case, the
mapping T: L -+ M is obvious.)
A.C.M. van Rooy
MSC 1991: 46A40
DEDEKIND SUM
DEDEKIND ETA-FUNCTION - The function de-
fined by
II (1 -
00
17(z) = e7riz/12 e27rinz)
n=1
for Z E C, 1m Z > o. As the infinite product con-
verges absolutely, uniformly for z in compact sets (cf.
Uniform convergence), the function 17 is holomor-
phic (cf. Analytic function). Moreover, it satisfies
17(z + 1) = e 7ri / 12 17(Z) and 17(-l/z) = ..j-iZ17(Z). So,
17 24 is a modular form of weight 12 (cf. also Modular
group).
R. Dedekind [1] comments on computations of B. Rie-
mann in connection with theta-functions (cf. Theta-
function). He shows that it is basic to understand the
transformation behaviour of the logarithm of the func-
tion now carrying his name. This study leads him to
quantities now called Dedekind sums (cf. Dedekind
sum). See [2, Chapt. IV] for a further discussion.
References
[1] DEDEKIND, R.: 'Erliiuterungen zu den fragmenten XXVIII',
in H. WEBER (ed.): B. Riemann: Gesammelte mathematis-
ehe Werke und wissensehaftlieher Naehlass, Dover, reprint,
1953.
[2] RADEMACHER, H., AND GROSSWALD, E.: Dedekind sums,
Math. Assoc. America, 1972.
R. W. Bruggeman
MSC 1991: llF20
DEDEKIND SUM - Define ((x)) for x E R by
«m)) = 0 if m E Z, and ((x + m)) = x - 1/2 if
mE Z, 0 < x < 1. For integers c and d, with c> 0, the
Dedekind sum S (d, c) is the rational number defined by
S (d, c) = ~ ( (~)) ( ( d: ) ) .
R. Dedekind [1] showed that this quantity occurs in
the transformation behaviour of the logarithm of the
Dedekind eta-function under substitutions from the
modular group. This interpretation leads naturally to
the reciprocity relation for Dedekind sums:
d c 1
12S(d, c) + 12S(c, d) = -3 + ~ + d + cd
if c > 0 and d > 0 have greatest common divisor 1
(see also Quadratic reciprocity law). This relation
resembles the reciprocity law for power-residue sym-
bols. Several elementary proofs of this relation can be
found in [6]. These proofs exhibit other interpretations
of Dedekind sums, related to counting lattice points and
Fourier theory (cf. Geometry of numbers; Fourier
transform). There are many generalizations, see, e.g.,
[3]' [4], [5], [2], [7].
References
215
DEDEKIND SUM
[1] DEDEKIND, R.: 'Erlauterungen zu den fragmenten XXVIII',
in H. WEBER (ed.): B. Riemann: Gesammelte mathematis-
che Werke und wissenschaftlicher Nachlass, Dover, reprint,
1953.
[2] DIETER, U.: 'Cotangent sums, a further generalization of
Dedekind sums', J. Number Theory 18 (1984), 289-305.
[3] GOLDSTEIN, L.J.: 'Dedekind sums for a Fuchsian group,!',
Nagoya Math. J. 50 (1973), 21-47.
[4] GOLDSTEIN, L.J.: 'Dedekind sums for a Fuchsian group, II',
Nagoya Math. J. 53 (1974), 171-187.
[5] GOLDSTEIN, L.J.: 'Errata for Dedekind sums for a Fuchsian
group,!', Nagoya Math. J. 53 (1974), 235-237.
[6] RADEMACHER, H., AND GROSSWALD, E.: Dedekind sums,
Math. Assoc. America, 1972.
[7] SCZECH, R.: 'Dedekind symbols and power residue symbols',
Compo Math. 59 (1986), 89-112.
R. W. Bruggeman
MSC 1991: 11F20
DEFECT, ramification deficiency - An invariant of
finite extensions L I K of fields equipped with a val-
uation (cf. also Extension of a field). If a valuation
w on L is the unique extension of a valuation v on K,
then the defect (or ramification deficiency) d = d( w I v)
is defined by the formula [L : K] = d· e . f, where
[L : K] is the degree of L I K (i.e., the dimension of
L as a K-vector space), e = e(w I v) = (wL : vK) is
the ramification index and f = f (w Iv) = [Lw : K v] is
the inertia degree. Here, wL, vK denote the respective
value groups and Lw, Kv the respective residue fields.
For several extensions of v, the defect d = d( w Iv) can
be defined by [L : K] = d· e· f . g, where g is the num-
ber of distinct extensions, provided that L I K is normal
(since in that case the ramification index and the inertia
degree are the same for all extensions; cf. also Normal
extension) .
In the above cases, e, f, 9 are divisors of [L : K]. The
defect d is either equal to 1 or is a power of the charac-
teristic p of K v if p > 0; otherwise, it is always equal to 1
(this is the Ostrowski lemma, cf. Ramification theory
of valued fields).
Henselian defect. To avoid considering several valua-
tions and to have a defect available for arbitrary finite
extensions, one can pass to a Henselization (LH, w H )
of (L,w) and a Henselization (KH,vH) of (K,v) inside
(LH, w H ) (cf. Henselization of a valued field). The
Henselian defect 8(w I v) is then defined to be the de-
fect of w H I v H (by the definition of the Henselization,
w H is the unique extension of v H ). In the above cases,
8(w I v) = d(w I v).
Defectless fields. A field K with a valuation v is called
a defectless field if d( w I v) = 1 for every finite normal
extension. This holds if and only if the Henselian defect
is equal to 1 for every finite extension. It follows that
(K, v) is a defect less field if and only some Henseliza-
tion of (K, v) is (or equivalently, all Henselizations are).
216
It follows from the Ostrowski lemma that all valued
fields with residue field of characteristic 0 are defect-
less fields. Also, valued fields of characteristic 0 with
value group isomorphic to Z are defectless. Combin-
ing both facts, it is shown that finitely ramified fields,
and hence also fields with p-valuations (see p-adically
closed field), are defectless.
If a valued field does not admit any non-trivial imme-
diate extension, then it is called a maximal valued field.
Fields of formal Laurent series with their canonical
valuations are maximal. Every maximal valued field is
defectless.
Fundamental inequality. If WI, ••• ,Wm are all exten-
sions of v from K to L, then one has the fundamental
inequality
m
[L: K] ~ Le(wi I v)· f(Wi I w).
i=1
This is an equality for every finite L I K if and only if
(K, v) is defectless. Also, in general it can be written as
an equality. For this, choose Henselizations (LHi, w Hi )
of (L,Wi) and (KHi,vHi) of (K,v) inside (LHi,wHi). It
is known that
m
[L : K] = L[LHi : KHi].
i=1
Further,
[LHi: KHi] =
= d(W Hi I V Hi ) . e(w Hi I v Hi ) . f(W Hi I v Hi ).
Since Henselizations are immediate extensions, e( w Hi I
v Hi ) = e(w I v) and f(W Hi I v Hi ) = f(w I v). By defini-
tion, d(W Hi I v Hi ) = 8(Wi I v). Hence,
m
[L: K] = L8(Wi I v)· e(wi I v)· f(Wi I w).
i=1
Several other notions of defects were introduced. For
a detailed theory of the defect, see [1]. See also Valued
function field.
References
[1] KUHLMANN, F.-V.: Valuation theory of fields, abelian
groups and modules, Algebra, Logic and Applications. Gor-
don&Breach, forthcoming.
F.- V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 11S15, 12J20
DEFECT GROUP OF A BLOCK - Let R be a com-
mutative ring, let A be an R-algebra, and let G be a
group. Then A is said to be G-algebra if G acts as a
group of R-algebra automorphisms of A. Expressed oth-
erwise, each 9 E G acts on each a E A to give 9 a E A
such that this G-action makes A into a left RG-module
and 9(ab) = 9a9b for all a, bE A, 9 E G. Assume that H
is a subgroup of G. It is customary to write AH for the

subalgebra of A consisting of all a E A for which ha = a
for all h E H. The group algebra RG is a G-algebra.
Indeed, for any x E RG and g E G, define 9X = gxg- l .
Then RG becomes a G-algebra over R. Further exam-
ples of G-algebras can be found in [5].
Let A be a G-algebra over R, where G is a finite
group, let H <;;; K be subgroups of G, and let T be
a left transversal for H in K (i.e., T picks out one el-
ement in each (e.g., left) coset of H in K; thus, it is
a transversal of the system of subsets consisting of the
(left) cosets; cf. also Combinatorial analysis). Then
the mapping Tr~: AH -+ A K , a f-t LtET t a , is R-linear
and is independent of the choice of T. It is customary to
refer to Tr~ as the relative trace mapping and to denote
the image of Tr~ by A~. Let e be a primitive idempo-
tent of A G. A subgroup D of G is called a defect group
of e if D is a minimal element in the set of subgroups
H of G such that e E A~. Such a subgroup D exists
because the set of all subgroups H of G with e E A~
contains G, and hence is non-empty. In the special case
where A = RG it is clear that e is a block idempotent of
RG (cf. Block). For this reason the defect groups of e
are also called the defect groups of the block B = RGe.
Again let G be a finite group, let A be a G-algebra
over R, and let e be a primitive idempotent of A G. De-
note by D a defect group of e and assume that A G is
semi-perfect (e.g., A is a finitely generated R-module
and R is a complete Noetherian semi-local ring, cf. also
Noetherian ring; Local ring). If H is a subgroup of
G such that e E A~, then D <;;; gHg- l for some g E G.
Moreover, a subgroup K of G is a defect group of e if
and only if K is G-conjugate to D. In the most impor-
tant case where char(R/ J(R)) = p (p a prime number),
D turns out to be a p-subgroup of G (see [5]).
Let R be a complete Noetherian semi-local ring such
that char(R/ J(R)) = p (p a prime number) and let B
be a block of RG. Then a defect group of B is a p-
subgroup of G. Thus, if D is a defect group of B, then
IDI = pd for some integer d?: O. The integer d is called
the defect of B. The study of defect groups of blocks of
RG is especially important in the following cases:
• R is a complete discrete valuation ring of charac-
teristic 0 with R/ J(R) of prime characteristic p;
• R is a field of prime characteristic p (see [1], [2],
[3], [4], [5]).
The ring-theoretic structure of blocks of RG is closely
related to the structure of their defect groups. The most
extensive coverage of this topic can be found in [5]. For
various applications to the modular representation the-
ory of groups, see also [5]. There is no doubt that the
current theory of defect groups of blocks will be signif-
icantly strengthened in the future, and that the field
DEHN SURGERY
contains untapped reserves rich enough to ensure ma-
jor strikes. For various open problems and the current
(1996) state of the subject, see [5].
References
[IJ KARPILOVSKY, G.: Group representations, Vol. 1, North-
Holland, 1992.
[2J KARPILOVSKY, G.: Group representations, Vol. 2, North-
Holland, 1993.
[3J KARPILOVSKY, G.: Group representations, Vol. 3, North-
Holland, 1994.
[4J KARPILOVSKY, G.: Group representations, Vol. 4, North-
Holland, 1995.
[5J KARPILOVSKY, G.: Group representations, Vol. 5, North-
Holland, 1996.
G. Karpilovsky
MSC199l: 16W20, 20C20
DEFECTIVE MATRIX - A matrix A E cnxn is
called non-defective if it has a set of n independent
eigenvectors (cf. Eigen vector). Otherwise it is called
defective. The notion is of particular importance in nu-
merical linear algebra.
References
[IJ YOUNG, D.M., AND GREGORY, R.T.: A survey of numerical
mathematics, Vol. 2, Dover, reprint, 1988.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 15A18, 65Fxx
DEHN SURGERY - Let M be a closed 3-dimensional
manifold and let N be a solid torus in the interior of M.
Remove Int N from M and glue in instead of it another
solid torus Nl by a homeomorphism h: aNI -+ aN.
One says that the resulting new 3-dimensional manifold
is obtained from M by a Dehn surgery. Note that Ml is
determined by the following data: 1) a knot K c M (a
core circle {*} X SI of the solid torus N = D2 X SI, cf.
also Knot theory); and 2) a non-trivial simple closed
curve 1 c aN (the image under h of a meridian of Nd.
The Dehn surgery is called integer if 1 is a longitude of
N, i.e., 1 intersects a meridional curve of N transversally
in a single point.
If M = S3, then among all longitudes of N there is a
preferred one, which bounds a surface in the complement
of N. The preferred longitude 10 forms together with a
meridian m of N a coordinate system on aN. Therefore,
1 has the form l = mP1Z, where p, q are coprime integers,
and is determined by the rational number r = p / q. The
Dehn surgery is integer if and only if r is an integer.
This explains the terminology.
Let H, H' be two handle-bodies having the same
genus (cf. Handle theory) and let h: aH -+ aH '
be a homeomorphism. Denote by M the closed 3-
dimensional manifold H nh H' obtained by gluing H
and H' along h. Choose a simple closed curve s c aH
217
DEHN SURGERY
and denote by 7s the Dehn twist along s. To be more
precise,7s is a homeomorphism 8H -+ 8H obtained by
cutting 8H along s, isotopically rotating one side of the
cut by 27r, and gluing back. Let M1 = H nhrs H'. Since
hand h7s coincide outside a neighbourhood of s in 8H,
M and M1 do actually coincide outside regular neigh-
bourhoods of s in M and M 1 , respectively. It follows
that M1 is obtained from M by a Dehn surgery along s.
One can easily show that the surgery is integer.
Define a framed link L to be a link L C S3 such that
every component K of L is supplied with an integer
number 'P(K), called a framing. If one performs Dehn
surgeries along all components of L, taking for each com-
ponent K c L the framing 'P(K) as the parameter r of
the surgery, one obtains a 3-dimensional manifold X(L).
Since any orientation-preserving homeomorphism of the
boundary of a handle-body is isotopic to a product of
Dehn twists [4], it follows from the above relation be-
tween Dehn twists and integer Dehn surgeries that for
every closed orient able 3-dimensional manifold M there
exists a framed link L C S3 such that M = X(L).
The following question naturally arises: When do two
framed links determine homeomorphic 3-dimensional
manifolds? In 1978 R. Kirby answered this question by
showing that X(L 1 ) = X(L 2 ) if and only if one can pass
from L1 to L2 by a sequence of the following moves and
their inverses [3]:
°
°
1) replace L by the link L U 0, where is a new
unknotted component with framing ±1 such that is
contained in a 3-dimensional ball B3 C S3, B3 n L = 0;
2) replace a component Ii C L by a geometric sum
Ii + lj, i i- j, of Ii with another component lj C L (see
[3] for the exact definition of the geometric sum).
This result became broadly known as the Kirby cal-
culus for framed links, thanks to its convenience for pre-
senting 3-dimensional manifolds.
Recall that a framing of a knot K C S3 determines a
homeomorphism h of the standard solid torus D2 X Sl
onto a regular neighbourhood N of K. Denote by W4(K)
the 4-dimensional manifold B4 Uh H4 obtained by at-
taching a 4-dimensional handle H of index 2 to the
4-dimensional ball via the homeomorphism h between
D2 x Sl C D2 X D2 = H4 and N C S3 = 8D4. It
follows from the definition that 8W4(K) = X(K). Sim-
ilarly, for any framed link L the 3-dimensional mani-
fold X(L) is the boundary of the 4-dimensional manifold
W4(L) obtained by attaching handles of index 2 to the 4-
dimensional ball. Move 1) on L corresponds to replacing
W(L) by a connected sum of W(L) with ±CP2. Move
2) corresponds to a sliding of one handle of index 2 over
another and does not change W(L). One can show that
any framed link in S3 can be transformed by moves 1),
218
2) and their inverses to a link with even framings [2]. In
the latter case the tangent bundle of the corresponding
4-dimensional manifold is trivial.
See [1] for more details.
References
[1] FOMENKO, A.T., AND MATVEEV, S.V.: Algorithmic and com-
puter methods in three dimensional topology, Kluwer Acad.
Pub!., 1997.
[2] KAPLAN, S.: 'Constructing framed 4-manifolds with given
almost framed boundaries', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 254
(1979), 237-263.
[3] KIRBY, R.: 'A calculus for framed links in S3" Invent. Math.
45 (1978), 35-56.
[4] LICKORISH, W.B.R.: 'A representation of orientable combi-
natorial 3-manifolds', Ann. Math 76 (1962),531-540.
S. V. M atveev
MSC 1991: 57M25
DELANGE THEOREM - In 1961 H. Delange (see
[1]) proved that a multiplicative arithmetic func-
tion f: N -+ C of modulus Ifl : : ; 1 possesses a non-zero
mean value
M(f) = lim
x--+oo
~.
X
L f(n)
n:::x
if and only if:
i) the Delange series
Sl(f) = L -.
1
P
(f(p) - 1),
p
extended over the primes, is convergent; and
ii) all the factors 2:.':=op-k·f(pk) ofthe Euler prod-
uct of 2:.:=1 n- S • f(n) are non-zero.
Since If I ::::; 1, condition ii) is automatically true for
every prime p > 2. In [2] this theorem was sharpened.
An elegant proof of the implication 'i) and ii) :::} M (f)
exists', using the 1\min-Kubilius inequality, is due to A.
Renyi [4].
Using the continuity theorem for characteristic func-
tions, for a real-valued additive arithmetic func-
tion f Delange's theorem permits one to deal with the
problem of the existence of limit distributions w(x) =
limN--+oo liN· #{n::::; N: f(n) < x}.
Important extensions of Delange's theorem are due
to P.D.T.A. Elliott and H. Daboussi; these theorems
give necessary and sufficient conditions for multiplica-
tive functions f with finite semi-norm
l/q
Ilfllq = {
lim sup ~ .L
x--+oo X n:::x
If(nW
}
to possess a non-zero mean value (respectively, at least
one non-zero Fourier coefficient M(n H f(n) . exp(27ri·
air· n))). See Elliott-Daboussi theorem. See also
Wirsing theorems.

E.V. Novoselov's theory of integration for arithmetic
functions (see [3]) also leads to many results on mean
values of arithmetic functions.
References
[1] DELANGE, H.: 'Sur les fonctions arithmetiques multiplica-
tives', Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm. Sup. (3) 78 (1961), 273-304.
[2] DELANGE, H.: 'On a class of multiplicative functions', Scripta
Math. 26 (1963), 121-14l.
[3] NOVOSELOV, E.V.: 'A new method in probabilistic number
theory', Transl. Amer. Math. Soc. 52 (1966),217-275. (Izv.
Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Mat. 28 (1964),307-364.)
[4] RENYI, A.: 'A new proof of a theorem of Delange', Publ.
Math. Debrecen 12 (1965), 323-329.
w. Schwar·z
MSC 1991: llN37
DELAUNAY TRIANGULATION, Delone triangula-
tion - A very important geometric structure in compu-
tational geometry, named after B.N. Delaunay.
Let S = {PI,... ,Pn} be a generic set of n points
in Rd. The straight-line dual of the Voronol diagram
generated by S is a triangulation of S, called the De-
launay triangulation and usually denoted by DT(S).
The Delaunay triangulation of S is triangulation of the
convex hull of Sin Rd and the set of vertices of DT(S)
is S.
One of the equivalent definitions for DT(S) is as fol-
lows: DT(S) is a triangulation of S satisfying the 'empty
sphere property', i.e. no d-simplex of the triangulation
of its circumsphere has a point of S in its interior.
References
[1] EDELSBRUNNER, H.: Algorithms in combinatorial geometry,
Springer, 1987.
[2] OKABE, A., BOOTS, B., AND SUGIHARA, K.: Spatial tessella-
tions: concepts and applications of Voronoi diagrams, Wiley,
1992.
[3] PREPARATA, F.P., AND SHAMOS, M.l.: Computational geom-
etry: an introduction, Springer, 1985.
O.R. Musin
MSC 1991: 68U05
DENSITY TOPOLOGY - The density topology Td
on R is the family of all X C R with the property that
every x E X is a density point of X, i.e., such that
.
11m mi(Xn(x-h,x+h))
=1
h---+O+ 2h ' duced by W. Wilczynski [10], is called the I-density
where mi stands for the Lebesgue inner measure (cf.
Lebesgue measure).
The density topology was first defined in 1952 by
O. Haupt and Ch. Pauc [7], although its study did not
start until 1961, when it was rediscovered by C. Goff-
man and D. Waterman [6]. In both cases it was intro-
duced to show that the class A of approximately con-
tinuous functions (cf. Approximate continuity) coin-
cides with the class C(Td) of all real functions that are
continuous with respect to the density topology on the
DENSITY TOPOLOGY
domain and the natural topology on the range. Thus,
in a way, the density topology has been present in real
analysis since 1915, when A. Denjoy defined and studied
the class A [4]. The equation A = C(Td) shows the im-
portance of the density topology in real analysis, since
the class A is strongly tied to the theory of Lebesgue
integration and differentiation. For example, a bounded
function is approximately continuous if and only if it is
a derivative.
The topological properties of the density topology on
R are known quite well. Every X E Td is Lebesgue
measurable. The topology is connected, completely
regular but not normal (cf. also Connected space;
Completely-regular space; Normal space). A set
S c R is Td-nowhere dense if and only if it has Lebesgue
measure zero (cf. Nowhere-dense set). Also, R con-
sidered with the bitopological structure [8] of the den-
sity and natural topologies is normal in the bitopologi-
cal sense. (This is known as the Luzin-Menshov theorem
[1].)
The density topology on R n for n 2: 2 is also defined
from the notion of a density point. However, in this case
there are different notions of the density point, depend-
ing on different neighbourhood bases at the point. For
example, all points x E X c R 2 satisfying the condition
.
11m mi(X n S)
-1
diam(S)---+O mi(S) - ,
where the sets S are chosen among the squares cen-
tred at x, are called ordinary density points of X. This
leads to the ordinary density topology on R2 [9]. Simi-
larly, by choosing the sets S from the family of all rect-
angles centred at x with sides parallel to the axes one
obtains the strong density points [9] and strong density
topology. The ordinary density topology is completely
regular, unlike the strong density topology [5] (cf. also
Completely-regular space). However, from the real
analysis point of view, the strong density topology is
usually more useful [3].
A category analogue of the density topology, intro-
topology. It is Hausdorff, but not regular (cf. Haus-
dorff space; Regular space). The weak topology
generated by the class of all I-approximately continu-
ous functions is known as the deep I-density topology. It
is completely regular, but not normal (cf. Completely-
regular space; Normal space).
Most of the topological information concerning the
topologies Td and its category analogues can be found
in [2]. This monograph contains an exhaustive study of
sixteen different classes of continuous functions (from R
219
DENSITY TOPOLOGY
to R) that can be formed by putting the natural topol-
ogy or either of these density topologies on the domain
and the range.
References
[1] BRUCKNER, A.M.: Differentiation of real functions, Vol. 5 of
CMR Series, Amer. Math. Soc., 1994.
[2] CIESIELSKI, K., LARSON, L., AND OSTASZEWSKI, K.: I-density
continuous functions, Vol. 107 of Memoirs, Amer. Math.
Soc., 1994.
[3] GUZMAN, M. DE: Differentiation of integrals in R n, Vol. 481
of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1975.
[4] DENJOY, A.: 'Memoire sur les derives des fonctions contin-
ues', J. Math. Pures Appl. 1 (1915), 105-240.
[5] GOFFMAN, C., NEUGEBAUER, C.J., AND NISHIlIRA, T.: 'Den-
sity topology and approximate continuity', Duke Math. J. 28
(1961), 497-506.
[6] GOFFMAN, C., AND WATERMAN, D.: 'Approximately contin-
uous transformations', Proc. Amer'. Math. Soc. 12 (1961),
116-121.
[7] HAUPT, 0., AND PAUC, CH.: 'La topologie de Denjoy en-
visagee comme vraie topologie', C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 234
(1952), 390--392.
[8] KELLY, W.C.: 'Bitopological spaces', Proc. London Math.
Soc. 13 (1963), 71-89.
[9] SAKS, S.: Theory of the integral, Monografie Mat. PWN,
1937.
[10] W. WILCZYNSKI: 'A generalization of the density topology',
Real Anal. Exchange 8 (1982-82), 16-20.
K. Ciesielski
MSC 1991: 26A15
DEPTH-FIRST SEARCH, DFS - A method of
searching a finite directed or undirected graph G =
(V, E) along the edges of the graph and numbering
its vertices. Depth-first search on undirected connected
graphs works recursively, starting with an arbitrary ver-
tex with DFS number 1 and, having numbered k vertices
already, an unnumbered neighbour w of vertex v with
number k will obtain number k + 1 and defines a tree
edge from w to v until all vertices are numbered. At
the end the set of these tree edges represents a span-
ning tree of G. When depth-first search reaches a vertex
v all of whose neighbours are already numbered and v
has a DFS number larger than 1, then depth-first search
backtracks one step to the predecessor w of v along the
corresponding tree edge and tries to find a next unnum-
bered neighbour of w. If the graph is not connected (cf.
Graph, connectivity of a), then the procedure starts
again on every connected component of the graph. For
directed graphs the procedure is more complicated but
similar.
For the special case of binary trees this numbering is
known as pre-order, a vertex ordering which plays an
important role in computer science.
Depth-first search can be implemented in linear time
O(IVI + lEI) by using a representation of the graph as
linked adjacency lists. Basing on depth-first search one
220
can determine the 2-connected components of an undi-
rected graph as well as the strongly connected compo-
nents of a directed graph in linear time (cf. [1]). There
are other, deep applications of depth-first search; for ex-
ample, planarity of graphs (cf. Graph, planar) can be
recognized in linear time using depth-first search [5].
References
[1] AHO, A.V., HOPCROFT, J.E., AND ULLMAN, J.D.: The design
and analysis of computer algorithms, Addison-Wesley, 1976.
[2] CORMEN, '!'.H., LEISERSON, C.E., AND RIVEST, R.L.: Intro-
duction to algorithms, MIT & McGraw-Hill, 1990.
[3] EVEN, S.: Graph algorithms, Computer Sci. Press, 1979.
[4] HOPCROFT, J.E., AND TARJAN, R.E.: 'Efficient algorithms for
graph manipulation', Comm. ACM 16 (1973), 372-378.
[5] HOPCROFT, J.E., AND TARJAN, R.E.: 'Efficient planarity test-
ing', J. ACM 21 (1971), 549-568.
[6] MEHLHORN, K.: Graph algorithms and NP-completeness,
Vol. 2, Springer, 1984.
A. Brandstadt
MSC 1991: 05Cxx, 68R10
DESIGN WITH MUTUALLY ORTHOGONAL RES-
OLUTIONS A combinatorial design D (cf. also Block
design) with replication number r is said to be JL-
7'esolvable if the blocks of D can be partitioned into
classes (called JL-7'esolution classes) R J , ••• ,Rt (t =
7' / JL) such that each element of D is contained in pre-
cisely II blocks of each class. If JL = 1, the design is called
7'esolvable. Two II-resolutions Rand R' of D are called
odhogonal if IR i. n Rj I ::; 1 for all Ri E R, Rj E R'.
(It should be noted that the blocks of the design are
considered as being labeled so that if a subset of the el-
ement set occurs as a block more than once, the blocks
are treated as being distinct.) A set Q = {R 1 , .. . ,Rd}
of d II-resolutions of D is called a set of mutually orthog-
onal JL-r'esolutions if the JL-resolutions of Q are pairwise
orthogonal. If JL = 1, Q is a set of mutually orthogonal
resolutions. If d = 2 and It = 1, the design is called
doubly 7'esolvable.
The existence of a Room square of side n is equiva-
lent to the existence of a doubly resolvable (n + 1,2,1)-
BlBD (d. also Block design). The rows form one reso-
lution and the columns form an orthogonal resolution. A
Room d-cube of side n is a d-dimensional array, each cell
of which either is empty or contains an unordered pair of
elements, such that each two-dimensional projection is a
Room square of side n. The existence of a Room d-cube
of side n is equivalent to the existence of a set of d mu-
tually orthogonal resolutions of an (n + 1, 2, I)-BIBD. A
pair of orthogonal JL-resolutions of a (v, k, A)-BIBD can
also be used to construct an array, a Ki7'kman squa7'e
KSdv; JL, A).
An important open question in design theory is de-
termining a good upper bound for d, where d is the size
of the largest set of mutually orthogonal resolutions for

a design. The case for Room cubes has received consid-
erable attention. Let v(n) denote the maximum d for
which there exists a Room d-cube of side n. A simple
counting argument gives v(n) ::; n - 2. However, evi-
dence from small designs and constructions supports a
conjecture (from 1973) that v(n) ::; (n -1)/2. This con-
jecture and a good upper bound for v(n) remain open
problems (1996), [3].
In general, very little is known about the existence
of designs with mutually orthogonal resolutions. Neces-
sary and sufficient conditions are known for the exis-
tence of Kirkman squares with block size two and for
Room squares; see [3] for references. Results on Room
d-cubes can also be found in [3]. Results for balanced
incomplete block designs with block size k 2: 3 can be
found in [2], [6], [4], and existence results and bounds
for other types of designs can be found in [7].
Partial resolutions can also be used in place of res-
olutions in the definitions above. Examples of such de-
signs include (v, k, k-1)-BIBDs with mutually orthogo-
nal near resolutions (see [5]) and frames which use group
divisible designs (see [3], [6], [5]).
For recent results on resolvable designs, see [1].
The terminology has not yet been standardized for
the arrays constructed from designs with mutually or-
thogonal resolutions. Generalized Room squares, Kirk-
man cubes, and multi-dimensional Kirkman arrays all
refer to designs with mutually orthogonal resolutions.
References
[1] ABEL, R.J.R., AND FURINO, S.C.: 'Resolvable and near re-
solvable designs', in C.J. COLBOURN AND J.R. DINITZ (eds.):
CRC Handbook of Combinatorial Designs, CRC Press, 1996,
pp.87-94.
[2] COLBOURN, C.J., AND ROSA, A.: 'Orthogonal resolutions of
triple systems', Australasian J. Combin. 12 (1995), 259-269.
[3] DINITZ, J.R., AND STINSON, D.R.: 'Room squares and related
designs', in J.R. DINITZ AND D.R. STINSON (eds.): Contem-
porary Design Theory: A Collection of Surveys, Wiley, 1992,
pp. 137-204.
[4] LAMKEN, E.R.: 'Constructions for resolvable and near resolv-
able (v, k, .>..)-BIBDs', in D.K. RAy-CHAUDHURI (ed.): Cod-
ing Theory and Design Theory. Part II. Design Theory,
Springer, 1990, pp. 236-250.
[5] LAMKEN, E.R.: 'The existence of doubly near resolvable
(v,3,2)-BIBDs', J. Combin. Designs 2 (1994), 427-440.
[6] LAMKEN, E.R.: 'The existence of doubly resolvable (tI, 3, 2)-
BIBDs', J. Combin. Th. A 72 (1995), 50-76.
[7] LAMKEN, E.R., AND VANSTONE, S.A.: 'Designs with mutu-
ally orthogonal resolutions', European J. Combin. 7 (1986),
249-257.
E.R. Lamken
MSC 1991: 05B05, 05B15
DIAGRAM GEOMETRY - A diagram is like a blue-
print describing a possible combination of 2-dimensional
incidence structures in a higher-dimensional geometry
(cf. Incidence system). In this context, a geometry of
DIAGRAM GEOMETRY
rank n is a connected graph r equipped with an n-
partition e such that every maximal clique of r meets
every class of e. The vertices and the adjacency rela-
tion of r are the elements and the incidence relation
of the geometry, the cliques of r are called flags, the
neighbourhood of a non-maximal flag is its residue, the
e
classes of are called types and the type (respectively,
rank) of a residue is the set (respectively, number) of
types met by it. Given a catalogue of 'nice' geometries
of rank 2 and a symbol for each of those classes, one can
compose diagrams of any rank by those symbols. The
nodes of a diagram represent types and, by attaching
a label to the stroke connecting two types i and j or
by some other convention, one indicates which class the
residues of type {i, j} should belong to. For instance,
a simple stroke .--...
__ a double stroke t.===e-
and the 'null stroke'. • are normally used to
denote, respectively, the class of projective planes (cf.
Projective plane), the class of generalized quadran-
gles [5] (cf. also Quadrangle) and the class of general-
ized digons (generalized digons are the trivial geometry
of rank 2, where any two elements of different type are
incident). The following two diagrams are drawn accord-
ing to these conventions.
1 2 3
1)
• • •
1 2 3
2)
• •
They both represent geometries of rank 3, where the
residues of type {1,2} are projective planes and the
residues of type {I, 3} are generalized digons. However,
the residues of type {2, 3} are projective planes in 1) and
generalized quadrangles in 2). The following is a typical
problem in diagram geometry: given a diagram of such-
and-such type, classify the geometries that fit with it,
or at least the finite or flag-transitive such geometries
(a geometry r is said to be flag-transitive if Aut(r) acts
transitively on the set of maximal flags of r). In the
'best' cases the answer is as follows: the geometries un-
der consideration belong to a certain well-known family
or, possibly, arise in connection with certain small or
sporadic groups. For instance, it is not difficult to prove
that 3-dimensional projective geometries are the only
examples for the above diagram 1). On the other hand,
the following has been proved quite recently [7]: If r is a
flag-transitive example for the diagram 2) and if all rank-
1 residues of r are finite of size 2: 2, then r is either a
classical polar space [6] (arising from a non-degenerate
alternating, quadratic or Hermitian form of Witt index
3) or a uniquely determined very small geometry with
Aut(r) ==' Alt(7).
See [3] for a survey of related theorems.
References
221
DIAGRAM GEOMETRY
[1] BUEKENHOUT, F.: 'Diagrams for geometries and groups', 1.
Combin. Th. A 21 (1979), 121-151.
[2] BUEKENHOUT, F.: 'Foundations of incidence geometry', in
F. BUEKENHOUT (ed.): Handbook of Incidence Geometry,
North-Holland, 1995, pp. 63-105.
[3] BUEKENHOUT, F., AND PASINI, A.: 'Finite diagram geometries
extending buildings', in F. BUEKENHOUT (ed.): Handbook of
Incidence Geometry, North-Holland, 1995, pp. 1143-1254.
[4] PASINI, A.: Diagram geometries, Oxford Univ. Press, 1994.
[5] PAYNE, S.E., AND THAS, J .A.: Finite generalized quadrangles,
Pitman, 1984.
[6] TITS, J.: Buildings of spherical type and finite BN-pairs,
Vol. 386 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1974.
[7] YOSHIARA, S.: 'The flag-transitive C 3 geometries of finite or-
der', 1. Alg. Comb.
A. Pasini
MSC 1991: 51E24
DICKMAN FUNCTION - The unique continuous so-
lution of the system
p(u)=1 (O:Su:SI),
up'(u) = -p(u - 1) (u> 1).
The Dickman function p( u) occurs in the problem of
estimating the number W(x, y) of positive integers not
exceeding x that are free of prime factors greater than
y: for any fixed u > 0, one has W(x, x l / U ) rv p(u)x as
u --+ 00 [3], [4].
The function p(u) is positive, non-increasing and
tends to zero at a rate faster than exponential as u --+ 00.
A precise asymptotic estimate is given by the de Bruijn-
Alladi formula [1], [2]:
p(u) = (I+O(~))Je(u)
u 27r
x ifold and 1(·; x) is smooth. The expected (or Fisher)
xexp{l'-u~(U)+ l{(U) e S
S 1 dS} (u> 1),
where I' is the Euler constant and ~ (u) is the unique
positive solution of the equation e{(u) = 1 + u~(u).
References
[1] ALLADI, K.: 'The Turan-Kubilius inequality for integers with-
out large prime factors', 1. Reine Angew. Math. 335 (1982),
180-196.
[2] BRUUN, N. G. DE: 'The asymptotic behaviour of a function oc-
curring in the theory of primes', 1. Indian Math. Soc. (N.S.)
15 (1951), 25-32.
[3] BRUUN, N.G. DE: 'On the number of positive integers :S x
and free of prime factors> y', Nederl. Akad. Wetensch. Pmc.
Ser. A 54 (1951), 50-60.
[4] HILDEBRAND, A., AND TENENBAUM, G.: 'Integers without
large prime factors', 1. de Theorie des Nombres de Bordeaux
5 (1993),411-484.
A. Hildebrand
MSC 1991: llN25
DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY IN STATISTICAL
INFERENCE - Many of the key concepts and results
222
of statistical inference (cf. also Statistics) can be ex-
pressed efficiently in terms of differential geometry.
Such re-expressions have been helpful both in illuminat-
ing classical statistical procedures and in developing new
methodology. The role which differential geometry can
play in statistical theory has been realized effectively
only since the late I970s. The historical development
can be seen from [1] and [6].
Any (sufficiently regular) parametric statistical
model determines two types of geometries on the pa-
rameter space: i) expected geometries; and ii) observed
geometries. Both types are based on derivatives of the
likelihood function. Construction of the observed geome-
tries requires an appropriate auxiliary statistic. Each
of these geometries consists of a Riemannian metric
and a one-parameter family of affine connections (cf.
Affine connection) on the parameter space, together
with various higher-order geometrical objects. Observed
geometries are more directly relevant to the actual data,
whereas expected geometries are more closely related to
the underlying statistical population as a whole.
A parametric statistical model with sampling space
X is a set of probability density functions p(.; w) on X
(with respect to some dominating measure) indexed by
a parameter w in the parameter space n (cf. also Proba-
bility measure; Density of a probability distribu-
tion). Given an observation x in X, the corresponding
log-likelihood function 1(.; x) is defined by
l(w; x) = logp(x; w).
In most cases of interest, n is a differentiable man-
information i is the Riemannian metric given in terms
of some local coordinate system w = (w l , ... ,w d ) on n
by
. [81 8l]
Zrs = E owr ows '
where E[·] denotes mathematical expectation. For
a
any real a, the expected a-connection \7 ([1], [9]) is the
connection on n with Christoffel symbols (cf. Christof-
fel symbol)
a r 0 r a .ru
r st =r st + 2 z Tusb
o
where r ~t are the Christoffel symbols of the Levi-
Civita connection of the expected information, WU]
denotes the inverse matrix of i, and the expected skew-
ness tensor T rst is defined by
= E [~r o~s ~t
T rst ] .
The most important of the expected a-connections are
the I-connection (or exponential connection) and the

(-1 )-connection (or mixture connection). The connec-
a -a
tions V' and V' are dual with respect to the metric i,
I.e.
a -Q
r ~siut = r ~tius.
For the definition of observed geometries [3]' an aux-
iliary statistic a is required, such that the function
x f-+ (w, a) is bijective, where w denotes the maximum-
likelihood estimate of w (see Maximum-likelihood
method). Given the value of a, the corresponding ob-
served geometry is based on the quantities
op+ql(w; W, a)
)r, ... rp;s""Sq = owr, ... owrpow s, ... OW Sq
where l is regarded as depending on the data x through
(w, a). In particular, the observed information is the Rie-
mannian metric i given by
irs = Ir;s'
Q
The observed a-connection phas Christoffel symbols
a r 0 r a ru
:v st =:v st + '2i 1/ust,
o the differential-geometric approach to statistics are dif-
:v
where ~t are the Christoffel symbols of the Levi-Civita
connection of the observed information, [{U] denotes
the inverse matrix of i, and the observed skewness ten-
sor 1/rst is defined by
1/ rst == Ir;st - )st;ro
Q -Q
The observed connections pand p are dual with respect
to the metric i.
The expected and observed geometries can be placed
in the common setting of geometries obtained from
yokes (see [4] and Yoke). Any yoke gives rise to families
of tensors [8]. In the statistical context, these tensors
have various applications, notably in:
1) concise expressions [8] for Bartlett correction fac-
tors, which enable adjustment of the likelihood ratio
test statistic to bring its distribution close to the large-
sample asymptotic distribution;
2) expansions ([3], [5]) for the probability density
function of W.
Yokes also give rise to symplectic structures (see Sym-
plectic structure; Yoke).
An offshoot of researches into differential-geometric
aspects of statistical inference has been the exploration
of invariant Taylor expansions (see Yoke) and of gener-
alizations of tensors with transformation laws based on
those of higher-order derivatives [7]
Although differential geometry is of importance for
parametric statistical models generally, it has been par-
ticularly useful in considering the following two major
classes of models.
DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY IN STATISTICAL INFERENCE
Exponential models, which have probability density
functions of the form
p(x; w) = b(x) exp{ (w, t(x)) - K(W)}, (1)
where n is an open subset of R *d, and b: X -+ R,
t: X -+ Rd and K: n -+ R are suitable functions.
Transformation models, which are preserved under
the action of a group on X.
For exponential models the expected and observed
geometries coincide and are determined by the cumu-
lant function K. Curved exponential models have the
I form (1) but with n a submanifold of R*d. Various ap-
. '
w=w plications of differential geometry to curved exponential
models are given in [1].
In many applications the parameter space n is finite-
dimensional but the fairly recent and important area of
semi-parametric modelling has led [2] to consideration
of cases in which n is the product of a finite-dimensional
manifold and a function space.
Apart from giving rise to various developments of a
purely mathematical nature, concepts and results from
fusing into control theory, information theory, neural
networks and quantum probability. Of particular in-
terest is the connection [10] with quantum analogues of
exponential models.
References
[1] AMARI, S-I.: Differential-geometrical methods in statistics,
Vol. 28 of Lecture Notes in Statistics, Springer, 1985.
[2] AMARI, S-1., AND KAWANABE, M.: 'Information geometry of
estimating functions in semi-parametric models', Bernoulli
(1995).
[3] BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E.: 'Likelihood and observed geome-
tries', Ann. Stat. 14 (1986), 856-873.
[4] BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E.: 'Differential geometry and sta-
tistics: some mathematical aspects', Indian J. Math. 29
(1987), 335-350.
[5] BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E.: Parametric statistical models
and likelihood, Vol. 50 of Lecture Notes in Statistics, Springer,
1988.
[6] BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E., Cox, D. R., AND REID, N.: 'The
role of differential geometry in statistical theory', Int. Statist.
Rev. 54 (1986), 83-96.
[7] BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E., JuPP, P.E., AND KENDALL,
W.S.: 'Stochastic calculus, statistical asymptotics, Taylor
strings and phyla', Ann. Fac. Sci. Toulouse, Ser. G III
(1994), 5-62.
[8] BLiESILD, P.: 'Yokes and tensors derived from yokes', Ann.
Inst. Stat. Math. 43 (1991),95-113.
[9] CHENTSOV, N.N.: Statistical decision rules and optimal in-
ference, Vol. 53 of Trans. Math. Monographs, Amer. Math.
Soc., 1982.
[10] NAGAOKA, H.: 'Differential geometrical aspects of quantum
state estimation and relative entropy', Techn. Report Dept.
Math. Eng. Inf. Physics, Univ. Tokyo (1994).
P.E. Jupp
a.E. Barndorff-Nielsen
223
DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY IN STATISTICAL INFERENCE
MSC 1991: 62Fxx, 53Cxx
DIRICHLET BOUNDARY CONDITIONS, Dirichlet
conditions, Dirichlet data, boundary conditions of the
first kind - Consider a second-order partial differential
equation Lu = f on a domain D in Rn with bound-
ary S (cf. also Differential equation, partial, of the
second order). Boundary conditions of the form
u(x) = ¢(x), XES,
are called Dirichlet boundary conditions.
A boundary value problem with Dirichlet conditions
is also called a boundary value problem of the first kind
(see First boundary value problem).
See also Second boundary value problem; Neu-
mann boundary conditions; Third boundary
value problem.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 35G15
DIRICHLET PROCESS - The Dirichlet process pro-
vides one means of placing a probability distribu-
tion on the space of distribution functions, as is done
in Bayesian statistical analysis (cf. also Bayesian ap-
proach). The support of the Dirichlet process is large:
For each distribution function there is a set of distri-
butions nearby that receives positive probability. This
contrasts with a typical probability distribution on the
space of distribution functions where, for example, one
might place a probability distribution on the mean and
variance of a normal distribution. The support in this
example would be contained in the collection of normal
distributions. The large support of the Dirichlet process
accounts for its use in non-parametric Bayesian analysis.
General references are [4], [5].
The Dirichlet process is indexed by its parameter, a
non-null, finite measure a. Formally, consider a space
X with a collection of Borel sets B on X. The random
probability distribution P has a Dirichlet process prior
distribution with parameter a, denoted by Va, if for
every measurable partition {AI, ... ,Am} of X the ran-
dom vector (P(Ad, ... ,P(Am)) has the Dirichlet dis-
tribution with parameter vector (a(Ad, ... ,a(Am)).
When a prior distribution is put on X, then for every
measurable subset A of X, the quantity P(A) is a ran-
dom variable. Then ao = a/a(X) is a probability mea-
sure on X. From the definition one sees that if P rv Va,
then EP(A) = ao(A).
An alternative representation of the Dirichlet process
is given in [6]: Let BI, B 2 , .•. be independent and iden-
tically distributed Beta(l, a(X)) random variables, and
let VI, V2 , • •• be a sequence of independent and iden-
tically distributed random variables with distribution
224
ao(A), and independent of the random variables B. De-
fine Bo = 0, and Pi = Bi rt~~(1- B j ). The random
distribution 2:::1 Pi 8vi has the distribution Va' Here,
8a represents the point mass at a. This representation
makes clear the fact that the Dirichlet process assigns
probability one to the set of discrete distributions, and
emphasizes the role of the mass of the measure a. For ex-
ample, as a(X) --+ 00, Va converges to the point mass
at ao (in the weak topology induced by B); and as
a(X) --+ 0, Va converges to the random distribution
which is degenerate at a point V, whose location has
distribution ao.
The Dirichlet process is conjugate, in that if P rv Va,
and data points Xl, ... ,Xn independent and identically
drawn from P are observed, then the conditional distri-
bution of P given Xl, ... ,Xn is Va+E~l Ox i ' This con-
jugation property is an extension of the conjugacy of the
Dirichlet distribution for multinomial data. It ensures
the existence of analytical results with a simple form
for many problems. The combination of simplicity and
usefulness has given the Dirichlet process its reputation
as the standard non-parametric model for a probability
distribution on the space of distribution functions.
An important extension of the class of Dirichlet pro-
cesses is the class of mixtures of Dirichlet processes.
A mixture of Dirichlet processes is a Dirichlet pro-
cess in which the parameter measure is itself random.
In applications, the parameter measure ranges over a
finite-dimensional parametric family. Formally, one con-
siders a parametric family of probability distributions
{ao,o: () E e}. Suppose that for every () E e, ao(X) is
a positive constant, and let ao = ao(X) . ao,o. If II is
a probability distribution on e, and if, first, () is cho-
sen from II, and then P is chosen from V a8 , one says
that the prior on P is a mixture of Dirichlet processes
(with parameter ({ ao }OES, II)). A reference for this is
[1]. Often, ao(X) == M, i.e., the constants ao(X) do not
depend on (). In this case, large values of M indicate that
the prior on P is 'concentrated around the parametric
family {ao,o: () E e}'. More precisely, as M --+ 00, the
distribution of P converges to Jao,o II (d()) , the standard
Bayesian model for the parametric family {ao,o: () E e}
in which () has prior II.
The Dirichlet process has been used in many appli-
cations. A particularly interesting one is the Bayesian
hierarchical model, which is the Bayesian version of the
random effects model. A typical example is as follows.
Suppose one is studying the success of a certain type
of operation for patients from different hospitals. Sup-
pose one has ni patients in hospital i, i = 1, ... ,I. One
might model the number of failures Xi in hospital i as
a binomial distribution, with success probability de-
pending on the hospital. And one might wish to view the

I binomial parameters as being independent and iden-
tically distributed drawn from a common distribution.
The typical hierarchical model then is written as
given Oi, Xi'" Bin(ni, Oi), (1)
0i '" Beta( a, b) iid,
(a, b) '" G(·, .).
Here, the Oi are unobserved, or latent, variables. If the
distribution G was degenerate, then the Oi would be in-
dependent, so that data from one hospital would not
give any information on the success rate from any other
hospital. On the other hand, when G is not degenerate,
then data coming from the other hospitals provide some
information on the success rate of hospital i.
Consider now the problem of prediction of the num-
ber of successes for a new hospital, indexed I + 1. A
disadvantage of the model (1) is that if the Oi are inde-
pendent and identically drawn from a distribution which
is not a Beta, then even as I -+ 00, the predictive dis-
tribution of XI+I. based on the (incorrect) model (1)
need not converge to the actual predictive distribution of
XI+I. An alternative model, using a mixture of Dirichlet
processes prior, would be written as
givenOi,Xi '" Bin(ni,Oi)' (2)
Oi '" P iid,
P", 'DM.Beta(a,b),
(a, b) '" G(·, .).
The model (2) does not have the defect suffered by (1),
because the support of the distribution on P is the set
of all distributions concentrated in the interval [0,1].
It is not possible to obtain closed-form expressions
for the posterior distributions in (2). Computational
schemes to obtain these have been developed by M.
Escobar and M. West [3] and C.A. Bush and S.N.
MacEachern [2].
The parameter M plays an interesting role. When M
is small, then, with high probability, the 0i are all equal,
so that, in effect, one is working with the model in which
the Xi are independent binomial samples with the same
success probability. On the other hand, when M is large,
the model (2) is very close to (1).
It is interesting to note that when M is large and
the distribution G is degenerate, then the measure on
P is essentially degenerate, so that one is treating the
data from the hospitals as independent. Thus, when the
distribution G is degenerate, the parameter M deter-
mines the extent to which data from other hospitals is
used when making an inference about hospital I, and
in that sense plays the role of tuning parameter in the
bias-variance tradeoff of frequentist analysis.
References
DISCONCUGACY
[1] ANTONIAK, C.: 'Mixtures of Dirichlet processes with applica-
tions to Bayesian nonparametric problems', Ann. Statist. 2
(1974), 1152-1174.
[2] BUSH, C.A., AND MACEACHERN, S.N.: 'A semi-parametric
Bayesian model for randomized block designs', Biometrika
83 (1996), 275-285.
[3] ESCOBAR, M., AND WEST, M.: 'Bayesian density estimation
and inference using mixtures', J. Amer. Statist. Assoc. 90
(1995), 577-588.
[4] FERGUSON, T. S.: 'A Bayesian analysis of some non parametric
problems', Ann. Statist. 1 (1973), 209-230.
[5] FERGUSON, T.S.: 'Prior distributions on spaces of probability
measures', Ann. Statist. 2 (1974),615-629.
[6] SETHURAMAN, J.: 'A constructive definition of Dirichlet pri-
ors', Statistica Sinica 4 (1994), 639-650.
H. Doss
S.N. MacEachern
MSC 1991: 62A15
DISCONCUGACY - An nth order homogeneous lin-
ear differential operator (equation)
Ly == yen) + PI(X)y(n-l) + ... + Pn(x)y = 0 (1)
is called disconjugate on an interval I if no non-trivial
solution has n zeros on I, multiple zeros being counted
according to their multiplicity. (In the Russian literature
this is called non-oscillation on I; cf. also Oscillating
solution; Oscillating differential equation.) If (1)
has a solution with n zeros on an interval, then the infi-
mum of all values c, c > a, such that some solution has
n zeros on [a, c] is called the conjugate point of a and is
denoted by ry(a). This infimum is achieved by a solution
which has a total of at least n zeros at a and ry(a) and is
positive on (a, ry( a)). If the equation has continuous coef-
ficients, the conjugate point ry( a) is a strictly increasing,
continuous function of a. The adjoint equation has the
same conjugate point as (1). For general properties, see
[1], [7].
There are numerous explicit sufficient criteria for the
equation (1) to be disconjugate. Many of them are of
the form
n
I>k(b - a)k iiPkii < 1,
k=l
where iiPkii is some norm of Pk, I = [a, b] and Ck
are suitable constants. These are 'smallness conditions'
which express the proximity of (1) to the disconjugate
equation yen) = O. See [12].
L is disconjugate on [a, b] if and only if it has there
the P6lya factorization
Ly == Pn d~ (Pn-l ... d~ (PI d~ (Poy)) ... ), Pi > 0,
or the equivalent Mammana factorization
225
DISCONCUGACY
Among the various P6lya factorizations, the most im-
portant is the Trench canonical form [11]: If L is dis-
conjugate on (a, b), b ::; 00, then there is essentially one
factorization such that t pi l = 00, i = 1, ... ,n - l.
Disconjugacy is closely related to solvability of the de
la ValIee-Poussin multiple-point problem Ly = g,
y(i) (Xj) = aij, i = 0, ... ,rj -1, L:~ rj = n. The Green's
function of a disconjugate operator L and the related
homogeneous boundary value problem satisfies
G(X, t)
(x - XI)T' ... (x - xm)rm
> °
for Xl ::; X ::; Xm , Xl < t < Xm [7]. Another interest-
ing boundary value problem is the focal boundary value
problem y(i)(Xj) = 0, i = rj-l, ... ,rj -1, j = 1, ... ,m,
° = ro < rl < ... < r m = n - l.
For a second-order equation, the Sturm separa-
tion theorem (cf. Sturm theorem) yields that non-
oscillation (i.e., no solution has a sequence of zeros con-
verging to +00) implies that there exists a point a such
that (1) is disconjugate on [a, 00 ). For equations of order
n > 2 this conclusion holds for a class of equations [2]
but not for all equations [4].
Particular results about disconjugacy exist for vari-
ous special types of differential equations.
1) The Sturm-Liouville operator (cf.
Liouville equation)
(py')' + qy = 0, p > 0,
has been studied using the Sturm (and Sturm-Picone)
comparison theorem, the Priifer transformation and the
Riccati equation z' + q + Z2/ p = 0. It is also closely
f:
related to the positive definiteness of the quadratic func-
f: f:
tional (py,2 - qy2). See [10], [1], [5]. For example, (2)
is disconjugate on [a, b] if p-l x Iql < 4.
2) Third-order equations are studied in [3].
3) For a self-adjoint differential equation
L:~o(Pm-iy(i))(i) = 0, the existence of a solution with
two zeros of multiplicity m has been studied. Their ab-
sence is called (m, m)-disconjugacy.
°
4) Disconjugacy of the analytic equation w' +p(z)w =
in a complex domain is connected to the theory of uni-
valent functions. See [8], [5] and Univalent function.
°
5) Many particularly elegant result are available for
two-term equations y(n) + p(x)y = and their general-
°
izations Ly + p(x)y = [6], [2].
Disconjugacy has also been studied for certain
second-order linear differential systems of higher dimen-
sion [1], [9]. In the historical prologue of [9], the connec-
tion to the calculus of variations (cf. also Variational
calculus) is explained. The concepts of disconjugacy
and oscillation have also been generalized to non-linear
226
differential equations and functional-differential equa-
tions.
References
[1] COPPEL, W.A.: Disconjugacy, Vo!. 220 of Lecture Notes in
Mathematics, Springer, 1971.
[2] ELIAS, U.: Oscillation theory of two-term differential equa-
tions, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1997.
[3] GREGUS, M.: Third order linear differential equations, Rei-
del, 1987.
[4] GUSTAFSON, G. B.: 'The nonequivalence of oscillation and
nondisconjugacy', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 25 (1970), 254-
260.
[5] HILLE, E.: Lectures on ordinary differential equations,
Addison- Wesley, 1968.
[6] KIGURADZE, LT., AND CHANTURIA, T.A.: Asymptotic prop-
erties of solutions of nonautonomous ordinary differential
[7]
equations, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1993. (Translated from the
Russian.)
LEVIN, A.Yu.: 'Non-oscillation of solutions of the equation
x(n) + Pl(t)X(n-l) + ... + Pn(t)X = 0', Russian Math. Sur-
veys 24 (1969), 43-99. (Translated from the Russian.)
[8] NEHARI, Z.: 'The Schwarzian derivative and schlicht func-
tions', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 55 (1949), 545-551.
[9] REID, W.T.: Sturmian theory for ordinary differential equa-
tions, Springer, 1980.
[10] SWANSON, C.A.: Comparison and oscillatory theory of linear
differential equations, Acad. Press, 1968.
[11] TRENCH, W.F.: 'Canonical forms and principal systems for
general disconjugate equation', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 189
(1974), 319--327.
Sturm-
[12] WILLET, D.: 'Generalized de la Vallee Poussin disconjugacy
tests for linear differential equations', Canadian Math. Bull.
14 (1971), 419-428.
(2)
U. Elias
MSC 1991: 34ClO
DISCRETE EVENT SYSTEM - The theory of dis-
crete event systems, sometimes also referred to as dis-
crete event dynamic systems to emphasize the evolution
in time, encompasses a variety of classes of problems
and of modelling approaches. A succinct definition of a
discrete event system that sets such systems apart from
others is hard to give. Two key features of a discrete
event system are: i) its dynamics is event driven as op-
posed to time driven, i.e. the behaviour of a discrete
event system is governed only by occurrences of differ-
ent types of events over time rather than by ticks of a
clock; and ii) its state variables belong to a discrete (not
necessarily finite) set. Theoretical disciplines that sup-
port the study of discrete event systems include systems
theory (cf. Automatic control theory), operations
research and theoretical computer science. In this arti-
cle, three important approaches to the description and
analysis of discrete event systems will be given. It de-
pends on the field of application which one is the more
suitable to use. Common to these approaches are various

monotony properties, see [5]. Related theoretical disci-
plines are characterized by terms like queueing the-
ory, hybrid systems, Petri nets (d. Petri net), path al-
gebras, and generalized Markov processes (d. Markov
process). Applications are found specifically in the ar-
eas of flexible manufacturing, communication networks
and logistic systems.
Logical approach. Problems in which the precise or-
dering of events, and not their timing, is of interest,
which must satisfy a given set of specifications, are con-
veniently modelled within the context of the theory of
automata and formal languages (d. Formal languages
and automata). A discrete event system is typically
represented as a set of state variables that are linked by
transitions. The set of state transitions, called events,
can be considered as the alphabet of a language, and
sequences of events as words (d. Word) within that lan-
guage. An automaton can be viewed simply as a device
that generates a language by the manipulation of the
alphabet according to a specific set of rules. Control as-
pects can be added in the sense that certain events (i.e.
transitions) can be disabled by an external controller.
The resulting systems and control theory for discrete
event systems is known as supervisory control theory.
This theory addresses the synthesis of controllers (i.e.
supervisors) for discrete event systems to satisfy a set
of qualitative specifications on the admissible orderings
of the events that can be executed by the system.
Let the automaton be described by
where
• X is the set of states;
• ~ is the set of events associated with the transi-
tions;
• f: X x ~ -+ X is the partial transition function;
• ~G: X -+ 2~ is the feasible event function: ~G(x)
is the set of all events e for which f (x, e) is defined;
• Xo is the initial state;
• Xm t;;;; X is the set of marked states (upon en-
tering a marked state, the system has completed some
operation or task).
The language generated by G is denoted by L(G); L
is the language consisting of all prefixes of L. The
language marked by G is defined by Lm (G) = {s E
L(G): f(xo, s) E X m }. Let ~ be partitioned into two
disjoint subsets,
where ~c is the set of controllable events, i.e. events
that can be disabled by the supervisor, and ~uc is the
set of uncontrollable events (i.e. those events cannot be
DISCRETE EVENT SYSTEM
prevented from happening by control). Formally, a su-
pervisor is a function
S: L (G) -+ r = b E 2~: ~uc t;;;; I' } .
For each s E L(G) generated up till now by G (un-
der the control of S), S(s) n ~G(f(xo, s)) is the set of
enabled events that G can execute at its current state
f(xo, s). The resulting system of G and S is denoted
by SjG, to suggest that 'G is under the supervision of
S'. The supervisor S is said to be non-blocking if SjG
is non-blocking, i.e. L(SjG) = Lm(SjG). A principal
result is the following. Let K, the desired language, be
given and satisfy K t;;;; Lm(G) and K =I- 0. There ex-
ists a non-blocking supervisor S for G (given) such that
Lm(SjG) = K if and only if the following two conditions
hold:
1) K~uc n L(G) t;;;; K;
2) K = K n Lm (G).
References for this area are [2] and [7]. See also Control
system.
Timed approach. Modelling of discrete event systems
via the max-plus algebra approach is suitable when tim-
ing of the events plays an essential role. The starting
point is a 'linear' model, linear in the sense of the max-
plus algebra, i.e. the algebra in which the admissible
operations are maximization and addition, rather than
the more conventional addition and multiplication. The
basic system studied is defined by the recurrence rela-
tion
x(k + 1) = AX(k),
where x is an n-vector and A = {aij} an (n x n)-matrix
with elements in R U -00. The 'number' -00 has been
added because it is the neutral element with respect to
maximization. The numerical evaluation of the recur-
rence relation is completely standard, except that the
conventional addition is replaced by maximization, and
the conventional multiplication is replaced by addition.
Just as with linear recurrence relations in the conven-
tional setting, the eigenvalue and eigenvector are impor-
tant quantities to describe the behaviour of the recur-
rence relation in the max-plus algebra setting (cf. also
Eigen value). In the max-plus algebra, the inverse of
the eigenvalue is a measure for the throughput of the
system. The eigenvalue .x and eigenvector v =I- -00 in
the latter case are defined as usual, i.e. by Av = .xv,
where, however, the used operations are maximization
and addition again. Thus, one has
Associated with the recurrence relation is a weighted di-
graph with n nodes and an arc from node j to node i
227
DISCRETE EVENT SYSTEM
if aij #- -00. This graph is called the precedence graph
of A and is denoted by Q(A). If aij #- -00, then the
weight of the corresponding arc in the graph equals aij'
The mean weight of a path of Q(A) is defined as the
sum of all weights along this path (called the weight of
the path), divided by the length of this path. If such
a path happens to be a circuit, then one talks about
the mean weight of the circuit, or equivalently, the cy-
cle mean. The quantity (Ak)ij can be interpreted as the
maximum of the weights of all paths of length k that
start at node j and end at node i. A basic result is the
following. Given a square matrix A, with Q(A) strongly
connected, then A has one and only one eigenvalue and
at least one eigenvector. The eigenvalue equals the max-
imum cycle mean of Q(A), where the maximum is taken
with respect to all circuits of Q(A). A well-known nu-
merical procedure to calculate the eigenvalue is the Karp
algorithm, which reads:
\ (. (An)ij - (Ak)i j )
1\ = . max min
<=I, ... ,n k=O, ... ,n-I n- k
where An and Ak are to be evaluated in the max-plus
algebra; the other operations (subtraction and division)
are conventional ones.
Various extensions exist. If input and output terms
are added to the recurrence relation, one enters the field
of 'discrete event systems theory', which has many paral-
lels which the conventional linear systems theory. Other
extensions are, for instance, the study of systems where
the underlying algebra is more exotic than the conven-
tional or max-plus algebra, and the study of recurrence
relations where the elements aij are stochastic quanti-
ties. There is a natural relationship with the descrip-
tion of flows of tokens in so-called (timed) event graphs,
which are a special class of (timed) Petri nets. Within
the terminology of the theory of Petri nets (cf. Petri
net), it is easy to give a discrete event interpretation of
max-plus linear systems. The ith component of x(k) can
often be interpreted as the time instant at which node i
in Q(A) has become active for the kth time. Thus, the ar-
gument k refers to a counter rather than to time. Within
such applications, aij refers to the travelling time from
node j to node i, or to the holding time at node j, of
the kth token. References for this area are [2], [3] and
[1].
Stochastic approach. Yet another approach to dis-
crete event systems is given by the theory of perturba-
tion analysis. This theory is motivated by the fact that
the state trajectory (or sample path) of a discrete event
system observed under a given set of conditions contains
a surprising amount of information about the behaviour
of the system under different conditions one might be
228
interested in. This is particularly important when ana-
lytical models are unavailable or simply inadequate for
discrete event systems of considerable complexity, espe-
cially in a stochastic environment. The aim is to satisfy
a set of quantitative specifications and to optimize the
performance of a discrete event system. Two basic prob-
lems are
i) evaluate J(()) = E[L(())] for all () E 8;
ii) find () E 8 to minimize J (()) = E[ L( ())].
Here, () is some parameter to be chosen from some set 8
and J(()) is the performance measure of interest; L(()) is
the performance obtained over a specific sample path of
the system and E denotes the expectation with respect
to all w E 0, where 0 represents all random occurrences
in the system. The theory of perturbation analysis de-
scribes conditions under which L(() + tl()), where tl() is
a possibly small quantity and () + tl() E 8, can be deter-
mined from the original experiment through which L( ())
was obtained. Thus, it is not necessary to execute a new
experiment with parameter ()+tl(). Besides, a complicat-
, \:Ij,
ing factor is that the new experiment would be run with
respect to another (also unknown) w. For small tl(} one
thus obtains an estimate for {)LI{)(). The next question
to be considered is under which conditions one has
E [{)L((),w)] = {)E[L((),w)]
{)() {)()'
where the argument w has been added for clarity. This
equality refers to unbiasedness of the estimator (cf. U n-
biased estimator). For many situations this question
has been answered satisfactorily. References for this area
are [2], [4] and [6].
References
[1] BACCELLI, F.L., COHEN, G., OLSDER, G.J., , AND QUADRAT,
J.- P.: Synchronization and linearity: an algebm for discrete
event systems, Wiley, 1992.
[2] CASSANDRAS, C.G., LAFORTUNE, S., AND OLSDER, G.J.: 'In-
troduction to the modelling, control and optimization of dis-
crete event systems', in A. ISIDORI (ed.): European Control
Conference, Springer, 1995, p. 75.
[3] CUNINGHAME-GREEN, R.A.: Minimax algebm, Vo!' 166 of
Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems,
Springer, 1979.
[4] GLASSERMAN, P.: Gmdient estimation via perturbation anal-
ysis, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1991.
[5] GLASSERMAN, P., AND YAO, D.D.: Monotone structure in
discrete-event systems, Wiley, 1994.
[6] Ho, Y.C., AND CAO, X.: Perturbation analysis of discrete
event dynamic systems, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1991.
[7] RAMADGE, P.J., AND WONHAM, W.M.: 'Supervisory control
of a class of discrete event processes', SIAM J. Control and
Optimization 25 (1987), 206-230.
G.J. Olsder
MSC 1991: 93A30, 69Fxx, 90Bxx
DUNFORD-PETTIS PROPERTY - The property
of a Banach space X that every continuous operator

T: X -t Y sending bounded sets of X into relatively
weakly compact sets of Y (called weakly compact oper-
ators) also transforms weakly compact sets of X into
norm-compact sets of Y (such operators are called com-
pletely continuous; cf. also Completely-continuous
operator). In short, it requires that weakly compact
operators on X are completely continuous.
Equivalently, given weakly convergent sequences (xn)
in X and (fn) in its topological dual X', the sequence
(fn(xn))n also converges. Contrary to intuition this does
not always happen. For example, if (en) denotes the
canonical basis of 12 , then (en) is weakly convergent to
zero although en(e n ) = 1.
The property was isolated and defined by A.
Grothendieck [7] after the following classical result of
N. Dunford and B.J. Pettis [5]: For any measure J-L and
any Banach space Y, every weakly compact operator
LI (J-L) into Y is completely continuous.
This result has its roots in examples of Sirvint, S.
Kakutani, Y. Mimura and K. Yosida concerning weakly
compact non-compact operators on LI (0, 1) which could
be proven to have a compact square. The main exam-
ples of spaces having the Dunford-Pettis property are
the spaces C(K) of continuous functions on a compact
space and the spaces LI (J-L) of integrable functions on
a measure space, as well as complemented subspaces of
these spaces. Other classical function spaces having the
Dunford-Pettis property are: the Hardy space Hoo and
its higher duals (cf. also Hardy spaces); the quotient
space Ld HI and its higher duals (the space HI itself
does not have the Dunford-Pettis property, nor does its
dual BMO or its pre-dual VMO) (cf. also BMO-space;
VMO-space); the ball algebra, the poly-disc algebra
and their duals, and the spaces ck(Tn) of k-smooth
functions on the n-dimensional torus.
A classical survey on the topic is [4]. Many of the open
problems stated there have been solved by now, mainly
by J. Bourgain [3], [2], who introduced new techniques
for working with the Dunford-Pettis property, and by
M. Talagrand [12], who gave an example of a space X
with the Dunford-Pettis property such that C(K, X)
and LI (J-L, X*) fail the Dunford-Pettis property.
The Dunford-Pettis property is not easy to work
with, nor is it well understood. In general, it is difficult
to prove that a given concrete space has the property;
quoting J. Diestel: 'I know of no case where the reward
(when it comes) is easily attained'. On the question of
structure theorems, many open problems remain. One
of the most striking is as follows. When does the dual of
a space that has the Dunford-Pettis property have the
Dunford-Pettis property? It is clear that if X* has the
DUNFORD-PETTIS PROPERTY
Dunford-Pettis property, then so does X. From Rosen-
thal's h theorem it follows that if X has the Dunford-
Pettis property and does not contain h, then X' has
the Dunford-Pettis property. Stegall has shown that al-
though the space h (Ui) has the Dunford-Pettis property
(since weakly convergent sequences are norm conver-
gent), its duall oo (l'2) does not have the Dunford-Pettis
property (because it contains complemented copies of
h).
A reflexive space does not have the Dunford-
Pettis property unless it is finite-dimensional. The
Grothendieck spaces C([2), L OO (J-L) , B(S, I:), and
HOO(D) (cf. Grothendieck space) also possess the
Dunford-Pettis property (see [8], [9]).
A Banach space X is a Grothendieck space with the
Dunford-Pettis property if and only if every weak-*
convergent sequence in X' converges weakly and uni-
formly on weakly compact subsets of X, if and only
if every bounded linear operator from X into Co is
weakly compact and maps weakly compact sets into
norm-compact sets.
An interesting phenomenon about Grothendieck
spaces with the Dunford-Pettis property is that in many
cases strong convergence of operators on such a space
(cf. also Strong topology) implies uniform conver-
gence. For example, let X be a Grothendieck space with
the Dunford-Pettis property. Then:
1) X does not have a Schauder decomposition, or
equivalently, if a sequence of projections {Pn } on X con-
verges weakly to the identity operator I, then Pn = I
for n sufficiently large;
2) if the Cesaro mean n- I ~~:; Tk of an operator T
on X converges strongly, then it converges uniformly;
3) all Co-semi-groups on X are norm-continuous (see
[8], [9]);
4) all strongly continuous cosine operator functions
on X are norm-continuous [10];
5) for general ergodic systems on X, in particular,
Co-semi-groups and cosine operator functions, strong er-
godicity implies uniform ergodicity (see [11]).
References
[1] BOURGAIN, J.: 'On the Dunford-Pettis property',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 81 (1981),265-272.
[2] BOURGAIN, J.: 'The Dunford-Pettis property for the ball-
algebras, the polydisc algebra, and the Sobolev spaces', Stu-
dia Math. 77 (1984), 245-253.
[3] BOURGAIN, J.: 'New Banach space properties of the disc al-
gebra and GO"", Acta Math. 152 (1984), 1-48.
[4] DIESTEL, J.: 'A surveyor results related to the Dunford-
Pettis property': Contemp. Math., Vol. 2, Amer. Math. Soc.,
1980, pp. 15-60.
[5] DUNFORD, N., AND PETTIS, B.J.: 'Linear operations on sum-
mabie functions', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 47 (1940), 323-
392.
229
DUNFORD-PETTIS PROPERTY
[6] DUNFORD, N., AND SCHWARTZ, J.T.: Linear opemtors, Vol. I.
General theory, Wiley, reprint, 1988.
[7] GROTHENDIECK, A.: 'Sur les applications lineaires faiblement
compactes d'espaces de type G(K)', Ganad. J. Math. 5
(1953), 129-173.
[8] LOTz, H.P.: 'Tauberian theorems for operators on LOO and
similar spaces': Functional Analysis III. Surveys and Recent
Results, North-Holland, 1984.
[9] LOTz, H.P.: 'Uniform convergence of operators on LOO and
similar spaces', Math. Z. 190 (1985), 207-220.
[10] SHAW, S.-Y.: 'Asymptotic behavior of pseudoresolvents on
some Grothendieck spaces', Publ. RIMS Kyoto Univ. 24
(1988), 277-282.
[11] SHAW, S.-Y.: 'Uniform convergence of ergodic limits and ap-
proximate solutions', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 114 (1992),
405-411.
[12] TALAGRAND, M.: 'La propriete de Dunford-Pettis dans
G(K, E) et Ll (E)', lamel J. Math. 44 (1983), 317-321.
1. M. F. Castillo
S.-Y. Shaw
MSC 1991: 46Bxx, 47B07
DVORETZKY PROBLEM for random covering -
Roughly speaking, random covering is the (attempt at)
covering a given large body by means of smaller bodies
that are randomly distributed.
There is a large amount of literature on random cov-
ering. See [7] for a general approach; [13] for the fractal
aspect; [9] for the special case of small convex bodies of
given shape and size.
The Dvoretzky problem is about the circle T of length
1 and random intervals on it whose lengths 11 ,1 2 , ••• are
given (1 > II ~ 12 ~ ... > 0), and whose positions
on T are randomly distributed in the usual way. A cen-
tury ago, E. Borel already knew that when L: In = 00,
any given point of T is covered almost surely. In 1956,
A. Dvoretzky observed that this does not imply that
the whole circle is covered almost surely [2]. When
L: In = 00, the uncovered set has Lebesgue measure
zero almost surely. Is it possible to be more precise? Is it
possible to get good necessary and sufficient conditions
for covering? Is it possible to do the same in several
dimensions?
To apply the zero-one law (i.e., the probability is
either zero or one), it is slightly more convenient to con-
sider infinite coverings, meaning that each point is cov-
ered by infinitely many intervals.
After Dvoretzky, the first important systematic study
was made by P. Billard [1] (see Billard method). Us-
ing Billard's method, J.-P. Kahane was able to compute
the Hausdorff dimension of the uncovered set; for ex-
ample, this dimension is a if In = (1 - a)ln [10]. More
precise results, involving capacity with respect to a ker-
nel constructed from In, have been obtained later, in
[11].
230
A most spectacular result was obtained by L. Shepp
in 1972 [14]: covering holds if and only if the series
L 1
2" exp(h
n
+ ... + In)
diverges; for example, covering holds when In = lin.
The problem was subsequently extended in several
ways.
B. Mandelbrot has considered a similar problem on
the line, with random cutouts associated with a Pois-
son measure in a half-plane, and discovered the rela-
tion between the uncovered set and the range of the
Levy process [12]; this programme was completed by
P. Fitzsimmons, B. Fristedt and Shepp in 1985 (see
Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp theorem, [4]). In this
context, the covering condition was established already
by Shepp in 1972 [15].
M. Wschebor considered coverings or cutouts by ran-
dom sets, not necessarily intervals. His result: When the
measures are given, the best covering is realized by in-
tervals [16], [17].
J. Hoffmann-J!Ilrgensen has put forth a general frame-
work: random balls in a metric space [8]. Y. EI Helou was
able to compute the Hausdorff dimension of the uncov-
ered set when random balls of given volumes VI, V2, ...
are placed on a d-dimensional torus [10]. Fan Ai-hua has
given a necessary and sufficient condition for the cover-
ing of a given subset of an ultrametric space, a natural
question in percolation on trees [5].
The Dvoretzky problem for random balls of given vol-
umes on the torus Td is still unsolved. However, there
is a natural guess for the necessary and sufficient con-
dition, and the problem for homothetic simplices has
been completely solved by Kahane [11] (see Billard
method).
Another generalization of the Dvoretzky problem: in-
stead of the lengths h, l2' ... , suppose one is given pos-
itive functions PI,P2, ... on T. Consider the series of
random translates
(with Wn E T independent and Lebesgue distributed).
One now asks for the probability that it diverges ev-
erywhere. The Dvoretzky problem corresponds to Pn =
id[O,lnJ. The case with Pn = an id[O,lnJ is investigated in
[6]; the general case needs new ideas.
References
[1] BILLARD, P.: 'Series de Fourier aIeatoirement bornees, con-
tinues, uniformement convergentes', Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm.
Sup. 82 (1965), 131-179.
[2] DVORETZKY, A.: 'On covering a circle by randomply placed
arcs', Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 42 (1956), 199-203.

[3] EL HELou, Y.: 'Recouvrement du tore Tq par des ouverts
aleatoires er dimension de Hausdorff de I'ensemble non re-
couvert', C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 287 A (1978),815-818.
[4] FITZSIMONS, P.J., FRISTEDT, B., AND SHEPP, L.R.: 'The set
of real numbers left uncovered by random covering intervals',
Z. Wahrscheinlichkeitsth. verw. Gebiete 70 (1985), 175-189.
[5] FAN, A. H.: 'Sur quelques processus de naissance et de mort',
C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 310 (1990),441-444.
[6] FAN, A. H., AND KAHANE, J.-P.: 'Rarete des intervallesrecou-
vrant un point dans un recouvrement aleatoire', Ann. Inst.
H. Poincare 20, no. 3 (1993), 453-466.
[7] HALL, D.: Introduction to the theory of coverage processes,
Wiley, 1988.
[8] HOFFMANN-JORGENSEN, J.: 'Coverings of metric spaces with
randomly placed balls', Math. Scand. 32 (1973), 179-186.
[9] JANSON, S.: 'Random covering in several dimensions', Acta
Math. 156 (1986),83-118.
DVORETZKY PROBLEM
[10] KAHANE, J .-P.: Some random series of functions, second ed.,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985.
[11] KAHANE, J.-P.: 'Recouvrements aleatoires et theorie du po-
tentiel', Coli. Math. 60/1 (1990),387-411.
[12] MANDELBROT, B.B.: 'Renewal sets and random cutouts', Z.
Wahrscheinlichkeitsth. verw. Gebiete 22 (1972), 145-157.
[13] MANDELBROT, B.B.: The fractal geometry of nature, free-
man, 1982.
[14] SHEPP, L.A.: 'Covering the circle with random arcs', Israel
J. Math. 11 (1972), 328-345.
[15] SHEPP, L.A.: 'Covering the line by random intervals', Z.
Wahrscheinlichkeitsth. verw. Gebiete 23 (1972), 163-170.
[16] WSCHEBOR, M.: 'Sur Ie recouvrement du cercle par des en-
sembles places au hasard', Israel J. Math. 15 (1973), 1-11.
[17] WSCHEBOR, M.: 'Sur un theoreme de 1. Shepp', Z.
Wahrscheinlichkeitsth. verw. Gebiete 27 (1973), 179-184.
J.-P. Kahane
MSC 1991: 60D05
231
________ E________
E-FUNCTION - The concept of E-functions was in-
troduced by C.L. Siegel in [7, p. 223] in his work on
generalizations of the Lindemann-Weierstrass theorem.
Consider a Taylor series of the form
where the numbers an belong to a fixed algebraic num-
ber field (cf. also Algebraic number; Field) K ([K :
Q] < 00). Suppose it satisfies the following conditions:
i) f satisfies a linear differential equation with poly-
nomial coefficients;
ii) for any f > 0 one has H(ao, ... ,an) = O(nW).
Then f is called an E-function. Here, the notation
H(xo, . .. ,xn ) stands for the so-called projective height,
given by
v
for any (n + I)-tuple (xo, ... ,xn ) E Kn+l. The product
is taken over all valuations 1·lv of K (cf. also Norm on a
field). When the Xi are rational numbers, H(xo, ... ,xn )
is simply the maximum of the absolute values of the Xi
times their common denominator. As suggested by their
name, E-functions are a variation on e Z • A large class of
examples is given by the hypergeometric functions (cf.
Hypergeometric function) of the form
where q > p, Ai,/-tj E Q for all i,j and (X)k is the
Pochhammer symbol, given by x(x + 1)··· (x + k - 1).
Motivated by the success of the Lindemann-Weierstrass
theorem and techniques of A. Thue and W. Maier, Siegel
was the first to define and study them. He found a num-
ber of transcendence results on values of E-functions at
algebraic points. These results were published in 1929
and later, in 1949, a more systematic account appeared
in [6]. Unfortunately, Siegel's main result contains a nor-
mality condition on the differential equations which, in
practice, seemed very hard to verify. This condition was
removed by A.B. Shidlovskil, around 1955 [4]. Roughly
speaking, if h (z), ... ,fn (z) are E-functions that are
algebraically independent over C(z) (cf. Algebraic in-
dependence), then the values h(~), ... ,fn(~) are alge-
braically independent over Q for all algebraic ~ except-
ing a known finite set. Thus, proving the algebraic in-
dependence of values of E-functions at algebraic points
has been reduced to the problem of showing algebraic
independence over C (z) of functions satisfying linear dif-
ferential equations. During the last thirty years the lat-
ter problem has been the object of study of a school of
Russian mathematicians and a few non-Russian mathe-
maticians as well. Many of these results are contained in
[5]. In recent years, F. Beukers, W.D. Brownawell and
G. Heckman studied these problems with the powerful
techniques from differential Galois theory, see [2], [3],
[1], and also Galois differential group.
See also G-function.
References
[IJ BEUKERS, F.: 'Differential Galois theory', in M. WALD-
SCHMIDT, P. MOUSSA, J.M. LUCK, AND C. ITZYKSON (eds.):
Prom Number Theory to Physics, Springer, 1995, p. Ch. 8.
[2J BEUKERS, F., BROWNAWELL, W.D., AND HECKMAN, G.:
'Siegel normality', Ann. of Math. 127 (1988), 279-308.
[3J KATZ, N.M.: Differential Galois theory and exponential
sums, Ann. Math. Studies. Princeton Univ. Press, 1990.
[4J SHIDLOYSKII, A.B.: 'A criterion for algebraic independence
of the values of a class of entire functions', Amer. Math.
Soc. Transl. Ser. 2 22 (1962), 339-370. (Izv. Akad. SSSR
Ser. Math. 23 (1959),35-66.)
[5J SHIDLOYSKII, A.B.: Transcendental numbers, De Gruyter,
1989. (Translated from the Russian.)
[6J SIEGEL, C.L.: Transcendental numbers, Vol. 16 of Ann. Math.
Studies, Princeton Univ. Press, 1949.
[7J SIEGEL, C.L.: 'Uber einige Anwendungen diophantischer Ap-
proximationen': Ges. Abhandlungen, Vol. I, Springer, 1966.
F. Beukers
MSC 1991: llJ81, llJ91

EHP SPECTRAL SEQUENCE - An inductive pro-
cedure to calculate the homotopy groups of spheres (cf.
Spheres, homotopy groups of the). It has the at-
tractive feature that the input for the calculation is
always a result of an earlier calculation once one in-
puts 71"1 (Sl ). It has been used to calculate 71" n+i (sn) for
i ~ 31. The last of these calculations are contained in
[3] and complete references can be found there. It is
constructed by splicing together fibrations discovered by
LM. James [2] at the prime number 2 and at odd prime
numbers by H. Toda [4].
In this paragraph the case of the prime number 2
is discussed, and all spaces are 2-local and all groups
should be considered as completed at 2. James showed
that there is a 2-local fibration sn ~ nsn+l ~
ns2n+ 1. This gives rise to long exact sequences (cf. Ex-
act sequence)
... ~ 7I"s+t(st) ~ 7I"s+t+l(st+l) ~
~ 7I"s+t+1(S2t+l) ~ ....
The first mapping is usually called E, the second H
and the connecting homomorphism P. The EHP spec-
tral sequence is obtained by defining the filtration of
7I"s+n(sn) by
This gives rise to a spectral sequence with E!,t
7I"s+t(S2t-1) and converging to 7I"s+n(sn). There are sev-
eral important features of this spectral sequence. First,
note that E!,t is itself a result of another calculation
using this spectral sequence for smaller values of s. The
value of s is called the stem and the filtration parameter
t gives the sphere of origin of a class. The name a homo-
topy class receives from this spectral sequence is called
the Hopf invariant of the class. Letting n go to infin-
ity gives a spectral sequence which calculates the sta-
ble homotopy groups (cf. Stable homotopy group).
The E2 term does not have a special name, but there
is the following result. For all (s, t), s > 0, and odd
t, E;,t is an F2 vector space [1]. The differential is
d r : E;,t ~ E;-l,t-r'
For odd prime numbers, the situation is slightly
more complicated. In this paragraph all spaces are p-
local for a fixed odd prime number p and all groups
are completed at p. First there is the result of James,
7I"s+2n(s2n) ~ 7I"s+2n_1S2n-1 EB 7I"s+2n(s4n-1). This re-
duces the calculation for even-dimensional spheres to
that of odd-dimensional spheres. In order to get Toda's
version of the EHP sequence, one introduces a mod-
ified even sphere. Let s2n = (nS 2n +l )((p-1)(2n)), the
(2n) (p - 1)-skeleton of ns2n+l. Then Toda showed that
EKELAND VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLE
the following are p-Iocal fibrations:
s2n-1 ~ ns2n ~ ns 2n (p)-1.
s2n ~ ns2n +l ~ ns 2n (p)+1.
As in the prime 2 case, one can fit the long exact se-
quences in homotopy together to get a spectral sequence.
It is associated to the filtration
7I"s+l S 1 ~ ... ~ 7I"s+ 2t S-2t ~
~ 7I"s+2t+1S2t+1 ~ ... ~ 7I"s+2n+1 s2n +1.
As before, one can use Toda's sequences to identify
the E1-term: E!2t = 7I"s+2t(S2t p-1) and E!2t+1 =
71" s+2t+l (S2t P+l ). This spectral sequence converg~s to the
p-Iocal homotopy of s2n+l. As before, the input is the
result of an earlier calculation. There is also the classi-
cal result that E;,t is an Fp vector space. The parameter
s refers to the stem and the parameter t refers to the
sphere of origin. Here, this refers to the odd sphere or the
modified even sphere of origin. The name a class gets in
this spectral sequence is also called the Hopf invariant.
References
[lJ BARRATT, M., COHEN, F. R., GRAY, B., MAHOWALD, M.,
AND RICHTER, W.: 'Two results on the 2-local EHP spectral
sequence', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 123 (1995), 1257-1261.
[2J JAMES, l.M.: 'On the suspension sequence', Ann. of Math.
65 (1957), 74-107.
[3J ODA, N.: 'On the 2-components of the unstable homotopy
groups of spheres, I-II', Proc. Japan Acad. Ser. A Math. Sci.
53 (1977), 202-218.
[4J TODA, H.: Composition methods in homotopy groups of
spheres, Vol. 49 of Ann. Math. Studies, Princeton Univ.
Press, 1962.
M. Mahowald
MSC 1991: 55Q40
EKELAND VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLE - There
are usually three ways for getting existence results in
analysis, namely compactness, Hahn-Banach-type re-
sults and completeness properties (cf. Compactness;
Hahn-Banach theorem; Completeness (in topol-
ogy»). The Ekeland variational principle [10] (which
provides a characterization of complete metric spaces
[14], cf. also Complete metric space) illustrates the
third method in the framework of optimization. Let
f be a lower semi-continuous function defined on
a complete metric space (X, d), with values in the
extended line R U {+oo}, and bounded from below.
It is well known that the lower bound of f over X
need not be attained. Ekeland's basic principle asserts
that there exists a slight perturbation of f which at-
tains its minimum on X. More precisely, there exists
a point a E X such that f(a) < f(x) + d(a, x) for all
x E X \ {a}; this says that the function f(·) + d(a,·) has
a strict minimum on X at a. It is interesting to observe
that the conclusion of the basic principle is equivalent
233
EKELAND VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLE
to the existence of a maximal element in the epigraph
epif = ((x,r) E X X R: f(x) ::; r} for the order de-
fined on X x R by (Xl, rd ~ (X2' r2) if and only if
°
r2 - rl + d(X2' Xl) ::; [3].
epi f
a x
From this basic principle one can deduce some vari-
ants which are in fact equivalent to the basic statement.
The first one is as follows: given E > 0, Xo E X such
that f(xo) < infxEx f(x) + E and applying the ba-
sic principle to the complete metric space X = {z E
X: f(z) + d(xo, z) ::; f(xo)}, one obtains the existence
of a point a E X such that f(a) + d(a,xo) ::; f(xo) and
f(a) < f(x) + d(a, x) for all X E X \ {a}. In particular,
this implies that If(a) - f(xo)1 ::; E. Applying the pre-
vious result with the metric ,d, , > 0, yields the second
variant: there exists an a E X such that
d(a,xo) ::; ,-IE,
If(a) - f(xo)1 ::; E,
f(a) < f(x) + ,d(a,x) for all x E X \ {a}.
This variational principle has several equivalent geo-
metric formulations. For instance, the Phelps extremiza-
tion principle and the Drop theorem [7], [12] (see [13] for
the versions as stated here). Let A be a closed subset of
a Banach space X, let X E A and let C be a closed
convex bounded subset of X such that A n (x + C) = 0.
Then there exist a z E An (x+ [0, 1]C) and a 8> Osuch
that An (z + ]0, 8] C) = 0.
Among the great number of applications is the cele-
brated Brondsted-Rockafellar theorem in convex anal-
ysis [6]. Let f be a closed convex function defined on
a real Banach space (X, 11·11) with values in R U {+oo}
(cf. also Convex function (of a real variable»). Let
Xo E domf = {x E X: f(x) < +oo}, E > 0, and let
io E X* be such that f(x) 2:: f(xo) + io(x - xo) - E
for all x EX. One can apply the third version of the
theorem, with, = ...jf., to the function g = f - io when
endowing X with the equivalent norm 11·11 + li(')1 [4].
234
This yields the existence of an Xf E X and an
if E of (x f) =
= {i E X*: f(x) 2:: f(x f ) +i(x - x f ) for all x E X}
such that
Ilxf - Xo II ::; ...j€,
If(x f ) - f(xo)1 ::; 2E +...j€.
Hence the set
domof = {x E domf: of (x) i= 0}
is dense in dom f for the epigraph topology, i.e. the
supremum of the norm topology on X and of the ini-
tial topology associated to f.
Another easy consequence of the Ekeland variational
principle is a generalization to multi-functions of the
Kirk-Caristi fixed-point theorem [2].
Finally, it should be mentioned that analogous results
hold in Banach spaces with the perturbation d( a, .) re-
placed by some smooth one [5].
References
[1] ATTOUCH, H., AND RIAHI, H.: 'Stability results for the Eke-
land's variational principle and cone extremal solutions',
Math. Op. Res. 18 (1993), 173-201.
[2] AUBIN, J.-P., AND EKELAND, I.: Applied nonlinear analysis,
Wiley, 1984.
[3] BISHOP, E., AND PHELPS, R.R.: 'The support functional of
a convex set', in P. KLEE (ed.): Convexity, Vol. 7 of Proc.
Symp. Pure Math., Amer. Math. Soc., 1963, pp. 27-35.
[4] BORWEIN, J.M.: 'A note on <-subgradients and maximal
monotonicity', Pac. J. Math. 103 (1982),307-314.
[5] BORWEIN, J.M., AND PREISS, R.: 'Smooth variational princi-
ple', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 303 (1987), 517-527.
[6J BRONDSTED, A., AND ROCKAFELLAR, R.T.: 'On the subdif-
ferentiability of convex functions', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc.
16 (1965), 605-611.
[7] CLARKE, F.H.: Optimization and nonsmooth analysis, Wiley,
1983.
[8] DANES, J.: 'A geometric theorem useful in nonlinear func-
tional analysis', Boll. Un. Mat. [tal. 4 (1972), 369-375.
[9] FIGUEIREDO, D.G. DE: The Ekeland variational principle,
tours and detours, Lecture Notes Tata Institute. Springer,
1989.
[10] EKELAND, I.: 'On the variational principle', J. Math. Anal.
Appl. 47 (1974), 324-353.
[11] EKELAND, I.: 'Nonconvex minimization problems',
Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 1 (1979), 443-474.
[12J PENOT, J.-P.: 'The drop theorem, the petal theorem and Eke-
land's variational principle', Nonlinear Anal.: Theory, Meth-
ods, Appl. 10 (1986), 813-822.
[13] TREIMAN, J.S.: 'Characterization of Clarke's tangent and
normal cones in finite and infinite dimensions', Nonlinear
Anal.: Theory, Methods, Appl. 7 (1983), 771-783.
[14] WESTON, J.D.: 'A characterization of metric completeness',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 64 (1977), 186-188.
H. Attouch
D. Aze
MSC 1991: 54C30, 54E50, 26A15
 ELLIOTT-DABOUSSI THEOREM

ELIMINATION OF QUANTIFIERS - An elemen- mean value. The unpleasant condition If I ::; 1 was re-
tary theory T is said to admit elimination of quanti- placed by P.D.T.A. Elliott, in 1975-1980, by bounded-
fiers if every formula in T is equivalent in T to a formula ness of a semi-norm
without quantifiers (having the same free variables). l/q
This holds if and only if T is substructure complete, i.e., Ilfllq =
{
lim sup ~.L If(nW
}
for every two models A and B of T with a common x-+oo X n:S;x
substructure S, the expansions (A, lSI) and (B, lSI) are
elementarily equivalent in the first-order language of sig- More precisely, Elliott showed (see [4], [6]) the following
result. Assume that q > 1 and that f is a multiplica-
nature (n, lSI), where n denotes the signature of T (cf.
Model theory; Structure). If T is substructure com- tive arithmetic function with bounded semi-norm Ilfll q.
Then the mean value
plete, then it is model complete. To see this, set S = A
for every model A of T which is a substructure of a M(f) = hm
. -1 . "'"
L..- f(n)
x-+oo X
model B of T. n:S;x
For certain elementary theories of fields, the fact that of f exists and is non-zero if and only if
they admit elimination of quantifiers reflects an alge-
i) the four series
braic elimination theory. Examples are the theory of
algebraically closed fields (where vanishing of the re-
sultant, R(f, g) = 0, gives a quantifier-free criterion for
Sl(f) = L -1 .(f(p) - 1),
P P
the existence of a common zero of two polynomials f, g),
and the theory of real closed fields (where the Sturm S~(f) = L ~ 'If(p) - 112 ,
{p: If(p)l:s;s/4} p

theorem gives a quantifier-free criterion for a polyno-
mial to admit a root in a given interval, cf. also Real
closed field).
The fact that the theory of real closed fields admits
elimination of quantifiers is commonly known as the
Tarski-Seidenberg theorem (see also Semi-algebraic
set). It implies that the semi-algebraic sets over a real
closed field K are precisely the definable sets (with pa-
rameters from K) in the first-order language of ordered
fields. For the history and applications of the Tarski-
Seidenberg theorem, and a remarkable discussion of the
general technique of elimination of quantifiers, see [2]
and the literature cited therein. For applications of elim-
ination of quantifiers to real and p-adic semi- and sub-
analytic sets, see [1].
For certain elementary theories of algebraic systems,
elimination of quantifiers implies closure properties of
their models (cf. [3]).
References
[1] DENEF, J., AND DRIES, L. VAN DEN: 'p-adic and real subana-
lytic sets', Ann. of Math. 128 (1988), 79-138.
[2] DRIES, L. VAN DEN: 'Alfred Tarski's elimination theory for
real closed fields', J. Symb. Logic 53 (1988), 7-19.
[3] DRIES, L. VAN DEN, MACINTYRE, A., AND McKENNA, K.:
'Elimination of quantifiers in algebraic structures', Adv. in
Math. 47 (1983), 74-87.
F.- V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 03ClO, 03C95
ELLIOTT-DABOUSSI THEOREM - The Delange
theorem, proved in 1961, gives necessary and sufficient
conditions for a multiplicative arithmetic function
f: N -+ C, of modulus If I ::; 1, to possess a non-zero
t
S~,q(f) = L ·If(p)l q ,
{p: If(p)1 >S/4}
S3,q(f) = LL 1k ·If(pkW
P k~2 P
are convergent; and
ii) L::'=op-k. f(pk) -10 for every prime p.
H. Daboussi [3] gave another proof for this result and
extended it [2] to multiplicative functions f having at
least one non-zero Fourier coefficient j (a) = M (n M
f (n) . exp{ 27l'i . an} ); the necessary and sufficient condi-
tions for this to happen are the convergence of the series
Sl(Xf), S~(xf), S~,q(f), and S3,q(f) for some Dirichlet
character X.
See also [5], [7], [8], [9], [1]. In fact, the conditions
of the Elliott-Daboussi theorem ensure that f belongs
to the space Bq, which is the 11·llq-closure of the vector
space of linear combinations of the Ramanujan sums Cr ,
r = 1,2, .... For details see [10, Chapts. VI, VII].
References
[1] CODECA, P., AND NAIR, M.: 'On Elliott's theorem on mul-
tiplicative functions': Proc. Amalfi Conf. Analytic Number
Theory, Vol. 1989, 1992, pp. 17-34.
[2] DABOUSSI, H.: 'Caracterisation des fonctions multiplicatives
p.p. BA it spectre non vide', Ann. Inst. Fourier Grenoble 30
(1980), 141-166.
[3] DABOUSSI, H.: 'Sur les fonctions multiplicatives ayant une
valeur moyenne non nulle', Bull. Soc. Math. Prance 109
(1981), 183-205.
[4] ELLIOTT, P.D.T.A.: 'A mean-value theorem for multiplica-
tive functions', Proc. London Math. Soc. (3) 31 (1975), 418-
438.
[5] ELLIOTT, P.D.T.A.: Probabilistic number theory, Vol. I-II,
Springer, 1979-1980.

235
ELLIOTT-DABODSSI THEOREM
[6] ELLIOTT, P.D.T.A.: 'Mean value theorems for functions
bounded in mean a-power, a > 1', J. Australian Math. Soc.
Ser. A 29 (1980), 177-205.
[7] INDLEKOFER, K.-H.: 'A mean-value theorem for multiplica-
tive functions', Math. Z. 172 (1980),255-271.
[8] SCHWARZ, W., AND SPILKER, J.: 'Eine Bemerkung zur
Charakterisierung der fastperiodischen multiplikativen
zahlentheoretischen Funktionen mit von Null verschiedenem
Mittelwert', Analysis 3 (1983), 205-216.
[9] SCHWARZ, W., AND SPILKER, J.: 'A variant of proof of
Daboussi's theorem on the characterization of multiplicative
functions with non-void Fourier-Bohr spectrum', Analysis 6
(1986), 237-249.
[10] SCHWARZ, W., AND SPILKER, J.: Arithmetical junctions,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994.
W. Schwarz
MSC 1991: 11N37
ELLIPTIC COHOMOLOGY - A term first intro-
duced in 1986 by P.S. Landweber, D.C. Ravenel and
R.E. Stong (cf. [2] and [3]) to designate a cohomology
theory obtained by tensoring oriented cobordism the-
ory with a ring of modular forms in characteristic i: 2.
In the 1990s, numerous publications devoted to ellip-
tic cohomology have appeared. On the one hand, they
connect elliptic cohomology to other generalized coho-
mology theories, most notably to Morava K -theories (cf.
also K -theory), on the other hand they attempt to give
a geometric interpretation of elliptic cohomology. De-
spite a multitude of very interesting results, there seems
to be no agreement on what exactly is elliptic coho-
mology. The situation is, however, quite well-understood
outside the prime number 2.
Landweber-Ravenel-Stong theory. Let n~O( ) be
oriented bordism theory with coefficient ring n~o, and
let
be the level-2 elliptic genus (cf. Elliptic genera) with
logarithm
g(z) = 1 VI _ 2~:2
z
+ ct4
The ring M. == Z[I/2, 8, E] is the ring of level-2 modu-
lar forms in characteristic i: 2 (cf. also Modular form)
and can be viewed, via t.p, as an n~o-module. M. has a
natural grading, for which deg 8 = 2, deg E = 4.
Let 7r E M. be any homogeneous element of positive
degree. Then the functor
(1)
is a periodic homology theory (elliptic homology) with
coefficient ring M.[7r- 1 ].
A similar construction using oriented cohomology
leads to a multiplicative periodic cohomology theory (el-
liptic cohomology). The proof of this theorem was first
236
given by Landweber, Ravenel and Stong under the as-
sumption that 7r is one of the factors of ~ = E( 82 - E)2,
and was based on the one hand on Landweber's exact
functor theorem, and on the other hand on interesting
congruences for Legendre polynomials. The general
form stated above is due to J. Franke [1], who showed
that the exactness of the functor (1) is a consequence
of the Deuring-Eichler theorem, saying that the height
of the formal group of an elliptic curve in positive
characteristic is always 1 or 2.
References
[1] FRANKE, J.: 'On the construction of elliptic cohomology',
Math. Nachr. 158 (1992), 43-65.
[2] LANDWEBER, P.S.: 'Elliptic cohomology and modular forms',
in P.S. LANDWEBER (ed.): Elliptic Curves and Modu-
lar Forms in Algebraic Topology (Proc., Princeton 1986),
Vol. 1326 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1988,
pp.55-68.
[3] LANDWEBER, P.S., RAVENEL, D.C., AND STONG, R.E.: 'Peri-
odic cohomology theories defined by elliptic curves': The Cech
Centennial (Boston, 1993), Vol. 181 of Contemp. Math.,
Amer. Math. Soc., 1995.
S. Ochanine
MSC 1991: 55N35
ELLIPTIC GENERA - The name elliptic genus has
been given to various multiplicative cobordism invari-
ants taking values in a ring of modular forms. The fol-
lowing is an attempt to present the simplest case -level-
2 genera in characteristic i: 2 - in a unified way. It is
convenient to use N. Katz's approach to modular forms
(cf. [7]) and view a modular form as a function of el-
liptic curves with a chosen invariant differential (cf. also
Elliptic curve). A similar approach to elliptic genera
was used by J. Franke [3].
Jacobi functions. Let K be any perfect field of
characteristic i: 2 and fix an algebraic closure K of
K (cf. Algebraically closed field). Consider a triple
(E, w, a) consisting of:
i) an elliptic curve E over K, i.e. a smooth curve of
genus 1 with a specified K-rational base-point 0;
ii) an invariant K-rational differential w;
iii) a K-rational primitive 2-division point a.
Following J.I. Igusa [6] (up to a point), one can associate
to these data two functions, x and y, as follows.
The set E4 c E(K) of 4-division points on E can
be described as follows. There are four 2-division points
t (a is one of them), four primitive 4-division points
r such that 2r = a, and eight primitive 4-division
points 8 such that 28 i: a. Consider the degree-O di-
visor D = 2.: (t) - 2.: (r ). Since 2.: t - 2.: r = 0 in E and
since Galois symmetries transform D into itself, Abel's
theorem (cf., for example, [11, 111.3.5.1] or Abel the-
orem) implies that there is a function x E K (E) x ,

uniquely defined up to a multiplicative constant, such
that div(x) = D.
The function x is odd, satisfies x( u + a) == x( u),
and undergoes sign changes under the two other trans-
lations of exact order 2. Moreover, if r E E4 satisfies
2r = a, then translation by r transforms x into Cx- 1
for some non-zero constant C. This constant depends
on the choice of r but only up to sign. It follows that
x 2 ( u + r) x 2 ( u) does not depend on the choice of r. This
constant is written as E- 1 , i.e.
One also defines
(the summation is over the primitive 4-division points
s such that 2s =1= a). If a is one of the values of x(s),
the other values are ±a, ±E- 1 / 2 a- 1 , each taken twice.
It follows that
and
It is now easy to see that
div(R(x)) = 2 (~)s) - 2 ~)r)) .
Using once more Abel's theorem, one sees that there is
a unique y E K(E)X such that div(y) = 2::(s) - 2 2::(r),
and y(O) = 1. Since x(O) = 0, one has y2 = R(x).
The differential dx has four double poles r. Also, it is
easy to see that s is a double zero of x - x(s), hence a
simple zero of dx. One concludes that
div(dx) = ~)s) - 2 ~)r) = div(y).
and that dx / y is an invariant differential on E.
A slight modification of the argument given in [6]
shows that the Jacobi elliptic functions satisfy the
Euler addition formula
x(u + v)(l - EX 2(U)X 2(v)) = x(u)y(v) + x(v)y(u).
Accordingly, one defines the Euler formal group law
F(U, V) E K[[U, Vll by
F(U V) = U
,
JRM + V jR(fJ)
1- EU2V2 .
Notice that since char K =1= 2, F(U, V) is defined over
K.
The elliptic genus. At this point, one normalizes x
over K by requiring that dx / y = w (the given invariant
differential). All the objects x, y, 8, E, and F(U, V) are
ELLIPTIC GENERA
now completely determined by the initial data. Replac-
ing w by AW (A E KX) yields:
(1)
As any formal group law, F(U, V) is classified by a
unique ring homomorphism
'ljJ: n~ --t K
from the complex cobordism ring. Since F( -U, - V) =
-F(U, V), it is easy to see that 'ljJ uniquely factors
through a ring homomorphism
<p: n~o --t K
from the oriented cobordism ring. By definition, <p is
the level-2 elliptic genus. Suppose now that char K = o.
Define a local parameter z near 0 so that z( 0) = 0
and dz = w. Then x can be expanded into a for-
mal power series x(z) E K[[zll which clearly satisfies
x(z) = z+o(z) and x(-z) = -x(z). In this case, the el-
liptic genus can be defined as the Hirzebruch genus (cf.
[4] or [5]) corresponding to the series P(z) = z/x(z).
Since d x(z)/dz = y(z), the logarithm g(z) of this ellip-
tic genus is given by the elliptic integral
(2)
which gives the original definition in [9].
Modularity. For any closed oriented manifold M of
dimension 4k, <p(M) is a function of the triple (E, w, a).
As easily follows from (1), multiplying w by A results in
multiplying <p( M) by A-2k. Also, <p( M) depends only on
the isomorphism class of the triple (E, w, a) and com-
mutes with arbitrary extensions of the scalar field K. In
the terminology of Katz ([7]; adapted here to modular
forms over fields), <p(M) is a modular form of level 2
and weight 2k. Let M* be the graded ring of all such
modular forms. Then <p(M) E M 2k, 8 E M 2, E E M 4 •
Moreover, one can prove that M* ~ Z[1/2, 8, E]. If one
identifies these two isomorphic rings, the elliptic genus
becomes the Hirzebruch genus
<p: n~o --t Z[1/2, 8, E]
with logarithm given by the formal integral (2).
Integrality. Consider
rp: n~pin --t M*,
i.e., the composition of <p with the forgetful homomor-
phism n~pin --t n~o. As is shown in [2],
rp(n~pin) = Z[88, E].
The ring Z[88, E] agrees with the ring M* (Z) of modular
forms over Z. Thus: If M is a Spin-manifold of dimen-
sion 4k, then <p(M) E M2k(Z).
237
ELLIPTIC GENERA

Example: the Tate curve. Let K be a local field, and

complete with respect to a discrete valuation v, and 1 2n)B
let q E K X be any element satisfying v(q) < O. Consider
E = K X /q2Z. It is well-known (cf. [11, §C.14]) that E
c=II ( 1~:2n
n>O

can be identified with the elliptic curve (known as the Finally, if char K = 0, the function z = log u satis-
Tate curve) fies dz = du/u. It follows that the generating series
P(z) = z/x(z) is given by
Eq2 : y2 + Xy = X3 + a4X + a6,
P(z) =
where
z (1 + q2n e- 2z )(1 + q2n e 2Z )(1_ q2n)2
= tanh z II
n>O
(1 - q2n e- 2z )(1 _ q2n e 2z )(1 + q2n )2'

The cases where a = q or a = -q are treated simi-

E can be treated as an elliptic curve over K with 0 = 1.
Fix the invariant differential w = du/u (u E KX) on E
(w corresponds to the differential Wcan = dX/(2Y + X)
on the Tate curve). E has three K-rational primi-
tive 2-division points: -1, q and -q. To describe the
corresponding Jacobi function x, consider the theta-
function
8(u) = (1 - u- 2) II (1- q2n u- 2)(1_ q2n u 2).
n>O
This is a 'holomorphic' function on K X with simple ze-
ros at points of ±qZ (cf. [10] for a justification of this
terminology), satisfying
8(-u) = 8(u),
Consider the case where a = -1. Let i E K be any
square root of -1, and let
(3)
f is a meromorphic function on E satisfying f(iu) =
1/ f(u) and
div(J) = (1) + (-1) + (q) + (-q) +
-(i) - (-i) - (iq) - (-iq),
i.e., f is a multiple of the Jacobi function x of (E, w, -1).
Notice now that the normalization condition du/u =
dx/y can be written as y(u) = ux'(u), where x'(u) is
the derivative with respect to u. Since y(l) = 0, one has
x'(l) = 1. Differentiating (3), one obtains
larly, with
u8(u)
f(u) = 8(q-l/2 u )
and
u8(u)
f(u) = 8(iq-l/2 u )'
respectively.
Strict multiplicativity. The following theorem, also
known (in an equivalent form) as the Witten conjecture,
was proven first by C. Taubes [12], then by R. Bott and
Taubes [1]. Let P be a principal G-bundle (cf. also Prin-
cipal G-object) over an oriented manifold B, where G
is a compact connected Lie group, and suppose G acts
on a compact Spin-manifold M. Then
cp(P Xa M) = cp(B)cp(M).
For the history of this conjecture, cf. [8].
References
[1] BOTT, R., AND TAUBES, C.: 'On the rigidity theorems of Wit-
ten', J. Amer. Math. Soc. 2 (1989), 137-186.
[2] CHUDNOVSKY, D.V., CHUDNOVSKY, G.V., LANDWEBER, P.S.,
OCHANINE, S., AND STONG, R.E.: 'Integrality and divisibility
of the elliptic genus', Preprint (1988).
[3] FRANKE, J.: 'On the construction of elliptic cohomology',
Math. Nachr. 158 (1992), 43-65.
[4] HIRZEBRUCH, F.: Topological methods in algebraic geometry,
third ed., Grundlehren Math. Wiss. Springer, 1966.
[5] HIRZEBRUCH, F., BERGER, TH., AND JUNG, R.: Manifolds and
modular forms, Vol. E20 of Aspects of Mathematics, Vieweg,
1992.
[6] IGUSA, J.-I.: 'On the transformation theory of elliptic func-
tions', Amer. J. Math. 81 (1959), 436-452.
[7] KATZ, N .M.: 'p-adic properties of modular schemes and mod-
ular forms', in W. KUYK AND J.-P. SERRE (eds.): Modu-
lar Functions in One Variable Ill. Pmc. Intemat. Summer
School, Univ. of Antwerp, RUGA, July 17-August 9, 1972,
Vol. 350 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, 1973, pp. 69-190.
[8] LANDWEBER, P.S.: 'Elliptic genera: An introductory
overview', in P.S. LANDWEBER (ed.): Elliptic Gurves and
Modular Forms in Algebraic Topology (Pmc., Princeton
1986), Vol. 1326 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1988, pp. 1-10.
[9] OCHANINE, S.: 'Sur les genres multiplicatifs definis par des
integrales elliptiques', Topology 26 (1987), 143-151.

238

[10] ROQUETTE, P.: Analytic theory of elliptic functions over local
fields, Vol. 1 of Hamburger Math. EinzelschriJt., Vandenhoeck
and Ruprecht, 1970.
[11] SILVERMAN, J.H.: The arithmetic of elliptic curves, Vol. 106
of GTM, Springer, 1986.
[12] TAUBES, C.: 'SI actions and elliptic genera', Comm. Math.
Phys. 122 (1989), 455-526.
s.
MSC 1991: 55N22, 55N35
EMPIRICAL PROCESS - A stochastic process
constructed from a sample and the corresponding
probability measure. Let X b ... , X n , ... be a se-
quence of independent random elements with common
law P, taking values in a measurable space (8, S). The
empirical measure Pn of the first n XiS is the discrete
random measure that places mass lin on each such Xi:
Pn(G) = !:..#
n
{I :<::; i :<::; n: Xi E G},
Obviously, nPn(G) is binomially distributed with pa-
rameters nand P(G) (cf. Binomial distribution).
Hence EPn(G) = P(G), P(limn--too Pn(G) = P(G)) = 1,
and y'n(Pn(G) - P(G)) converges in distribution, as
n --+ 00, to a centred normal random variable with vari-
ance P(G)(I - P(G)) (cf. Convergence in distribu-
tion). Therefore it is natural to define an empirical pro-
cess indexed by sets by
GEC,
where C C S. If (8,S) = (R,8) and C = {( -00, x] : x E
R}, one writes Fn(x) = Pn (( -00, xl) for the empirical
distribution function, and the empirical process special-
izes to the classical empirical process
xER,
where F(x) = P(Xi :<::; x), x E R, is the distribution
function of the elements Xi. Replacing sets by their in-
dicator functions leads, more generally, to the definition
of an empirical process indexed by functions:
f E
where
Pn(J) = I~
rf dPn = -1 L f(X n
i ),
s n i=l
P(J) = Is f dP = Ef(X i ),
and F is a suitable class of measurable functions from
8 to R.
The main aim of the theory of empirical processes
is to obtain results uniformly in G, x or f; in particu-
lar, Glivenko-Cantelli-type theorems, central limit theo-
rems, laws of the iterated logarithm, and probability in-
equalities (cf., e.g., Empirical distribution; Central
limit theorem; Law of the iterated logarithm).
(Measurability issues will be disregarded in the sequel.)
EMPIRICAL PROCESS
The concept of a Vapnik-Chervonenkis class plays
an important role in set-indexed situations. E.g., if C is
a Vapnik-Chervonenkis class, then for every probability
measure P on (8,S),
sup IPn(G) - P(G)I --+ 0 a.s., (4)
GEC
Ochanine
and an(G), G E C, converges weakly (see [12] and
Weak topology) to Bp(G), G E C, a centred,
bounded Gaussian process, which is uniformly con-
tinuous (with respect to the pseudometric d defined by
d(Gb G2) = P(Gl~G2)) and has covariance structure
EBp(G1 )Bp(G2) = P(G1 n G2) - P(G1 )P(G2),
Gb G2 E C.
For the classical empirical process in (2), this limiting
process specializes to B 0 F, where B is a Brownian
G E S.
bridge (cf. Non-parametric methods in statistics).
A sharp version of the first result is the following: (4)
holds if and only if
. 10g~C(Xb ... ,Xn )
P- 11m
= 0, (5)
n
where
(see Vapnik-Chervonenkis class). A corresponding
(1) sharp version of the central limit theorem exists too;
essentially the only change is that the n in the denom-
inator of (5) has to be replaced by y'n to obtain an
'if and only if' condition for the central limit theorem.
Other useful concepts in connection with empirical pro-
cesses are various notions of entropy, see [1], [2], [11],
(2)
[12]. Also, for the function-indexed process in (3), the
analogues of (4) and the central limit theorem above
have been studied thoroughly, see [7], [11], [12].
For the classical empirical process in (2), approxima-
tion theorems which yield a rate of convergence in the
F, (3) central limit theorem are extremely useful: A sequence
of Brownian bridges {Bn(t): t E [0, I]}, n = 2,3, ... , can
be constructed such that for all A > 0
P (sup lan(x) - Bn(F(x))1 > 1210~ + A) :<::; 2e- A / 6 .
xER n
A similar, only slightly less sharp, result can be obtained
for the situation where the joint distribution of the Bns
is known, i.e., the Bns are defined by means of one single
Kiefer process, see [5].
Empirical and related processes have many applica-
tions in many different subfields of probability theory
and (non-parametric) statistics.
References
[1] ALEXANDER, K.S.: 'Probability inequalities for empirical pro-
cesses and a law of the iterated logarithm', Ann. of Probab.
12 (1984), 1041-1067.
239
EMPIRICAL PROCESS
[2] ALEXANDER, K.S.: 'Correction: Probability inequalities for
empirical processes and a law of the iterated logarithm', Ann.
of Probab. 15 (1987), 428-430.
[3] ALEXANDER, K.S.: 'Rates of growth and sample moduli for
weighted empirical processes indexed by sets', Probab. Th.
Rel. Fields 75 (1987), 379-423.
[4] CSORGO, M., CSORGO, S., HORVATH, L., AND MASON, D.M.:
'Weighted empirical and quantile processes', Ann. of Probab.
14 (1986),31-85.
[5] CSORGO, M., AND REVEsz, P.: Strong approximations in
probability and statistics, Acad. Press, 1981.
[6] DEHEUVELS, P., AND MASON, D.M.: 'Functional laws of the
iterated logarithm for the increments of empirical and quan-
tile processes', Ann. of Probab. 20 (1992), 1248-1287.
[7] DUDLEY, R.M.: 'Universal Donsker classes and metric en-
tropy', Ann. of Probab. 15 (1987), 1306·-1326.
[8] EINMAHL, J .H.J.: 'The a.s. behavior of the weighted empirical
process and the L1L for the weighted tail empirical process',
Ann. of Probab. 20 (1992),681-695.
[9] GINE, E.: 'Empirical processes and applications: an overview',
Bernoulli 2 (1996), 1-28.
[10] MASSART, P.: 'The tight constant in the Dvoretzky-Kiefer-
Wolfowitz inequality', Ann. of Probab. 18 (1990), 1269-1283.
[11] POLLARD, D.: Convergence of stochastic processes, Springer,
1984.
[12] SHEEHY, A., AND WELLNER, J.A.: 'Uniform Donsker classes
of functions', Ann. of Probab. 20 (1992), 1983-2030.
[13] SHORACK, G.R., AND WELLNER, J.A.: Empirical processes
with applications to statistics, Wiley, 1986.
J.H.J. Einmahl
MSC 1991: 62Exx, 60BlO, 60Exx, 60F05
EQUIVALENCE OF DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS - Two
autonomous systems of ordinary differential equations
(cf. Autonomous system)
:i; = f(x), (1)
and
iJ=g(y), (2)
(and their associated flows, cf. Flow (continuous-time
dynamical system)), are topologically equivalent [1],
[2], [3] ifthere exists a homeomorphism h: Rn -+ Rn,
y = h(x), which maps orbits of (1) into orbits of (2) pre-
serving the direction of time. The systems (1) and (2)
are locally topologically equivalent near the origin if h is
defined in a small neighbourhood of x = 0 and h(O) = O.
If the systems depend on parameters, the definition
of topological equivalence is modified as follows. Two
families of ordinary differential equations,
:i; = f(x, 0:), (3)
and
iJ = g(y, (3), (4)
are called topologically equivalent if:
i) there is a homeomorphism p: Rm -+ Rm, (3
p( 0:);
240
ii) there is a family of parameter-dependent homeo-
morphisms ha: Rn -+ R n , y = ha(x), mapping orbits of
(3) at parameter values 0: into orbits of (4) at parameter
values (3 = p(o:).
The systems (3) and (4) are locally topologically
equivalent near the origin, if the mapping (x, 0:) f--t
(h a (x), p( 0:)) is defined in a small neighbourhood of
(x, 0:) = (0,0) in Rn X Rm and ho(O) = 0, p(O) = O.
The above definitions are applicable verbatim to
discrete-time dynamical systems defined by iterations
of diffeomorphisms.
References
[1] ARNOL'D, V.I.: Geometrical methods in the theory of or-
dinary differential equations, Vol. 250 of Grundlehren der
mathematischen Wissenschaften, Springer, 1983. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[2] GUCKENHEIMER, J., AND HOLMES, PH.: Nonlinear oscilla-
tions, dynamical systems and bifurcations of vector fields,
Springer, 1983.
[3] KUZNETSOV, YU.A.: Elements of applied bifurcation theory,
Springer, 1995.
Yu.A. Kuznetsov
MSC 1991: 34C20, 58Fxx
ERDOS-GINZBURG-ZIV THEOREM, EGZ theo-
rem If m is a positive integer and aI, ... ,a2m-l is a
sequence of elements from the cyclic group Zm, then
there exists a set I C;;;; {I,... ,2m - I} of cardinality m
such that LiE! ai = O. This theorem was first shown in
[5].
Related theorems. Looking at a sequence of m - 1
zeros and m - 1 ones one sees that 2m - 1 cannot be
replaced by a smaller number. This motivates the defini-
tion of the Erdos-Ginzburg-Ziv constant for an arbitrary
Abelian group, as follows. If G is an Abelian group,
then EGZ( G) is the minimum integer e such that every
sequence aI, ... ,a e of elements from G contains a sub-
sequence of cardinality o( G), the order of G, that adds
up to O. It can be proven that EGZ(G) :::; 2o(G) - 1 and
equality holds if and only if G = Zm. This result and
the observation above led to the following two directions
of investigation:
i) To find bounds, or possibly determine, EGZ( G)
for groups other than Zm in terms of o( G) and other
group invariants. Recent results in this direction were
obtained by Y. Caro and Weidong Gao.
ii) To find or estimate the minimum integer e =
e( G, k) such that every sequence aI, ... ,a e of elements
from G contains a subsequence of cardinality o( G) that
adds up to 0, provided one knows that there are at
least k distinct elements in the sequence. Recent re-
sults in this direction are due to A. Bialostocki, P.
Dierker, Y.O. Hamidoune, and M. Lotspeich. A break-
through in this direction was achieved after the recent

proof of the long standing Erdos-Heilbronn conjecture
(cf. also Erdos-Heilbronn problem). Along a dif-
ferent line, J.E. Olson extended the definition of the
EGZ( G) constant to non-Abelian groups and proved
that EG Z( G) ::; 2o( G) - 1 still holds.
Outline of developments. There are several reasons
why this theorem has recently (1996) drawn much at-
tention.
Quite unexpectedly, N. Alon and M. Dubiner [1] have
shown that the theorem follows from several deeper re-
sults in algebra and number theory, establishing inter-
esting links.
The theorem has many possible generalizations, some
of which have been proved and others are easy to state
as fundamental open problems, see [4] and the conjec-
tures below.
The theorem motivated the development of what is
called a zero-sum Ramsey theory: If the sequence in the
theorem consists only of the elements 0 and 1, then its
proof follows from the pigeon hole principle (cf. Dirich-
let principle), hence the theorem can be viewed as
a generalization of this principle. Consequently, since
Ramsey theory (cf. also Ramsey theorem) is a devel-
opment of the pigeon hole principle, there is a clear mo-
tivation to develop from the EGZ theorem a zero-sum
Ramsey theory along the lines of traditional Ramsey
theory. While in Ramsey theory one looks for monochro-
matic configurations, in zero-sum Ramsey theory the
colours are elements of a group and one looks for zero-
sum configurations. Zero-sum Ramsey theory general-
izes many results of the traditional Ramsey theory and
leaves many open problems.
Proofs. In [1] five proofs for the EGZ theorem have
been given. In all these proofs it is assumed that m is
a prime number, since the transition to a non-prime is
a simple induction. The original proof is based on the
Cauchy-Davenport theorem from elementary additive
number theory; two other proofs use the Fermat little
theorem, along with a counting argument and a lemma
concerning permanents, respectively. A fourth proof uses
the Chevalley-Warning theorem about zeros of polyno-
mials over a finite field. Most interesting is the proof
that uses knowledge of the Davenport constant of an
Abelian p-group, determined by Olson. Let G be a finite
Abelian group. The Davenport constant of G, denoted
by D(G), is the minimal d such that every sequence of
d elements from G contains a subsequence that adds up
to O.
Generalizations and analogues. Clearly, if G is cyclic
of order m, then D( G) = m. An interesting relation be-
tween D(G) and the EGZ theorem is Weidong's gener-
alization of the EGZ theorem: Let a1,'" ,as be a se-
quence of elements from an Abelian group G. If s =
ERDOS-GINZBURG-ZIV THEOREM
o(G) + D(G) - 1, then there exists a set I c::; {I, ... ,s}
of cardinality o( G) such that LiE! ai = O.
The following two conjectures are other possible gen-
eralizations of the EGZ theorem.
Conjecture 1. Let m and s be positive integers. If
a1, ... ,as is a sequence of elements from the cyclic
group Zm, then it contains at least (rs~21) + (ls~2J) sub-
sequences of m elements that add up to O.
If one takes s = 2m - 1 in this conjecture, then the
EGZ theorem follows.
Conjecture 2. Let m be a positive integer and let
b1 , . .. ,bm be a sequence of elements from the cyclic
group Zm whose sum is O. If a1, ... ,a2m-1 is a sequence
of elements from Zm, then it contains a subsequence
ak(l), ... ,ak(m) such that the sequence b1, . .. ,bm can
be reordered bj (l),'" ,bj(m) such that L7:1 ak(i)bj(i) =
O.
If one takes bi = 1, i = 1, ... ,m, in this conjecture,
then the EGZ theorem follows.
Conjecture 1 was proven by M. Kisin for m = pC> and
m = pC>q, where p and q are distinct prime numbers
and a 2: 1. In [7], Z. Fiiredi and D. Kleitman confirmed
Conjecture 1 asymptotically for every positive integer
m. Conjecture 2 can be easily proven for m prime. Both
conjectures illustrate the general difficulty that exists in
this area for handling the non-prime case.
There are many related problems to the EGZ the-
orem. The following conjecture was raised by H. Har-
borth and some progress was made by Alon and Du-
biner. It illustrates that certain problems are open, even
for primes.
Conjecture 3. If p is a prime and a1, ... ,a4p-3 is a se-
quence of elements from the group Zp ffi Zp, then there
exists a subsequence of p elements whose elements add
up to (0,0).
A sequence containing only the elements (0,0), (0,1),
(1,0), and (1, 1), where each element appears p-l times,
implies that 4p-3 can not be replaced by a smaller num-
ber.
Zero-sum Ramsey theory. This theory was first in-
troduced in [3]. Today it includes many results on zero-
sum Ramsey numbers for graphs. Recent developments
by Bialostocki, P. Erdos, H. Lefmann, and D. Schaal
deal with zero-sum solutions to systems of equations
and inequalities over the integers. Surveys of this can be
found in [2] and [4]. The following theorem from zero-
sum Ramsey theory, proved in [6] and [8], generalizes in
the sense ofthe EGZ theorem the folkloristic fact that in
every 2-colouring of the edges of a complete graph there
is always a monochromatic spanning tree: If each edge e
of the complete graph Km+1 (cf. also Graph theory)
is assigned an element from the cyclic group Zm, say
241
ERDOS-GINZBURG-ZIV THEOREM
c(e), then there exists a spanning tree T of Km+l with
edges e1, ... ,em such that 2:::1 c(ei) = O.
References
[1J ALON, N., AND DUBINER, M.: 'Zero-sum sets of prescribed
size', in D. MIKLOS, V.T. SOS, AND T. SZONYI (eds.): Com-
binatorics, Paul Erdos is Eighty, Vo!' 1 of Bolyai Society
Mathematical Studies, Keszthely (Hungary), 1993, pp. 33-
50.
[2J BIALOSTOCKI, A.: 'Zero-sum trees: a survey of results and
open problems', in N.W. SAUER, R.E. WOODROW, AND
B. SANDS (eds.): Finite and Infinite Combinatorics in Sets
and Logic, Nato AS! Series, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1993,
pp. 19-29.
[3J BIALOSTOCKI, A., AND DIERKER, P.: 'Zero-sum Ramsey the-
orems', Congressus Numerantium 70, no. 1 (1990), 19-130.
[4J CARO, Y.: 'Zero-sum problems: a survey', Discrete Math. 152
(1996),93-113.
[5J ERDOS, P., GINZBURG, A., AND ZIV, A.: 'A theorem in addi-
tive number theory', Israel Research and Development Nat.
Council Bull., Sect. F 10 (1961),41-43.
[6J FUREDI, Z., AND KLEITMAN, D.: 'On zero trees', J. Graph
Th. 16 (1992), 107-120.
[7J FUREDI, Z., AND KLEITMAN, D.: 'The minimal number of zero
sums', in D. MIKLOS, V.T. SOS, AND T SZONYI (eds.): Com-
binatorics, Paul Erdos is Eighty, Vo!' 1 of Bolyai Society
Mathematical Studies, Keszthely (Hungary), 1993, pp. 159-
172.
[8J SCHRIJVER, L., AND SEYMOUR, P.: 'A simpler proof and gen-
eralization of the zero-trees theorem', J. Combin. Th. Ser. A
58 (1991), 301-305.
A. Bialostocki
MSC 1991: 20KOl, 05C55, 05DlO
ERDOS-HEILBRONN PROBLEM - Let G be an
Abelian group and let A c G. For kEN, let
k A= {L
A x: X c A and IXI = k} .
xEX
(Here, IAI denotes the cardinality of a set A.) Let p
be a prime number and let A c Z/pZ. It was con-
jectured by P. Erdos and H. Heilbronn that 12 A AI ~
min(p,2IAI - 3).
This conjecture, mentioned in [3], was first proved in
[2], using linear algebra. As a consequence of the lower
bound on the degree of the minimal polynomial of the
Grasmann derivative, the following theorem is true [2]:
Let p be a prime number and let A C Z/pZ. Then
Ik A AI ~ min(p, k(IAI - k) + 1).
Applying this theorem with k = 2, one obtains the
Erdos-Heilbronn conjecture mentioned above. A gen-
eralization of the theorem has been obtained in [1].
Presently (1996), almost nothing is known for compos-
ite numbers. The following conjecture is proposed here:
Let n be a composite number (cf. also Prime number)
and let A C Z/nZ be such that IAI ~ k - 1 + (n -1)/k.
Then 0 E j A A for some 1 :::; j :::; k.
242
For a prime number n, the above conjecture is an
easy consequence of the theorem above. Some applica-
tions to integer subset sums are contained in [4]. Along
the same lines, the conjecture has several implications.
In particular, for k = 3 one finds: Let A C {I, ... ,n}
be such that IAI ~ 5 + (n -1)/3. Then there is aBC A
such that 3 :::; IBI :::; 6 and 2:XEB x = 2n.
This was conjectured partially by Erdos and R. Gra-
ham [3] and follows easily by applying the conjecture
twice, after adding O.
References
[1J ALON, N., NATHANSON, M.B., AND RUSZA, I. Z.: 'The poly-
nomial method and restricted sums of congruence classes', J.
Number Th. (to appear).
[2J DIAS DA SILVA, J.A., AND HAMIDOUNE, Y.O.: 'Cyclic sub-
spaces of Grassmann derivations', Bull. London Math. Soc.
26 (1994), 140-146.
[3J ERDOS, P., AND GRAHAM, R.: 'Old and new problems and
results in combinatorial number theory', L 'Enseignement
Mathematique (1980), 1-128.
[4J HAMIDOUNE, Y.O.: 'The representation of some integers as a
subset sum', Bull. London Math. Soc. 26 (1994), 557-563.
Y.O. Hamidoune
MSC 1991: 20KOI
EULER TOUR, Euler circuit, Euler cycle, Eulerian
cycle - See Graph circuit; Classical combinatorial
problems.
MSC 1991: 05C45
EVOLUTIONARILY STABLE STRATEGY
Conflicts between organisms are often modelled as
games (cf. also Games, theory of). Here, attention
is confined to conflicts between con-specifics, which are
also symmetric in the sense that each player has avail-
able the same set of strategies (cf. Strategy (in game
theory)) and the same pay-off function. (Important
texts in this area are [5], [8], [15], [17], [22].)
Consider first two-player conflicts (cf. also Two-
person zero-sum game). Suppose there exists a set
of possible strategies S, and a pay-off function E(x, y),
where (x, y) E S x S, the pay-off to a player who plays
x against one who plays y. One extends the set of avail-
able strategies to some Z, where each p E Z is a weight
function defined on the elements of S; e.g. a probability
function if S is discrete. One supposes that the extension
of the pay-off function is linear, i.e. for p, q E Z,
E(p, q) = L PxqyE(x, y),
(x,y)
where 2: denotes summation or integration (as appro-
priate) and Px is the weight attached to x by p.
A concept of solution of an evolutionarily stable strat-
egy was introduced in [19]. Such a strategy, if adopted
by the whole of the (infinite) population (see [21] for the

finite case), cannot be invaded by any alternate strategy
introduced at low frequency.
A strategy p is said to be evolutionarily stable with
respect to q if:
1) E(p,p) 2: E(q,p);
2) E(p,p) = E(q,p) implies E(p,q) > E(q,q).
A strategy p is said to be evolutionarily stable if p
is evolutionarily stable with respect to q for all q =f=. p.
For a discussion of the definition see also [5] and [23].
Let R(p) = {x: px > O} denote the support of p. If p is
such that E(x,p) = c for all x E R(p) while E(x,p) < c
for all x f/. R(p), then p is a strict Nash equilibrium
(cf. also Nash theorem (in game theory»). It fol-
lows that E(P,p) > E(q,p), so p is evolutionarily stable
against q for all q such that R(p)\R(q) =f=. 0,0 being the
empty set. Thus, in the generic case an evolutionarily
stable strategy is a strict Nash equilibrium with the ad-
ditional condition that for all q such that R(q) c R(p)
one requires that E (p, q) > E (q, q), or, equivalently,
that for all q such that R(q) C R(p) one requires that
T(p, q) = E(p,p) - E(q,p) - E(p, q) + E(q, q) ::; 0, with
equality if and only if p = q.
For conditions for p to be an evolutionarily stable
strategy in the finite (i.e. matrix) case, see [10] (generic)
and [1] (non-generic). If p is an evolutionarily stable
strategy and q is such that R(q) C R(p), then q is not
an evolutionarily stable strategy (the Bishop-Cannings
theorem, [4]).
The war of attrition was introduced in [16], where
S = [0,00) and E(x,y) = 8(x,y) * V - min(x,y) and
8(x,y) = 1 if x > y, 8(x,y) = 0.5 if x = y and
8(x, y) = 0 if x < y. Thus, individuals contest for
a reward V by choosing a single value, perhaps dis-
play time, the winner being the one choosing the larger
value but the cost to each only being the lesser; i.e. the
contest ends immediately when the first individual re-
treats. In this case there is a unique evolutionarily sta-
ble strategy, given by p; = A exp( - AX), x E [0,00),
where A = I/V. This follows since E(x,p*) = 0,
x E [0,00), T(p, q) ::; 0 with equality if and only if
p = q, which ensures that p* is an evolutionarily sta-
ble strategy, and this is unique by the Bishop-Cannings
theorem. If E(x, y) = 8(x, y) * V - x, i.e. individuals es-
sentially commit themselves irrevocable to their choice,
as might occur for a choice of size, then there is no
evolutionarily stable strategy [18]. A hybrid model with
E(x, y) = 8(x, y) * (V - f(x-y)) - min(x, y) has been
treated by [12].
Finite conflicts. As stated above, [10] gives conditions
in the finite (i.e. matrix) case for p to be an evolu-
tionarily stable strategy. Suppose S = {I, ... , n} and
EVOLUTIONARILY STABLE STRATEGY
A = (aij) = E(i,j). For n = 2, an evolutionarily sta-
ble strategy with R(p) = {1,2} exists if and only if
a12 > a22 and a2i > an. See, in particular, [19] for
the hawk-dove scenario, where there is a reward V for
winning, a hawk always beats a dove, doves share the
reward, while hawks share the reward but also incur
damage (cost D). Thus,
A = I(V-O
D)/2 V I
V/2
and there is an evolutionarily stable strategy with both
hawk and dove if D > V, demonstrating that organisms
need not adopt aggressive strategies. On the other hand,
if an > a21, then p = (1,0) is an evolutionarily stable
strategy, while if a22 > a12, then p = (0,1) is an evo-
lutionarily stable strategy. Thus there is always at least
one evolutionarily stable strategy.
For n = 3, [10] has given examples of the possible sets
of evolutionarily stable strategies, it being possible that
there be no evolutionarily stable strategy. More gener-
ally, suppose that T = {Ti , ... , Td, where T E P(S),
P denoting the power set. Then T is called a pattern. If
there exists an (n x n)-matrix A with k evolutionarily
stable strategies with supports T i , then T is said to be
attainable on S. The Bishop-Cannings theorem ensures
that an attainable pattern is a Sperner family. Various
restrictions on the set of attainable patterns have been
derived in [24]; in it, it is conjectured that if T is at-
tainable and T* C T, then T* is also attainable on S.
This conjecture is still (1996) open, although in [6] it
has been proved that T* is attainable for some S* ::J S.
Dynamics. A major criticisism of the evolutionarily
stable strategy solution concept is that it is a static,
rather than a dynamic concept. However, for the con-
tinuous replicator dynamics, if there is an interior evo-
lutionarily stable strategy p*, then convergence to that
evolutionarily stable strategy is assured, where Z = S
[26], and, more generally, if Z is such that p* is a convex
combination of some subset of its elements, then conver-
gence is assured to the linear manifold defined by p* [2].
If the players can choose p* itself, then convergence is
assured even for more general dynamics [7]. For further
discussion of dynamics see [14], which uses a covariance
approach and for an examination of the embedding of
such dynamics within a genetic system, and a discussion
of whether evolution can find the evolutionarily stable
strategy, see [9], [13], [25].
Iterated conflicts, spatial conflicts and coopera-
tion. The classic paradigm for examining the evolution
of cooperation is the prisoner dilemma [3] (see [22] for an
excellent overview). Here the defect strategy dominates
the cooperate strategy (n = 2). However, if the conflict
consists not of a single play, but of a series of random
243
EVOLUTIONARILY STABLE STRATEGY
(geometrically distributed) length, then cooperation can
evolve. A series of strategies (tit-for-tat, i.e. imitate the
opponent's last play, two-tits-for-tat, generous-tit-for-
tat, etc.) has been developed, and although none of these
is an evolutionarily stable strategy, studies suggest that
cooperation, in some form, may evolve. In a related way,
spatial structure (players are located at the points of a
grid, interact with some set of neighbours and imitate
the best local strategy in the next round) may lead to
the persistence of both strategies [20].
Multi-player conflicts. A multi-player war of attrition
model is discussed in [11]. This necessitates the exten-
sion of the notion of an evolutionarily stable strategy to
k players. Assume that the pay-off for playing p against
k - 1 opponents depends only on the membership of the
set of strategies and not on any ordering within the set.
Thus, the pay-off to an individual who plays p while l of
the k - 1 opponents play p and k - l - 1 play q can be
written asE(p,plqk-l-l). A strategy p is said to be evo-
lutionarily stable with respect to q in a k-player conflict
if there exists a j E {O, ... ,k - 1} such that
1) E(p,pk-i-lqi) = E(q,pk-i-lqi), for i ::; j;
2) E(p,pk- j - 2 qi+ 1 ) > E(q,pk- j -2 qj +l).
An evolutionarily stable strategy is then defined as for
the two-player conflict in terms of evolutionary stabil-
ity. Note that the definition, while only referring to
two strategies, implicitly deals with the case of several
strategies. There are then situations in which no evolu-
tionarily stable strategy exists in the war of attrition,
e.g. if players are allowed to re-assess their play when
some other player quits. It is clear that the study of
multi-player conflicts and their application to the estab-
lishment and maintenance of dominance hierarchies, to
mate selection, etc., is an area of considerable impor-
tance.
References
[1] ABAKUCS, A.: 'Conditions for evolutionarily stable strate-
gies', J. Appl. Probab. 17 (1980), 559-562.
[2] AKIN, E.: 'Exponential families and game dynamics', Cana-
dian J. Math. 34 (1982), 374-405.
[3J AXELROD, R.: 'Further evolution of co-operation', Science
242 (1988), 1385-1390.
[4J BISHOP, D.T., AND CANNINGS, C.: 'A generalised war of at-
trition', J. Theoret. BioI 70 (1978),85-124.
[5J BOMZE, I.M., AND POTSCHNER, B.M.: Game theoreticalfoun-
dations of evolutionary stability, Lecture Notes Econom. and
Math. Systems. Springer, 1998.
[6J BROOM, M., CANNINGS, C., AND VICKERS, G.T.: 'Sequential
methods in patterns of ESS's', J. Math. BioI. 22 (1994),597-
615.
[7] CANNINGS, C.: 'Topics in the theory of ESS's', in S. LESSARD
(ed.): Proc. NATO Advanced Study Institute {Montreal,
1987}, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1990.
[8J CRESSMAN, R.: The stability concept of evolutionary game
theory, Springer, 1992.
244
[9] ESHEL, 1., AND FELDMAN, M.W.: 'Initial increase of new mu-
tants and continuity properties of ESS in two-locus systems',
Amer. Nat. 124 (1984), 631-640.
[lOJ HAIGH, J.: 'Game theory and evolution', Advances Appl.
Probab. 7 (1975), 8-10.
[11] HAIGH, J., AND CANNINGS, C.: 'The n-person war of attri-
tion', Acta Applic. Math. 14 (1989), 59-74.
[12] HAIGH, J., AND ROSE, M.R.: 'Evolutionary game auctions',
J. Theoret. Bioi. 85 (1980), 381-397.
[13] HAMMERSTEIN, P.: 'Darwinian adaptation, population genet-
ics and the streetcar theory of evolution', J. Math. BioI. 34
(1996),511-532.
[14] HINES, W.G.S., AND ANFOSSI, D.: 'A discusson of evolution-
arily stable strategies', in S. LESSARD (ed.): Proc. NATO Adv.
Study Inst. {Montreal, 1987}, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1990.
[15] HOFBAUER, J., AND SIGMUND, K.: The theory of evolution
and dynamical systems, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988.
[16J MAYNARD SMITH, J.: 'The theory of games and the evolution
of animal conflicts', J. Theoret. BioI. ,47 (1974), 209-221.
[17] MAYNARD SMITH, J.: Evolution and the theory of games,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982.
[18] MAYNARD SMITH, J., AND PARKER, G.E.: 'The logic of asym-
metric conflicts', Animal Behavior 24 (1976), 159-175.
[19] MAYNARD SMITH, J., AND PRICE, G.R.: 'The logic of animal
conflict', Nature 246 (1973), 15-18.
[20] NOWAK, M.A., AND MAY, R.M.: 'Evolutionary games and
spatial chaos', Nature 359 (1992),826-829.
[21] RILEY, ?: 'Evolutionary equilibrium strategies', J. Theoret.
Bioi. 76 (1979), 109-123.
[22] SIGMUND, K.: Games of life, Oxford Univ. Press, 1993.
[23] VICKERS, G.T., AND CANNINGS, C.: 'On the definition of an
evolutionarily stable strategy', J. Theoret. Bioi. 129 (1987),
349-353.
[24J VICKERS, G.T., AND CANNINGS, C.: 'Patterns of ESS's 1', J.
Theoret. Bioi. 132 (1988), 387-408.
[25J WEISSING, F.J.: 'Genetic versus phenotypic models of selec-
tion: Can genetics be neglected in a long term perspective?',
J. Math. Bioi. 34 (1996), 533-555.
[26] ZEEMAN, E.C.: 'Population dynamics from game theory', in
A. NITECKI AND C. ROBINSON (eds.): Global Theory of Dy-
namical Systems, Springer, 1980.
C. Cannings
MSC 1991: 90Dxx, 90A14, 92Bxx
EXISTENTIALLY CLOSED, existentially complete -
Let L be a first-order language (cf. Model (in logic»).
A substructure A of an L-structure B (cf. Structure) is
called existentially closed (or existentially complete) in
B if every existential sentence with parameters from A
is true in (A, IAI) if it is true in (B, IAI). An existential
sentence with parameters from A is a closed formula
3Xl ... 3x n <1>( xl. ... ,xn ), where <1> is a formula with-
out quantifiers in the first-order language of signature
(n, IAI), with n the signature of L (cf. Model theory).
If A is a substructure of Band B admits an em-
bedding, fixing the elements of A, in some elementary
extension of A (cf. Elementary theory), then A is ex-
istentially closed in B. Conversely, if A is existentially
closed in B and a is a cardinal number greater than the

cardinality of B, then B admits an embedding, fixing
the elements of A, in every a-saturated extension of A.
A member A of a class K of L-structures is called
existentially closed (or existentially complete) with re-
spect to K if A is existentially closed in every member
B of K, provided that A is a substructure of B.
If a field K is existentially closed in an extension field
L, then K is (relatively) algebraically closed in L (cf.
Algebraically closed field). Hence, a field that is ex-
istentially closed with respect to all fields must be alge-
braically closed, and a formally real field that is existen-
tially closed with respect to all formally real fields must
be a real closed field. Existentially closed fields or
rings (with respect to suitable classes) give rise to a cor-
responding Nullstellensatz. This is a theorem describing
EXISTENTIALLY CLOSED
the form of a polynomial 9 depending on finitely many
other polynomials 11, ... ,1m' provided that there is an
existentially closed member A of the class containing the
coefficients of the polynomials and such that every com-
mon root of the Ii in A is also a root of g. For the class of
fields, the corresponding theorem is Hilbert's Nullstel-
lensatz (cf. Hilbert theorem). There are correspond-
ing theorems for formally real fields (see Real closed
field), p-valued fields (see p-adically closed field), dif-
ferential fields, division rings, commutative rings, and
commutative regular rings. The general model-theoretic
framework was considered by V. Weispfenning in 1977.
F. - V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 03C50, 03C95
245
________ F ________
f-ALGEBRA - A real vector space A that is simul-
taneously a lattice is called a vector lattice (or Riesz
space) whenever x :::; y (:::; is the lattice order) implies
x + z :::; y + z for all z E A and ax :::; ay for all positive
real numbers a. If A is also an algebra and zx :::; yz
and xz :::; yz for all z E A +, the positive cone of A, then
A is called an l-algebra (a lattice-ordered algebra, Riesz
algebra).
A Riesz algebra A is called an f -algebra (J for 'func-
tion') whenever
inf(x,y) = 0 =} inf(zx,y) = inf(xz,y) = 0, Vz E A+.
This notion was introduced by G. Birkhoff and R.S.
Pierce in 1956.
An important example of an f-algebra is A = C(X),
the space of continuous functions (cf. Continuous
functions, space of) on some topological space X.
Other examples are spaces of Baire functions, measur-
able functions and essentially bounded functions. f-
Algebras play an important role in operator theory. The
second commutant of a commuting subset of bounded
Hermitian operators on some Hilbert space is an f-
algebra. A linear operator T on some vector lattice
A is called an orthomorphism whenever T is the differ-
ence of two positive orthomorphisms; a positive ortho-
morphism S on A leaves the positive cone of A invariant
and satisfies inf(Sx, y) = 0 whenever inf(x, y) = O. The
space Orth( A) of all orthomorphisms of A is an impor-
tant example of an f-algebra in the theory of vector
lattices.
A vector lattice A is termed Archimedean if 0 :::;
nx :::; y (n = 1,2, ... ) implies x = O. Archimedean
f-algebras are automatically commutative and associa-
tive. An Archimedean f-algebra with unit element is
semi-prime (Le., the only nilpotent element is 0). The
latter two properties are nice examples of the interplay
between order properties and algebraic properties in an
f-algebra. Many properties of C(X) are inherited by
an f-algebra A with a unit element (under some addi-
tional completeness condition), such as the existence of
the square root of a positive element (if x E A +, then
there exists a unique yEA + such that y(2) = x) and
the existence of an inverse: if e is the unit element of A
and e :::; x, then X-I exists in A.
References
[1] BIRKHOFF,G., AND PIERCE, R.S.: 'Lattice-ordered rings', An.
Acad. Brasil. Ci. 28 (1956), 41-69.
[2] ZAANEN, A.C.: Riesz spaces, Vol. II, North-Holland, 1983.
C.B. Huijsmans
MSC 1991: 46E05, 46Jxx
FEDERER-FLEMING DEFORMATION THEO-
REM - The Federer-Fleming deformation theorem can
be considered as one of the central results in the theory
of integral currents, created by H. Federer and W.H.
Fleming at the end of 1950s, [2J. The notion of an inte-
gral current was introduced to meet all the requirements
of the concept of 'k-dimensional domain of integration in
Euclidean n-space' and combines the smoothness prop-
erties of differentiable manifolds and the combinatorial
structure of polyhedral chains with integer coefficients.
The notion of integral current provides a powerful in-
strument for solving geometrical variational problems
like the Plateau problem.
The deformation theorem shows how one can deform
normal and integral currents into similar currents with
supports in the appropriate skeletons of a standard cu-
bical cell complex with given cube edge, and gives esti-
mates for the masses of the currents.
Let C denote the standard cubical complex in the
Euclidean space Rn generated by the cubes with edge
2 and with centres at the integer points. Let C~ denote
the complex obtained from C by c:-homothety (cf. Ho-
mothety). As always, let Nk (R n) denote the space of
normal currents in Rn, and let mass(T) be the mass of
the current T (cf. also Differential form; Mass and
co-mass).
 FEFFERMAN-GARSIA INEQUALITY

The Federer-Fleming deformation theorem reads: Let A. T. Fomenko

E >
0 be an arbitrary positive number. Then any k- A.D. Ivanov
dimensional normal current T in R n can be represented A.A. Tuzhilin
MSC 1991: 58A25, 58AlO, 58C35, 28Cxx
as a sum

T = P+Q+8S, FEDERER SPECTRAL SEQUENCE - The Federer

where spectral sequence is a means to compute homotopy
groups of function spaces (track groups; cf. Homotopy
group). Its E 2 -stage consists of the singular cohomology
with the following properties: (cf. Singular homology) of the source with coefficients
in the homotopy groups of the target.
1) The current P is a polyhedral chain of Co with
More specifically, let X and Y be connected topolog-
real coefficients. If T is an integral current, then the co-
efficients of P are integers. ical spaces (cf. Connected space) and u: X --+ Y a
continuous mapping. The Federer spectral sequence
2) The supports of P and S lie in the 2nE-
for this situation is a second quadrant homology spec-
neighbourhood of the support of T, and the supports
of 8P and Q lie in the 2nE-neighbourhood of 8T. tral sequence (E:*, dr ), with
3) For the masses of T, P, Q, and S the following E;q = H-P(X; 7rq(Y)) for p +q ~ 0
estimates hold:
and E;q = 0 otherwise. Under appropriate finite-
ma::(p) ~ 2nk [(~) ma::(T) + (k: 1) m::~~T)] , ness conditions it converges to the homotopy group
7rp+q(map(X, Y), u) of the space of continuous mappings
mass(8P) < 2nk-1 ( n ) mass(8T) from X to Y.
Ek-I - k- 1 Ek-I '
In the literature, this spectral sequence occurs ex-
mass(Q) < 6n k (
---:-'--'--'- n ) mass(8T) plicitly in [3J and implicitly in [1 J (and is for this reason
Ek - k - 1 Ek-I '

(n)
sometimes referred to as the Barratt-Federer spectral se-
mass(S) k+1 mass(T) quence). See [2J or [4] for later generalizations and mod-
k+1 ~ 4n k k·
E E ifications.
4) If T is an integral current, then so are P, Q and References
S. [1] BARRATT, M.G.: 'Track groups I, II', Proc. London Math.
5) If T is an (integral) Lipschitz chain, so are P, Q Soc. 5 (1955),71-106; 285-329.
[2] BROWN, R.: 'On Kiinneth suspensions', Proc. Cambridge.
and S. Philos. Soc. 60 (1964), 713-720.
6) If 8T is an (integral) Lipschitz chain, so is Q. [3] FEDERER, H.: 'A study of function spaces by spectral se-
As a consequence, one can obtain the following re- quences', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 82 (1956), 340-36l.
[4] MOLLER, J.M.: 'On equivariant function spaces', Pacific J.
sult: For each integral current T there exists a sequence
Math. 142 (1990), 103-119.
of integral Lipschitz chains Ti such that 1.M. M¢Uer
lim Ti =T and lim N(Ti - T) = 0, MSC 1991: 55T99
i-+oo z-+oo

where N(T) = mass(T) + mass(8T). FEFFERMAN-GARSIA INEQUALITY - C. Feffer-

As other applications of the theorem, one can ob-
tain the theorem about isomorphism between the in-
teger singular homology groups of (A, B) and the ho-
mology groups of the integral current chain complex
I*(A)/I*(B), where A and B are local Lipschitz neigh-
bourhood retracts in Rn; the isoperimetric inequalities
for integral currents; etc. Some modern applications of
the theorem can be found in [1], [3J.
References
[1] DAO TRONG TRI, AND FOMENKO, A.T.: Minimal surfaces,
stratified multivarifolds and the Plateau problem, Amer.
Math. Soc., 1991.
[2] FEDERER, H., AND FLEMING, W.H.: 'Normal and integral cur-
rents', Ann. of Math. 72, no. 3 (1960), 458-520.
[3] FOMENKO, A.T.: Variational principles in topology: multidi-
mensional minimal surface theory, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1990.
man [3J discovered the remarkable fact that the space
BMO is none other than the 'dual' of the Hardy space
HI in the sense offunction analysis (cf. also Functional
analysis; Hardy spaces; Duality; BMO-space). In
establishing the above duality, Fefferman discovered the
following 'formal' inequality: if X E HI and Y E BMO,
then
IE(XY)I ~ C IIXIIH, IIYII BMO ·
The word 'formal' is used here since XY does not
necessarily have a finite Lebesgue integral. How-
ever, one can define E(XY) by setting E(XY) =
limn-too E(XnYn ), since it has been proved that in this
case limn-too E(XnYn ) exists. Here, Xn = E(X I Fn)
and Y n = E(Y I F n ), n ~ 0, Xo = Yo = 0 a.s., are

247
FEFFERMAN-GARSIA INEQUALITY
regular martingales. Later, A.M. Garsia [4] proved an
analogous inequality for Hp with 1 < p ~ 1.
S. Ishak and J. Mogyorodi [5] extended the validity
of the Fefferman-Garsia inequality to all p ~ 1. In 1983,
[6], [7], [8], they also proved the following generalization:
If X E HiI> and Y E K lJI , where (IP, Ill) is a pair of con-
jugate Young functions (cf. also Dual functions) such
that IP has a finite power, then
where Gil> > °
is a constant depending only on IP and
E(XY) stands for limn-too E(XnYn ), which exists.
It was proved in [1], [2] that the generalized
Fefferman-Garsia inequality holds if and only if the
right-hand side of the corresponding Burkholder-
Davis-Gundy inequality holds.
References
[IJ BASSILY, N.L.: 'Approximation theory': Proc. Conf.
Kecksemet, Hungary, 1990, Vol. 58 of Colloq. Math. Soc.
Janos Boljai, 1991, pp. 85-96.
[2J BASSILY, N.L.: 'Probability theory and applications. Essays
in memory of J. Mogyorodi', Math. Appl. 80 (1992), 33-45.
[3J FEFFERMAN, C.: 'Characterisation of bounded mean oscilla-
tion', Amer. Math. Soc. 77 (1971), 587-588.
[4J GARSIA, A.M.: Martingale inequalities. Seminar notes on re-
cent progress, Mathematics Lecture Notes. Benjamin, 1973.
[5J ISHAK,S., AND MOGYORODI, J.: 'On the generalization of
the Fefferman-Garsia inequality': Proc. 3rd IFIP- WG1'l/1
Working Conf., Vol. 36 of Lecture Notes in Control and In-
formation Sciences, Springer, 1981, pp. 85-97.
[6J ISHAK,S., AND MOGYORODI, J.: 'On the P<I>-spaces and the
generalization of Herz's and Fefferman inequalities I', Studia
Math. Hungarica 17 (1982), 229-234.
[7J ISHAK,S., AND MOGYORODI, J.: 'On the P<I>-spaces and the
generalization of Herz's and Fefferman inequalities II', Studia
Math. Hungarica 18 (1983), 205-210.
[8J ISHAK,S., AND MOGYORODI, J.: 'On the P<I>-spaces and the
generalization of Herz's and Fefferman inequalities III', Stu-
dia Math. Hungarica 18 (1983), 211 219.
N.L. Bassily
MSC 1991: 42B30, 41A17
FEJER-RIESZ THEOREM - A trigonometric
polynomial is an expression in one of the equivalent
forms ao + Z=~[ajcos(jt) + bjsin(jt)] or Z=~nCjeijt.
When the values of a trigonometric polynomial are real
for all real t, the coefficients aj, bj in the first form are
necessarily real, and those in the second form satisfy
Cj = c- j for all indices j. L. Fejer [2] was the first to
note the importance of the class of trigonometric poly-
nomials that assume only non-negative real values. His
conjecture on the form of such a function was proved by
F. Riesz, and is nowadays known as the Fejer-Riesz the-
orem: A trigonometric polynomial w(e it ) = Z=~n cje ijt
that assumes only non-negative real values for all real t
is expressible in the form
w(e it ) = Ip(e it )12
248
for some polynomial p(z) = Z=~ ajz j . The polynomial
can be chosen to have no roots in D = {z: Izl < I}, and
then it is unique except for a multiplicative constant of
modulus one.
The proof is based on the observation that w(z) =
Z=~n CjZ j satisfies w(l/z) = w(z) as a function of the
complex variable z. If C- n :{=. 0, then q(z) = znw(z) is
a polynomial of degree 2n with q(O) :{=. 0. The roots of
q(z) of modulus :{=. 1 occur in pairs a, 1/7i having equal
multiplicity. Roots of unit modulus have even multiplic-
ity. It follows that w( z) = C I1~ [( z - aj) (Z-l - aj)]'
where ai, ... ,a r have modulus ~ 1 and C is a positive
constant. The desired representation is obtained with
p(z) = yCI1~(z - aj). See [5] for a variation of this
method and an application in spectral theory.
A generalization of the Fejer-Riesz theorem plays an
important role in the theory of orthogonal polynomials.
Szego's theorem: Let w( eit ) be a non-negative func-
tion which is integrable with respect to the normalized
Lebesgue measure dO" = dt/(27r) on the unit circle
°
aD = {e it : ~ t < 27r}. If
r
laD
logw(eit)dO">-oo,
then
where h( e it ) is the boundary function of an outer func-
tion h( z) on D of Hardy class H2 (cf. also Hardy
classes). Such a function is unique up to a multiplica-
tive constant of modulus one.
The asymptotic properties of the polynomials which
are orthogonal with respect to such a weight function
w(e it ) have been described in terms of the function h(z)
(G. Szego, [8, Chapt. 12]). Here, the term outer means
that the set offunctions of the form h(z)k(z), where k(z)
is a polynomial, is dense in H2. The log-integrability
hypothesis is automatically satisfied when w(e it ) is a
trigonometric polynomial, and then the outer function
h(z) is the polynomial p(z) in the Fejer-Riesz theorem.
The Fejer-Riesz and Szego theorems are prototypes
for two kinds of hypotheses which assure the existence of
similar representations of non-negative functions. One
type stipulates algebraic or analytical structure, the
other that the given function is not too small. Non-
negativity on the unit circle is often replaced by non-
negativity on the real line. For example, the Akhiezer
theorem states that an entire function w(z) of expo-
nential type T that is non-negative on the real axis and
satisfies
1 00
-00
log+ w(x) d
---2::-'-
1+x
X < 00

can be written as w(x) = If(x)iZ for x real, where f(z)
is an entire function of exponential type T /2 which has
no zeros in the open upper half-plane (see [1]).
Related problems arise in linear prediction theory,
but there the functions to be factored are operator val-
ued. Such problems date back to the 1940s and 1950s
(see [3], [4], [7], [9], [10]). In this context, the term spec-
tral factorization is used to describe the representation
of non-negative operator-valued functions. Operator ex-
tensions of the Fejer-Riesz theorem were proved in spe-
cial cases by several authors, the final form being that
given by M. Rosenblum (operator version of the Fejer-
Riesz theorem): Let W(e it ) = E~n Cjeijt be a trigono-
metric polynomial whose coefficients are operators on a
Hilbert space K and which assumes non-negative selfad-
joint values for all real t. Then
W(e it ) = P(e it )* P(e it )
for some outer polynomial P(z) = E~ Ajzj whose co-
efficients are operators on K.
Here, the term outer is relative to the Hardy class
Hi::. of functions with values in K: the meaning is that
the set of functions P(z)k(z), where k(z) is a polyno-
mial with coefficients in K, is dense in a subspace of Hi::.
of the form H1 for some subspace M of K.
Analogous theorems hold for operator-valued func-
tions satisfying Szeg8-type hypotheses and for polyno-
mials, rational functions, and entire functions of expo-
nential type. However, the techniques used to prove the
representation theorems in the scalar case are usually
not applicable in the operator extensions. For exam-
ple, the fundamental theorem of algebra (cf. Complex
number), which is used in the proof of the Fejer-Riesz
theorem, has no counterpart for operator-valued poly-
nomials. A method due to D. Lowdenslager allows a uni-
fied approach to the operator extensions. Many results
based on the method, including a proof of the operator
Fejer-Riesz theorem, may be found in [6].
References
[1] BOAS, R P.: Entire functions, Acad. Press, 1954.
[2] FEJER, L.: 'Uber trigonometrische Polynome', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 146 (1916), 53-82.
[3] HELSON, H., AND LOWDENSLAGER, D.: 'Prediction theory and
Fourier series in several variables 1', Acta Math. 99 (1958),
165-202.
[4] HELSON, H., AND LOWDENSLAGER, D.: 'Prediction theory and
Fourier series in several variables II', Acta Math. 106 (1961),
175-213.
[5] RIESZ, F., AND SZ.-NAGY, B.: FUnctional analysis, F. Ungar,
1955.
[6] ROSENBLUM, M., AND ROVNYAK, J.: Hardy classes and oper-
ator theory, Dover, reprint, 1997.
[7] ROZANOV, YU.A.: 'Spectral theory of n-dimensional station-
ary stochastic processes with discrete time', Selected Transl.
in Math. Statistics and Pmbab. 1 (1961), 253-306. (Uspekhi
Mat. Nauk 13, no. 2 (80) (1958),93-142.)
FERMAT LAST THEOREM
[8] SZEGO, G.: Orthogonal polynomials, fourth ed., Vol. 23 of
Colloq. Publ., Amer. Math. Soc., 1975.
[9] WIENER, N., AND MASANI, P.: 'The prediction theory ofmul-
tivariate stochastic processes 1', Acta Math. 98 (1957), 111-
150.
[10] WIENER, N., AND MASANI, P.: 'The prediction theory ofmul-
tivariate stochastic processes II', Acta Math. 99 (1958),93-
137.
J. Rovnyak
MSC 1991: 42A05, 47A56
FERMAT EQUATION - The Diophantine equation
(cf. Diophantine equations) xn + yn = zn, n EN,
x, y E Z, of which it was fairly recently proved (in 1995)
that there are no non-trivial solutions if n 2 3 (see, e.g.,
[2]).
See Fermat great theorem for an account of affairs
before A. Wiles' recent proof [3].
See Fermat last theorem and [2] for a sketch of the
basic ideas and techniques behind the proof. See also [2]
for related matters such as the generalized Fermat con-
jecture and the Fermat equation over function fields; see
also [1].
References
[1] DENIS, 1.: 'Le theoreme de Fermat-Goss', Trans. Amer.
Math. Soc. 343 (1994), 713-726.
[2] POORTEN, A.J. VAN DER: Notes on Fermat's last theorem,
Wiley, 1996.
[3] WILES, A.: 'Modular elliptic curves and Fermat's last theo-
rem', Ann. of Math. 141 (1995), 443-551.
M. H azewinkel
MSC 1991: llD41
FERMAT LAST THEOREM - Fermat's last theorem
surely was mathematics' most celebrated and notorious
open problem. Its investigation sparked fundamental ad-
vances in the mathematical sciences.
Fermat's last theorem is the claim that xn + yn = zn
has no solutions in non-zero integers for n > 2. For n = 2
there is an infinity of solutions, such as: 32 + 42 = 52;
52 + 122 = 132; 82 + 15 2 = 172. These are called the
Pythagorean triples, in view of the Pythagoras theo-
rem. However, around 1637, the French jurist P. de Fer-
mat wrote in the margin of his copy of the Arithmetika
of Diophantus that: 'Cubum autem in duos cubos,
aut quadrato-quadratum in duos quadrato-quadratos, et
generaliter nullam in infinitum ultra quadratum potes-
tatem in duos ejusdem nominis fas est dividere; cujus rei
demonstrationem mirabilem sane detexi. Hanc marginis
exiguitas non caperet'.
(That is, 'to split a cube into two cubes, or a fourth
(biquadratic) power into two fourth powers, or indeed
any higher power unto infinity into two like powers, is
impossible; and I have a marvelous proof for this. But
the margin is too narrow to contain it'.)
249
FERMAT LAST THEOREM
On Fermat's death in 1665, his son Samuel proceeded
to collect Fermat's mathematical correspondence. That,
and a reprint ofthe Arithmetika, together with Fermat's
marginal notes, was published in 1670. By the end of the
eighteenth century all of Fermat's other remarks had
been dealt with, one way or the other: either properly
proved or shown to be false. Only this one remark re-
mained, hence the name 'last theorem'.
Of course, one need only deal with the exponents
n = 4 and n = p, an odd prime number. In one of the few
actual proofs he left behind, Fermat himself had dealt
with the case n = 4. It was many years later, in 1753,
that L. Euler dealt with the case n = 3. There was an
alleged omission in the argument, later filled in by C.F.
Gauss. P.G.L. Dirichlet and A.M. Legendre proved the
case n = 5 in 1825 and G. Lame settled the case n = 7
in 1839; Dirichlet had proved the case n = 14 in 1832.
It is quite absurd to suppose that Fermat had a proof
of the 'last theorem', or that he even continued to believe
that he had one much beyond the moment he scribbled
the claim in that notorious margin. Other than for the
exponents 3 and 4, which were within his reach, Fermat
never boasted about the matter in his correspondence
in the thirty or so remaining years of his life.
For symmetry, set aP + lJ' + cP = 0, with p an odd
prime number. It is now easy to show that if pte, then
there is an integer, so that a + b = ,P, whilst if pic,
then a + b = pp-l,p. Anyway, the cases p ~abc (the
so-called first case), p I abc (the second case) are rather
different. N.H. Abel used such formulas to show that if
in xn + yn = zn, with 0 < x < y < z and n ~ 3, one of
x, y, or z is some prime power qT, then the exponent n
must be prime number, the prime power must be x = q,
z differs from y by 1, and n divides y(y + 1). Similarly,
S. Germain, generalized by A.M. Legendre, showed that
there is no solution for the first case if both nand kn + 1
are prime; here k may take various small values. It fol-
lowed that there is no solution for the first case when
the exponent n is less than 100.
Of course, x P + yP = zP equals rr~:~(x + (;y) = zP,
where (p is a primitive pth root of unity. Thus each of
the principal ideals (x+(;y) is the pth power of an ideal
of the cyclotomic field Q((p); indeed, of a principal ideal
if the class number hp of that field is prime to p. E.E.
Kummer proved Fermat's last theorem for such regu-
lar prime numbers in 1847. His researches provided a
seemingly straightforward characterization of regularity
in terms of the behaviour of the Bernoulli numbers
modulo p; his study of cyclotomic number fields initiated
the subject now known as algebraic number theory,
and by dealing with the primes 37,59 and 67, which are
only 'a little irregular', Kummer proved Fermat's last
250
theorem beyond exponent 100 (up to 167, where the
calculations became just to burdensome).
The next 120 years see surprisingly little fundamen-
tal advance on Kummer's contributions to Fermat's last
theorem. H. Vandiver corrected part of Kummer's work
and refined his criteria for irregularity. By 1993, further
such refinements and ingenious computer computations
had settled Fermat's last theorem for exponents up to
four million.
At the turn of the century, work relying on a com-
plicated analysis of Kummer's conditions led to the cri-
terion that if there is to be a solution to the first case
for exponent p, then p must divide the Fermat quotients
(a P - a)/p for both a = 2 and a = 3. However, (one now
knows that) the only prime numbers up to 109 , say, sat-
isfying the criterion for a = 2 are 1093 and 3511, whilst
for base 3 these are just 11 and 1006002. By 1993, the
first case criterion had been proved to be necessary for
all bases up to a = 89, settling that case beyond expo-
nent 1014.
By applying techniques from transcendental number
theory and Diophantine approximation, K. Inkeri had
shown that a putative solution in the case of exponent p
would have x, say, larger than about pp. Thus, by 1993
it was known that one could not state any counterex-
ample to Fermat's claim, for if there were one it would
be millions of digits long.
Consider the cubic curve [a,b,c given by y2 = x(x -
a)(x+b), where a+b = c in non-zero integers. This Prey
curve [a,b,c is an elliptic curve with naive discriminant
abc. In 1985 G. Frey had remarked that, for uvw t- 0 and
p ~ 5, if 2 I u and v == 1 (mod 4), then, remarkably, the
curve [up,vp,w P is semi-stable and its supposed existence
seemed likely to contradict the Taniyama-Shimura mod-
ularity conjecture for elliptic curves over the rational
number field Q. In the language of the 1970s, [up,vp,wP
could apparently not be a Weil curve. A suggestion of
J.-P. Serre, his so-called E-conjecture, was proved by K.
Ribet in 1986, entailing that indeed the truth of the
modularity conjecture, and then just for semi-stable el-
liptic curves, implies Fermat's last theorem. At the time,
though, it was believed that the modularity conjecture
was inaccessible; that its proof was at least a generation
away.
It was therefore an enormous surprise and excitement
when, at Cambridge University in 1993, A. Wiles an-
nounced he had proved Fermat's last theorem by estab-
lishing the modularity conjecture for semi-stable elliptic
curves over Q. There followed a year or so of alarms in
which a subtle gap in the argument had to be filled. In
1995, a paper of Wiles, augmented by a further joint
note with R. Taylor, finally proved Fermat's allegation
[5].
 FITZSIMMONS-FRISTEDT-SHEPP THEOREM

Gauss had dismissed Fermat's equation as just one of
a multitude of such Diophantine equations, and Kum-
mer had made it clear that he valued his work on the
higher reciprocity laws far more than its eventual ap-
plication to Fermat's last theorem. Fittingly, Fermat's
last theorem is now a corollary of far more fundamental
results.
For the legends see [1]. Kummer's work is detailed in
[2], whilst [3] gives near complete references to work on
Fermat's last theorem up to the 1970s. Finally, [4] pro-
vides an accessible introduction to Wiles' proof 'in an
amusing and intriguing collection of tidbits, anecdotes,
footnotes, exercises, references, illustrations, and more'.
References
[1J BELL, E.T.: The last theorem, Math. Assoc. America, 1990.
[2J EDWARDS, H.M.: Fermat's last theorem - A genetic introduc-
tion to algebmic number theory, Springer, 1977.
[3J RIBENBOIM, P.: 13 lectures on Fermat's last theorem,
Springer, 1979.
[4J POORTEN, A. VAN DER: Notes on Fermat's last theorem,
Wiley-Interscience, 1996.
[5J WILES, A.: 'Modular elliptic curves and Fermat's last theo-
rem', Ann. of Math. 141 (1995), 443-551.
A.J. van der Poorten
MSC 1991: llD41, 14H25, 14H52, llG05
FISHBURN-SHEPP INEQUALITY, xyz inequality
- An inequality for linear extensions of a finite par-
tially ordered set (X, -<). Elements x, y E X are in-
comparable if x =f. y and neither x -< y nor y -< x.
Denote by <0 a generic linear order extension of -< on
X, let N be the number of linear extensions <0, and
let N(a1 <0 b1,··· ,an <0 bn ) be the number of linear
extensions in which ai <0 bi for i = 1, ... ,n.
The Fishburn-Shepp inequality says that if x, y and
z are mutually incomparable members of (X, -<), then
[2J FISHBURN, P .C.: 'A correlational inequality for linear exten-
sions of a poset', Order 1 (1984), 127-137.
[3J SHEPP, L.A.: 'The XYZ conjecture and the FKG inequality',
Ann. of Probab. 10 (1982), 824-827.
P. C. Fishburn
L.A. Shepp
MSC 1991: 60E15, 06A06
FITZSIMMONS-FRISTEDT-SHEPP THEOREM -
A theorem asserting that two particular random sets
obtained in quite different ways have the same distri-
bution law [1]. A first version of this theorem was ob-
tained by B. Mandelbrot in 1972 [2]. It is a key fact for
understanding the link between random coverings and
potential theory (see also Dvoretzky problem; Bil-
lard method).
The first random set is defined as
r = R+ \ U(Xi' Xi + Yi).
Here, the random cutouts (Xi, Xi + Yi) are associated
with points (Xi, Yi) that are randomly distributed in
R + x R + in such a way that their number in any given
rectangle I x J is a Poisson random variable (cf. Pois-
son process) with parameter A(I)J-t(J), where A is the
Lebesgue measure and J-t is a given measure on R +
that is locally bounded except at o. The set of points
(Xi, Yi) is called a point Poisson process with intensity
A 0 J-t, and r can be viewed as the set of points in R +
that are never in the shadow of the point Poisson pro-
cess when light comes from the directions (cos 0, sin 0),
7r/2 < 0 < 37r/4.
The second random set is the closure of the range
of a positive Levy process with drift, and Levy mea-
sure 11. By definition, this process, L(t) (= L(t,w)), has
independent and stationary increments, and

N(x <0 y)N(x <0 z) < N(x <0 y, x <0 z)N. Ee-uL(t) = e-t,p(u),

This was first proved for:::; in [3], then for < in [2]. The 'lj;(u) = ,u + 10 00
(1 - e- UZ ) 1I(dz).
Ahlswede-Daykin inequality [1] plays a key role in
the proof. The theorem asserts that for any given J-t with
The inequality is also written as
J-t(x <0 y)J-t(x <0 z) < J-t(x <0 y,x <0 z), 10 1
exp (i 1
J-t(Y, 00) dY) dx < 00, (1)

where J-t(A) denotes the probability that a randomly one can explicitly define, and 11 in such a way that
chosen linear extension <0 of -< satisfies A. When writ-
law of F = law of L(R+).
ten as J-t(x <0 y,x <0 z)/J-t(x <0 y) > J-t(x <0 z), one
sees that the probability of x <0 z increases when it is The drift, vanishes precisely when
true that also x <0 y. Some plausible related inequalities
are false [3]. 10 1
J-t(z, 00) dz = 00.
See also Correlation inequalities; FKG inequal-
For example, when J-t(dy) = ady/y 2 , 0 < a < 1, then
ity; Holley inequality.
References
,= 0 and 1I(z, 00) =
z-a (this is the case of a stable
[1J AHLSWEDE, R., AND DAYKIN, D.E.: 'An inequality for the
Levy process of index 1 - a).
weights of two families, their unions and intersections', Z. When the integral in (1) is infinite, a formal compu-
Wahrsch. verw. Gebiete 43 (1978), 183-185. tation gives, = 0 and 11 concentrated at +00. This is

251
FITZSIMMONS-FRISTEDT-SHEPP THEOREM
the case when r is empty. Therefore, the Fitzsimmons-
Fristedt-Shepp theorem is an extension of Shepp's the-
orem, which states that (1) is a necessary and sufficient
condition for r "# 0 almost surely [3].
Now, given a compact subset K of R +, the probabil-
ities of the events r n K = 0 and L(R+) n K = 0 are
the same; in other words: r n K = 0 almost surely if
and only if K is a polar set for the Levy process L(t).
Since compact polar sets are precisely the compact sets
of vanishing capacity with respect to a potential kernel
(associated with 'Y and l/ and therefore with f.L), the link
between Poisson covering of R + and potential theory is
manifest (see also Billard method).
References
[IJ FITZSIMONS, P.J., FRISTEDT, B., AND SHEPP, L.R.: 'The set
of real numbers left uncovered by random covering intervals',
Z. Wahrscheinlichkeitsth. verw. Gebiete 70 (1985), 175-189.
[2J MANDELBROT, B.B.: 'Renewal sets and random cutouts', Z.
Wahrscheinlichkeitsth. verw. Gebiete 22 (1972), 145-157.
[3J SHEPP, L.A.: 'Covering the line by random intervals', Z.
Wahrscheinlichkeitsth. verw. Gebiete 23 (1972), 163-170.
J.-P. Kahane
MSC 1991: 60D05, 60J45, 31Cxx, 60G60
FIXED-POINT PROPERTY for (partially) ordered
sets - A (partially) ordered set P (cf. Partially or-
dered set; Ordered set) is said to have the fixed-
point property if and only if each order-preserving map-
ping f: P --+ P (order-preserving means that x :::; y
implies f(x) :::; f(y)) has a fixed point p = f(p). The
fixed-point property is a comparability invariant for fi-
nite ordered sets [4]. The most famous results regard-
ing this property likely are the Knaster-Tarski-Davis
theorem that a lattice has the fixed-point property if
and only if it is complete (cf. Complete lattice; [3],
[14]), and the Abian-Brown-Pelczar theorem that in a
chain-complete ordered set P the existence of a point
comparable to its image is equivalent to the existence
of a fixed point [1], [10]. In both these results, exis-
tence of a fixed point is proved by successive approx-
imation: One starts with a point p such that (without
loss of generality) Po = P :::; f(p), and sets Po:+1 = f(po:),
taking suprema when reaching limit ordinals. This pro-
cess eventually will find a fixed point. Applications of
this process to analysis can be found in, e.g., [7]. The
problem to characterize all (finite) ordered sets with the
fixed-point property has drawn attention in many ways.
The NP-version of the characterization problem is:
Instance: A finite ordered set.
Question: Is there an order-preserving self-mapping
without a fixed point?
It is NP-complete when considered in the class of or-
dered sets of height 5 [5]. The most efficient algorithm
for this problem to date (1996) is given in [15].
252
One of the standard tools used in the investigation
of the fixed-point property are retractions r: P --+ P
(idempotent order-preserving mappings). If P has the
fixed-point property and r: P --+ P is a retraction, then
r[P] also has the fixed-point property. If P is chain com-
plete and r is a comparative retraction (i.e., each point
p is comparable to its image r(p)), then P has the fixed-
point property if and only if r[P] has the fixed-point
property. This leads to the notion of dismantlability ([2],
[11]): A chain-complete ordered set is dismantlable if and
only if there is a finite sequence P = Po 2 PI 2 ... 2 Pn
of sets such that Pn is a singleton and there are com-
parative retractions ri: Pi - l --+ Pi - l with r[Pi - l ] = Pi
(i E {I,... ,n}). Every dismantlable ordered set has
the fixed-point property. Since a finite ordered set has a
comparative retraction if and only if it has an irreducible
point (a point with a unique upper or lower cover), dis-
mantlability for finite ordered sets can be checked in
polynomial time. For finite ordered sets of height 1 or
width 2 the fixed-point property is equivalent to dis-
mantlability and thus can be verified in polynomial time
[6]' [11].
An infinitary generalization of the dismantling ap-
proach has led to the following structure theorem [9]: A
chain-complete ordered set with no infinite anti-chain
can be dismantled to a finite set in finitely many steps
(i.e., the 'core' P n is finite but not necessarily a single-
ton). This finite core is unique up to isomorphism. An-
other consequence is the following cancellation result,
related to the Birkhoff cancellation problem: If P, Q, D
are finite ordered sets, P, Q have no irreducible points
and D is dismantlable, then isomorphism of pD and QD
implies isomorphism of P and Q (since P is the core of
p D and Q is the core of QD).
Satisfying characterizations (many of them derived
via retraction results) of the fixed-point property ex-
ist for the following classes of ordered sets (infinite
sets included unless otherwise stated): height 1; chain-
complete width 2; ordered sets P that have a retraction
onto a subset P \ {a} for some a E P; chain-complete
lexicographic sums; and finite ordered sets of (interval)
dimension 2.
Algebraic topology can be invoked to investigate
the fixed-point property via the chain complex of a fi-
nite ordered set (every chain is considered a simplex,
cf. [2]). If this simplicial complex C is acyclic, or if
its topological realization has the topological fixed-point
property, then every simplicial mapping of C fixes a
simplex. This, in turn, implies that every graph en-
domorphism of the comparability graph of P fixes a
clique, which implies that every order-preserving self-
mapping of P has a fixed point. These methods pro-
duced the surprising fact that every finite truncated

non-complemented lattice has the fixed-point property.
A simple combinatorial proof for this fact is still not
available.
Clique graphs provide another criterion for the fixed-
point property: If the nth iterated clique graph of the
comparability graph of P is a one-point graph, then P
has the fixed-point property.
The fixed-point property is productive in the finite
setting, i.e., if P, Q are finite ordered sets with the
fixed-point property, then P x Q also has the fixed-point
property [12].
Future investigations will address the fixed-point
property for sets of height 2 or width 3, truncated com-
plemented lattices, products of infinite sets, infinite pow-
ers of finite sets, and the number of order-preserving
mappings of an ordered set that is guaranteed to have
a fixed point.
A survey with a fairly complete list of references is
[13].
References
[1] ABIAN, S., AND BROWN, A.B.: 'A theorem on partially or-
dered sets with applications to fixed point theorems', Cana-
dian J. Math. 13 (1961), 78-82.
[2] BACLAWSKI, K., AND BJORNER, A.: 'Fixed points in partially
ordered sets', Adv. Math. 31 (1979),263-287.
[3] DAVIS, A.C.: 'A characterization of complete lattices', Pacific
J. Math. 5 (1955), 311-319.
[4] DREESEN, B., POGVNTKE, W., A~D WINKLER, P.: 'Compara-
bility invariance of the fixed point property', Order 2 (1985),
269-274.
[5] DUFFUS, D., AND GODDARD, T.: 'The complexity of the fixed
point property', Order 13 (J996), 209-218.
[6] FOFANOVA, T., AND RUTKOWSKI, A.: 'The fixed point prop-
erty in ordered sets of width two', Order 4 (1987), 101-106.
[7] HEIKKILA, S., AND LAKHSHMIKANTHAM, V.: Monotone itera-
tive techniques for discontinuous nonlinear differential equa-
tions, M. Dekker, 1994.
[8] HaFT, H., AND HaFT, M.: 'Fixed point free components in
lexicographic sums with the fixed point property', Demon-
stratio Math. XXIV (1991), 294-304.
[9] LI, B., AND MILNER, E.C.: 'From finite posets to chain com-
plete posets having no infinite antichain', Order 12 (1995),
159-17l.
[10] PELCZAR, A.: 'On the invariant points of a transformation',
Ann. Polonici Math. XI (1961), 199-202.
[ll] RIVAL, I.: 'A fixed point theorem for finite partially ordered
sets', J. Combin. Th. A 21 (1976),309-318.
[12] RODDY, M.: 'Fixed points and products', Order 11 (1994),
ll-14.
[13] SCHRODER, B.: 'Algorithms vs. the fixed point property', in
I. RIVAL (ed.): Proc. 1996 ORDAL conference, 1996, To ap-
pear in: Theoret. Comput. Sci.
[14] TARSKI, A.: 'A lattice-theoretical fixpoint theorem and its
applications', Pacific J. Math. 5 (1955), 285-309.
[15] XIA, W.: 'Fixed point property and formal concept analysis',
Order 9 (1992), 255-264.
B.S. W. Schroder
MSC 1991: 06A06
FKG INEQUALITY
FK-sPACE - A Frechet sequence space (cf. Frechet
space) such that all the coordinates Pn defined by
Pn (x) = Xn are continuous linear functionals (cf. Lin-
ear functional). (Some authors include local convexity
in the definition.)
An FK space that is also a Banach space is called
a BK-space.
E. Malkowsky
MSC 1991: 46A04, 46A45, 46B45
FKG INEQUALITY, Fortuin-Kasteleyn-Ginibre in-
equality - An inequality [3] that began a series of cor-
relation inequalities for finite partially ordered sets.
Let r be a finite partially ordered set ordered by -<
(irreflexive, transitive) with (r, -<) a distributive lat-
tice: a V b = min{ z E r: a ::S z, b ::S z}, a /\ b = max{ z E
r: z::s a, z ::S b}, and a/\ (bV c) = (a/\b) V (a/\c) for all
a, b, c E r. Suppose p,: r --+ [0,00) is log supermodular:
f..l(a)f..l(b) ::::; f..l(a V b)f..l(a /\ b) for all a, bE r,
and that f: r --+ Rand g: r --+ R are non-decreasing:
a -< b =} {f(a) ::::; f(b), g(a) ::::; g(b)} for all a, bE r.
The FKG inequality is:
[~f..l(a)f(a)] [~f..l(a)g(a)] <
[L [L
< f..l(a)] f..l(a)f(a)g(a)].
aEr aEr
If r is a Boolean algebra and f..l is a probability mea-
sure on r, the inequality is Ep(f)Ep(g) ::::; Ep(fg), where
Ep denotes mathematical expectation.
Related inequalities are discussed in [1], [2], [4], [5],
[6], [7], [8], [9].
See also Ahlswede-Daykin inequality;
Fishburn-Shepp inequality; Holley inequality.
References
[1] BOLLOBAS, B.: Combinatorics, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986.
[2] FISHBURN, P.C.: 'Correlation in partially ordered sets', Dis-
crete Appl. Math. 39 (1992), 173-19l.
[3] FORTUIN, C.M., KASTELEYN, P.N., AND GINlBRE, .T.: 'Cor-
relation inequalities for some partially ordered sets', Comm.
Math. Phys. 22 (1971),89-103.
[4] GRAHAM, R.L.: 'Linear extensions of partial orders and the
FKG inequality', in I. RIVAL (ed.): Ordered sets, Reidel, 1982,
pp. 213-236.
[5] GRAHAM, R.L.: 'Applications of the FKG inequality and its
relatives': Proc. 12th Internat. Symp. Math. Programming,
Springer, 1983, pp. ll5-13l.
[6] HOLLEY, R.: 'Remarks on the FKG inequalities', Comm.
Math. Phys. 36 (1974), 227-23l.
[7] JOAG-DEV, K., SHEPP, L.A., AND VITALE, R.A.: 'Remarks
and open problems in the area of the FKG inequality': In-
equalities Stat. Probab., Vol. 5 of IMS Lecture Notes, 1984,
pp. 121-126.
[8] SHEPP, L.A.: 'The XYZ conjecture and the FKG inequality',
Ann. of Probab. 10 (1982), 824-827.
253
FKG INEQUALITY
[9] WINKLER, PM.: 'Correlation and order', Contemp. Math. 57
(1986),151-174.
P. C. Fishburn
MSC 1991: 60E15, 06A06
FLATNESS THEOREM (in the geometry of num-
bers) - Let K be a closed bounded convex set in
Rn of non-zero volume. If the width of K is at least
n 5 / 2 /2, then K contains an element of the integer lat-
tice zn eRn.
Here, the width of K (with respect to zn) is the mini-
mum width of K along any non-zero integer vector. The
width of K along a vector v in Rn is
max {(v, x): x E K} - min {( v, x): x E K} .
The width of K with respect to zn is greater or equal
than the geometric width of K, which is the minimum
width of K along all unit-length vectors.
If K is a rational polyhedron, i.e. is defined by a sys-
tem of linear inequalities with rational coefficients, then
the 'non-zero volume condition' in the flatness theorem
can be dispensed with. The flatness theorem finds ap-
plication in, e.g., the Frobenius problem.
References
[1] HASTAD, J.: 'Dual vectors and lower bounds for the nearest
lattice point problem', Combinatorica 8 (1988), 75-81.
[2] LAGARIAS, J., LENSTRA, H.W., AND SCHNORR, C.P.:
'Korkine-Zolotarev bases and successive minima of a lattice
and its reciprocal lattice' , Combinatorica 10 (1990), 333-348.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 11H06
FLOCK of a quadric set - In the projective space
PG(3, K), where K is a field, there are three types of
quadric sets: the elliptic and hyperbolic quadrics and
the quadratic cone (cf. also Quadric). A flock is a cov-
ering of a quadric set except for possibly two points
by mutually disjoint conics contained in planes (cf. also
Conic). Thus, a flock may be either elliptic, hyperbolic
or quadratic. A linear flock is one where the planes of
the conics involved share a line. When K is a finite
field, it is possible to completely classify the elliptic and
hyperbolic flocks. In particular, finite elliptic flocks are
always linear (see, e.g., [9]; however, for infinite fields,
there are a great variety of non-linear flocks and there
is no general classification [4, p. 255], [2]).
A partial flock is a set of mutually disjoint conics. A
partial conical flock of deficiency one is a partial flock
such that for each line of the cone there is exactly one
point of the line which is not covered by the set of con-
ics of the partial flock. A partial hyperbolic flock of de-
ficiency one is a partial flock such that for each line of
either ruling of the quadric there is exactly one point of
the line which is not covered by the set of conics of the
partial flock.
254
In the finite case, each partial conical flock of defi-
ciency one may be uniquely extended to a flock (see
[8]), but there are proper partial hyperbolic flocks of de-
ficiency one which may not be extended (see, e.g., [6]).
Associated with flocks of quadric sets are certain
types of affine (or projective) planes, called translation
planes since they admit a collineation group of transla-
tions acting transitively on the points (carrying anyone
point onto any other). A regulus in PG(3, K) is a set of
lines which is completely covered by another set of lines
called the opposite regulus. Each line of the opposite reg-
ulus intersects each line of the regulus in a unique point.
The set of lines S incident with a particular point of the
associated translation planes corresponds to a set S p of
lines of PG(3, K), called the spread of the plane, with
the following properties: An elliptic flock corresponds to
a translation plane with spread a union of mutually dis-
joint reguli and at most two extra lines. A hyperbolic
flock corresponds to a translation plane with spread a
union of reguli that mutually share exactly two lines and
a conical flock corresponds to a translation plane with
spread a union of reguli that mutually share exactly one
line.
In the finite case, hyperbolic flocks are completely
classified (see [11], [1]). The associated translation
planes are all near-field planes, which are translation
planes for which the set of non-zero elements forms a
group under multiplication in the associated ternary
ring. However, in the infinite case, there are infinitely
many mutually non-isomorphic hyperbolic flocks (see,
e.g., [7]).
Also associated with conical flocks in the finite case
are certain generalized quadrangles, which are point-line
geometries such that two points are incident with at
most one line, two lines intersect in at most one point
and given a point-line pair (p, L) where p is not inci-
dent with L, there is a unique point q incident with L
such that q and p are incident with a line qp (cf. also
Quadrangle). However, in the infinite case this need
not necessarily be the case (see, e.g., [10], [3]).
References
[1] BADER, L., AND LUNARDON, G.: 'On the flocks of Q+(3,q)',
Geom. Dedicata 29 (1989), 177-183.
[2] BILIOTTI, M., AND JO.INSON, N.L.: 'Variations on a theme of
Dembowski': Proc. AMS Conf. Iowa City, 1996.
[3] BILIOTTI, M., AND JOHNSON, N.L.: 'Bilinear flocks of qua-
dratic cones', J. Geom. (to appear).
[4] DEMBOWSKI, P.: Finite geometries, Springer, 1967.
[5] JHA, V., AND JOHNSON, N.L.: 'Structure theory for point·
Baer and line-Baer collineation groups in affine planes':
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. Conf. Iowa City, 1996.
[6] JOHNSON, N.L.: 'Flocks of hyperbolic quadrics and transla-
tion planes admitting affine homologies', J. Geom. 34 (1989),
50-73.

[7J JOHNSON, N.L.: 'Flocks of infinite hyperbolic quadrics', J.
Algebmic Combinatorics 1 (1997), 27-51.
[8J PAYNE, S.E., AND THAS, J .A.: 'Conical flocks, partial flocks,
derivation and generalized quadrangles', Geom. Ded. 38
(1991), 229-243.
[9J THAS, J.A.: 'Flocks of egglike inversive planes', in A. BAR-
LOTTI (ed.): Finite Geometric Structures and their Applica-
tions, 1973, pp. 189-191.
[10J THAS, J.A.: 'Generalized quadrangles and flocks of cones',
Europ. J. Comb. 8 (1987),441-452.
[l1J THAS, J.A.: 'Flocks, maximal exterior sets and inversive
planes', Contemp. Math. 111 (1990), 187-218.
N.J. Johnson
MSC 1991: 51Exx, 51N15
FORKING (in logic) - A notion introduced by S.
Shelah [9]. The general theory of forking is also known
as stability theory, but more commonly, non-forking
(the negation of forking) is defined as a certain well-
behaved relation between a type and its extension (cf.
Types, theory of).
Let M be a sufficiently saturated model of a theory
T in a countable first-order language (d. also Formal
language; Model (in logic); Model theory). Given
an n-tuple of variables x and A eM, a collection of for-
mulas ¢(x, a) with parameters a in A is called an n-type
over A. For simplicity, only I-types will be considered;
these are simply called types over A. A complete type is
one which is maximal consistent. Let S(A) be the set of
complete types over A.
Given a type t = t(x) and a formula ¢ = ¢(x,y),
one defines the Morley ¢-rank of t, ¢-rk(t), inductively
as follows: ¢-rk(t) 2: 0 if t is consistent, for each natu-
ral number n, ¢-rk(t) 2: n + 1 if for every finite set
and natural number m there are collections Pl, ... ,Pm
of ¢-formulas (with parameters from M) such that:
i) for i #- j, Pi and Pj are contradictory, i.e. for some
a, ¢(x, a) belongs to one of Pi and Pj, and .¢(x, a) be-
longs to the other;
ii) ¢-rk(s U Pi) 2: n.
Assume that T is stable, i.e. for some infinite ~, when-
ever IAI :::; ~, then also IS(A)I :::; ~. (Equivalently,
¢-rk(t) < 00 for every type t and formula ¢.) Let A c B,
t E S(A), u E S(B) be such that u :J t. Then u is called
a non-forking extension of t, or it is said that u does not
fork over A, iffor every formula ¢ with ¢(x, b) E u,
¢-rk(p) = ¢-rk(p n ¢(x, b)),
wherepn¢(x,b) denotes the set {O!\¢(x,b): 0 Ep}.
Let t C u mean that u is a non-forking extension
of t. Then c is the unique relation on complete types
satisfying the following Lascar axioms:
1) C is preserved under automorphisms of M;
2) if t cue v, then t C v if and only if t C u and
u C v;
FORKING
3) for any t E S(A) and B :J A there exists a
u E S(B) such that t c U;
4) for any t E S(A) there exist countable Ao C A and
to C t, where to is the restriction of t to formulas with
parameters from Ao;
5) for any t E S(A) and A C B,
I{u E S(B): t c u}1 :::; 2No .
The ultrapower construction (cf. also Ultrafilter)
gives a systematic way of building non-forking exten-
sions [4].
For c E M one writes tp(cjA) for the type in S(A)
realized by c. Given a set A and b, c EM, the following
important symmetry property holds: tp(bj Au {c}) does
not fork over A if and only if tp( cj Au {b}) does not fork
over A. If either holds, one says that b, c are independent
over A, and this notion is viewed as a generalization of
algebraic independence.
Given t E S(A), B :J A, u E S(B), and u :J t, one
says that u is an heir of t if for every ¢(x, y) (with pa-
rameters in A), ¢(x, b) E u for some b in B if and only if
¢(x, a) E t for some a in A. One says that u is definable
over A if for every ¢(x, y) there is a formula BeY) with
parameters from A such that for any b in B, ¢(x, b) E u
if and only if M F O(b).
u is said to be a coheir of t if u is finitely satisfiable
in A. So, for b, c E M, tp(cj Au {b}) is an heir oftp(cjA)
if and only if tp(bjA U {c}) is a coheir of tp(bjA).
If A is an elementary submodel of M, then u =:J t if
and only if u is an heir of t if and only if u is defin-
able over A. In particular, in that case t has a unique
non-forking extension over any B :J A. Then it follows
from the forking symmetry that when A is an elemen-
tary submodel, tp(bjAu {c}) being a coheir of tp(bj A)
is equivalent to being an heir.
For a comprehensive introduction of forking see [1],
[2], [4], [6], and [5]. For applications in algebra, see [8]
and [7].
The techniques of forking have been extended to un-
stable theories. In [2], this is done by considering only
types that satisfy stable conditions. In [3], types are
viewed as probability measures and forking is treated
as a special kind of measure extension. The stability as-
sumption is then weakened to theories that do not have
the independence property.
References
[lJ BALDWIN, J.T.: Fundamentals of stability theory, Springer,
1987.
[2J HARNIK, V., AND HARRINGTON, L.: 'Fundamentals of fork-
ing', Ann. Pure and Applied Logic 26 (1984), 245-286.
[3J KEISLER, H.J.: 'Measures and forking', Ann. Pure and Ap-
plied Logic 34 (1987), 119-169.
[4J LASCAR, D., AND POIZAT, B.: 'An introduction to forking',
J. Symbolic Logic 44 (1979), 330-350.
255
FORKING
[5] MAKKAI, M.: 'A survey of basic stability theory', Israel J.
Math. 49 (1984), 181-238.
[6] PILLAY, A.: Introduction to stability theory, Oxford Univ.
Press, 1983.
[7] PILLAY, A.: 'The geometry of forking and groups of finite
Morley rank', J. Symbolic Logic 60 (1995), 1251-1259.
[8] PREST, M.: Model theory and modules, Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1988.
[9] SHELAH, S.: Classification theory and the number of non-
isomorphic models, revised ed., North-Holland, 1990.
Siu-Ah Ng
MSC 1991: 03C45
FRAisSE CHARACTERIZATION OF ELEMEN-
TARY EQUIVALENCE - Interpretations for a formal
language are equivalent provided that they give the
same truth values to sentences in the language. Equiv-
alent interpretations for first-order languages are said
to be elementarily equivalent. R. Fralsse [2] established
a characterization for elementary equivalence that is
purely mathematical, in the sense that it does not men-
tion sentences. Unlike the characterizations of S. Kochen
[5] and H.J. Keisler [4], Frai"sse's characterization applies
only to those first-order languages whose non-logical vo-
cabulary is finite and contains no functional constants.
Let L be such a first-order language (with equality).
Each predicate constant in the non-logical vocabulary
of L is associated with an unique positive integer called
its degree. Let {CI, ... ,cn , ... } be an infinite set of in-
dividual constants not in the non-logical vocabulary of
L. The family of first-order languages {L( n): n ~ O} is
defined as follows:
1) L(O) is L;
2) L(n + 1) is the language obtained from L(n) by
adding Cn+l to the non-logical vocabulary of L(n).
Interpretations for L(n) are ordered pairs 21 =
(A, h), where A is a non-empty set (the domain of 21)
and f'll is a function defined on the non-logical vocabu-
lary of L( n) as follows:
1) if k is an individual constant, h(k) (the denota-
tion of k on 21) is a member of A;
2) if P is a predicate constant of degree m, h(P)
(the extension of P on 21) is a subset of Am.
When 21 is an interpretation of L( n) and bl , ... , bt
are members of A, (21b l ... bt ) denotes the interpreta-
tion of L(n + t) with domain A that agrees with 21 on
the non-logical vocabulary of L(n) and in which bi is the
denotation of Cn+i for all i, 1 ~ i ~ t.
Given interpretations 21 and Q3 for L(n), 21 is a sub-
interpretation, or subsystem, of Q3 provided that:
1) A ~ B;
2) f<)J. and f'13 give the same denotations to individual
constants of L(n);
256
3) if P is a predicate constant of degree m, h(P) =
f'13(P) nAm.
Let D be a subset of A. 21[D] denotes the subsystem
of 21 generated by D (i.e., the smallest subsystem of 21
whose domain contains D). When D is non-empty, 21[D]
exists and its domain is finite if D is finite. Let A denote
the null set. 21[A] exists when n ~ 1 or when n = 0 and
L(O) contains individual constants.
For each l ~ 0, "'I is defined on pairs of interpreta-
tions for L( n) as follows:
1) 21 "'0 Q3 if and only if 21[A] and Q3[A] are isomor-
phic;
2) 21 "'1+1 Q3 if and only if
2a) for all a E A there is abE B such that
(21a) "'I (Q3b);
2b) for all b E B there is an a E A such that
(Q3b) "'I (21a).
Fralsse proved that 21 and Q3 are elementarily equiv-
alent if and only if 21 "'I Q3 for alll ~ o.
For <P a sentence in L(n), q(<p) is the number of dis-
tinct variables occurring in <p; q( <p) is called the quanti-
fier rank of <p. One writes 21 =1 Q3 when 21 and Q3 give the
same truth values to all sentences in L(n) of quantifier
rank less than or equal to t. 21 and Q3 are elementarily
equivalent if and only if 21 =1 Q3 for alll ~ o.
Let Xl, ... , X n , ... be an enumeration (without re-
peats) of the individual variables in L. Fix an enumera-
tion (without repeats) of the formulas in L( n). Let 8 be
a non-empty finite set of formulas. There is an m such
that 8 = {<PI, ... , <Pm} and <Pi occurs before <Pj in the
enumeration when i < j. Let &8 denote (<PI& ... &<Pn)'
and let v8 denote (<PI V ... V <Pn).
Given 21, m ~ 0, [ ~ 0, and a sequence a of members
of A of length m, the formula 'ljJ&a is defined as follows.
'ljJ&a is the conjunction ofthe set consisting of all atomic
formulas in L( n) in the variables Xl, ... , Xm which are
satisfied by a in 21, and of the negations of all such for-
mulas which are not satisfied by a in 21. 'ljJ~+la is the
conjunction of
and
\7'x n +l V {'ljJ&aa: a E A}.
Let e denote the null sequence. When m = 0, 'ljJ&a is
written 'ljJ&e. For fixed m and [ there are only finitely
many formulas of the form 'ljJ& a. 'ljJ& a is a formula in
m free variables and [ bound variables. Hence 'ljJ& e is of
quantifier rank [.
Assume that 21 and Q3 are interpretations for L(n),
m and [ are natural numbers such that 1 ~ m ~ [, a
is a sequence of members of A of length m, and b is a

sequence of members of B of length m. 'I/J~-ma is sat-
isfied by b in !:a if and only if (~a) "'I-m (!:ab). This
result implies that for all l ~ 0 the following assertions
are equivalent:
1) ~ =1 !:a;
2) ~ "'I !:a;
3) !:a is a model of 'I/J&e.
Fralsse's characterization is immediate.
It also follows that any sentence of quantifier rank less
than or equal to l which is true on ~ is a logical conse-
quence of 'I/J&e (i.e., true on all models of 'I/J&e). Hence
every such sentence of its negation is a logical conse-
quence of 'I/J& e. Since for fixed l there are only finitely
many sentences of the form 'I/J& e, there are only finitely
many non-equivalent sentences of quantifier rank less
than or equal to l. Let ¢ be a sentence of quantifier rank
l. Assume that ¢ has models. Let 'I/J be the sentence
v { 'I/J& e: ¢ is true on ~} .
'I/J is a distributive normal form in the sense of J. Hin-
tikka [3]. Furthermore, ¢ and 'I/J are logically equivalent
(i.e., have exactly the same models).
Let T be a set of sentences. Call T a theory when ev-
ery logical consequence of T is a member of T. Assume
that T has models. Let
P(T, l) = V {'I/J&e: ~ is a model ofT} .
Let P(T, w) = {P(T, l): l ~ O}. T and P(T, w) have
exactly the same models; T is decidable if and only if
P(T, w) is recursive and T is finitely axiomatizable if
and only if there is an l such that the models of Tare
closed under "'I.
Alternative definitions of "'I can be found in [6]
and [7]. A. Ehrenfeucht [1] independently obtained
Fralsse's characterization formulated in terms of two-
person games. Fralsse's characterization has been ex-
tended to provide characterizations of equivalence for a
variety of 'non-elementary' languages. For example, see
[6], [7], and [8].
References
[1] EHRENFEUCHT, A.: 'An application of games to the com-
pleteness problem for formalised theories', Fundam. Math.
49 (1956), 129-141.
[2] FRAISSE, R.: 'Sur quelques classifications des relations bases
sur des isomorphismes restraintes', Publ. Sci. Univ. Alger.
Ser. A 2 (1955), 11-60,273-295.
[3] HINTIKKA, J.: 'Distributive normal forms in first order logic',
in J.N. CROSSLEY AND M.A.E. DUMMET (eds.): Formal Sys-
tems and Recursive Functions, North-Holland, 1965, pp. 48-
91.
[4] KEISLER, H.J.: 'Ultraproducts and elementary classes', Inda-
gationes Mathematicae 23 (1961),277-295.
[5] KOCHEN, S.: 'Ultraproducts in the theory of models', Ann.
of Math. 74 (1961), 231-261.
FRECHET ALGEBRA
[6] MOSTOWSKI, A.: Thirty years of foundational studies, Barnes
and Noble, 1966.
[7] SCOTT, D.: 'Logic with denumerably long formulas and fi-
nite strings of quantifiers', in J.W. ADDISON, L. HENKIN,
AND A. TARSKI (eds.): The Theory of Models, North-Holland,
1966, pp. 329-341.
[8] WEAVER, G., AND WELAISH, J.: 'Back and forth arguments
in modal logic', J. Symb. Logic 51 (1987),969-980.
G. Weaver
MSC 1991: 03Cxx
FRECHET ALGEBRA, F -algebra, algebra of type
F - A completely metrizable topological algebra.
The joint continuity of multiplication need not be de-
manded since it follows from the separate continuity
(see Fh~chet topology). The F-algebras can be clas-
sified similarly as the F-spaces (see Frechet topol-
ogy), so one can speak about complete locally bounded
algebras, algebras of type Bo (Bo -algebras), and locally
pseudo-convex F -algebras, i.e. F -algebras whose under-
lying topological vector space is a locally bounded space,
etc.
Locally bounded algebras of type F. These are
also called LB-algebras. The topology of an LB-algebra
A can be given by means of a p-homogeneous norm,
o < p ~ 1, satisfying Ilxyll ~ Ilxllllyll, x, yEA (the
submultiplicativity condition) and, if A has a unity e,
Ilell = 1. The theory of these algebras is analogous to
that of Banach algebras (cf. Banach algebra). In par-
ticular, a Gel'fand-Mazur-type theorem holds (even if
completeness and joint continuity of multiplication is
not assumed). For commutative complex algebras there
is a Gelfand-type theory (including a holomorphic func-
tional calculus). That means that local boundedness,
and not local convexity, is responsible for the theory of
Banach algebras. For more information on LB-algebras
see [5], [6], [7].
Bo-algebras. The topology of such an algebra A can
be given by means of a sequence IlxilI ~ IIxl12 ~ ... of
semi-norms (cf. Semi-norm) satisfying
i = 1,2, ... , (1)
and, if A has a unit e, Ilelli = 1 for all i. Such an alge-
bra is said to be multiplicatively-convex (m-convex) if its
topology can be given by means of semi-norms satisfying
IIxYIli :s IlxllillYlli instead of (1) (some authors give the
name 'Frechet algebra' to m-convex Bo-algebras). Each
m-convex Bo-algebra is an inverse (projective) limit of a
sequence of Banach algebras. Each complete locally con-
vex topological algebra is an inverse limit of a directed
system of Bo-algebras. A Gelfand-Mazur-type theorem
holds for Bo-algebras; however, completeness is essen-
tial, and a Bo-algebra can contain a dense subalgebra
isomorphic to the field of all rational functions. The lat-
ter is impossible for m-convex algebras. The operation
257
FRlkHET ALGEBRA
of taking an inverse is not continuous on arbitrary Bo-
algebras, but it is continuous on m-convex Bo-algebras
(the operation of taking an inverse is continuous for a
general F-algebra A if and only if the group G(A) of
its invertible elements is a G,,-set). A commutative uni-
tal Bo-algebra can have dense maximal ideals of infi-
nite co dimension also if it is m-convex, but in the latter
case there is always a closed maximal ideal of codimen-
sion one, which is the kernel of a multiplicative linear
functional (this is not true in general). Every m-convex
algebra has a functional calculus of several complex vari-
ables, but in the non-m-convex case it is possible that
there operate only the polynomials. If a commutative
Bo-algebra is such that its set G(A) of invertible el-
ements is open, then it must be m-convex. This fails
in the non-commutative case, so that a non-m-convex
Bo-algebra can have all its commutative subalgebras m-
convex. Also, a non-Banach m-convex algebra can have
the property that all its closed commutative subalge-
bras are Banach algebras. One of most challenging open
questions in the theory of topological algebras (see [2],
[4]) is the question whether for an m-convex Bo-algebra
all its multiplicative linear functionals are continuous
(this question is also open for algebras of type Bo and
F). This famous Michael-Mazur problem has been posi-
tively solved by R. Arens for finitely generated m-convex
algebras. For more on these algebras see [1], [3], [4], [5],
[6], [7].
Locally pseudo-convex F -algebras. These are anal-
ogous to Bo-algebras, but with semi-norms replaced by
p-homogeneous semi-norms, 0 < p ~ 1. Their theories
are similar; however, there are some differences. E.g.,
a commutative locally pseudo-convex algebra of type F
with open set G(A) need not be m-pseudo-convex. Every
m-pseudo-convex algebra of type F is an inverse limit
of a sequence of LB-algebras. For more details see [5],
[6], [7].
Not much is known about general F-algebras; e.g.,
a Gelfand-Mazur-type theorem is still (1996) unknown.
One result, however, has to be noted. Let A be an F-
algebra with a continuous involution. Then each positive
(i.e. satisfying f(x*x) 2: 0) functional on A is continu-
ous [2]. Every complete topological algebra is an inverse
limit of a directed system of F-algebras.
References
[1] BECKENSTEIN, E., NARICI, L., AND SUFFEL, C.: Topological
algebros, Amsterdam, 1977.
[2] HUSAIN, T.: ,Multiplicative functionals on topological alge-
bros, London, 1983.
[3] MALLIOS, A.: Topological algebros. Selected topics, Amster-
dam, 1986.
[4] MICHAEL, E.: Locally multiplicatively-convex topological alge-
bros, Vo!' 11 of Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1952.
258
[5] WAELBROECK, L.: Topological vector spaces and algebros,
Vo!' 230 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1971.
[6] ZELAZKO, W.: 'Metric generalizations of Banach algebras',
Dissert. Math. 47 (1965).
[7] ZELAZKO, W.: Selected topics in topological algebros, Vo!' 31
of Lecture Notes, Aarhus Univ., 1971.
W. Zelazko
MSC 1991: 46Hxx
FRECHET TOPOLOGY ~- The topological struc-
ture (topology) of an F-space (a space of type F; cf.
also Frechet space), i.e. a completely metrizable topo-
logical vector space. The term was introduced by S.
Banach in honour of M. Frechet. Many authors, how-
ever, demand additionally local convexity. A complete
topological vector space is an F-space if and only if it
has a countable basis of neighbourhoods of the origin.
The topology of an F-space X can be given by means
of an F -norm, i.e. a function x H Ilxll satisfying:
i) Ilxll 2: 0 and Ilxll = 0 if and only if x = 0;
ii) Ilx + yll ~ Ilxll + Ilyll for all x, y E X;
iii) for each scalar A, limllxll--+o IIAxl1 = 0, and for each
x E X, liml,\l--+o IIAxl1 = o.
This means that the (complete) topology of X can be
given by means of a distance of the form d(x, y) =
Ilx - yll· The completion of any metrizable topological
vector space (cf. Completion) is an F -space and, con-
sequently, the topology of any metric vector space can
be given by means of a translation-invariant distance.
Without loss of generality it can be assumed that IIAxl1
depends only upon IAI and that the function IAI H IIAxl1
is non-decreasing for each x EX. If one relaxes condi-
tion i) so that Ilxll = 0 can hold for a non-zero x, one
obtains an F -semi-norm. The topology of an arbitrary
topological vector space can be given by means of a fam-
ily of F-semi-norms; consequently, every complete topo-
logical vector space is an inverse (projective) limit of a
directed family of F -spaces.
Important classes of F -spaces.
Locally convex F -spaces. Such spaces are also called
spaces of type Bo (some authors call them just Frechet
spaces, but see Frechet space). The topology of such a
space X can be given by means of an increasing sequence
of (homogeneous) semi-norms
Ilxlli ~ IIxl12 ~ ... , for all x E X, (1)
so that a sequence (Xk) of elements of X tends to 0 if
and only if limk Ilxklln = 0 for n = 1,2, .... An F-norm
giving this topology can be written as
f:
Ilxll = Tn Ilxll n .
I 1 + Ilxll n
If T is a continuous linear operator from aBo-space
X to aBo-space Y, then for each n there are a k(n)

°
and a C n > such that IITxll~Y) ::::; Cnllxll~~~), x E X,
for all n (it is important here that the systems of semi-
norms giving, respectively, the topologies of X and Y
satisfy (1)). The dual space X' of a Bo-space X (the
space of all continuous linear functionals provided with
the topology of uniform convergence on bounded sets) is
said to be an LF-space; it is non-metrizable (unless X
is a Banach space). Any space of type Bo is an inverse
(projective) limit of a sequence of Banach spaces.
Complete locally bounded spaces. A topological vector
space X is said to be locally bounded if it has a bounded
neighbourhood of the origin (then it has a basis of such
neighbourhoods consisting of bounded sets). The topol-
ogy of such a space X is metrizable and can be given
by means of a p-homogeneous norm, °
< p ::::; 1, i.e.
an F-norm satisfying instead of iii) the more restrictive
condition
iiia) IIAxl1 = IAIPllxl1 for all scalars A and all x E X.
For this reason, locally bounded spaces are sometimes
called p-normed spaces. The class of all Banach spaces is
exactly the intersection of the class of locally convex F-
spaces and the class of complete locally bounded spaces.
The dual space of a locally bounded space can be trivial,
i.e. consist only of a zero functional.
Locally pseudo-convex F -spaces. They are like Bo-
spaces, but with p-homogeneous semi-norms instead of
homogeneous semi-norms (the exponent p may depend
upon the semi-norm). This class contains the class of lo-
cally convex F -spaces and the class of complete locally
bounded spaces.
Examples of F-spaces. The space 8[0,1] of all
Lebesgue-measurable functions on the unit interval with
the topology of convergence in measure (asymptotic con-
vergence) is a space of type F. Its topology can be given
by the F-norm
f1 Ix(t)1
Ilxll = io 1 + Ix(t)1 dt.
This space is not locally pseudo-convex.
The space Coo [0, 1] of all infinitely differentiable func-
tions on the unit interval with the topology of unform
convergence of functions together with all derivatives is
a Bo-space. Its topology can be given by semi-norms
Ilxll n =
= max {max Ix(t)1 ,max Ix'(t)1 , ... ,max Ix(n-1)(t)l} .
[0,1] [0,1] [0,1]
The space £ of all entire functions of one complex
variable with the topology of uniform convergence on
compact subsets of the complex plane is a Bo-space. Its
topology can be given by the semi-norms
Ilxlln = max Ix(()I.
1(I~n
FRECHET ALGEBRA
°
The space Lp[O, 1] on the unit interval, < p < 1, is
a complete locally bounded space with trivial dual. Its
topology can be given by Ilxllp = J;
Ix(t)IP dt (its dis-
crete analogue, the space lp of all sequences summable
with the p-th power, has a non-trivial dual).
The space LO+[O, 1] = no<p9 Lp[O, 1] with the semi-
°
norms Ilxllpn, where < Pn --+ 0, is a locally pseudo-
convex space of type F which is not locally bounded.
General facts about F -spaces. A linear operator
between F spaces is continuous if and only if it maps
bounded sets onto bounded sets.
Let A be a family of continuous linear operators
from an F -space X to an F -space space Y. If the set
{Tx: TEA} is bounded in Y for each fixed x EX, then
A is equicontinuous (the Mazur-Orlicz theorem; it is
a theorem of Banach-Steinhaus type, cf. also Banach-
Steinhaus theorem).
If X and Yare F-spaces and (Tn) is a sequence of
continuous linear operators from X to Y such that for
each x E X the limit Tx = limn Tnx exists, then x f-t Tx
is a continuous linear operator from X to Y.
The image of an open set under a continuous linear
operator between F -spaces is open (the open mapping
theorem).
The graph of a linear operator T between F -spaces
is closed if and only if T is continuous (the closed graph
theorem).
If a one-to-one continuous linear operator maps an
F -space onto an F -space, then the inverse operator is
continuous (the inverse operator theorem).
A separately continuous bilinear mapping between F-
spaces is jointly continuous (cf. also Continuous func-
tion).
References
[1) BANACH, S.: The01'ie des operations lineaires, Warszawa,
1932.
[2) BOURBAKI, N.: Espaces vectorielles topologiques, Paris, 1981.
[3) DUNFORD, N., AND SCHWARTZ, J.T.: Linear operators, Vol. 1.
General theory, Wiley, reprint, 1988.
[4) GROTHENDIECK, A.: Topological vector spaces, New York,
1973.
[5) JARCHOW, H.: Locally convex spaces, Teubner, 1981.
[6) KOTHE, G.: Topological vector spaces, Vol. I-II, New York,
1969-1979.
[7) ROLEWICZ, S.: Metric linear spaces, PWN & Reidel, 1972.
[8) SCHAEFER, H.H.: Topological vector spaces, Springer, 1971.
[9) WAELBROECK, L.: Topological vector spaces and algebras,
Vol. 230 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1971.
[10) WILANSKY, A.: Modern methods in topological vector spaces,
New York, 1978.
W. Zelazko
MSC 1991: 46Axx, 46A03, 46A13
259
FREE MAGMA
FREE MAGMA ~ Let X be a set. Define sets X n ,
n ~ 1, inductively as follows:
Xl =X,
Xn = II Xp x X q,
p+q=n
where U denotes the disjoint union (see Union of sets).
Let
n
There is an obvious binary relation on Mx: if v E X P '
wE X q , then the pair (v,w) goes to the element (v,w)
of Xp,q. This is the free magma on X. It has the obvious
freeness property: if N is any magma and g: X -7 N is
a function, then there is a unique morphism of magmas
g: Mx -7 N extending g.
Certain special subsets of M x , called Hall sets (cf.
Hall set), are important in combinatorics and the the-
ory of Lie algebras.
The free magma over X can be identified with the
set of binary complete, planar, rooted trees with leaves
labelled by X. See Binary tree.
References
[1] BOURBAKI, N.: Groupes et algebres de Lie, Vo!' 2: Algebres
de Lie libres, Hermann, 1972.
[2] REUTENAUER, C.: Free Lie algebras, Oxford Univ. Press,
1993.
[3] SERRE, J .-P.: Lie algebras and Lie groups, Benjamin, 1965.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 20N02, 08Axx, 17B01
FROBENIUS PROBLEM, coin-change problem
Given n natural numbers aI, ... ,an with greatest com-
mon divisor 1, find the largest natural number that is
not expressible as a linear non-negative integer combi-
nation of the aI, ... ,an.
For n = 2 the answer is given by al a2 - al - a2. The
general problem is NP-hard.
For a fixed n there is a polynomial-time algorithm to
solve the Frobenius problem, [1].
The Frobenius problem is related to the study of max-
imallattice-point-free convex bodies (in the geometry
of numbers), [2].
References
[1] KANNAN, R.: 'Lattice translates of a polytope and the Frobe-
nius problem', Combinatorica 12 (1992), 161~172.
[2] LOVAsz, L.: 'Geometry of numbers and integer program-
ming', in M. IRI AND K. TANABE (eds.): Mathematical Pro-
gramming, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1989, pp. 177-202.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: llH06
FRUCHT THEOREM - In 1938, R. Frucht [1] affir-
matively answered a question posed by D. Konig [3], by
proving that every abstract group is isomorphic to the
260
automorphism group of some graph (cf. also Graph
automorphism). This is know as Frucht's theorem. In
1949, Frucht [2] extended this result by showing that for
every abstract group r there is a 3-regular graph whose
automorphism group is isomorphic to r.
For a proof of these results see [5]. For an alternative
proof of Frucht's theorem see [4].
G. Sabidussi [6] further extended this result by prov-
ing that, given an abstract group r, there is a graph
G with automorphism group isomorphic to r and such
that G has a prescribed vertex connectivity, a prescribed
chromatic number, or is k-regular for a given integer k,
or has a spanning subgraph iI homeomorphic to a given
connected graph H.
These investigations have led to the study of graphi-
cal regular representations of groups. A graphical regular
representation of a given abstract group r is a graph G
whose automorphism group acts regularly on its vertex
set and is isomorphic to r. A sample reference is [7].
References
[1] FRUGHT, R.: 'Hertellung von Graphen mit vorgegebenen Ab-
strakten Gruppen', Compositio Math. 6 (1938), 239-250.
[2] FRUGHT, R.: 'Graphs of degree three with a given abstract
group', Canad. J. Math. 1 (1949),365-378.
[3] KONIG, D.: Theorie der Endlichen und Unendlichen
Graphen, Leipzig, 1936.
[4] KRISHNAMOORTHY, V., AND PARTHASARATHY, K.R.: 'F-sets
in graphs', 1. Combin. Theory B 24 (1978), 53-60.
[5] LovAsz, L.: Combinatorial problems and exercises, North-
Holland, 1979.
[6] SABIDUSSI, G.: 'Graphs with given groups and given graph-
theoretical properties', Canad. J. Math. 9 (1957), 515-525.
[7] WATKINS, M.E.: 'On the action of non-abelian groups on
graphs', J. Combin. Theory 11 (1971),95--104.
K.R. Parthasarathy
MSC 1991: 05C25, 20F32, 20F29
FURUTA INEQUALITY- The Furuta inequality
arose in the latter half of the 20th century in opera-
tor theory and is a beautiful extension of the L8wner-
Heinz inequality. In the sequel, a capital letter de-
notes a bounded linear operator on a Hilbert space
H. An operator T is said to be positive (denoted by
T ~ 0) if (Tx, x) ~ 0 for all x E H. The Lowner~Heinz
inequality, discovered in 1934, asserts the following:
a) A:::- B :::- 0 ensures AQ :::- BQ for all a E [0,1];
°
b) A :::- B :::- does not always ensure AP ~ BP for
all p > 1.
Note that b) is an immediate consequence of a).
T. Furuta gained an insight into the striking contrast
between a) and b), which appeared on the stage of oper-
ator inequalities as the following order-preserving oper-
ator inequality (Furuta inequality, 1987): If A ~ B ~ 0,
then for each r:::- 0, p:::- 0, q ~ 1 with (1+2r)q ~ p+2r:
i) (BT AP BT)ljq :::- (BT BP W)ljq; and

p Example 3. (Theory of operator inequalities.) Ando and
(0,-21')
Fig. 1
The Furuta inequality yields a) by putting r = 0 in
i) or ii). It should be understood as follows: One first
makes the magic boxes
J(O) = (BrOBr)l/q and g(O) = (ArOAr)l/q.
Then J(AP) ~ J(BP) and g(AP) ~ g(BP) hold un-
der the condition stated above. Consequently, the Fu-
ruta inequality is an extension of the Lowner-Heinz in-
equality and J(O) and g(O) can be considered as order-
preserving operator Junctions related to b).
The original proof of the Furuta inequality is in [5];
mean-theoretic alternative proofs are in [3]' [8] and an
elementary one-page proof is in [6]. The domain drawn
for p, q and r in Fig. 1 is the best possible one for the
Furuta inequality, see [10]. It turned out that the Fu-
ruta inequality can be applied in the theories of operator
inequalities, norm inequalities and operator equations.
Some examples are given below.
Example 1. (Theory of operator inequalities.) T. Ando
[1] has proved that the following assertions are equiva-
lent:
1) log A ~ 10gB;
2) AP ~ (AP/2 BP AP/2)1/2 for all p ~ 0;
3) A -p/2(AP/2 BP AP/2)1/2 A -p/2 is a decreasing func-
tion of p ~ o.
An extension of Ando's result is the Fujii-Furuta-
Kamei theorem, which states that the following asser-
tions are equivalent:
1) log A ~ log B;
2) AP ~ (AP/2 B SAP/2)p/(p+s) for all p ~ 0 and all
s ~ 0;
3) A -r/2(Ar/2 BP Ar/2)(t+r)/(p+r) A -r/2 is a decreas-
ing function of both p ~ t and r ~ 0 for any fixed t
Example 2. (Theory of operator inequalities.) This ex-
amples concerns the estimation of the value of the
relative operator entropy, defined by SeA I B) =
Al/2(logA-l/2BA-l/2)Al/2 for positive invertible op-
erators A and B. One has log C ~ log A ~ log B if and
FURUTA INEQUALITY
only if S(A-P I CS) ~ S(A-P I AS) ~ S(A-P I B S) for
all p ~ 0 and all s ~ o.
F. Hiai [2] established the following useful and interest-
ing inequality, equivalent to log majorization (the Ando-
Hiai inequality): If A ~ B ~ 0 with A > 0, then
for all p ~ 1 and r ~ 1. The following inequality, proved
in [7], interpolates between the Furuta inequality and
the inequality stated above. The grand Furuta inequal-
ity (1995): If A ~ B ~ 0 with A > 0, then for each
t E [0,1] and p ~ 1,
Fp,t(A, B, r, s) =
I-t+r
= A -r/2 { Ar/2(A -t/2 BP A -t/2)S Ar/2} (p-t)s+r A -r/2
is a decreasing function of both rand s for any s ~ 1
and r ~ t, and the following inequality holds:
A 1- t = Fp,t(A,A,r,s) ~ Fp,t(A,B,r,s)
for any s ~ 1, p ~ 1, r ~ t.
The mean-theoretic approach has also some advan-
tages [4]. See [9] for the theory of operator means, in
which the correspondence between non-negative opera-
tor monotone functions on (0,00) and operator means
is given.
Examples in the theory of norm inequalities are given
by generalizations of the Heinz-Kato inequality and
a generalization of the Kosaki trace inequality and re-
lated trace inequalities. Examples in the theory of op-
erator equations are a generalization of the Pedersen-
Takesaki theorem, which is closely related to a non-
commutative Radon-Nikodym theorem, and related
results.
See also Lowner-Heinz inequality.
References
[1] ANDO, T.: 'Some operator inequalities', Math. Ann. 279
(1987), 157-159.
[2] ANDO, T., AND HIAI, F.: 'Log majorization and complemen-
tary Golden-Thompson type inequality', Linear Alg. fj Its
Appl. 197/198 (1994), 113-13l.
[3] FUJII, M.: 'Furuta's inequality and its mean theoretic ap-
proach', J. Operator Th. 23 (1990),67-72.
[4] FUJII, M., AND KAMEl, E.: 'Mean theoretic approach to
the grand Furuta inequality', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 124
(1996), 2751-2756.
[5] FURUTA, T.: 'A 2 B 2 0 assures (Br APBr)l/q 2 B(p+2r)/q
~ o. for r 2 O,p 2 0, q 2 1 with (1 + 2r)q 2 p + 2r', Proc. Amer.
Math. Soc. 101 (1987), 85-88.
[6] FURUTA, T.: 'Elementary proof of an order preserving in-
equality', Proc. Japan Acad. 65 (1989), 126.
[7] FURUTA, T.: 'Extension of the Furuta inequality and Ando-
Hiai log-majorization', Linear Alg. fj Its Appl. 219 (1995),
139-155.
261
FURUTA INEQUALITY

[8] KAMEl, E.: 'A satellite to Furuta's inequality', Math. Japon. [10] TANAHASHl, K.: 'Best possibility of the Furuta inequality',
SS (1988), 883-886. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 124 (1996), 141-146.
[9] KUBO, F., AND ANDO, T.: 'Means of positive linear opera- M. Fujii
tors', Math. Ann. 246 (1980), 205-224. MSC 1991: 47 A63

262
- ___G
G-FUNCTION - The concept of G-functions, not to
be confused with the Meijer G-functions, was intro-
duced by C.L. Siegel around 1929 [8, p. 239J in connec-
tion with transcendence questions. Consider a Taylor
series of the form
L anz n ,
00
J(z) =
n=O
where the numbers an all belong to a fixed algebraic
number field (d. also Algebraic number; Field) K
([K : QJ < 00). Suppose it satisfies the following condi-
tions:
i) J satisfies a linear differential equation (d. also
Linear differential operator) with polynomial coef-
ficients;
ii) there exists a c > 0 such that H(ao, ... ,an) =
O(c n ).
Then J is called a G-function. Here, the notation
H(xo, ... ,x n ) stands for the so-called projective height,
given by
v Presently (1996), one can say that Siegel's method
for any (n + I)-tuple (xo, ... ,xn ) E Kn+l. The product
is taken over all valuations 1·lv of K (d. also Norm on a
field). When the Xi are rational numbers, H(xo, ... ,xn )
is simply the maximum of the absolute values of the
Xi times their common denominator. Roughly speaking,
Siegel's G-functions can be considered as (very interest-
ing) variations on the geometric series, hence the name.
The most common examples are -log(l-z), arctgz,
algebraic functions, and the ordinary hypergeometric
functions 2Fl with rational parameters (d. also Hyper-
geometric function). Siegel introduced them along
with their relatives, the E-functions (d. E-function),
which can be considered as variations on e Z •
Although Siegel states some irrationality results for
values of G-functions at algebraic points, he never pub-
lished the details of his computations. Subsequent work
of A.I. Galoschkin and others showed that there are
many more obstacles to get arithmetic results for values
of G-functions than for E-functions. Significant progress
was achieved in the 1980s, notably by E. Bombieri [4J
and G.V. Chudnovsky [5J. Much of this progress was
related to the properties of G-functions themselves and
to the question of what G-functions really are. If one
takes any linear differential equation with coefficients in
Q(z), its power series solutions will usually not be G-
functions. An introduction to these arithmetical prob-
lems is given in [6J. Having a G-function solution poses
considerable constraints on the arithmetic of a linear
differential equation. There exist several conjectures in
this direction, the most important being the Bombieri-
Dwork conjecture that the differential equation should
come from algebraic geometry in a suitable sense. All
known G-functions actually arise in this way. The con-
verse statement is known to be true, see [7J. SO, state-
ments on the arithmetic nature of values of G-functions
can also have consequences for problems in algebraic ge-
ometry. This point of view was notably adopted by Y.
Andre [IJ.
and its improvements have not yet given a transcendence
proof for a single value of a G-function. The fact that
such transcendence proofs are a subtle matter was once
more confirmed by J. Wolfart's discovery of transcen-
dental G-functions having algebraic values at algebraic
points [9J. See also [3], [2J for actual computations both
in the Archimedean and p-adic domain.
See also E-function.
References
[1] ANDRE, Y.: G-functions and geometry, Aspects of Mathe-
matics. Vieweg, 1989.
[2] BEUKERS, F.: 'Algebraic values of G-functions', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 434 (1993), 45-65.
[3] BEUKERS, F., AND WOLFART, J.: 'Algebraic values ofhyperge-
ometric functions': New Advances in Transcendence Theory,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988.
[4] BOMBIERI, E.: 'On G-functions': Recent Progress in Analytic
Number Theory, Vol. 2, Acad. Press, 1981, pp. 1-67.
G-FUNCTION
[5J CHUDNOVSKI, D., AND CHUDNOVSKI, G.: 'Applications of
Pade-approximations to diophantine inequalities in values
of G-functions': Vol. 1052 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1982, pp. 1-51.
[6J DwoRK, B., GEROTTO, G., AND SULLIVAN, F.J.: An introduc-
tion to G-functions, Vo!' 133 of Ann. Math. Studies, Prince-
ton Univ. Press, 1994.
[7J KATz, N.M.: 'On differential equations satisfied by period
matrices', IHES Publ. Math. 35 (1968).
[8J SIEGEL, C.L.: 'Uber einige Anwendungen diophantischer Ap-
proximationen': Ges. Abhandlungen, Vo!' I, Springer, 1966.
[9J WOLFART, J.: 'Werte hypergeometrischer Funktionen', In-
vent. Math. 92 (1988), 187-216.
F. Beukers
MSC 1991: 11J81, 11Gxx
GALERKIN APPROXIMATION -- See Galerkin
method.
MSC 1991: 41A65, 65N30
GALOIS GEOMETRY - Briefly speaking, Galois ge-
ometry is analytical and algebraic geometry over a Ga-
lois field, that is, geometry over a finite field (cf. also
Analytic geometry; Algebraic geometry). Its be-
ginning may be traced back to a result of B. Segre
(1954), saying that every (q + I)-arc, i.e. set of q + 1
three by three non-collinear points, of a projective Ga-
lois plane PG(2, q), q = ph, P an odd prime number, is
an irreducible conic [8J.
The connections between Galois geometry and other
branches of mathematics are numerous: classical alge-
braic geometry and algebra [16], information theory [11],
physics [14], coding theory (cf. also Coding and de-
coding) [12], cryptography [18J and mathematical
statistics [11], [13J.
There are graphic characterizations of remarkable al-
gebraic varieties [15J like quadrics [10], Veronese vari-
eties, Grassmann varieties, unitals [6], etc. (cf. also Al-
gebraic variety). Further, there are links between caps
and codes [12], [13J (cf. also Goppa code), with the
classification of k-sets from the point of view of charac-
ters [7], and with the study of ovals and hyperovals, the
theory of spreads and blocking sets and the theory of
combinatorial designs [17J (cf. also Block design).
General references are: [1], [2], [3], [4], [9], [5]. The
other references deal with specific topics related with
Galois geometry.
References
[IJ BETH, T., JUNGNICKEL, D., AND LENZ, H.: Design theory, BI
Wissenschaftsverlag & Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984.
[2J HIRSCHFELD, J. W. P.: Projective geometries over finite fields,
Oxford Univ. Press, 1979.
[3J HIRSCHFELD, J .W.P.: Finite projective spaces in three dimen-
sions, Oxford Univ. Press, 1985.
[4J HIRSCHFELD, J.W.P., AND THAS, J.A.: General Galois ge-
ometries, Oxford Sci. Pub!. Clarendon Press, 1991.
264
[5J SCAFATI, M., AND TALLINI, G.: Geometrie di Galois e teoria
dei codici, CISU, Roma, 1995.
[6J SCAFATI TALLINI, M.: 'Caratterizzazione grafica delle forme
hermitiane di un sr,q', Rend. Mat. Roma 26 (1967),273-303.
[7J SCAFATI TALLINI, M.: 'On k-sets of kind (m,n) of a finite
projective or affine space', Ann. Discrete Math. 14 (1982),
39-56.
[8J SEGRE, B.: 'Ovals in a finite projective plane', Canad. J.
Math. 7 (1955), 414-416.
[9J SEGRE, B.: 'Introduction to Galois geometries', Atti Accad.
Naz. Lincei, Mem. 8 (1967), 133-236.
[lOJ TALLINI, G.: 'Sulle k-calotte di uno spazio lineare finito', Ann.
di Mat. (4) 42 (1956), 119-164.
[ll] TALLINI, G.: 'Le geometrie di Galois e Ie loro applicazioni alia
statistica e alia teoria dell'informazione', Rend. Mat. Roma
19 (1960), 379-400.
[12J TALLINI, G.: 'On caps of kind 8 in a Galois r-dimensional
space', Acta Arithmetica VII (1961), 19-28.
[13J TALLINI, G.: 'Un'applicazione delle geometrie di Galois a
questioni di statistica', Rend. Accad. Naz. Lincei 8 (1963),
479-485.
[14J TALLINI, G.: 'Geometrie di Galois e loro applicazioni alia
fisica', Sem. Lab. Naz. CNEN F-70-63 (1970).
[15] TALLINI, G.: 'Graphic characterization of algebraic varieties
in Galois space': Atti Conv. Int. Teorie Combinatorie, Vol. II,
Accad. Naz. Lincei, 1976, pp. 153-165.
[16J TALLINI, G.: 'General multivalued algebraic structures and
geometric spaces': Proc. 4th Int. Congress on Algebraic
Hyperstructures and Applications, Xanthi, Greece, 1990,
pp. 197-202.
[17] TALLINI, G.: 'Lectures on Galois geometries and Steiner sys-
tems': Geometries, Codes and Cryptography: CISM courses
and lectures, Vo!' 313, Springer, 1990, pp. 1-23.
[18J TALLINI, G., AND BEUTELSPACHER, A.: 'Examples of essen-
tially s-fold secure geometric authentication systems with
large s', Rend. Mat. Roma (VII) 10 (1990),321-326.
M. Sea/ati Tallini
MSC 1991: 51Exx
GALOIS RING The Galois ring GR(pm, d) is [5J
the unique Galois extension of Zjpmz of degree d.
For instance GR(pm, 1) is Zjpmz and GR(p, d) is F pd.
Generalizing finite fields (cf. Finite field), these rings
find applications in similar areas: linear recurrences [2J,
[7], [9], cyclic codes [8], [1 J [3], association schemes [10]'
and character sums [10]' [4]. For a connection with Witt
rings see [6] (cf. also Witt ring). Two different con-
structions of these rings are given below: bottom-up,
starting from a finite field, and top-down, starting from
a local field.
Bottom up. This is the first and the most algorithmic
one. Let n = pd - 1. Pick an irreducible monic primitive
polynomial 7 of degree d, as in the standard construc-
tion of F pd from F p, and lift it to a polynomial f over
Zjpmz in such a way that the nice finite field property
(f divides xn - 1) still holds. In the language of linear
recurrences (or linear feedback shift registers), one has
lifted an m-sequence of period n over F p into a linear
 GAMMA-INVARIANT IN THE THEORY OF ABELIAN GROUPS
recurrence over Zjpmz of the same period. This is con-
struction A of [2]. Note that an arbitrary lift will lead to
multiplying the period by a power of p, as in construc-
tion B of [2]. For example, p = 2, f(x) = x 2 + X + 1
gives a period 6 and not 3. Now, let
Top down. This p-adic approach was introduced in
print in [4] but was implicitly known to M. Yamada
[10], who used the term 'Teichmiiller', as in p-adic anal-
ysis, and also to E. Spiegel [8]. Denote by Zp the ring
of p-adic integers, best viewed as the set of formal ex-
pansions in powers of p with coefficients in the residue
field Fp. Then GR(pm,l) = Zpj(pm). For higher val-
ues of d one considers the unramified extension of Qp
generated by (n (an n-th root of unity) and its ring of
integers Zp[(n]. Let Td denote the set of pd roots of 1
over this latter ring. This set of so-called Teichmuller
representatives reduces modulo p to F pd. The ring of in-
tegers of the p-adic field admits the following expansion:
Zp[(n] = 2:::0 piTi, which converges in the sense of the
p-adic valuation. Modulo pm this yields
Multiplicative structure. The ring R = GR(pm, d)
comprises units RX and zero divisors pRo The multi-
plicative group R X is the direct product of Td \ {O} by
the group of so-called principal units 1 + pRo The group
of principal units is isomorphic, for m = 2 or p > 2, to
the additive group of (Zjpm-lz)d. The Galois group of
Rover Z j pm Z is isomorphic to the Galois group of F pd
over F p and therefore cyclic of order d.
References
[1] BONNECAZE, A., SOLE, P., AND CALDERBANK, A.R.: 'Qua-
ternary construction of unimodular lattices', IEEE Inform.
Th. 41 (1995), 366-376.
[2] BOZTAS, S., HAMMONS, A.R., AND KUMAR, P.V.: '4-phase
sequence with near optimum correlation properties', IEEE
Inform. Th. 38 (1992), 1101-1113.
[3] HAMMONS, A.R., KUMAR, P.V., CALDERBANK, A.R.,
SLOANE, N.J.A., AND SOLE, P.: 'The Z4-linearity of Kerdock,
Preparata, Goethals, and related codes', IEEE Trans. Infor-
mation Th. 40 (1994), 301-319.
[4] KUMAR, V., HELLESETH, T., AND CALDERBANK, R.A.: 'An
upper bound for Weil-type exponential sums over Galois rings
and applications', IEEE Inform. Th. 41 (1995).
[5] MACDONALD, B.R.: Finite rings with identity, M. Dekker,
1974.
[6] SHANBAG, A.G., KUMAR, P.V., AND HELLESETH, T.: 'An up-
perbound for the extended Kloosterman sums over Galois
rings': Finite Fields and Applications, to appear.
[7] SOLE, P.: 'A quaternary cyclic code and a family of qua-
ternary sequences with low correlation', in G. COHEN AND
J. WOLFMANN (eds.): Coding Theory and Applications,
Vo!' 388 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer,
1989, pp. 193-201.
[8] SPIEGEL, E.: 'Codes over Zm revisited', Inform. and Control
37 (1978), 100-104.
[9] UDAYA, P., AND SIDDIQUI, M.U.: 'Optimal biphase sequences
with large linear complexity derived from sequences over Z4 "
IEEE Inform. Th. IT-42 (1996), 202-216.
[10] YAMADA, M.: 'Distance regular graphs of girth 4 over an ex-
tension ring ofZ4', Gmphs and Combinatorics 6 (1980),381-
384.
P. Sole
MSC 1991: 11S20, 11S31, 94B35, 05E30
GAMMA-INVARIANT IN THE THEORY OF
ABELIAN GROUPS, r -invariant - An invariant asso-
ciated to an uncountable Abelian group and taking
values in a Boolean algebra. Two groups with differ-
ent invariants are non-isomorphic, but the converse fails
in general: groups with the same invariant need not be
isomorphic. The invariant is most commonly defined for
almost-free groups (groups such that every subgroup of
strictly smaller cardinality is free; see Free Abelian
group). By a theorem of S. Shelah (see [7]), such a
group is free if it is of singular cardinality, so the in-
variant is defined for groups of regular cardinality (see
Cardinal number). If A is an Abelian group of regular
uncountable cardinality K" A is said to be K,-free if and
only if every subgroup of A of cardinality < K, is free. In
that case A can be written as the union of a continuous
chain (called a K,-filtration) of free subgroups of cardi-
nality < K,: A = UV<I<Av , where the continuity condition
means that for every limit ordinalll < K" All = U/L<vAw
The r-invariant of A, denoted by r I«A) or just r(A), is
defined to be the equivalence class, S, of
S = {ll < K,: for some T > 1I, AT j All is not free} ;
§ is defined to be the set of all subsets T of K, for which
SnC = TnC for some closed unbounded subset C of K,.
(See Suslin hypothesis for the definitions of closed un-
bounded and stationary.) The equivalence class depends
only on the isomorphism type of A and not on the choice
of K,-filtration, because any two K,-filtrations agree on a
closed unbounded subset of K,; the equivalence classes of
subsets of K, form a Boolean algebra, D(K,), under the
partial order induced by inclusion. The least element of
this Boolean algebra, 0, is the class of all non-stationary
subsets of K,. It can be proved that r(A) = 0 if and only
if A is free (see [2]). For K, = Nn+1 (n E w), everyone
of the 21< members of the Boolean algebra D(K,) is the
r-invariant of some K,-free group of cardinality K, (see
[6]). Assuming G6del's axiom of constructibility, V = L
(see Godel constructive set), the same holds for all
regular K, which are not too large (e.g., less than the first
inaccessible cardinal, or even the first Mahlo cardinal);
in fact, a complete characterization, for any regular K"
of the range of r can be given, assuming V = L (see [6]
and [5]).
265
GAMMA-INVARIANT IN THE THEORY OF ABELIAN GROUPS
Another r-invariant can be defined for use in connec-
tion with the Whitehead problem in Abelian group
theory, and its generalizations. In this case, for any
Abelian groups A and M, rM(A) is defined to be the
equivalence class of
{v < /'i,: for somer> lJ,Ext(Ar/A.."M) # O}
when A is /'i,-free of cardinality /'i, and A is written as
the union, U..,<,.A.." of a /'i,-filtration. Then rM(A) = 0
implies Ext(A, M) = 0; the converse holds for M of car-
dinality at most /'i" assuming V = L (see [1]).
Useful references for additional information are [3J
and [4].
References
[1) EKLOF, P.C.: 'Homological algebra and set theory',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 227 (1977), 207-225.
[2) EKLOF, P.C.: 'Methods of logic in abelian group theory':
Abelian Group Theory, Vol. 616 of Lecture Notes in Mathe-
matics, Springer, 1977, pp. 251-269.
[3) EKLOF, P.C.: 'Set-theoretic methods: the uses of gamma in-
variants': Abelian Groups, Vol. 146 of Lecture Notes in Pure
and Applied Math., M. Dekker, 1993, pp . .143-153.
[4) EKLOF, P.C., AND MEKLER, A.H.: Almost free modules,
North-Holland, 1990.
[5) EKLOF, P.C., MEKLER, A.H., AND SHELAH, S.: 'Almost dis-
joint abelian groups', Israel J. Math. 49 (1984), 34-54.
[6) MEKLER, A.H.: 'How to construct almost free groups', Canad.
J. Math. 32 (1980), 1206-1228.
[7) SHELAH, S.: 'A compactness theorem for singular cardinals,
free algebras, Whitehead problem and transversals', Israel J.
Math. 21 (1975), 319-349.
P.C. Eklof
MSC 1991: 20K20
GAMMA-INVARIANT IN THE THEORY OF
MODULAR FORMS, r -invariant - Let G(r) be a
Fuchsian group of the first kind, acting on the real
hyperbolic plane H. Suppose that G is a group of genus
zero, i.e. the number of hyperbolic generators of G is
equal to zero. Let J be a conformal mapping of the
fundamental domain F of G onto the complex plane
C that is extended as an automorphic function to the
whole of H. In other words, there exists an isomorphism
of complex manifolds between the compactification of F
and the Riemann sphere which induces an univalent au-
tomorphic function J on H. The function J is defined
up to a fractional-linear mapping and satisfies the
Schwarz differential equation (see [llJ; see also Schwarz
differential; Schwarz equation).
The function J is called a gamma- or automorphic
( modular) invariant.
The first example of a gamma-invariant, k(2), was
discovered and investigated in the Abel-Gauss-Jacobi
and Eisenstein-Weierstrass theory of elliptic and ellip-
tic modular functions between 1820-1850 (see [6]). The
266
function k(2) was obtained as a function of the quo-
tient of the periods of a certain elliptic integral. It
corresponds to the level-two congruence subgroup of
the modular group PSL(2, Z). For the modular group
itself, the invariant J was constructed in 1877 by R.
Dedekind and, one year later and independently, by F.
Klein. In this definition, J is a certain rational function
of the two main modular holomorphic Eisenstein series
E(4) and E(6). These two classical invariants k(2) and
J satisfy the modular equation.
Gamma-invariants play an important role in various
domains of mathematics and mathematical physics. For
example, in algebraic number theory the modular
equation and its generalizations were used by Ch. Her-
mite and L. Kronecker to obtain the transcendental so-
lution of the general algebraic equation of the fifth
degree (see [6]). The modular invariant is important in
the extension of the Kronecker theorem on Abelian
fields for imaginary quadratic ground fields and, more
generally, in class field theory (see [13], [7]). Other im-
portant interpretations and developments of this theory
are in algebraic geometry (the theory of elliptic and
modular curves) and in the theory of Dirichlet L-series
(see [9], [15J; see also Dirichlet L-function).
Automorphic invariants participate also in Selberg's
theory of the trace formula for constructing resolvents of
automorphic Laplacians (automorphic Green functions)
(see [11], [15]).
In [1] modular equations are used for investigating
non-congruence subgroups of the modular group.
There is a mysterious relationship between simple fi-
nite groups (the Monster, cf. Simple finite group) and
automorphic invariants (see [10], [3], [5]). In particular,
via this relation there is a connection between modular
invariants and mathematical physics (string theory
[2], vertex operator algebra and quantum field theory
[4], [12], [8], [14]).
References
[1) ATKIN, A.D.L., AND SWINNERTON-DYER, H.P.P.: Modular
forms on non-congruence subgroups, Vol. 19 of Proc. Symp.
Pure Math., Amer. Math. Soc., 1971.
[2) BORCHEREDS, R.E.: 'Sporadic groups and string theory':
First European Congress of Math., Vol. 1, 1992, pp. 411-421.
[3) CONWAY, J.H., AND NORTON, S.P.: 'Monstrous moonshine',
Bull. London Math. Soc. 11 (1979), 308-339.
[4) FRENKEL, I.B., LEPOWSKY, J., AND MEURMAN, A.: Vertex
operator algebras and the monster, Acad. Press, 1988.
[5) KOIKE, M.: 'Moonshine: a mysterious relationship between
simple groups and automorphic functions', Amer. Math.
Soc. Transl. Ser. 2 160 (1994), 33-45.
[6) LEHNER, J.: Discontinuous groups and automorphic func-
tions, Amer. Math. Soc., 1964.
[7) SHIMURA, G.: Complex multiplication in terms of elliptic
curves, Vol. 320 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1973.

[8] SMIT, D.J.: 'String theory and the algebraic geometry of mod-
uli spaces', Comm. Math. Phys. 114 (1988), 645.
[9] STARK, H.: Complex multiplication, Vol. 320 of Lecture
Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1973.
[10] THOMPSON, J.G.: 'Finite groups and modular functions',
Bull. London Math. Soc. 11 (1979), 347-351.
[11] VENKOV, A.B.: Spectral theory of automorphic functions,
Kluwer Acad. Publ., 1990.
[12] VERLINDE, E., AND VERLINDE, H.: 'Chiral bosoniza-
tion,determinants,and the string partition function', Nuclear
Phys. B288 (1987), 357.
[13] WEBER, H.: Lehrbuch der Algebra, Chelsea, 1961.
[14] WITTEN, E.: 'Elliptic genera and quantum field theory',
Comm. Math. Phys. 109 (1987), 525-536.
[15] ZAGJER, D.: 'L-series and the Green functions of modular
curves': Proc. Internat. Congress Mathematicians, Berkeley,
Amer. Math. Soc., 1986, pp. 689-698.
A. Venkov
MSC 1991: llF20
GAUSS KERNEL - The n-dimensional Gauss (or
Weierstrass) kernel
G(x,y,t;D) = (41l'Dt)-n/2exp (- 4~t Ix _ y12) ,
with D a positive constant, t > 0, x, Y ERn, is the fun-
damental solution of the n-dimensional heat equa-
tion Ut = D6.u. Moreover, this kernel is an approximate
identity in that the Gauss- Weierstrass singular integral
at the function J,
u(x, t; D) = ( G(x, y, t; D)J(y) dy,
JRn
satisfies limt-to+ u(x, t; D) = J(x) almost everywhere,
for example, whenever JRn
e-AIYI2IJ(y)1 dy < 00 for
some A > 0; see [4J. Thus u(x, t; D) is a solution of
the heat equation for 0 < t < 1/(4AD), x E Rn having
the initial 'temperature' f.
In the theory of Markov processes (cf. Markov pro-
cess) the Gauss kernel gives the transition probability
density of the Wiener-Levy process (or of Brownian
motion). The semi-group property oj the Gauss kernel
G(x, z, h + t2; D) = ( G(x, y, h; D)G(y, z, t2; D) dy,
JRn
tb t2 > 0,
is essential here.
References
[1] BUTZER, P., AND NESSEL, R.: Fourier analysis and approxi-
mation, Vol. I, Birkhauser, 1971.
[2] COURANT, R., AND HILBERT, D.: Methods of mathematical
physics, Vol. II, Wiley, 1962.
[3] FELLER, W.: An introduction to probability theory and its
applications, second ed., Vol. 2, Springer, 1976.
[4] TITCHMARSH, E.C.: Introduction to the theory of Fourier in-
tegrals, Clarendon Press, 1937.
[5] WEIERSTRASS, K.: 'Ueber die analytische Darstellbarkeit
sogenannter willkurlichen Functionen reeler Argumente',
Berliner Sitzungsberichte (1985), 633-639; 789-805.
R. Kerman
GEL' FOND-BAKER METHOD
MSC 1991: 35K05, 41A35, 60J35
GAuss-LUCAS THEOREM, Gauss theorem - Let
J(z) be a complex polynomial, i.e., J(z) E C[zJ. Then
the zeros of the derivative f' (z) are inside the convex
polygon spanned by the zeros of J(z).
References
[1] HENRICI, P.: Applied and computational complex analysis,
Vol. I, Wiley, reprint, 1988.
[2] HILLE, E.: Analytic function theory, Vol. 1, Chelsea, reprint,
1982.
[3] LEWIN, B.J.: Nullstellenverteilung ganzer Funktionen,
Akademie Verlag, 1962.
M. H azewinkel
MSC 1991: 30C15, 12DlO
GEL'FOND-BAKER METHOD for Diophantine
equations - One of the most efficient methods for ob-
taining explicit upper bounds on the size of integer so-
lutions of some broad classes of Diophantine equa-
tions arises from the theory of transcendental numbers,
from the solution by A.O. Gel'fond of Hilbert's seventh
problem and from subsequent work of A. Baker. The
Gel'fond-Baker method also incorporates ideas due to
C.L. Siegel, K. Mahler and S. Lang. From this method,
explicit upper bounds have been derived for:
1) integer points on curves of genus 0 and 1 (effective
versions of Siegel's theorem, due to Baker, J. Coates and
W.M. Schmidt); [1, Chapt. IV, Sect. 12J;
2) Thue equations F(x, y) = k, where F is a homoge-
neous polynomial with algebraic coefficients, k is a fixed
non-zero algebraic number, and the polynomial F(X, 1)
has at least three distinct roots; [2, Chapt. 5]; [1, Chapt.
3J; [3, Chapt. 4-5J;
3) hyper-elliptic and super-elliptic equations, namely
yk = J(x) where k is a fixed integer and J(x) is a poly-
nomial with algebraic coefficients, which define curves
of positive genus. This is the case when k = 2 and J(x)
has at least three distinct roots or when k 2:: 3 and J(x)
has at least two distinct roots; [1, Chapt. 4J; [3, Chapt.
6J.
The method also applies to some classes of norm-form
equations in more than two variables (by the work of K.
Gyory).
The bounds obtained from this method are typically
extremely large, and some further results on Diophan-
tine approximations are required to be able to com-
pletely determine all the solutions. Upper estimates are
obtained for the height of the solutions, either in the
ring of integers of a fixed algebraic number field K,
or, more generally, in the ring of S-integers, where S is
a fixed finite set of prime ideals of K (cf. also Ideal;
Prime ideal). This means that a denominator for x
and y is allowed, but is required to be the product of
267
GEL'FOND-BAKER METHOD
primes from a fixed finite set S. This generalizes or-
dinary integers and units, which arise from taking for
S the empty set. For instance, for the field of rational
numbers, given a finite set S = {PI, ... ,Ps} of prime
numbers, the S -integers are the rational numbers alb
such that all prime divisors of the denominator b belong
to S, while the S-units are the rational numbers of the
form p~l ... p~8 with k j E Z (1::; j::; s).
Furthermore, the method can be extended in some
cases to allow the exponents on x and y to vary. The
most celebrated example is Tijdeman's theorem on the
Catalan equation [2, Chapt. 12], [3, Chapt. 7, Sect. 3]:
There are only finitely many tuples (x, y,P, q) of inte-
gers, all of them 2: 2, satisfying x P - yq = 1.
According to PillaZ's conjecture [2, p. 201], [1, p. 207],
for each k 2: 2 the same should hold for the equation
x P - yq = k.
To demonstrate Baker's method, consider the Th71e
eq71ation F(x, y) = k, where k is a fixed non-zero al-
gebraic number, while F is a homogeneous polynomial
with algebraic coefficients such that F(X, 1) has at least
three distinct roots, 01, 02, 03. The unknowns x and y
are algebraic integers in a number field K, which is as-
sumed to contain not only the number k, but also the
coefficients of F as well as the roots of F(X, 1). Then
one may write, for i = 1,2,3, x - 0iY = ki 71i, where ki
belongs to a fixed finite subset of K (independent of the
solution (x,y)), while 711,712,713 are (unknown) units
in K. Eliminating x and y from these three equations
yields the relation
Therefore, a key step in the Gel'fond-Baker method
is the following result, which deals with the S -71nit equa-
tion: If K is a number field and S is a finite set of prime
ideals of K, the equation x + y = 1 has only finitely
many solutions in S-units (x, y) of K. Moreover, explicit
bounds for the size of the solutions can be given.
The proof of this result relies on an estimate from
transcendental number theory. Write x and y using a
basis E1, •.• ,Er of the group of S-units modulo torsion.
Then a 'large' solution (x, y) to the Diophantine equa-
tion F(x, y) = k gives rise to a 'small' value for a num-
ber of the form I(E~l ... E~r - 11, where ( is a root of
unity and b1 , . .. ,br are rational integers. The so-called
'theory of linear forms in logarithms' (cf. Linear form
in logarithms) provides a lower bound for such num-
bers, which is sharp in terms ofmax{lb 1 1, ... ,Ibrl}. This
lower bound, together with the link between large solu-
tions and small values, then provides an upper bound
for the size of solutions.
The Schmidt subspace theorem and its p-adic variants
by H.P. Schlickewei [1, Chapt.5, Sect. 1] imply more
268
generally that for each n 2: 2, the Diophantine equa-
tion Xl + ... + Xn = 1 has only finitely many solutions
in S-units of K (one considers only solutions where no
subsum on the left-hand side vanishes). But for n 2: 3
the result is not effective: upper bounds for the number
of solutions can be given, but no bound for the size of
the solutions is known in general.
References
[1] SCHMIDT, W.M.: Diophantine approximations and Diophan-
tine equations, Vol. 1467 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1991.
[2] SHOREY, T.N., AND TIJDEMAN, R.: Exponential diophantine
equations, Vol. 87 of Tracts in Math., Cambridge Univ. Press,
1986.
[3] SPRINDZUK, V.G.: Classical diophantine equations, Vol. 1559
of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1993. (Translated
from the Russian.)
M. Waldschmidt
MSC 1991: llD41, IID61, llJ86
GELL-MANN-DASHEN ALGEBRA - An infinite-
dimensional Lie algebra occurring in quantum field
theory. Let 9 be a finite-dimensional Lie algebra and
S(Rn) the space of Schwartz test functions (cf. Gen-
eralized functions, space of). The Lie algebra 9 =
S (R n) CSI 9 is defined by
[] CSI X,g CSI Y] =]g CSI [X, Y]
and can be interpreted as the Lie algebra of the group
of gauge transformations (cf. Gauge transformation)
[3]. Representations of 9 are called C71rrent algebras in
quantum field theory. Let J: 9 -t I) be a homo-
morphism of Lie algebras and let (A,,) be a basis of
9 with structure constants c,,{3,. The mapping S(Rn) 3
] H J(j CSI A,,) E I) defines an I)-valued distribution
J",(x) E S'(Rn) CSII) and it is true that
[J,,(x), J{3(x')] = 5(x - x') L c"{3,,.J,(x).
,
Passing to the Fourier image one sets i,,(k) = J(e ik ' x CSI
An) for kERn; then
[i",(k), i{3(k')] = L, C",{3,i,(k + k').
R. Dashen and M. Gell-Mann (1966) studied and ap-
plied the latter commutation relations in the particular
case when 9 = .5u(3) EB .5u(3), [2].
General references for current algebras are [1], [4].
References
[1] ADLER, S.L., AND DASHEN, R.: Current algebras, Benjamin,
1968.
[2] DASHEN, R., AND GELL-MANN, M.: 'Representation of local
current algebra at infinite momentum', Phys. Rev. Lett. 17
(1966), 340-343.
[3] HERMANN, R.: Lie algebras and quantum mechanics, Ben-
jamin, 1970.
 GENERALIZED CONTINUUM HYPOTHESIS

[4J RENNER, B.: Current algebras and their applications, Perga- su(2). Their explicit form is [1]:
mon,1968.

A,~ G D, A,~ G 00 D,
1 -z
P. Stovicek 0
0
MSC 1991: 81 T13, 81RlO

G D'
0
= C
D'
A3 = -1 A4 0 0
GELL-MANN FORMULA - A prescription for con-
0 1 0
structing anti-Hermitian representations of a symmetric

AFG ~}
0
Lie algebra (over the real numbers) g from represen-
tations of an Inonu- Wigner contraction g. One assumes 0 A6= COO)
001,
that g = t + p is a direct sum of vector spaces and 0 010

=C
0

[t,t] c t, [t,p] c p, [p,p] c e.

A7
o ~}
0 0
i
AS = 1
v'3 C~ 1
0
~)
-2
,

Then 9 = t + p and there exists an isomorphism of vec-
tor spaces 7l': g ---+ 9 such that 7l'(t) = t, 7l'(p) = P and
[7l'(X) , 7l'(Y)] = 7l'([X, Y]) for all X E t, Y E g. In addi-
tion, one has [p, Pl = O.
The best studied examples concern the (pseudo-)
orthogonal algebras, when g = so(m + 1, n) or g =
so(m, n+l) and t = so(m, n) [2], [1]. Then 9 = iso(m, n)
is an inhomogeneous Lie algebra with p = Rm+n. Let
M2 be the quadratic t-invariant element from the sym-
metric algebra of p. If p is an anti-Hermitian represen-
tation of 9 such that p(M2) is a multiple of the unit
operator, then the formula for the representation p of g
reads: p(X) = p(7l'(X)) for all X E t, and, for all YEp,
p(Y) = Ap(7l'(Y)) + a[p(~), p(7l'(Y))],
where ~ is the second-degree Casimir element from the
universal enveloping algebra of t while A and a are
parameters. Here, A is real and arbitrary and a is pure
imaginary and depends on p(M 2 ).
References
[IJ HERMANN, R.: Lie groups for physicists, Benjamin, 1966.
[2J WEIMAR, E.: 'The range of validity of the Gell-Mann for-
mula', Nuovo Cimento Lett. 4 (1972),43-50.
P. Stovicek
MSC 1991: 17Bxx, 81R05
GELL-MANN MATRICES - The Gell-Mann matri-
ces are denoted by A!, ... ,AS' They form a family of
traceless Hermitian (3 x 3)-matrices, orthonormalized as
follows: Tr(AjAk) = 28j k. When multiplied by the com-
plex unit they form a basis in the Lie algebra su(3),
in analogy with the Pauli matrices and the Lie algebra
References
[1] GELL-MANN, M., AND NE'EMAN, Y.: The eightfold way, Ben-
jamin, 1964.
P. Stovicek
MSC 1991: 17B45, 81R05
GELL-MANN-OKUBO FORMULA - A perturba-
tive formula for the mass spectrum of strongly inter-
acting particles, baryons and mesons. In 1961, M. Gell-
Mann and Y. Ne'eman classified baryons and mesons
and grouped them into multiplets, labeled by irreducible
representations of the Lie algebra su(3), with each par-
ticle in a multiplet being represented by a normalized
weight vector (the number of particles in the multiplet
equals the dimension of the representation) and with
weights giving values of observable quantities: the iso-
topic spin 13 and the hypercharge Y [1]. To explain the
variation of masses of particles belonging to the same
multiplet, a mass formula was suggested by Gell-Mann
and S. Okubo [2]: mf = (TI,!), where I is the normal-
ized weight vector representing a particle and
Here, mo, a and b are empirical constants related to
a given multiplet, Y and 1(1 + 1) are the representa-
tives of the two elements from the universal envelop-
ing algebra of su(3) that are expressed in terms of the
Gell-Mann matrices as 1/v'3As and 1/4(A~+A~+A~),
respectively.
References
[1] GELL-MANN, M., AND NE'EMAN, Y.: The eightfold way, Ben-
jamin, 1964.
[2] OKUBO, S.: 'Note on unitary symmetry in strong interac-
tions', Prag. Theor. Phys. 27 (1962), 949-969.
P. Stovicek
MSC 1991: 81V25,81R05
GENERALIZED CONTINUUM HYPOTHESIS,
GCH - See Continuum hypothesis.

269
GENERALIZED CONTINUUM HYPOTHESIS
MSC 1991: 04A30
GENETIC ALGORITHM - Genetic algorithms [1],
[3], [2] describe a class of stochastic search algorithms
that are intended to work by processing relations
(called partitions in the genetic algorithms literature)
and classes (schemata). Genetic algorithms are used in
search, optimization, and machine learning for extremiz-
ing the objective function, when little domain knowledge
is available. Genetic algorithms simultaneously sample
from different regions of the search space and try to de-
cide about better regions of the search space. This is
an inductive process, i.e., this is a process of guessing
about the unknown from some observed behaviours. In-
duction is no better than enumeration when relations
among the different members of the search space are
not exploited. The foundation of genetic algorithms is
based on this observation. Genetic algorithms search by
processing relations and classes defined by the repre-
sentation. For example, l features of a sequence repre-
sentation may define 21 equivalence relations. Genetic
algorithms implicitly process these relations in a very
parallel manner and detect good regions of the search
space.
Intra-cellular flow
Tran
Protein
.
( I ) ""<elllliM flow
I~~ Selection, crossover,
and
Transcription mutation
Fig. 1: Information flow in natural evolution
The beauty of genetic algorithms is that the process-
ing of relations and classes is subtly implemented using
the biological framework of natural evolution. The evo-
lutionary flow of genetic information is primarily com-
prised of the extra-cellular and intra-cellular flow of in-
formation. Fig. 1 presents a schematic description of the
processes. Genetic algorithms are often designed based
on the extra-cellular flow of genetic information [1], [3]
with few exceptions [4]. The extra-cellular flow is defined
by the transmission of DNA from generation to genera-
tion through selection, crossover, and mutation. Genetic
algorithms use such operators for detecting better rela-
tions and classes that finally may lead to the desired so-
lution. The following section describes a simple genetic
algorithm [1], [3].
270
Simple genetic algorithm. The simple genetic algo-
rithm [1], [2] works from a population of samples de-
fined using some representation and searches by selec-
tion, crossover, and mutation operators. The sample
population is first randomly chosen. This is followed by
successive application of each of the above mentioned
operators. These components are described below.
The overall algorithm is presented below.
t = 0; II Set generation counter to zero.
Initialize(Pop(t)); II Randomly initialize
Evaluate(Pop(t)); II Evaluate fitness
Repeat {
Selection(Pop(t)); II Select good ones
Crossover(Pop(t)); II Cross strings
Mutation(Pop(t)); II Mutate strings
Evaluate(Pop(t)); II Evaluate fitness
t = t + 1; I I Increment counter
} Until (termination condition = TRUE)
A pseudo-code for simple genetic algorithm
Population. The simple genetic algorithm often uses a
sequence representation. A string usually represents a
unique member of the search space. Following the bi-
ological analogy, strings are sometimes called chromo-
somes. Every chromosome is a sequence of genes. Every
gene takes a value from the alphabet set of the chosen
representation. The population is a collection of such
strings.
Selection. The selection operator is responsible for de-
tecting better regions of the search space. The 'fitness' of
a member is its objective function value. Selection com-
putes an ordering among all the members of the popu-
lation and gives more copies to the better strings at the
expense of less 'fit' members. There exist various kinds
of different tools of selection operators, such as roulette
wheel and tournament selection. Selection alone can lead
the population to convergence in polynomial time.
Crossover. Crossover works by swapping portions be-
tween two strings. Single-point crossover [3] is often used
in the simple genetic algorithm. It works by first ran-
domly picking a point between 0 and i. The partici-
pating strings are then split at that point, followed by
a swapping of the split halves. In absence of any bias,
uniform application of crossover simply decorrelates the
individual distribution of genes in the population. How-
ever, crossover can be effectively used for computing set
intersections when properly guided by particular rela-
tions [4]. In the simple genetic algorithm, crossover is
used with high probability.
Mutation. Mutation randomly changes the entries of a
string. Mutation is usually treated as a low profile oper-
ator in a genetic algorithm because blind mutation can-
not make an algorithm transcend the limits of random
enumerative search.

References
[1] DEJONG, K.A.: 'An analysis of the behavior of a class of ge-
netic adaptive systems', Ph.D. thesis Univ. Michigan (1975).
[2] GOLDBERG, D.E.: Genetic algorithms in search, optimization
and machine learning, Addison-Wesley, 1989.
[3] HOLLAND, J.H.: Adaptation in natural and artificial systems,
Univ. Michigan Press, 1975.
[4] KARGUPTA, H.: 'The gene expression messy genetic algo-
rithm': Proc. IEEE Internat. Conf. on Evolutionary Com-
putation. Nagoya University, Japan, May, 1996, 1996.
H. Kargupta
MSC 1991: 90B40, 68T05
GOLAY CODE - From a purely mathematical point
of view, the Golay codes are the most interesting codes
constructed as yet (1996). The binary Golay code 923
is a 12-dimensional subspace of F~3 with the property
that any two vectors (i.e., words) differ in at least 7
positions (they have distance d = 7). In coding termi-
nology, 923 is a [23,12,7] binary code, i.e., a 3-error-
correcting code (cf. Error-correcting code). Similarly,
the ternary Golay code 911 is a [11,6,5] ternary code. It
was shown by A. Tietiiviiinen and J.H. van Lint (see [4])
that the Golay codes are the only non-trivial e-error-
correcting perfect codes with e > lover any alphabet
Q for which IQI is a prime power. A perfect e-error-
correcting code is a subset of Qn such that every vector
in the space has distance at most e to a unique code-
word.
An extension of a code C of length n is the set of
words of length n + 1 obtained by adjoining an extra
coordinate to all the words of C in such a way that the
sum of the n+ 1 coordinates is O. The extended codes 924
and 912 are of interest in group theory because their au-
tomorphism groups are the 5-transitive Mathieu groups
M24 and M12 (cf. also Mathieu group).
For design theory (cf. also Design with mutu-
ally orthogonal resolutions; Block design), the Go-
lay codes are important for the following reason. The
words of weight (i.e., number of non-zero coordinates)
8 in 924 are the blocks of the (unique) Steiner sys-
tem 8(5,8,24). Similarly, the words of weight 6 in
912 support the blocks of the (unique) Steiner system
8(5,6,12).
For each of the codes, several constructions are
known. E.g.,
1) Make a list of the numbers 0, 1, ... ,2 24 -1 written
binary as vectors in F~4. Delete each vector that has dis-
tance less than 8 to a previous vector that has not been
deleted. At the end of this procedure, 4096 vectors will
remain. They form a linear code, in fact 924.
2) In the spaces F~3 and FF, consider the codes of
length n = 23, respectively n = 11, generated by the
vectors Ci (1 SiS n) for which Ci,j = 1 if j - i is a
GORYACHEV-CHAPLYGIN TOP
non-zero square and 0 otherwise. One thus obtains the
binary and the ternary Golay code.
3) Consider the (11 x 11)-circulant matrix with top
row (01000111011). This is the incidence matrix of the
unique 2- (11,6, 3)-design. Form P by bordering this
matrix with a column of 1 's in front and a row of 1 's
on top, with a 0 in the upper left-hand corner (cf. Bor-
dering method). Then adjoin h2 in front of P. One
obtains a (12 x 24)-matrix G in which every row has
eight l's (except the top row, which has 12). The rows
of G generate 924.
4) As in 3), form a (5 x 5)-circulant with top row
(0,1, -1, -1, 1) and border it on top with a row of l's.
To this, adjoin h in front to form a (6 x 11)-matrix G.
The rows of G generate the [11,6,5] ternary Golay code.
For other constructions and more theory of these
codes, see the references.
M.J.E. Golay (1902-1989) was a Swiss physicist who
worked in many different fields. He is known for his work
on infrared spectroscopy and the invention of the capil-
lary column, but to mathematicians mainly for his dis-
covery of the two Golay codes.
References
[1] BROUWER, A.E.: 'Block designs', in R. GRAHAM,
M. GROTSCHEL, AND L. LOVASZ (eds.): Handbook of
Combinatorics, Elsevier, 1995, p. Ch. 14.
[2] CAMERON, P.J., AND LINT, J.H. VAN: Designs, graphs, codes
and their links, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991.
[3] MACWILLIAMS, F.J., AND SLOANE, N.J.A.: The theory of
error-correcting codes, North-Holland, 1977.
[4] LINT, J.H. VAN: Introduction to coding theory, Springer, 1992.
[5] LINT, J.H. VAN, AND WILSON, R.M.: A course in combina-
tories, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992.
J.H. van Lint
MSC 1991: 05B05, 05B07, 94B25
GORYACHEV-CHAPLYGIN TOP - A rigid body
rotating about a fixed point, for which:
a) the principal moments of inertia A = (AI, A2, A3),
with regard to the fixed point, satisfy the relation Al =
A2 = 4A3;
b) the centre of mass belongs to the equatorial plane
through the fixed point;
c) the principal angular momentum is perpendicular
to the direction of gravity, i.e., (m, "() = O.
First introduced by D. Goryachev [4] in 1900, the sys-
tem was later integrated by S.A. Chaplygin [3] in terms
of hyper-elliptic integrals (cf. also Hyper-elliptic in-
tegral). The system merely satisfying a) and b) is not
algebraically integrable, but on the locus, defined by c),
it is; namely, it has an extra invariant of homogeneous
degree 3:
271
GORYACHEV-CHAPLYGIN TOP

C. Bechlivanidis and P. van Moerbeke [1] have shown J.l(a) n Ji.(b) = 0 for all distinct a, b E VI. Thus, a dfl-
that the problem has asymptotic solutions which are substitution associates one or more letters of V2 to each
meromorphic in Vi; the system linearizes on a dou- letter of VI, and no letter of V2 is associated to two let-
ble cover of a hyper-elliptic Jacobian (i.e., of the Ja- ters of VI' Because J.l is a substitution, its domain is
cobi variety of a hyper-elliptic curve; cf. also Plane immediately extended to concern words and languages
real algebraic curve), ramified exactly along the two over VI. For a production A --+ a, one defines
hyper-elliptic curves, where the phase variables blow up;
J.l(A --+ a) = {A' --+ a': A' E J.l(A) and a' E J.l(a)}.
see also [5]. An elementary algebraic mapping trans-
forms the Goryachev-Chaplygin equations into equa- A grammar G' = (V"(,, V~, S', P') is an interpretation
tions closely related to the 3-body Toda lattice. A Lax of a grammar G = (VN' VT , S, P) modulo J.l, denoted by
pair is given in [2]: G' <l G (mod J.l), where J.l is a dfl-substitution on V N , if
the following conditions are satisfied:
z - --
--(L 1 h- 1 + Lo + L 1 h)· = i) V,,(, = J.l(VN) , V~ = J.l(VT) and S' E J.l(S);
2
-1 h-
= [L_ 1 + Lo- --
+ Llh, -
Eo - Llh],
ii) P' <;;; J.l(P) = UpEPJ.l(p).
The grammar G is referred to as the master or form
where Lo and Ll are given by the (3 x 3) right-lower grammar, while G' is the image or interpretation gram-
corner of Lo and Ll and where mar. The grammar family and the grammatical (lan-
guage) family of G are defined by

G 'h~Xl)
-Y3
1
L - 1 =- 0 Q(G)={G':G'<lG (modJ.l) for someJ.l} ,
2
-Y2 + x§ £(G) = {L(G'): G' E Q(G)}.

C;' -;')
0 A language family £ is termed grammatical if £ =
Eo = ~X3
-X2 0 -X3
See also Kowalewski top.
References
[lJ BECHLIVANIDIS, C., AND MOERBEKE, P. VAN: 'The
Goryachev-Chaplygin top and the Toda lattice', Comm.
Math. Phys 110 (1987), 317-324.
[2J BOBENKo, A.I., AND KUZNETSOV, V.B.: 'Lax representation
and new formulae for the Goryachev-Chaplygin top', J. Phys.
A 21 (1988), 1999-2006.
[3J CHAPLYGIN, S.A.: 'A new case of rotation of a rigid body, sup-
ported at one point': Collected works, Vol. I, Gostekhizdat,
1948, pp. 118-124. (In Russian.)
[4J GORYACHEV, D.: 'On the motion of a rigid material body
about a fixed point in the case A = B = C', Mat. Sb. 21
(1900). (In Russian.)
[5J PIOVAN, L.: 'Cyclic coverings of Abelian varieties and the
Goryachev-Chaplygin top', Math. Ann. 294 (1992),755-764.
P. van Moerbeke
MSC 1991: 58F07
GRAMMAR FORM - A (phrase-structure) gram-
mar (cf. also Grammar system) G = (VN' VT , S, P),
viewed as a source of structurally similar grammars. (See
Formal languages and automata.) The languages
generated by the latter grammars give rise to a fam-
ily £( G) of languages. (See also Abstract family of
languages.) Grammars viewed in this fashion, as gen-
erators of structurally similar grammars and their lan-
guages, are referred to as grammar forms.
Let VI and V2 be alphabets. A disjoint-finite-letter
substitution ( dfi-substitution) is a mapping J.l of VI
into the set of non-empty subsets of V2 such that
£(G), for some G. Two grammars are form equivalent if
their language families coincide. They are strongly form-
equivalent if their grammar families coincide.
Operationally one obtains an interpretation gram-
mar by mapping terminals and non-terminals of the
form grammar into disjoint sets of terminals and non-
terminals, respectively, then extending the mapping to
concern productions and, finally, taking a subset of the
resulting production set. The last-mentioned point is es-
pecially important: great flexibility results because it is
possible to omit productions.
A grammar is said to be a grammar form if it is
used within the framework of interpretations. There is
no difference between a grammar and a grammar form
as constructs.
Strong form equivalence is decidable, whereas form
equivalence is undecidable even for context-free gram-
mar forms. To characterize the grammar forms giving
rise to a specific language family, e.g., the family of
context-free languages, is equivalent to characterizing all
possible normal forms for the corresponding grammars,
e.g., all possible normal forms for context-free gram-
mars. (For further details, see [4]. [1] and [2] represent
early developments.)
In spite of the discrete framework of formal lan-
guages, grammatical families possess remarkable density
properties. For instance, if £1 is a grammatical family
containing all regular languages and £2 is a grammatical
family such that £1 c £2, then there is a grammatical
family £3 with the property £1 C £3 C £2. (See [6], [3],
[4], and [5] for a connection with graph colouring.) A

272

theory analogous to grammar forms has been developed
also for parallel rewriting. (See L-systems, [4].)
References
[1] CREMERS, A.B., AND GINSBURG, S.: 'Context-free grammar
forms', J. Comput. System Sci. 11 (1975),86-116.
[2] MAURER, H.A., PENTTONEN, M., SALOMAA, A., AND WOOD,
D.: 'On non context-free grammar forms', Math. Systems Th.
12 (1979), 297-324.
[3] NIEMI, V.: 'Density of grammar forms, I; II', Internat. J.
Comput. Math. 20 (1986),3-21; 91-114.
[4] PAUN, GR., AND SALOMAA, A.: 'Families generated by gram-
mars and L systems', in G. ROZENBERG AND A. SALOMAA
(eds.): Handbook of Formal Languages, Vol. 1, Springer, 1997,
pp. 811-861.
[5] SALOMAA, A.: 'On color-families of graphs', Ann. Acad. Sci.
Fennicae AI6 (1981), 135-148.
[6] SALOMAA, A., MAURER, H.A., AND WOOD, D.: 'Dense hier-
archies of grammatical families', J. Assoc. Comput. Mach.
29 (1982), 118-126.
A. Mateescu
A. Salomaa
MSC 1991: 68Q45, 68Q50, 03D05
GRAMMAR SYSTEM - The theory of grammar sys-
tems is a recent branch of formal language theory (cf.
Formal languages and automata) aimed at model-
ing distributed computing (more generally, architectures
occurring in multi-agent systems).
Roughly speaking, a grammar system consists of sev-
eral grammars which work together, in a well speci-
fied way, and generate a unique language (contrast this
with the classic case of formal language theory where
one grammar/automaton generates/recognizes one lan-
guage). The main focus is not on the generative power
of such devices, but on the influence of the cooperation
protocol on the power, the complexity, and the proper-
ties of grammar systems and of the generated languages.
There are two basic classes of grammar systems: se-
quential grammar systems and parallel grammar sys-
tems.
Of the first type are the cooperating distributed gram-
mar systems (CD grammar systems), introduced in [1],
with motivations from the blackboard model in problem
solving: several grammars work together on the same
sentential form; at each moment one grammar only is
active; the sequence of active grammars, the start/stop
conditions for each grammar enabling, are specified by
the cooperation protocol. The language generated by the
system consists of all terminal strings generated in this
way.
In parallel communicating grammar systems (PC
grammar systems), introduced in [8], several grammars
work simultaneously, synchronously, each one on its sen-
tential form; at each time unit each grammar uses a
rewriting rule. The component grammars communicate
on request or by command. In the first case, special
GRAMMAR SYSTEM
query symbols are considered, associated in a one-to-
one manner with the system components. When a query
symbol Qi is introduced by a component j, then the
current sentential form of the component i is commu-
nicated to the component j, where it replaces the oc-
currence(s) of the symbol Qi in the sentential form of
the component j. The language generated in this way
by a specified component of the system (the master) is
the language of the system. In the case of parallel com-
municating grammar systems with communication by
command, the communication is started by the senders,
as in the WAVE paradigm of communication in parallel
computing; the communicated strings are accepted by
the receivers only when these strings fit certain patterns
associated with the components of the system (these
types of parallel communicating grammar systems were
introduced in [4]).
A series of classes of CD and PC grammar systems
can be considered, depending on the cooperation proto-
col, additional controlling mechanisms, the communica-
tion protocol, the type of the components, etc.
In general, the power of a grammar system is larger
than the power of the grammars (of the type) used as
components. For instance, PC grammar systems with
regular components can generate non-context-free lan-
guages, PC grammar systems with context-free compo-
nents used in a left-most manner characterize the recur-
sively enumerable languages, etc.
Details can be found in [2] and [5]. As applications
one can consider the so-called eco-grammar systems [3]
and the distributed 'test tube systems' in DNA comput-
ing, see [6], [7].
References
[1] CSURAJ-VARJU, E., AND DASSOW, J.: 'On cooperating dis-
tributed grammar systems', J. Inform. Process. Cybern.,
ElK 26 (1990), 49-63.
[2] CSUHAJ-VARJU, E., DASSOW, J., KELEMEN, J., AND PAUN,
GR.: Grammar systems. A grammatical approach to distri-
bution and cooperation, Gordon&Breach, 1994.
[3] CSURAJ-VARJU, E., KELEMEN, J., KELEMENOVA, A., AND
PAUN, GR.: 'Eco-grammar systems: a framework for studying
life-like interactions', Artificial Life 3, no. 1 (1997), 1-28.
[4] CSURAJ-VARJU, E., KELEMEN, J., AND PAUN, GR.: 'Grammar
systems with WAVE-like communication', Computers and AI
15, no. 4 (1996), 419-436.
[5] DASSOW, J., PAUN, GR., AND ROZENBERG, G.: 'Grammarsys-
terns', in G. ROZENBERG AND A. SALOMAA (eds.): Handbook
of Formal Languages, Springer, 1996.
[6] PAUN, GR.: 'Five (plus two) universal DNA computing mod-
els based on the splicing operation': Second Ann. Meeting on
DNA Based Computers, Princeton Univ. Press, 1996, pp. 67-
86.
[7] PAUN, GR., AND SALOMAA, A.: 'DNA computing based on
the splicing operation', Math. Japon. 43 (1996),607-632.
[8] PAUN, GR., AND SANTEAN (NOW KARl), L.: 'Parallel com-
municating grammar systems: the regular case', Ann. Univ.
Buc., Mat.-Inform. Series 38 (1989),55-63.
273
GRAMMAR SYSTEM
Gh. Paun
MSC 1991: 68Q45, 68Q50, 68Q10
GRAY CODE - Let En denote the set of all N = 2n
binary strings of length n. A Gray code of order n is a
sequence Bo, ... , B N - 1 of elements of En in which every
successive pair (B i , B i +1) of bitstrings differs by one bit
in some position; the bits in all other positions agree. A
cyclic Gray code is one in which Bo and B N -1 also differ
by one bit. These bitstrings can also be thought of as
the characteristic vectors of subsets of {1, . . . , n}. The
hypercube of order n (or n-cube) is the graph whose ver-
tex set is En and whose edge set consists of those pairs
of vertices that differ by one bit. Thus, a Gray code
is a Hamilton path (cf. Graph circuit) on the n-cube
and a cyclic Gray code is a Hamilton cycle (cf. Graph
circuit) on the n-cube.
Origins and uses. The term 'Gray code' comes from
F. Gray, who worked as an engineer at Bell Labora-
tories, and who, in 1953, obtained US patent 2,632,058
for 'pulse code communication'. The patent contained
a construction which has come be known as the binary
reflected Gray code (BRG code), after the recursive con-
struction rule given below for n > o.
C(n) = C(n - 1) ·00 C(n - 1) . 1. (1)
If n = 0, then C(n) = c:, the empty string. There
are three operations. The dot operation .c . x, for a
list .c, gives the list consisting of every string in .c
appended with the symbol x. The concatenation op-
eration .c 1 0 .c 2 gives the list .c 1 followed by the list
.c 2 . By lone denotes the reversal of the list .c.
Thus C(l) = 0,1, C(2) = 00,10,11,01 and C(3) =
000,100,110,010,011,111,101,001.
There is a simple relation between the rth bi-
nary string (counting from 0) in the BRG code, call
it gn··· gl, and the binary representation of r =
(b n - 1 ••• bah. For i = 1, ... , n,
where the EEl is the exclusive-or operation.
Connections and variations. The BRG code can be used
in solving the Chinese rings puzzle and the towers of
Hanoi puzzle, both of which predate Gray's patent [1].
In practice, variants of the BRG code are often required.
Uniform Gray codes refer to those that have, at least ap-
proximately, the same number of bit changes occurring
in each position. A monotone Gray code has the prop-
erty that all strings with k ones appear before any with
k + 2 ones [6].
Combinatorial Gray codes. The Gray code concept
has been extended from subsets to many other types
274
of combinatorial objects. The concept of a combinato-
rial Gray code is not precisely defined, but the two cru-
cial ideas are that each object is listed exactly once and
successive objects differ in some small prescribed way.
Combinatorial Gray codes are useful because they often
lead to efficient algorithms for generating (i.e., listing)
the objects. Some of the more important combinatorial
Gray codes are as follows.
Combinations, partitions, permutations, and other ob-
jects. Represent combinations (cf. Combination) by
their characteristic vectors; i.e., the k-combinations of
an n-set are represented by those strings in En that have
exactly k ones. For combinations, a rule analogous to
(1) may be given, for 0 < k < n. The result is a Gray
code in which each string differs from its predecessor by
transposition of two bits:
C(n, k) = C(n - 1, k) ·00 C(n - 1, k - 1) . 1.
This list gives rise to what is known as a revolving door
algorithm; one element leaves the set and another ele-
ment enters the set [2].
For permutations (cf. Permutation) a Gray code is
known in which successive permutations differ only by
transposition of two adjacent elements. It is a recursive
construction in which n sweeps back and forth through
the list of permutations of 1, ... , n -1. This Gray code is
usually attributed to S.M. Johnson and H.F. Trotter [4],
but was known much earlier by experts in campanology
(which is the study of bells and bell ringing).
A Gray code is known for the linear extensions of
partially ordered sets in which each extension differs by
one or two transpositions of adjacent poset elements [3].
For set partitions, Gray codes are known in which
successive partitions differ only by an element moving
from some block to some other block. For numerical par-
titions, a Gray code is known in which successive par-
titions differ by one part increasing by one and another
part decreasing by one [5].
Many combinatorial Gray codes can be viewed as
Hamilton cycles in vertex-transitive graphs, particularly
Cayley graphs (cf. also Graph; Graph circuit) [7]. The
Gray code for permutations gives a Hamilton cycle on a
Cayley graph known as the permutohedron.
References
[1] HEATH, F.G.: 'Origins of the binary code', Scientific Ameri-
can 227 (1972), 76-83.
[2] NIJENHUIS, A., AND WILF, H.S.: Combinatorial algorithms,
second ed., Acad. Press, 1978.
[3] PRUESSE, G., AND RUSKEY, F.: 'Generating linear extensions
fast', SIAM J. Computing 23 (1994),373-386.
[4] REINGOLD, E.M., NIEVERGELT, J., AND DEO, N.: Combina-
torial algorithms: Theory and pmctice, Prentice-Hall, 1977.
[5] SAVAGE, C.D.: 'Gray code sequences of partitions', J. Algo-
rithms 10 (1989), 577-595.

[6] SAVAGE, C.D., AND WINKLER, P.: 'Monotone Gray codes and
the middle two levels problem', J. Combinatorial Th. A 70
(1995).
[7] WITTE, D., AND GALLIAN, J.A.: 'A survey: Hamiltonian cy-
cles in Cayley graphs', Discrete Math. 51 (1984), 293-304.
F. Ruskey
MSC 1991: 94B60, 05C45, 68Rxx, 68Pxx
GREEDY ALGORITHM, steepest ascent algorithm,
steepest descent algorithm, myopic algorithm - An algo-
rithm that at every step selects the best choice available
at that time without regard to possible future conse-
quences. This is an idea that is used as a heuristic, but
there are cases where the greedy algorithm gives an op-
timal solution, e.g., in the Kruskal algorithm and in the
Prim algorithm for finding a minimum spanning tree in
a network. The Prim algorithm works as follows. Start
with any node and connect it to the node nearest to it.
Given a connected set of nodes, take the unconnected
node that is nearest to one in the connected set, and use
that edge. Continue until all nodes are connected. Ties
are broken arbitrarily.
The Kruskal algorithm uses similar ideas. See [1] for
more details and for the justification of such methods.
For maximizing a set function, the greedy algorithm
works as follows. Let v( Q) be a real-valued function de-
fined on all subsets Q of {I, ... ,n} and consider the
problem maxv(Q).
Take QO = 0, t = 1, as a start.
At stage t, consider max v( Qt-l U {j}) and choose
any jt E {I,..., n} that realizes this maximum; if
v( Qt-l U {jd) :::; v( Qt-l) stop; Qt-l is the greedy solu-
tion; if v( Qt-l U {jd) > v( Qt-l), set Qt = Qt-l U {jd.
The famous Dijkstra algorithm for shortest paths in
networks is also of greedy type.
See [3] for an analysis of the greedy algorithm as ap-
plied to knapsack-type problems.
The greedy algorithm can be used to characterize ma-
troids (see Matroid).
A combinatorial structure that generalizes matroids
(as well as anti-matroids) and also closely linked to the
greedy algorithm is that of a greedoid (whence the some-
what less than euphonious name), which deals with or-
dered rather than unstructured sets (which is the case
of matroids).
References
[1] KORTE, B., LOVASZ, L., AND SCHRUDER, R.: Greedoids,
Springer, 1991.
[2] PAPADIMITRIOU, C.H., AND STEIGLITZ, K.: Combinatorialop-
timization, Prentice-Hall, 1982.
[3] WALUKIEWICZ, S.: Integer programming, Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1991.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 90C27
GROBNER BASIS
GREENE-KLEITMAN THEOREM - Dilworth's
theorem [1] states that in a finite partially ordered set
the maximal size of an independent set (i.e., a set of mu-
tually incomparable elements) is equal to the minimal
number of chains needed to cover the partially ordered
set (a chain is a set of mutually comparable elements).
C. Greene and D.J. Kleitman asked what happens
if in the statement of this theorem the notion of an
'independent set' is replaced by the more general no-
tion of 'union of k-independent sets', also called a k-
independent set. Suppose that A b ... ,Ak are inde-
pendent sets. If C = {Cl , ... , C m } is a partition of
the graph into chains, then each C i meets UjSkAj
in at most min(ICil,k) points. Hence IUjSkAjl <
Li<m min(ICil, k) (the right-hand side of this inequality
is called the k-norm of C). The analogue of Dilworth's
theorem, which is the Greene-Kleitman theorem [4], is
that this trivial bound can, in fact, be attained: The
maximal size of a k-independent set in a partially or-
dered set is the minimal k-norm of a partition of the
partially ordered set into chains.
Dilworth's theorem has an easy 'dual' version: In any
partially ordered set the minimal number of indepen-
dent sets needed to cover all vertices is equal to the
maximal size of a chain in the partially ordered set (just
take the covering system of independent sets to be the
levels of the partially ordered set, where a level is the set
of all vertices of a given height). This theorem, too, has
a 'k-analogue', proven by Greene [3]. Let a k-chain be
defined as a union of k chains, and take the k-norm of a
partition P of the partially ordered set into independent
sets II, ... ,1m to be LjSmmin(IIjl,k).
Then (Greene's theorem): The maximal size of a k-
chain is equal to the minimal k-norm of a partition into
independent sets.
An elegant proof for both these results simultaneously
is given in [2].
References
[1] DILWORTH, R.P.: 'A decomposition theorem for partially or-
dered sets', Ann. of Math. 51 (1950), 161-166.
[2] FRANK, A.: 'On chain and antichain families of a partially
ordered set', J. Combin. Th. Ser. B 29 (1980), 176-184.
[3] GREENE, C.: 'Some partitions associated with a partially or-
dered set', J. Combin. Th. Ser. A 20 (1976),69-79.
[4] GREENE, C., AND KLEITMAN, D.J.: 'The structure of Sperner
k-families', J. Combin. Th. Ser. A 20 (1976),41-68.
R. Aharoni
MSC 1991: 06A07
GROBNER BASIS - Grabner bases are certain sets
of multivariate polynomials with field coefficients. The
importance of Grabner bases stems from the fact that
i) many fundamental problems in algebraic geom-
etry (commutative algebra, polynomial ideal theory)
275
GROBNER BASIS
can be reduced by structurally easy algorithms to the
construction of Grabner bases; and
ii) there exists an algorithm by which for any given
(finite) set F of multivariate polynomials a Grabner ba-
sis G is constructed such that F and G generate the
same polynomial ideal. (This implies, in particular, that,
conceived as algebraic sets of equations, F and G have
the same set of solutions.)
Thus, Grabner bases establish a uniform approach to the
algorithmic solution of quite a few fundamental prob-
lems in algebraic geometry. New applications of Grabner
bases are discovered permanently. Also, the method of
Grabner bases has been carried over to domains other
than polynomials over fields, e.g. polynomials with coef-
ficients in certain rings, non-commutative polynomials,
polynomial modules, and differential algebras. The al-
gorithm that constructs Grabner bases, various subalgo-
rithms necessary for the construction of Grabner bases,
and various applications of Grabner bases are routinely
available in all modern mathematical software systems,
as for example Mathematica and Maple.
A set F of polynomials in K[XI, ... , xn], the polyno-
mial ring over a field K with indeterminates Xl, ... ,X n ,
is called a Grabner basis if and only if all polynomials
p in the ideal generated by F can be reduced to 0 with
respect to F.
This definition involves the notion of 'reduction',
which can be conceived as a generalized division for mul-
tivariate polynomials. For example, let
p = xy2 - 2xy + X
and
f = xy - 4x.
Then p can be reduced, in one reduction step, with re-
spect to f by subtracting yf from p, yielding a new
polynomial ql:
ql =P- yf = 2xy + x.
Note that, by the reduction, the power product xy2 oc-
curring in p is replaced by 'smaller' power products. In
fact, a large class of total orderings -< on power products
can be used in the Grabner-bases approach for defining
the notion of 'smaller'. In the example, the polynomial
ql can be reduced further with respect to f by subtract-
ing 2f, yielding a new polynomial q2:
q2 = ql - 2f = 9x.
The polynomial q2 cannot be reduced further with re-
spect to f and is called a reduced form of p with respect
to f. A polynomial p is reducible with respect to a set
F of polynomials if it is reducible with respect to some
f E F.
276
Grabner bases F can be characterized in many other
ways, for example by saying that the above reduction
relation with respect to F has the Church-Rosser prop-
erty, i.e. reduced forms are unique. The most important
characterization of Grabner bases is the content of the
following main theorem: F is a Grabner basis if and
only if, for all f, g E F, the S-polynomial SP(j, g) can
be reduced to 0 with respect to F.
The S -polynomial S P(j, g) of two polynomials f and
g (without loss of generality, f and g are taken to have
leading coefficient 1) is defined as follows:
SP(j, g) = uf - vg,
where
LCM(LP(j), LP(g))
u=
LP(j)
and
LCM(LP(j), LP(g))
v=
LP(g)
Here, LP(p) denotes the leading power product of the
polynomial p, i.e. the power product in p which is max-
imal with respect to the total ordering -< and LCM de-
notes the least common multiple.
The above theorem is the crucial handle for con-
structing, for any given (finite) set F of polynomials,
a corresponding Grabner basis G, i.e. a Grabner ba-
sis G that generates the same ideal as F: One first
checks whether the condition formulated in the main
theorem holds for F. If this is the case, F is already
a Grabner basis. If, however, the reduction of any of
the S-polynomials yields a polynomial h -I 0, then h is
added to the basis, new S-polynomials must be consid-
ered, etc., until the algorithm terminates. Termination
of this algorithm can be proved by an invocation of ei-
ther Hilbert's basis theorem (cf. Hilbert theorem) or
Dickson's lemma. By the above main theorem, whose
proof is combinatorial, it is easy to see that the result-
ing basis is a Grabner basis corresponding to the initial
set F.
Important applications of Grabner bases are: exact
and complete solution of algebraic systems of equations,
analysis of algebraic varieties, computation of Hilbert
functions and Hilbert polynomials, complete solution
of linear Diophantine systems of equations with poly-
nomial coefficients, effective computation in polynomial
residue class rings, structural analysis of hypercomplex
systems, automated geometrical theorem proving, im-
plicitization of parameter representations of manifolds,
solution of various problems in invariant theory and in-
teger programming, and solution of word problems in
commutative semi-groups.
The notion of a Grabner basis, the main theorem,
the algorithm based on the main theorem and some of

the applications were introduced in [2]. An easy-to-read
summary of the theory is [3]. The most comprehensive
textbook on the subject is [1].
References
[IJ BECKER, TH., WEISPFENNING, V., AND KREDEL, H.: Grabner
bases: a computational approach to commutative algebra,
Springer, 1993.
[2J BUCHBERGER, B.: 'An algorithmic criterion for the solvabil-
ity of algebraic systems of equations', Aequationes Math. 4
(1965),374-383, This paper is a published version of the au-
thor's PhD Thesis (Innsbruck, 1965) under the advice of Prof.
W. Grabner.
[3J BUCHBERGER, B.: 'Grabner bases: an algorithmic method in
polynomial ideal theory', in N.K. BOSE (ed.): Recent Trends
in Multidimensional Systems Theory, Reidel, 1985, pp. 184-
232.
B. Buchberger
MSC 1991: 13P10, 68Q40
GROMOV HYPERBOLIC SPACE, hyperbolic space
in the sense of Gromov - This notion provides a uni-
form 'global' approach to such objects as the hyper-
bolic plane, simply-connected Riemannian manifolds
with pinched negative sectional curvature, CAT( -1)-
spaces, and metric trees. Various 'hyperbolic properties'
introduced earlier (mostly in the context of group the-
ory) [8]' [5], [1] were summed up and further developed
by M. Gromov in his seminal paper [6]. More detailed
expositions of (some parts of) Gromov's work can be
found in [4] and [3].
If (X, d) is a metric space, then the Gromov product
of two points x, y E X with respect to a reference point
o E X is defined as
1
(x·Y)o = "2 [d(o,x) + d(o,y) - d(x,y)]
(when X is a tree, this product coincides with the con-
fluent of x and y, i.e., the length of the common part of
the geodesic segments [0, x] and [0, yJ). The space X is
called 15 -hyperbolic (with a constant 15 :::: 0) if the Gro-
mov product satisfies the t5-ultmmetric inequality
for any 4 points 0, x, y, z E X. If X is t5-hyperbolic for
some 15 :::: 0, it is called Gromov hyperbolic. Any metric
tree is O-hyperbolic, and, conversely, any O-hyperbolic
space isometrically imbeds into a tree. For Cartan-
Hadamard manifolds, hyperbolicity is equivalent to the
strong visibility property [7].
Often one adds to the definition of Gromov hyper-
bolicity the following two requirements: 1) X is geodesic
(cf. also Geodesic manifold), i.e., any two points in
X can be joined by a path (a geodesic) whose length
coincides with the distance between these points; and
2) X is proper, i.e., all metric balls in X are compact.
Then hyperbolicity is equivalent to the following thin
GROMOV HYPERBOLIC SPACE
triangles condition: there exists a constant 15' such that
for any geodesic triangle in X one can choose a point
on each of the sides of the triangle in such a way that
the pairwise distances between these 3 points are all not
greater than 15'.
Yet another definition of hyperbolicity can be given
in terms of exponential divergence of geodesic mys in X,
cf. [2].
A sequence (x n ) in X is called convergent if
(xn.x m ) -+ 00. The hyperbolic boundary oX of a hyper-
bolic space X is defined as the set of equivalence classes
of convergent sequences with respect to the equivalence
relation (x n ) '" (Yn) {:} (xn.Ym) -+ 00. Any geodesic
ray in X is convergent, and, conversely, for any class
'Y E oX and any point x there exists a geodesic ray (not
necessarily unique!) joining x and 'Y, i.e., starting from
;T and belonging to the class 'Y. Equivalently, oX can
be defined as the set of asymptotic classes of geodesic
rays, with two rays being asymptotic if they are within
bounded distance from each other.
The hyperbolic boundary is the boundary of the hy-
perbolic compactijication of X. For trees the hyperbolic
compactification coincides with the end compactijica-
tion, and for hyperbolic Cart an-Hadamard manifolds
with the visibility compactijication. The Gromov prod-
uct naturally extends to oX, and e-€(-Yl./2), for suffi-
ciently small f > 0, is uniformly equivalent to a metric
on oX.
Hyperbolicity of a metric space X is determined by its
'global' structure only. If (X, d) and (X', d') are two met-
ric spaces such that there exist mappings f: X -+ X'
and 1': X' -+ X and a constant C > 0 with the property
that d'(J(x), f(y)) :s; Cd(x, y) + C and d(J'(J(x)), x) :s;
C for all x, y E X, and d(J'(x'), l' (y')) :s; Cd' (x', y') + C
and d'(J(J'(x')),x') :s; C for all x',y' E X' (such metric
spaces are called roughly isometric), then X and X' are
hyperbolic simultaneously, and the hyperbolic bound-
aries oX and oX' are homeomorphic.
Isometries of hyperbolic spaces can be classified into
elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic ones in the same way
as isometries of the usual hyperbolic plane. An impor-
tant class of hyperbolic spaces is provided by finitely
generated groups whose Cayley graphs are Gromov hy-
perbolic spaces (such groups are called word hyperbolic).
See also Hyperbolic group.
References
[lJ CANNON, J.: 'The combinatorial structure of co compact dis-
crete hyperbolic groups', Geom. Dedicata 16 (1984), 123-
148.
[2J CANNON, J.: 'The theory of negatively curved spaces and
groups', in T. BEDFORD, M. KEANE, AND C. SERIES (eds.):
Ergodic Theory, Symbolic Dynamics and Hyperbolic Spaces,
Oxford Univ. Press, 1991, pp. 315-369.
277
GROMOV HYPERBOLIC SPACE
[3] COORNAERT, M., DELZANT, T., AND PAPADOPOULOS, A.:
Geometrie et theorie des groupes, Vol. 1441 of Lecture
Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1990.
[4] GHYS, E., AND HARPE, P. DE LA (eds.): Sur les groupes hy-
perboliques d'apres Mikhael Gromov, Vol. 83 of Progress in
Maths., Birkhauser, 1990.
[5] GROMOV, M.: 'Infinite groups as geometric objects': Proc.
Int. Congress Math. Warszawa, 1983, Vol. 1, 1984, pp. 385~
391.
[6] GROMOV, M.: 'Hyperbolic groups', in S.M. GERSTEN (ed.):
Essays in Group Theory, Vol. 8 of MSRI Publ., Springer,
1987, pp. 75~263.
[7] KAIMANOVICH, V.A.: 'Ergodicity of harmonic invariant mea-
sures for the geodesic flow on hyperbolic spaces', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 455 (1994), 57~103.
[8] RIPS, E.: 'Subgroups ofsmall cancellation groups', Bull. Lon-
don Math. Soc. 14 (1982), 45~47.
V.A. Kaimanovich
MSC 1991: 53C99
GROTHENDIECK SPACE - A Banach space X
with the property that for all separable Banach spaces
Y (cf. Separable space), every bounded linear oper-
ator T from X to Y is weakly compact (i.e., T sends
bounded subsets of X into weakly compact subsets of
Y).
The above property is equivalent to each of the fol-
lowing assertions (see [4], [5], [9]).
1) Every weak-* convergent sequence m the dual
space X* of X is weakly convergent.
2) Every bounded linear operator T from X to Co is
weakly compact.
3) For all Banach spaces Y such that y* has a weak-
* sequentially compact unit ball, every bounded linear
operator from X to Y is weakly compact.
4) For all weakly compactly generated Banach spaces
Y (i.e., Y is the closed linear span of a relatively weakly
compact set), every bounded linear operator from X to
Y is weakly compact.
5) For an arbitrary Banach space Y, the limit of any
weakly convergent sequence of weakly compact opera-
tors from X to Y is also a weakly compact operator.
6) For any Banach space Y, the limit of any strongly
convergent sequence of weakly compact operators from
X to Y is also a weakly compact operator.
Hence, besides the definition given at the beginning,
either 1) or 2) can also be used as the definition of a
Grothendieck space. Quotient spaces and complemented
subspaces of a Grothendieck space are also Grothendieck
spaces.
Reflexive Banach spaces are obvious examples of
Grothendieck spaces (cf. Reflexive space). Every sep-
arable quotient space of a Grothendieck space is nec-
essarily reflexive. The first non-trivial example of a
Grothendieck space is the space C(O) of continuous
278
functions on a compact Stonean space 0 (i.e., a com-
pact Hausdorff space in which each open set has an
open closure) [6].
Other examples of Grothendieck spaces are: C(O),
where 0 is a compact (J-Stonean space (each open Fu-set
has an open closure) or a compact F -space (any two dis-
joint open Fu-sets have disjoint closures) (see [1], [10]);
£00(/1), where /1 is a positive measure; B(S, E), where E
is a (J-algebra of subsets of S; injective Banach spaces;
the Hardy space HOO(D) of all bounded analytic func-
tions on the open unit disc D [2]; and von Neumann
algebras [8].
A uniformly bounded Co-semi-group of operators (cf.
Semi-group of operators) on a Grothendieck space
is strongly ergodic if and only if the weak-* closure
and the strong closure of the range of the dual op-
erator of the generator A coincide [11]. If C(K) is a
Grothendieck space, then every sequence {Tn} of con-
tractions on C(K) which converges to the identity in
the strong operator topology actually converges in the
uniform operator topology (see [3], [7]). In particular,
this implies equivalence of strong continuity and uniform
continuity for contraction Co-semi-groups on C(K).
References
[1] ANDO, T.: 'Convergent sequences of finitely additive mea-
sures', Pacific J. Math. 11 (1961), 395~404.
[2] BOURGAIN, J.: 'Hoo is a Grothendieck space', Studia Math.
75 (1983), 193~216.
[3] COULHON, TH.: 'Suites d'operateurs sur un espace C(K) de
Grothendieck', CR 298 (1984), 13~15.
[4] DIESTEL, J.: 'Grothendieck spaces and vector measures': Vec-
tor and Operator Valued Measures and Applications, Acad.
Press, 1973, pp. 97~108.
[5] DIESTEL, J., AND UHL, JR., J.J.: Vector measures, Vol. 15 of
Math. Surveys, Amer. Math. Soc., 1977.
[6] GROTHENDIECK, A.: 'Sur les applications lim\aires faiblement
compactes d'espaces du type C(K)', Canadian J. Math. 5
(1953), 129~173.
[7] LOTZ, H.P.: 'Uniform convergence of operators on LOO and
similar spaces', Math. Z. 190 (1985), 207~220.
[8] PFITZNER, H.: 'Weak compactness in the dual of a CO-algebra
is determined commutatively', Math. Ann. 298 (1994), 349~
371.
[9] RABIGER, F.: 'Beitrage zur Strukturtheorie der
Grothendieck-Raume', Sitzungsber. Heidelberger Akad.
Wissenschaft. Math.-Naturwiss. KI. Abh. 4 (1985).
[10] SEEVER, G. L.: 'Measures on F-spaces', Trans. Amer. Math.
Soc. 133 (1968), 267~280.
[11] SHAW, S.-Y.: 'Ergodic theorems for semigroups of operators
on a Grothendieck space', Proc. Japan Acad. 59 (A) (1983),
132~135.
S.-Y. Shaw
MSC 1991: 46B20, 47B07
GROUP COMPLETION THEOREM in algebraic
topology - Let M be a topological monoid and BM
its classifying space. Let M --t OBM be the canonical

mapping. Then H.(M) --+ H.(nBM) induces an iso-
morphism
This theorem plays an important role in K-theory.
References
[1] BARRAT, M.B., AND PRIDDY, S.B.: 'On the homology of
non-connected monoids and their associated groups', Comm.
Math. Helvetici 47 (1972), 1-14.
[2] JARDINE, J.F.: 'The homotopical foundations of algebraic K-
theory': Algebraic K-Theory and Algebraic Number Theory,
Vol. 83 of Contemp. Math., Amer. Math. Soc., 1989, pp. 57-
82.
[3] MAY, J.P.: Classifying spaces and fibrations, Vol. 155 of
Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1975.
[4] McDuFF, D., AND SEGAL, G.: 'Homology fibrations and the
group completion theorem', Invent. Math. 31 (1976), 279-
287.
[5] MOERDIJK, 1.: 'Bisimplicial sets and the group-completion
theorem': Algebraic K - Theory: Connections with Geometry
and Topology, Kluwer Acad. Publ., 1989, pp. 225-240.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 55R35, 19Dxx, 19Lxx
GROUP OF FINITE MORLEY RANK - A group
G such that the formula x = x has finite Morley rank
in the theory Th(G, .). (Cf. also Model theory.) Some-
times G appears as a definable group in a structure M
and in this context G is said to have finite Morley rank
if the formula defining G in M has finite Morley rank
with respect to the theory of M.
There is a well-developed theory of groups of fi-
nite Morley rank, both from the model-theoretic and
group-theoretic point of view. The theory began with
B.I. Zil'ber's study [4) of groups definable in uncount-
ably categorical structures. G. Cherlin's paper [2) also
played an important role in the early theory. Examples
of groups of finite Morley rank are algebraic groups over
GROUP OF FINITE MORLEY RANK
algebraically closed fields (cf. Algebraic group). The
Cherlin-Zil'ber conjecture says that any infinite non-
commutative simple group of finite Morley rank is an
algebraic group over an algebraically closed field. The
conjecture remains unproved (1996). A certain amount
of the theory of algebraic groups can be developed for
groups of finite Morley rank, specifically the notions of
generic type, connected component, and stabilizer. An-
other important technical tool is the Zil 'ber indecompos-
ability theorem, which states that if G is a group of finite
Morley rank and Xi, for i E I, is a family of definable
subsets of G satisfying some mild assumptions, then the
subgroup of G generated by all the Xi is definable and
connected. This is an analogue of the Borel theorem for
algebraic groups.
The relevance of groups of finite Morley rank for
model theory comes from a theorem of Zil 'ber which
states that if M is a model of an uncountably categori-
cal theory (cf. Categoricity in cardinality), then M
is built up from a set of Morley rank 1 by a finite se-
quence of 'definable fibre bundles'.
Much of the recent work on the Cherlin-Zil'ber con-
jecture is contained in [1).
A vast generalization of the theory of groups of finite
Morley rank is the theory of stable groups, due essen-
tially to B. Poizat [3).
References
[1] BOROVIK, A., AND NESIN, A.: Groups of finite Morley rank,
Oxford Univ. Press, 1994.
[2] CHERLIN, G.: 'Groups of small Morley rank', Ann. Math.
Logic 17 (1979), 1-28.
[3] POIZAT, B.: Groupes stables, Nur AI-Mantiq Wal-Ma'rifah,
Villeurbanne, 1987.
[4] ZIL'BER, B.I.: 'Groups and rings whose theory is categorical',
FUnd. Math. 55 (1977), 1730188.
A. Pillay
MSC 1991: 03C60
279
________ H________
HALASZ MEAN VALUE THEOREM ~ Considerable ii) If for some ao the series Sf (ao) is convergent, then,
interest has been devoted to the problem of obtain- as x -+ 00,
ing conditions for arithmetic functions (cf. Arithmetic
-1 . '~
" f (n) = cxwo
. .
function), in particular for multiplicative functions (cf. x
n:Sx
Multiplicative arithmetic function), that guarantee
the existence of a mean value
exp ( - ~~ (1 - Re(f(p )P-'"")})
M(f) lim ~
= x-too . ' " f(n).
x ~
n:5,x . exp(iA(x)) + 0(1),
A strong motivation for this interest was the famous
where A(x) = L: p :5,x lip· Im(f(p)p~iao).
Erdos~ Wintner conjecture (see [2]): Any multiplicative The unpleasant condition If I ::; 1 in the theorem was
function assuming only the values + 1 and -1 possesses (partly) removed, and remainder estimates were given,
a mean value. in, e.g., [4], [7], [8]. K.-H. Indlekofer [6] gave a version of
Around 1961, theorems of H. Delange (see Delange the theorem for the class of 'uniformly summable' multi-
theorem) and E. Wirsing (see Wirsing theorems) plicative functions. A uniformly summable multiplicative
gave a satisfactory answer for multiplicative functions function is a multiplicative function satisfying
with non-zero mean value. However, a general mean
value theorem, containing a proof of the prime num- Ilfllq = { lim ~ . ~ If(nw}llq <
x--too X
00,
ber theorem (cf. also de la Vallee-Poussin theorem) n:Sx
and of the Erdos~Wintner conjecture, was only given by and
Wirsing in 1967 (see [9]) and G. Halasz in 1968 (see [3]). 1
A simple form of Halasz' theorem reads as follows: If lim sup - . ~ If(n)1 = o.
K--toox>l X
f: N -+ C is a multiplicative function, If I ::; 1, then ~ n:5,x,lf(n)I:::O:K
there exist constants c E C, a E R, and a slowly oscil- In 1988, A. MaCiulis gave a version of Halasz' theorem
lating function L, satisfying ILl = 1, such that with remainder term. Elementary proofs of the Halasz
theorem were published in [1].
~ f(n) = c· x1+ia . L(logx) + o(x). References
n:5,x [1] DABODSSI, H., AND INDLEKOFER, K.-H.: 'Two elementary
proofs of Halasz's theorem', Math. Z. 209 (1992),43-52.
In particular, if f is real-valued, then a = 0, L = 1, [2] ERDOS, P.: 'Some unsolved problems', Michigan Math. J.4
and so M(f) exists. For the proof, Halasz used the clas- (1957), 291-300.
sical method of complex integration (cf. Contour in- [3] HALASZ, G.: 'Uber die Mittelwerte multiplikativer zahlen-
tegration, method of) in a very skilful way. theoretischer Funktionen', Acta Math. Acad. Sci. Hung. 19
(1968),365-403.
A more precise formulation (see [3, Satz 2]) is as fol-
[4] HALASZ, G.: 'On the distribution of additive and the mean
lows. Assume that f: N -+ C is multiplicative and that values of multiplicative arithmetic functions', Studia Sci.
If I ::; l. Math. Hung. 6 (1971), 211-233.
[5] HALASZ, G.: 'Remarks to my paper "On the distribution of
i) If the series Sf(a) = L: p lip· (1 - Re(f(p)p~ia)) additive and the mean values of multiplicative arithmetic
diverges for all a E R, then M(f) exists and is equal to functions"', Acta Math. Acad. Sci. Hung. 23 (1972), 425-
zero. 432.

[6] INDLEKOFER, K.-H.: 'Remark on a theorem of G. Halasz',
Archiv Math. 36 (1981), 145-151.
[7] PARSON, A., AND TULL, J.: 'Asymptotic behavior of multi-
plicative functions', J. Number Th. 10 (1978),395-420.
[8] TULJAGANOVA, M.l.: 'A generalization of a theorem of
Halasz', Izv. Akad. Nauk UzSSR 4 (1978), 35-40; 95. (In
Russian.)
[9] WIRSING, E.: 'Das asymptotische Verhalten von Summen
iiber multiplikative Funktionen, II', Acta Math. Acad. Sci.
Hung. 18 (1967), 414-467.
w. Schwarz
MSC 1991: llA25, llN37, llN56
HALIN GRAPH - In work dealing generally with
properties of minimal connectivity in graphs (cf.
Graph, connectivity of a), R. Halin [4J suggested the
following. construction: Let T be a finite tree having
no vertices of degree 2. Now, imbed T in the plane (cf.
Graph imbedding) and add edges to form a cycle,
C, through any and all of the degree-l vertices of T
and in such a way that the resulting graph G is planar
(cf. Graph, planar). Such structures are nowadays re-
ferred to as Halin graphs. Indeed, the construction just
described yields an example of a class of edge-minimal
planar 3-connected graphs. The graph shown below is
Halin.
Tree edges in bold
It is easy to check whether or not an arbitrary pla-
nar graph is Halin, since every planar 3-connected graph
is uniquely (up to the specification of the infinite face)
imbeddable in the plane. In fact, the naive approach
works in that one need only check whether the graph is
3-connected, then imbed it in the plane and look for a
face in the graph such that the edges defining the face, if
removed, leave a tree without degree-2 vertices. This rec-
ognizability attribute is relevant since it is known that
Halin graphs are contained in a so-called 3-terminal re-
cursive class. As shown in [3], this suffices to guarantee
linear-time algorithms for many otherwise hard graph
problems when instances are confined to Halin graphs
(e.g. vertex cover, dominating set, chromatic number,
minimum-maximal matching, etc.).
There are other interesting properties of Halin
graphs. First, all Halin graphs possess Hamiltonian cy-
cles. In fact, they are I-Hamiltonian in that they are
HALL POLYNOMIAL
Hamiltonian and if any vertex is removed, the result-
ing graph remains Hamiltonian [IJ. Even-order Halin
graphs are bicritical in that the deletion of any two ver-
tices leaves a graph that possesses a one-factor [6], and
HaHn graphs are 'almost pancyclic' in that for any such
graph of order n, every cycle of length 3 ~ t ~ n is
present with the possible exception of one of even length
[2J. Thus HaHn graphs are not bipartite (cf. Graph, bi-
partite).
HaHn graphs are class-l graphs in that their chro-
matic index is always exactly the same as the maximum
vertex degree in the graph [5J. Also, it is clear that a
HaHn graph may have more than one correct biparti-
tion of its edge set (yielding the desired cycle and tree).
Denoting these by {Tlo Cd, ... ,{Tk, Ck}; then, given
any pair of distinct cycles C i and C j , the Ti and T j are
isomorphic [5J.
While being a Halin graph is polynomially verifiable,
deciding if a given graph possesses a spanning subgraph
that is HaHn is NP-complete (cf. Complexity the-
ory). Similarly, deciding whether a graph is a subgraph
of some HaHn graph is also NP-complete, [5J.
References
[1] BONDY, J.A.: 'Pancyclic graphs: recent results': Infinite and
Finite Sets 1, Vol. 10 of Colloq. Math. Soc. Janos Bolyai,
North-Holland, 1975, pp. 181-187.
[2] BONDY, J.A., AND LOVASZ, L.: 'Length of cycles in Halin
graphs', J. Graph Th. 8 (1985),397-410.
[3] BORIE, R.B., PARKER, R.G., AND TOVEY, C.A.: 'Automatic
generation of linear-time algorithms from predicate calcu-
lus descriptions of problems on recursively constructed graph
families', Algorithmica 1 (1992), 555-581.
[4] HALIN, R.: 'Studies on minimally n-connected graphs', in
D.J.A. WELSH (ed.): Combinatorial Mathematics and Its Ap-
plications, Acad. Press, 1971, pp. 129-136.
[5] HORTON, S.B., PARKER, R.G., AND BORIE, R.B.: 'On some
results pertaining to Halin graphs', Congressus Numerantium
93 (1992), 65-87.
[6] LOVASZ, L., AND PLUMMER, M.D.: 'On a family of planar
bicritical graphs', Proc. London Math. Soc. 30 (1975), 160-
175.
R.G. Parker
MSC 1991: 05C99, 05C85, 05C45, 05C05
HALL POLYNOMIAL - Hall polynomials are Lie
polynomials obtained from elements of a given Hall set
(cf. Lie polynomial; Hall set). They furnish a basis of
the free Lie algebra (cf. Lie algebra, free) over a (finite
or infinite) set of generators {aI, a2, ... }. Elements of a
Hall set H may be seen as completely bracketed words
(or rooted planar binary trees with leaves labelled by
generators aI, a2, ... ; cf. also Binary tree). These are
defined recursively as brackets t = [t', t"J, where t', til
are bracketed words of lower weight; bracketed words of
weight one correspond to the generators alo a2, .... The
Hall polynomial associated with the Hall element t E H
281
HALL POLYNOMIAL
is then computed in the free associative ring (i.e. the
ring of polynomials with non-commuting indeterminates
{ al, a2, ... }) following the rule:
t if t = ai is a generator,
Pt = { Pt'Pt" - pt"Pt' ift = [t', t"] is a
bracketed word of weight> 2.
This basis of the free Lie algebra (cf. Lie algebra,
free) is called the Hall basis (corresponding to the given
Hall set). Sometimes this terminology is reserved for the
basis arising from the basic commutator Hall set (or its
left or right versions); cf. Hall set; Basic commuta-
tor.
A Hall set H is totally ordered, thus inducing a total
order on the set of polynomials {Pt : t E H}. One can
show that any non-commutative polynomial is a sum
of non-increasing products Pt1 ... Ptn of Hall polynomi-
als. This result is the well-known Poincani-Birkhoff-
Witt theorem for free Lie algebras (cf. also Lie alge-
bra, free). One can prove this result combinatorially by
first showing that any non-commutative polynomial is
a sum of non-increasing products Pt1 ... Pt" (with non-
negative integer coefficients). This is accomplished us-
ing rewriting techniques (cf. [3]); this idea is originally
present in [1]. A theorem stating that any word is a
unique non-increasing product of Hall words then im-
plies that these non-increasing products of Hall poly-
nomials form a basis of the free associative algebra.
It then follows that the set of Hall polynomials is lin-
early independent. In order to show that the set of Hall
polynomials generate the free Lie algebra, one shows
that the bracket [Ps , Pt ] = PsPt - PtPs of any two
Hall polynomials Ps , Pt is a sum of Hall polynomials
P u with u = [u',u"] and u" < sup(s,t). This result is
known as the Schiitzenberger lemma. Consequently, the
set {Pt : t E H} is a linear basis for the free Lie algebra
over {al,a2' ... }.
See also: Hall set; Hall word; Lie algebra, free;
Lie polynomial.
There is a second notion of Hall polynomial, intro-
duced by Philip Hall for studying the structure of finite
modules over a commutative discrete valuation ring (cf.
[2]), whereas the Hall polynomials as defined above are
usually attributed to Marshall Hall.
References
[1J HALL, M.: 'A basis for free Lie rings and higher commutators
in free groups', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 1 (1950), 57-58l.
[2J MACDoNALD, LG.: Symmetric functions and Hall polynomi-
als, second ed., Clarendon Press, 1995.
[3J REUTENAUER, C.: Free Lie algebras, Vol. 7 of London Math.
Soc. Monographs New Series, Oxford Univ. Press, 1993.
C. Melani;on
MSC 1991: 17B01
282
HALL SET - A Hall set over generators A =
{al, a2, ... } is a totally ordered subset H of the free
magma M(A), i.e. the free non-associative structure
over A (cf. also Associative rings and algebras). The
elements of M (A) correspond to completely bracketed
words over A (or rooted planar binary trees with leaves
labelled by generators al, a2, ... ; cf. also Binary tree).
These are defined recursively as brackets t = [t', t"],
where t', t" are bracketed words of lower weight; the
bracketed words of weight one correspond to the gen-
erators al, a2, ....
The total order < on H is required to satisfy the
condition:
Ho) for any t = [t',t"] E H, t < t".
Let H c M(A) be a totally ordered subset such that
condition Ho) is fulfilled. Then the set H is a Hall set if
and only if the following conditions are satisfied:
Hd AcH;
H 2 ) t = [t', t"] E H if and only if
H2.d t', t" E H with t' < t"; and
H 2 . 2 ) either t' E A or t' = [s', s"], and then s" 2: t".
This definition is from [4]. M. Hall's original definition
replaces condition Ho) by simply imposing that brack-
ets of lower weight be smaller with respect to <. Many
authors proposed generalizations of Hall's construction
by relaxing condition Ho) in many different ways. Vi-
ennot's definition acted as a unifying framework for the
various proposed generalizations; see [2] for details. Ob-
serve that the definition of a Hall set admits symmetries,
with respect to the order <; for instance, one could in-
vert the order < and write> instead. It must be noted,
however, that conditions Hd and H 2) must be coher-
ent; that is, the sequence of elements t", s", t' must ei-
ther be increasing (as is the case here) or decreasing.
Hence, there are four possible equivalent definitions for
Hall sets.
An example of a Hall set is the set of basic commu-
tators (cf. Basic commutator), the basic commutator
Hall set. It has the total order reversed with respect to
the definition above. Another symmetry involves writ-
ing bracketed words from right to left instead of from
left to right. For example, the 'Hall set' described in [1,
Sect. 2.10] arises from the basic commutator Hall set in
this way. Another Hall set can be defined using Lyndon
words (cf. Lyndon word).
Elements of a Hall set are used to obtain a basis of
the free Lie algebra over A (cf. Lie algebra, free; Hall
polynomial). X. Viennot [4] has shown that his defini-
tion not only gives a unifying framework but is also, in a
certain sense, optimal: Any subset H C M(A) satisfying
Hd and H 2 ), leading to a basis of the free Lie algebra,
must satisfy condition Ho).

Hall sets may be shown to coincide with Lazard sets
(cf. Lazard set). The combinatorics of Hall sets is also
studied in [2] and [3].
See also Hall word.
References
[1] BOURBAKI, N.: Groupes et algebres de Lie, Vol. II. Algebres
de Lie libres, Hermann, 1972.
[2] MELANgON, G.: 'Combinatorics of Hall trees and Hall words',
J. Gombin. Th. 59A, no. 2 (1992), 285-308.
[3] REUTENAUER, C.: Free Lie algebras, Vol. 7 of London Math.
Soc. Monographs New Series, Oxford Univ. Press, 1993.
[4] VIENNOT, X.: Algebres de Lie libres et mono2des libres,
Vol. 691 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1978.
G. Melanf;on
MSC 1991: 17B01
HALL WORD - Hall words are obtained from Hall
sets. A word is as sequence of letters (al,'" ,am), that
is, elements chosen from a set A called an alphabet. A
word is usually written as al ... am, or abbreviated by a
single symbol: u = al ... am. The length of u is equal to
the number of letters in u, i.e. m. One may concatenate
words u = al ... am, v = bl ... bn , and this operation is
concisely written as uv = al ... amb l ... bn .
The elements of a Hall set H can be viewed as com-
pletely bracketed words (or TOoted planar binary trees
with leaves labelled by generators al, a2,"'; cf. also Bi-
nary tree). These are defined recursively as brackets
t = [t', til], where t', til are bracketed words of lower
weight; bracketed words of weight one correspond to
the generators al, a2, . . .. Moreover, a Hall set comes
equipped with a total order "5. H (cf. also Order (on
a set)).
Let f(t) be the Hall word obtained from a Hall ele-
ment t. It is recursively defined as f(t) = a if t = a E A
reduces to a letter, and f(t) = f(t')f(t") if t = [t', til].
The total order on H induces a total order on the set
{f(t): t E H} of Hall words. These words form a com-
plete factorization; more precisely, any word w is a non-
increasing product of Hall words, w = f(tl)'" f(tm)
with tl ?H ... ?H t m ·
One particularly well-known example of complete fac-
torization is the Lyndon factorization. The elements of
this factorization are called Lyndon words (cf. Lyn-
don word). Although Lyndon words are obtained from
a particular Hall set, they may be directly defined as
words lexicographically less than any of their non-empty
proper right factors (cf. Lyndon word). They possess
many combinatorial properties. Almost all of these prop-
erties hold also for Hall words, with respect to an order
now defined.
The order "5.H on the set of Hall words is extended to
all words as follows. Let Wl, W2 be words with Hall fac-
torizations Wl = f(tt}··· f(tm), W2 = f(rt}··· f(rn).
HAM-SANDWICH THEOREM
Then one defines Wl <H W2 if either m < nand
tl = rl, ... ,tm = r m or there exists an i such that
1 "5. i "5. min(m, n) with tl = rl,'" ,ti-l = ri-l and
ti <H rio Incidentally, this order coincides with the lex-
icographic order when the set H is the Hall set from
which one obtains Lyndon words.
Hall words are words strictly less, with respect to
"5.H, than any of their non-empty proper right factors.
Equivalently, al'" am is a Hall word if it is strictly
less, with respect to "5.H, than any of the circular shifts
ai ... anal'" ai-l (i = 2, ... ,n). For more details, see
[2], [1].
See also Lazard set; Hall polynomial.
References
[1] MELANgON, G.: 'Combinatorics of Hall trees and Hall words',
J. Gombin. Th. 59A, no. 2 (1992), 285-308.
[2] VIENNOT, X.: Algebres de Lie libres et mono2des libres,
Vol. 691 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1978.
G. Melanf;on
MSC 1991: 17B01, 20M05
HAM-SANDWICH THEOREM - For any collection
of three solids in the three-dimensional space R 3 there
exists a plane L which simultaneously bisects all of
them, i.e. divides each of the solids into two halfs of
equal volume. In a popular form this result is stated as
the fact that it is possible to cut fairly an open ham-
sandwich consisting of two pieces of bread and a piece
of ham with a single straight cut. More generally, for a
collection of d measurable sets (mass distributions, finite
sets) in R d there exists a hyperplane H simultaneously
bisecting all of them.
The ham-sandwich theorem is a consequence of the
well-known Borsuk-Ulam theorem, which says that for
any continuous mapping f: Sd ~ R d from a d-
dimensional sphere Sd into R d, there exists a pair of
antipodal points {v, -v} C Sd such that f( -v) = f( v).
(Cf. also Antipodes.)
Other examples of combinatorial partitions of masses
include the 'centre-point theorem' and the related
'centre-transversal theorem', equi-partitions of masses
by higher-dimensional 'orthants', equi-partitions by con-
vex cones, partitions of lines and other geometric ob-
jects, etc.
The centre-point theorem says that for any measur-
able set in A C R d there exists a point x E R d such
that for any half-space P C Rd: if x E P then
1
vol(P n A) ? d + 1 vol(A).
The centre-transversal theorem, [5], is a generaliza-
tion of both the ham-sandwich and the centre-point the-
orem and it claims that for any collection A o, . .. ,A k ,
o "5. k "5. d - 1, of Lebesgue-measurable sets in Rd (cf.
also Lebesgue measure) there exists a k-dimensional
283
HAM-SANDWICH THEOREM
affine subspace D c R d such that for every closed half-
space P and every i: if D c P then
1 Iw(n) -loglognl ::::; 'l/J(n)Vloglogn.
J-t(Ainp) ~ d_k+1J-t(Ad.
An example of an equi-partition result into higher-
dimensional 'orthants' is as follows, [3]. Any measurable
set A C R 5 can be partitioned into 16 pieces of equal
measure by 4 hyperplanes.
The proofs of all these and other related results are
topological and use several forms of generalized Borsuk-
Ulam-type theorems, see [2], [4], [6].
The ham-sandwich theorem, together with other rel-
atives belonging to combinatorial (equi )partitions of
masses, has been often applied to problems of discrete
and computational geometry, see [5] for a survey.
See also Comitant.
References
[1] BJORNER, A.: 'Topological methods', in R. GRAHAM,
M. GROTSCHEL, AND L. LOVASZ (eds.): Handbook of Com-
binatorics, North-Holland, 1995.
[2] FADELL, E., AND HUSSEINI, S.: 'An ideal-valued cohomo-
logical index theory with applications to Borsuk-Ulam and
Bourgin-Yang theorems', Ergod. Th. fj Dynam. Sys. 8
(1988), 73-85.
[3] RAMOS, E.: 'Equipartitions of mass distributions, by hyper-
planes', Discr. and Camp. Geometry.
[4] STEINLEIN, H.: 'Borsuk's antipodal theorem and its gener-
alizations, and applications: a survey': Topological Methods
in Nonlinear Analysis, Vol. 95 of Sem. Math. Sup., Presses
Univ. Montreal, 1985, pp. 166-235.
[5] ZIVALJEVIC, R.T.: 'Topological methods', in J.E. GOODMAN
AND J. O'ROURKE (eds.): CRC Handbook of Discrete and
Combinatorial Geometry.
[6] ZIVALJEVIC, R.T.: User's guide to equivariant methods in
combinatorics, Inst. Math. Belgrade, 1996.
R. Zivaljevic
MSC 1991: 05A18, 51M25, 55M20
HAMILTONIAN TOUR, Hamiltonian circuit,
Hamiltonian cycle - See Graph circuit; Classical
combinatorial problems.
MSC 1991: 05C45
HARDY-RAMANUJAN THEOREM (on the nor-
mal number of prime factors of an integer) - For any
integer n ~ 2, let w(n) denote the number of distinct
prime factors of n. The Hardy-Ramanujan theorem [5]
states that the function w (n) has normal order log log n
in the sense that, given any E > 0, almost all positive
integers n satisfy
Iw(n) -loglognl ::::; doglogn.
Here, 'almost all' means that the number of positive in-
tegers n ::::; x for which the indicated property holds is
asymptotically equal to x as x -+ 00. A stronger, and
best-possible, version of this result shows that, given any
284
real-valued function 'l/J(n) tending to infinity as n -+ 00,
almost all positive integers n satisfy
The same estimate holds for the function f2(n), the total
number of prime factors of n, i.e., the number of prime
factors of n counted with multiplicity.
The Hardy-Ramanujan theorem led to the develop-
ment of probabilistic number theory, a branch of number
theory in which properties of integers are studied from
a probabilistic point of view (see [1] or [6] for a gen-
eral reference and also Number theory, probabilis-
tic methods in). One of the main theorems in this
area, and a far-reaching generalization of the Hardy-
Ramanujan theorem, is the Erdos-Kac theorem, which
states that the functions f == wand f == f2 (and, in
fact, a large class of additive functions f; cf. Additive
arithmetic function) satisfy
lim
x-+oo X
~# {n::::; x: f(n) ::::; loglogn + tVloglogn} =
= _1_
..j21r
Jt
-00
e- x2j2 dx (t E R).
This shows that the values of w(n) and f2(n) are, in
a sense, normally distributed with mean log log nand
standard deviation y'log log n (cf. also Normal distri-
bution).
Another generalization of the Hardy-Ramanujan the-
orem, due to P. Erdos ([2]; see also [4, Chapt. 1]), de-
scribes the size of the prime factors of a random integer.
For n ~ 2, let Pl(n) < P2(n) < ... < Pw(n)(n) denote
the sequence of distinct prime factors of n. Let E > 0
be given, and let 'l/J(n) be a function tending arbitrar-
ily slowly to infinity as n -+ 00. Then, for almost-all
positive integers n, the inequalities
Iloglogpj(n) - jl < (1 + E)V2jloglogj,
'l/J(n) ::::; j ::::; w(n)
hold. A related result, due to J. Galambos [3]' is that the
numbers log log Pj (n) are, in a suitable sense, normally
distributed with mean j and standard deviation VJ; see
[3].
References
[1] ELLIOTT, P.D.T.A.: Probabilistic number theory, Vol. I-II,
Springer, 1979-1980.
[2] ERDOS, P.: 'On the distribution function of additive func-
tions', Ann. of Math. 47 (1946), 1-20.
[3] GALAMBOS, J.: 'The sequences of prime divisors of integers',
Acta Arith. 31 (1976),213-218.
[4] HALL, R.R., AND TENENBAUM, G.: Divisors, Vol. 90 of Tracts
in Math., Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988.
[5] HARDY, G.H., AND RAMANUJAN, S.: 'The normal number of
prime factors of a number n', Quart. J. Math. 48 (1917),
76-92.
[6] TENENBAUM, G.: Introduction to analytic and probabilistic
number theory, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995.

A. Hildebrand
MSC 1991: llN37, llK65
HARDY SPACES, real-variable theory of, real-
variable HP theory - The real-variable Hardy spaces
HP = HP(Rn) (0 < p < (0) are spaces of distribu-
tions on R n (cf. Generalized functions, space of),
originally defined as boundary values of holomorphic or
harmonic functions, which have assumed an important
role in modern harmonic analysis. They may be de-
fined in terms of certain maximal functions.
Specifically, suppose <P belongs to the Schwartz class
S(Rn) of rapidly decreasing smooth functions, and let
<Pt(x) = cn<p(CIx) for t > O. Iff E S'(R n ), the space of
tempered distributions, define the radial maximal func-
tion m",f and the non-tangential maximal function M",f
by
m",f(x) = sup If * <pt(x)1 ,
t>o
M",f(x) = sup If * <pt(y)1 ,
Iy-xl<t<oo
where * denotes convolution of functions. C. Feffer-
man and E.M. Stein [2] (see also [4]) proved that for
f E S'(Rn) and 0 < p < 00, the following conditions
are equivalent (the Fefferman-Stein theorem):
1) m",f E Lp for some <p E S with J <P =I- 0;
2) M",f E Lp for some <p E S with J <p =I- 0;
3) M",f E Lp for every <p E S, and in fact M",f E Lp
uniformly for <p in a suitable bounded subset of S.
HP(Rn) is the space of all f E S' that satisfy these
conditions.
For p > 1, HP coincides with L p , and HI is a proper
subspace of L 1 . For p < 1, HP contains distributions
that are not functions. A distribution f on R is in
HP if and only if f is the boundary value of a har-
monic function u on the upper half-plane such that
SuPy>o J I(u + iv)(x + iy)IP dx < 00, where v is the
harmonic conjugate of U; this is the connection with
the complex-variable Hardy classes. There is a sim-
ilar characterization of HP (Rn) for n > 1 in terms
of systems of harmonic functions satisfying generalized
Cauchy-Riemann equations; see [2].
Another characterization of HP (Rn) for p ~ 1 is of
great importance. A measurable function a is called a
p-atom (p ~ 1) if
i) a vanishes outside some ball of radius r > 0 and
sUPx la(x)1 ~ r- n / p ;
ii) J P(x)a(x) dx = 0 for all polynomials P of degree
~ n(p-I - 1).
The atomic decomposition theorem (see [4]) states that
f E HP if and only if f = L cjaj, where each aj is a
p-atom and L ICj IP < 00.
HEBB RULE
HP is a complete topological vector space for
p < 1, and a Banach space for p = 1, with topol-
ogy defined by any of the quasi-norms f --+ J Im",fI P,
f --+ J IM",fI P, or
f --+ inf {L: ICj I
P:
L: cjaj is an atomic decomposition of f} .
By the celebrated Fefferman theorem [2] (see also [4]),
the dual of HI is the space BMO of functions of bounded
mean oscillation (cf. also BMO-space). For p < 1, the
dual of HP is the homogeneous Lipschitz space of order
n(p-I - 1); see [3].
The spaces HP (p ~ 1) and BMO provide an exten-
sion of the scale of Lp-spaces (1 < p < (0) that is in
many respects more natural and useful than the corre-
sponding Lp-spaces. Most importantly, many of the es-
sential operations of harmonic analysis, e.g., singular in-
tegrals of Calder6n-Zygmund type (cf. also Calderon-
Zygmund operator; Singular integral), maximal
operators and Littlewood-Paley functionals, that are
well-behaved on Lp only for 1 < p < 00 are also well-
behaved on HP and BMO. In addition, many important
classes of singular distributions belong to HP, or are
closely related to elements of HP, for suitable p < 1. See
[3], [4].
The real-variable HP theory can be extended to
spaces other than R n. A rather complete extension is
available in the setting of homogeneous groups, i.e.,
simply-connected nilpotent Lie groups (cf. also Lie
group, nilpotent) with a one-parameter family of di-
lations; see [3]. (These groups include, in particular, Rn
with non-isotropic dilations.) Parts of the theory have
also been developed in the much more general setting of
the Coifman-Weiss spaces of homogeneous type; see [1].
References
[IJ COIFMAN, R.R., AND WEISS, G.: 'Extensions of Hardy spaces
and their use in analysis', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 83 (1977),
569-645.
[2J FEFFERMAN, C., AND STEIN, E.M.: 'HP spaces of several vari-
ables', Acta Math. 129 (1972), 137-193.
[3J FOLLAND, G.B., AND STEIN, E.M.: Hardy spaces on homoge-
neous groups, Princeton Univ. Press, 1982.
[4J STEIN, E.M.: Harmonic analysis, Princeton Univ. Press,
1993.
G.B. Folland
MSC 1991: 42B30
HEBB RULE, Hebbian learning - A learning rule
dating back to D.O. Hebb's classic [3], which appeared
in 1949. The idea behind it is simple. Neurons of ver-
tebrates consist of three parts: a dendritic tree, which
collects the input, a soma, which can be considered as
a central processing unit, and an axon, which transmits
the output. Neurons communicate via action potentials
285
HEBB RULE
or spikes, pulses of a duration of about one millisecond.
If neuron j emits a spike, it travels along the axon to a
so-called synapse on the dendritic tree of neuron i, say.
This takes Tij milliseconds. The synapse has a synaptic
strength, to be denoted by Jij . Its value, which encodes
the information to be stored, is to be governed by the
Hebb rule.
In [3, p. 62] one can find the 'neurophysiological pos-
tulate' that is the Hebb rule in its original form: When
an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell Band
repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some
growth process or metabolic change takes place in one
or both cells such that the efficiency of A, as one of the
cells firing B, is increased.
Hebb's postulate has been formulated in plain Eng-
lish (but not more than that) and the main question is
how to implement it mathematically. The key ideas are
that:
i) only the pre- and post-synaptic neuron determine
the change of a synapse;
ii) learning means evaluating correlations.
If both A and B are active, then the synaptic efficacy
should be strengthened. Efficient learning also requires,
however, that the synaptic strength be decreased every
now and then [7].
In the present context, one usually wants to store a
number of activity patterns in a network with a fairly
high connectivity (10 4 in biological nets). Most of the
information presented to a network varies in space and
time. So what is needed is a common representation of
both the spatial and the temporal aspects. As a pattern
changes, the system should be able to measure and store
this change. How can it do that?
For unbiased random patterns in a network with syn-
chronous updating this can be done as follows. The
neuronal dyn~mics in its simplest form is supposed to
be given by Si(t + ~t) = sign(hi(t)), where hi(t) =
Ej JijSj(t). Let Jij be the synaptic strength before the
learning session, whose duration is denoted by T. After
the learning session, J ij is to be changed into Jij + ~Jij
with
1 J.L. VAN HEMMEN, AND K. SCHULTEN (eds.): Models o/neural
L Si(t + ~t)Sj(t -
T
~Jij = fij'T Tij)
o [2] GERSTNER, W., RITZ, R., AND HEMMEN, J.L. VAN: 'Why
(cf. [4], [8]). The above equation provides a local encod-
ing of the data at the synapse j -+ i. The fij is a constant
known factor. The learning session having a duration T,
the multiplier T- 1 in front of the sum takes saturation
into account. The neuronal activity Si(t) equals 1 ifneu-
ron i is active at time t and -1 if it is not. At time t + ~t
it is combined with the signal that arrives at i at time
t, i.e., Sj(t - Tij), where Tij is the axonal delay. Here,
{Si (t): 1 ~ i ~ N}, denotes the pattern as it is taught
286
to the network of size N during the learning session of
duration 0 ~ t ~ T. The time unit is ~t = 1 millisec-
onds. In the case of asynchronous dynamics, where each
time a single neuron is updated randomly, one has to
rescale ~t <X liN and the above sum is reduced to an
integral as N -+ 00. In passing one notes that for con-
stant, spatial, patterns one recovers the Hopfield model
[5].
Suppose now that the activity a in the network is
low, as is usually the case in biological nets, i.e., a ~ -1.
Then the appropriate modification of the above learning
rule reads
1
L Si(t + ~t)[Sj(t -
T
~Jij = fij'T Tij) - a]
o
(cf. [8]). Since Sj -a ~ 0 when the presynaptic neuron is
not active, one sees that the pre-synaptic neuron is gat-
ing. One gets a depression (LTD) if the post-synaptic
neuron is inactive and a potentiation (LTP) if it is ac-
tive. So it is advantageous to have a time window [2]:
The pre-synaptic neuron should fire slightly before the
post-synaptic one. The above Hebbian learning rule can
also be adapted so as to be fully integrated in biolog-
ical contexts [2]. The biology of Hebbian learning has
meanwhile been confirmed. See the review [1].
G. Palm [6] has advocated an extremely low activ-
ity for efficient storage of stationary data. Out of N
neurons, only In N should be active. This seems to be
advantageous for hardware realizations.
In summary, Hebbian learning is efficient since it is
local, and it is a powerful algorithm to store spatial or
spatio-temporal patterns. If so, why is it that good? As
to the why, the succinct answer [4] is that synaptic rep-
resentations are selected according to their resonance
with the input data; the stronger the resonance, the
larger ~Jij. In other words, the algorithm 'picks' and
strengthens only those synapses that match the input
pattern.
References
[1] BROWN, T.H., AND CHATTARJI, S.: 'Hebbian synaptic plastic-
ity: Evolution of the contemporary concept', in E. DOMANY,
networks, Vol. II, Springer, 1994, pp. 287-314.
spikes? Hebbian learr.:ng and retrieval of time-resolved exci-
tation patterns', Bioi. Cybern. 69 (1993), 503-515, See also:
W. Gerstner and R. Kempter and J.L. van Hemmen and H.
Wagner: A neuronal learning rule for sub-millisecond tempo-
ral coding, Nature 383 (1996), 76-78.
[3] HESS, D.O.: The organization 0/ behavior-A neurophysio-
logical theory, Wiley, 1949.
[4] HERZ, A.V.M., SULZER, B., KUHN, R., AND HEMMEN,
J.L. VAN: 'The Hebb rule: Storing static and dynamic objects
in an associative neural network', Europhys. Lett. 7 (1988),
663-669. (Biol. Cybern. 60 (1989), 457-467.)

[5] HOPFIELD, J.J.: 'Neural networks and physical systems with
emergent collective computational abilities', Proc. Nat. Acad.
Sci. USA 79 (1982), 2554-2558.
[6] PALM, G.: Neural assemblies: An alternative approach to ar-
tificial intelligence, Springer, 1982.
[7] SEJNOWSKI, T.J.: 'Statistical constraints on synaptic plastic-
ity', J. Theor. Bioi 69 (1977),385-389.
[8] HEMMEN, J.L. VAN, GERSTNER, W., HERZ, A.V.M., KUHN,
R., AND VAAS, M.: 'Encoding and decoding of patterns which
are correlated in space and time', in G. DORFFNER (ed.):
Konnektionismus in artificial Intelligence und Kognitions-
forschung, Springer, 1990, pp. 153-162.
J.L. van Hemmen
MSC 1991: 92C20, 68T05
HEDETNIEMI CONJECTURE - For two graphs A
and B (cf. Graph), their categorial product A x B is the
graph with vertex set V(A x B) = V(A) x V(B) while an
edge (ao, bo) is adjacent to an edge (al, bl ) if and only
if ao is adjacent to al and bo is adjacent to bl . If the
graph A has a good n-colouring 'Y (cf. Graph colour-
ing), then A x B has a good n-colouring 'Y*, given by
'Y* (a, b) = 'Y( a). As this statement also holds for good
n-colourings of B, it follows that the chromatic number
X(A x B) ::; min{x(A), X(B)}. Hedetniemi's conjecture,
[6], is that for all finite graphs A and B:
X(A x B) = min{x(A), X(B)}.
The corresponding statement for infinite graphs is not
true [5], but little is known about the relationship be-
tween the cardinalities of the chromatic numbers of A
and B and the chromatic number of Ax B.
It is obvious that the chromatic number of the prod-
uct of two 2-chromatic graphs is 2. L. Lovasz [8] showed
that the chromatic number of the product of two 3-
chromatic graphs is 3 and in [3] it is proven that the
chromatic number of the product of two 4-chromatic
graphs is 4. It is not known whether the chromatic num-
ber of the product of two n-chromatic graphs is always n
for any n ~ 5. The lack of understanding of this problem
is even more embarrassing than that.
Let f(n) be the largest number such that whenever A
and B are two n-chromatic graphs, then the chromatic
number of A x B is larger than or equal to f(n). Clearly,
if n ~ 4, then 4 ::; f(n) ::; nand Hedetniemi's conjec-
ture says that f(n) = n. About f(n) it is only known
that either f(n) ::; 9 for all n or f(n) is unbounded, [11]
and [12].
Write A H B if there is a homomorphism from the
graph A to the graph B (a function from A to B which
preserves the edges). Write A f/+ B if there is no homo-
morphism from A to B. A graph M is called multiplica-
tive, [9], [4], if A f/+ M and B f/+ M imply A x B f/+ M.
Note that a graph A has a good n-colouring if and only
HEDETNIEMI CONJECTURE
if A H Kn. Hence Hedetniemi's conjecture is equiva-
lent to asking whether the complete graph Kn (cf. also
Graph) is multiplicative.
Two graphs A and B are equivalent, A rv B, if A H B
and B H A. It is not difficult to check that the equiv-
alence classes of finite graphs form a distributive lat-
tice under the order relation H and that a graph is
multiplicative if and only if it is meet-irreducible in this
lattice. Once this general setting of the problem has been
realized, it is not difficult to see that Hedetniemi's con-
jecture has a natural generalization, [4], to the problem
of finding the meet-irreducible elements in the distribu-
tive lattices of various types of relational structures.
This line of investigation leads to a setting in topos
theory and, to a certain extent, in logic, [2].
Of course this introduces the even more general task
of trying to understand the distributive lattice of, say,
all finite relational structures of a given type and, in con-
nection with this, the problem of deciding whether there
is a homomorphism from a given relational structure to
another one of the same type. In this context one of the
more interesting types of relational structures are finite
directed graphs, [7]. Multiplicative partially ordered sets
have been investigated in [15].
For graphs, Hedetniemi's conjecture has been con-
firmed for various special cases and several interesting
observations have been made. See [1], [14], [13]. For a
general discussion of graph products, see [10].
References
[1] DUFFUS, D., SANDS, B., AND WOODROW, R.: 'On the chro-
matic number of the product of graphs', J. Graph Th. 9
(1985), 487-495.
[2] DUFFUS, D., AND SAUER, N.W.: 'Lattices arising in catego-
rial investigations of Hedetniemi's conjecture', Discrete Math.
153 (1996).
[3] EL-ZAHAR, M.H., AND SAUER, N.W.: 'The chromatic number
of the product of two 4-chromatic graphs is 4', Combinatorica
5, no. 2 (1985), 121-126.
[4] HAGGKVIST, R., HELL, P., MILLER, D.J., AND LARA, V.N.:
'On multiplicative graphs and the product conjecture', Com-
binatorica 8, no. 1 (1988),63-74.
[5] HAJNAL, A.: 'The chromatic number of the product of two Nl-
chromatic graphs can be countable', Combinatorica 5 (1985),
137-140.
[6] HEDETNIEMI, S.: 'Homomorphisms of graphs and automata',
Univ. Michigan Technical Report 03105-44-T (1966).
[7] HELL, P., ZHOU, H., AND ZHU, X.: 'Homomorphisms to ori-
ented cycles', Combinatorica.
[8] LovAsz, L.: 'Operations with structures', Acta Math. Acad.
Sci. Hung. (1967),321-328.
[9] MILLER, D.J.: 'The categorical product of graphs', Canad. J.
Math. 20 (1968), 1511-1521.
[10] NOWAKOWSKI, R.J., AND RALL, D.: 'Associative graph prod-
ucts and their independence, domination and coloring num-
bers', J. Graph Th. (??).
[11] POLJAK, S.: 'Coloring digraphs by iterated antichains', Com-
ment. Math. Univ. Carolin. 32, no. 2 (1991), 209-212.
287
HEDETNIEMI CONJECTURE
[12] POLJAK, S., AND RODL, V.: 'On the arc-chromatic number of
a digraph', JeT B 31 (1981), 190-198.
[13] SABIDUSSI, G.: 'Graph multiplication', Math. Z. 72 (1960),
446-457.
[14] SAUER, N.W., AND ZHU, X.: 'An approach to Hedetniemi's
conjecture', J. Graph Th. 16, no. 5 (1992), 423-436.
[15] SAUER, N.W., AND ZHU, X.: 'Multiplicative posets', Order 8
(1992), 349-358.
N. W. Sauer
MSC 1991: 05C15
HEINZ INEQUALITY - In the sequel, a capital let-
ter denotes a bounded linear operator on a Hilbert
space H. An operator T is said to be positive (denoted
by T 2: 0) if (Tx, x) 2: 0 for all x E H. In 1951, E.
Heinz [3] proved a series of very useful norm inequali-
ties; one of the most essential inequalities in operator
theory being:
IISIQ + QS211 2: IISfQsi-a + si-aQs~11 ' (1)
where SI and S2 are positive operators and 1 2: 0: 2: o.
It is shown in [1] and [2] that the Heinz inequality (1)
is equivalent to each of the inequalities (2), (3) and (4).
Other norm inequalities equivalent to (1) have also been
obtained in [1] and [2]. For any operators P, Q and R,
liP' PQ + QRR* II 2: 211PQRII . (2)
For a self-adjoint and invertible operator S,
IISTS- 1 + S-ITSII 2: 211TII· (3)
For A 2: 0 and self-adjoint Q,
(4)
The inequality (2) has been obtained in [4] to give
an alternative ingenious proof of (1). The original proof
of the Heinz inequality (1), based on deep calculations
in complex analysis, is shown in [3]; a simplified and
elementary proof of (1) is given in [2].
See also Heinz-Kato inequality; Heinz-Kato-
Furuta inequality.
References
[1] FUJII, J.I., FUJII, M., FURUTA, T., AND NAKAMOTO, R.:
'Norm inequalities related to McIntosh type inequality', Ni-
honkai Math. J. 3 (1992), 67-72.
[2] FUJII, J.I., FUJII, M., FURUTA, T., AND NAKAMOTO,
R.: 'Norm inequalities equivalent to Heinz inequality',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 118 (1993), 827-830.
[3] HEINZ, E.: 'Beitrage zur Storungstheorie der Spektralzer-
legung', Math. Ann. 123 (1951),415-438.
[4] McINTOSH, A.: 'Heinz inequalities and perturbation of spec-
tral families', Macquarie Math. Reports (1979), unpublished.
M. Fujii
MSC 1991: 47 A63
HEINZ-KATO-FuRUTA INEQUALITY - In the
sequel, a capital letter denotes a bounded linear op-
erator on a Hilbert space H. An operator T is said
to be positive (denoted by T 2: 0) if (Tx, x) 2: 0 for all
x E H.
288
The following Heinz-Kato-Furuta inequality can be
considered as an extension of the Heinz-Kato in-
equality, since for 0: + j3 = 1 the Heinz-Kato inequality
is obtained from the Heinz-Kato-Furuta inequality.
The Heinz-Kato-Furuta inequality (1994; cf. [2]): If
A and B are positive operators such that IITxl1 S IIAxl1
and IIT*YII S IIBYII for all x, Y E H, then for all
X,Y E H:
for all 0:, j3 E [0,1] such that 0: + j3 2: l.
As generalizations of the Heinz-Kato-Furuta inequal-
ity, two determinant-type generalizations, expressed in
terms of T, ITI and IT* I, can be obtained by using the
Furuta inequality. It turns out that each of these
two generalizations is equivalent to the Furuta inequal-
ity. Results similar to these determinant-type general-
izations but under the conditions log ITI s
log A and
log IT* I Slog B, which are weaker than the original
conditions T*T S A2 and TT* S B2 in the Heinz-Kato
inequality, have also been obtained. A nice application
of the Heinz-Kato-Furuta inequality is given in [1].
Additional references can be found in Heinz in-
equality.
References
[1] FUJII, M., IZUMINO, S., AND NAKAMOTO, R.: 'Classes of
operators determined by the Heinz-Kato-Furuta inequality
and the Holder- MacCarthy inequality', Nihonkai Math. J. 5
(1994),61-67.
[2] FURUTA, T.: 'An extension of the Heinz-Kato theorem', Proc.
AMS 120 (1994), 785-787.
M. Fujii
MSC 1991: 47 A63
HEINZ-KATO INEQUALITY - In the sequel, a cap-
ital letter denotes a bounded linear operator on a
Hilbert space H. An operator T is said to be posi-
tive (denoted by T 2: 0) if (Tx,x) 2: 0 for all x E H.
The Heinz--Kato inequality is an extension of the gen-
eralized Cauchy-Schwarz inequality (cf. also Cauchy
inequality). It follows from the fact that
(ITI 2 a x ,x) (TX,y)) _
(
(y, Tx) (IT*1 2 (I-Q)y, y) -
(ITIQx,ITIQx) (lT IQ x,ITI 1 -QU*y))
(
(lTI 1 - a U'y,ITI x)Q
(ITI 1 - QU*y,ITI 1 - a U*y)
is non-negative, where T = UITI is the polar decom-
position of T.
The Heinz-Kato inequality (1952; cf. [3], [4]): If A
and B are positive operators such that IITxl1 S IIAxl1
and IIT*YII S IIBYII for all x, y E H, then the following
inequality holds for all x, y E H:
(1)

for all a E [0,1].
It is proved in [1] that the Heinz-Kato inequality is
equivalent to:
(2)
for arbitrary positive operators A and Q.
The Heinz inequality yields the Heinz-Kato lll-
equality.
On the other hand, it is shown in [2] that the
Lowner-Heinz inequality is equivalent to the follow-
ing Cordes inequality (3), although the first is an oper-
ator inequality and the latter is a norm inequality:
liAS BSII ::; IIABll s (3)
for A, B :::: 0 and 0 ::; s ::; 1.
It is well known that the Heinz-Kato inequality (1)
is equivalent to the Lowner-Heinz inequality, so that
the Heinz-Kato inequality, the Lowner-Heinz inequal-
ity and the Cordes inequality are mutually equivalent.
Additional references can be found in Heinz in-
equality.
References
[1] FUJII, M., AND FURUTA, T.: 'Lowner-Heinz, Cordes and
Heinz-Kato inequalities', Math. Japan. 38 (1993),73-78.
[2] FURUTA, T.: 'Norm inequalities equivalent to Lowner-Heinz
theorem', Rev. Math. Phys. 1 (1989), 135-137.
[3] HEINZ, E.: 'Beitriige zur Storungstheorie der Spektralzer-
legung', Math. Ann. 123 (1951),415-438.
[4] KATO, T.: 'Notes on some inequalities for linear operators',
Math. Ann. 125 (1952), 208-212.
M. Fujii
MSC 1991: 47 A63
HENKIN CONSTRUCTION - The method of con-
stants was introduced by L. Henkin in 1949 [1] to es-
tablish the strong completeness of first-order logic (cf.
Completeness (in logic)). Whilst this method orig-
inally involved the deductive apparatus of first-order
logic, it can be modified so as to employ only model-
theoretic ideas (cf. Model (in logic); Model theory).
Let L be a first-order logical language with equality,
and consider a set of sentences in L which is finitely sat-
isfiable in the sense that each of its finite subsets has
a model. Since the collection of finitely satisfiable sets
is closed under unions of chains, each such set can be
extended to one which is maximal in the sense that it
is finitely satisfiable and contains every sentence in L
or its negation. When L contains constant terms, each
maximal set in L induces an equivalence relation on
the set of constant terms: (t, tf) is in this relation pro-
vided that the equation t = t f is a member of the max-
imal set. Let [t] denote the equivalence class of t. An
HENKIN CONSTRUCTION
interpretation for L can be constructed on the par-
tition induced by this relation. On this interpretation,
each individual constant in the non-logical vocabulary
of L denotes its equivalence class; ([tl],'" ,[tnD is in
the extension of the n-ary predicate P if and only if
the sentence P(tl,'" ,tn ) is a member of the maximal
set; and ([tl],'" , [tn], [t nH ]) is in the extension of the
n-ary functional constant g if and only if the equation
g(h, ... ,tn ) = tnH is a member of the maximal set.
This interpretation is a model of the maximal set if the
set is term-complete in the sense that it contains an
instance of each existential sentence it contains. This
interpretation is called a Henkin model for the maximal
and term-complete set.
Not every first-order language contains constant
terms. And even when L contains constant terms, there
are finitely satisfiable sets in L which cannot be ex-
tended to maximal and term-complete sets in L. In such
cases the Henkin construction proceeds by adding new
constants to the non-logical vocabulary of L in such a
way that the finitely satisfiable set in L can be extended
to a maximal and term-complete set in the extended lan-
guage.
H.J. Keisler [2] modified the Henkin construction at
the point where the new constants are introduced. Let
I denote the collection of finite subsets of a finitely sat-
isfiable set. For each member of I, choose a model of
that set. T is the family (indexed by 1) of such models.
Expand the non-logical vocabulary of L by adding the
members of the direct product of the domains of the
members of T as individual constants. Members of this
direct product are functions on I whose value at each
i E I is a member of the domain of the ith member of
T. The ith member of T is expanded to interpretations
of the extended language by having each function in the
direct product denote its value at i. Let T* denote the
resulting family of interpretations. The theory of T* is
the set of all sentences in the extended language true
on all members of T*. The union of the theory of T*
and the finitely satisfiable set from L is itself finitely
satisfiable, and any maximal extension of this union is
term complete. The Henkin model for such a maximal
extension is called a Henkin-Keisler model.
Generalizing the above, let I be any non-empty set
and let T be a family of interpretations for L indexed
by I. As above, expand the non-logical vocabulary of
L by adding the direct product of the domains of the
members of T as individual constants, expand the mem-
bers of T to interpretations of the extended language as
above, and let T* denote the resulting family of inter-
pretations. The theory of T* is finitely satisfiable and
any maximal extension of this set is term complete.
289
HENKIN CONSTRUCTION
Henkin-Keisler models can be seen as both a special-
ization of the Henkin construction and as an alternative
to the ultraproduct construction (cf. also Ultrafilter).
There is a natural correspondence between maximal ex-
tensions of the theory of T* and ultrafilters (cf. Ultrafil-
ter) on I. Associate with each sentence in the expanded
language the set of indices (from 1) of those members
of T* on which the sentence is true. Given an ultrafilter
on I, consider the set of sentences in the extended lan-
guage whose associated set of indices is a member of the
ultrafilter. This set is a maximal extension of the the-
ory of T*. Further, if all members of T are non-trivial
in the sense that their domains contain at least two ob-
jects, then given any maximal extension of the theory
of T*, the collection of sets of indices associated with
the members of the maximal extension is an ultrafilter
on I. Finally, the Henkin-Keisler model of any maximal
extension of the theory of T*, when restricted to L, is
isomorphic to the ultraproduct ofthe members ofT over
the corresponding ultrafilter.
References
[IJ HENKIN, L.: 'The completeness of the first-order functional
calculus', J. Symb. Logic 14 (1949), 159-166.
[2J KEISLER, H.J.: 'A survey of ultraproducts, logic', in Y. BAR-
HILLEL (ed.): Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science,
North-Holland, 1965, pp. 112-126.
[3J WEAVER, G.: Henkin-Keisler models, Kluwer Acad. Publ.,
1997.
G. Weaver
MSC 1991: 03Cxx
HENSEL IAN - Satisfying the Hensel lemma.
If K is a field equipped with a valuation v and if
the Hensel lemma is true for the valuation ring of v,
then (K, v) is called a H enselian field and v is called a
Henselian valuation. See also Henselization of a val-
ued field; Ramification theory of valued fields.
A field that is complete under a valuation with as
value group an Archimedean group is Henselian. But
contrary to completeness, being Henselian can be ax-
iomatized in a first-order language of valued fields (by
an infinite set of axioms expressing the validity of the
Hensel lemma). Moreover, a complete field need not
be Henselian if its value group is not Archimedean.
Therefore, in general valuation theory and in the model
theory of valued fields, being Henselian has turned
out to be more appropriate than completeness.
Several equivalent conditions for a field to be
Henselian, including an implicit function theorem, are
stated in [1]; see also [4]. For the connection with other
topological fields (cf. Topological field) satisfying the
implicit function theorem, see [3].
290
It was proved by F.K. Schmidt in 1933 that if a
field admits two independent non-trivial Henselian val-
uations, then it must be separably algebraically closed.
For refinements of this result, see [5]. For a further gen-
eralization and an application, see [2].
See also Hensel ring.
References
[1] KUHLMANN, F.-V.: Valuation theory of fields, abelian
groups and modules, Algebra, Logic and Applications. Gor-
don&Breach, forthcoming.
[2J POP, F.: 'On Grothendieck's conjecture of birational an-
abelian geometry', Ann. of Math. 138 (1994), 145-182.
[3J PRESTEL, A., AND ZIEGLER, M.: 'Model theoretic methods
in the theory of topological fields', J. Reine Angew. Math.
299/300 (1978), 318-341.
[4J RIBENBOIM, P.: 'Equivalent forms of Hensel's lemma', Expo.
Math. 3 (1985), 3-24.
[5J WARNER, S.: Topological fields, Vol. 157 of Mathematics Stud-
ies, North-Holland, 1989.
F. - V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 12JlO, 12J20, 13J15
HENSELIZATION OF A VALUED FIELD - A min-
imal algebraic extension (L, w) of a valued field (K, v)
(i.e., a field K equipped with a valuation v) such that
the valuation ring of w satisfies the Hensel lemma.
This holds if and only if w admits a unique exten-
sion to every algebraic extension field of L (cf. [2]).
Therefore, Henselizations can be characterized as the
decomposition fields of the extensions v S of v to the
separable-algebraic closure KS of K (see Ramification
theory of valued fields). The minimality is expressed
by the following universal property of Henselizations:
they admit a unique embedding over K in every other
Henselian extension field of (K, v) (cf. [2]). In particular,
the Henselization of (K, v) is unique up to a valuation-
preserving isomorphism over K; thus, it makes sense to
denote it by (KH, v H ) (there are some other notations
in the literature). The extension v H I v is immediate;
for an elegant proof, see [1].
References
[IJ Ax, J.: 'A metamathematical approach to some problems
in number theory, Appendix': Vol. 20 of Proc. Symp. Pure
Math., Amer. Math. Soc., 1971, pp. 161-190.
[2] RIBENBOIM, P.: Theorie des valuations, Presses Univ.
Montreal, 1964.
F. - V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 12JlO, 12J20, 13B40, 13J15
HESSIAN MATRIX - See Hessian of a function.
MSC 1991: 26Bxx
HILLE-TAMARKIN OPERATOR - Let T be an in-
tegral operator from Lp(Y, v) into Lq(X, Jl), i.e., there
exists a (Jl x v)-measurable function T(x, y) on X x Y
such that Tf(x) = JT(x, y) dv(y) a.e. on X. Then T is

called a Hille-Tamarkin operator if
! (! I
IT(x,y)I P dv(y)
)q/Pl
dp,(x) < 00,
where lip + lip' = 1. By taking p = q = 2 one obtains
the class of Hilbert-Schmidt operators (cf. Hilbert-
Schmidt operator). Replacing 11·ll p , respectively 11·ll q ,
by arbitrary Banach function norms P2, respectively
PI, one obtains the class of Hille-Tamarkin operators
between Banach function spaces (sometimes called in-
tegral operators of finite double norm, see [2]). Under
some mild hypotheses on the norms, one can show that
Hille-Tamarkin operators have rather strong compact-
ness properties (see [1]).
References
[IJ SCHEP, A.R.: 'Compactness properties of Carleman and
Hille-Tamarkin operators', Ganad. J. Math. 37 (1985),921-
933.
[2J ZAANEN, A.C.: Riesz spaces, Vol. II, North-Holland, 1983.
A.R. Schep
MSC 1991: 47B38
HIT-OR-MISS TOPOLOGY - This scheme for in-
troducing a topology into a collection of sets (cf. [1],
[5], [9]) can be described conveniently by the 'hit or
miss' metaphor. Given a topological space (X, T) and
a collection A of sets in X, one introduces a topolog-
ical structure (topology) Tp,dA) on A depending
on families P, Q of sets in X, where P is closed under
finite unions, by taking as an open base for Tp,Q(A) the
family of sets of the form
[PC; Ql, ... ,Qk] =
= {A E A: An P = 0, A n Qi7~ 0 (i = 1, ... ,k)}.
The basic open set [PC; Ql, ... ,Qk] collects those sets
in A that 'miss' P and 'hit' every Qi.
Important realizations of this scheme are:
1) the exponential topology TF,9(F) (cf. [1], [5], [9]);
2) the hit-or-miss topology TIC,9(F) (cf. [4]);
3) the myope topology TF,9(K) (cf. [4]).
Here, F is the collection of all closed sets in X, g is the
collection of all open sets in X, and K is the collection
of all compact sets in X.
The hit-or-miss topology is an important tool in
mathematical morphology (cf. [4], [7]) in Euclidean
spaces, hence one most often considers locally compact
metric spaces X (cf. Locally compact space; Metric
space). The topological space (F, TIC,9(F)) is a compact
metric space (cf. [4]); the topology of this space can be
described (cf. [4]) in terms of convergent sequences: A
sequence (Fn)n <;;:; F converges in (F,TIC,g(F)) to a set
F E F if and only if F = lim Fn (meaning lim inf Fn =
F = lim sup F n , where limsupFn = nnuiFn+i and
lim inf Fn = n(k n ) lim sup Fk n ; see [3]).
HIT-OR-MISS TOPOLOGY
The relations of the hit-or-miss topology 2) to the
exponential topology 1) and myope topology 3) can be
briefly summarized as follows. In general, the exponen-
tial topology is finer than the hit-or-miss topology 2)
and the myope topology is finer than the restriction
TIC,9(F)k of the hit-or-miss topology to the collection
K; the myope topology and the topology TIC,9 (F) k coin-
cide on any subspace Z <;;:; K that is compact in the my-
ope topology (compactness of Z means that Z is closed
in the hit-or-miss topology and there exists a compact
set Ko such that K <;;:; Ko for any K E Z; cf. [4]).
The Hausdorff metric DH on the collection F is given
by (cf. [2], [3]):
DH(A, B) = max {sup dist(x, B), sup dist(y, A)} ,
xEA yEB
where dist(x, B) = infYEB d(x, y) (d a bounded metric
on X).
The topology TF,9(K) is metrizable (cf. Metrizable
space) by D H restricted to K x K (cf. [3]); hence the
hit-or-miss topology on any subspace Z that is compact
in the myope topology is metrizable by the metric D H .
A mapping Ill: (Y,d) -+ (FTIC,g(F)) from a metric
space Y into F is upper semi-continuous (cf. also Semi-
continuous mapping) if Yn -+ Yo implies
An illustration is provided by the basic mappings of
mathematical morphology in a Euclidean space ([;, +)
(cf. [4], [7]): the opening AB and the closing AB (cf. also
Mathematical morphology). Both mappings are up-
per semi-continuous in the hit-or-miss topology (cf. [4]).
The property of upper semi-continuity implies stability
of either of these mappings in the morphological sense
(cf. [7]).
A ramification of the hit-or-miss topology was intro-
duced into collections of rough sets generated from infor-
mation systems (cf. [6]) to yield a counterpart of mathe-
matical morphology on abstract data sets (see also [8]).
References
[IJ CHOQUET, G.: 'Convergences', Ann. Univ. Grenoble 23
(1948),55-112.
[2J HAUSDORFF, F.: Grundzuge der Mengenlehre, Leipzig, 1914.
[3J KURATOWSKI, K.: Topology, Acad. Press & PWN, 1966-1968.
[4J MATHERON, G.: Random sets and integml geometry, Wiley,
1975.
[5J MICHAEL, E.: 'Topologies on spaces of subsets', Trans. Amer.
Math. Soc. 71 (1951), 152-183.
[6J POLKOWSKI, L.: 'Mathematical morphology of rough sets',
Bull. Polish Acad. Math. 41 (1993),241-273.
[7J SERRA, J.: Image analysis and mathematical morphology,
Acad. Press, 1982.
[8J SKOWRON, A., AND POLKOWSKI, L.: 'Analytical morphology',
Fundam. Inform. 26-27 (1996), 255-271.
[9] VIETORIS, L.: 'Stetige Mengen', Monatsh. Math. und Phys.
31 (1921), 173-204.
291
HIT-OR-MISS TOPOLOGY

L. Polkowski The following theorem is called Hoeffding's decompo-

MSC 1991: 54Bxx, 68VlO sition theorem, and the representation of the V-statistic
as in the theorem is called the Hoeffding decomposition
HODGKIN-HUXLEY SYSTEM - A system of four of UN(h) (see [1]):
reaction-diffusion equations (cf. Reaction-diffusion
equation) modelling the electrical activity of nerve UN(h) = ~ (:)UN(h c ),
cells. The equations have the form

av a2 v where hc: EC --+ R is a symmetric function in c argu-

at = J ax 2 + I + F(V, YI, Y2, Y3), ments and where the V-statistics UN(h c ) are degenerate,
dYi pairwise orthogonal in L2 (uncorrelated) and satisfy
dt = 1'i(V)Yi + D:i(V), i = 1,2,3,
where F, 1'i and D:i are non-linear functions, fitted into
The symmetric functions hc are defined as follows:
experimental data and corresponding to a biochemical
c
model, t is time and x is one-dimensional space.
When J = 1, undamped travelling-wave solutions,
hC(XI,'" ,xc) = L( _1)C-k x
k=O
the action potentials (cf. Action potential), have been
studied using the Conley index. They include single-
x L E(h(xh"" ,Xlk,XI , ... ,Xm - k )).

pulse solutions, trains of finitely many impulses and pe-

riodic solutions.
The case J = 0 corresponds to a special experimen-
tal setting called a current clamp. The equations re-
duce to a four-dimensional autonomous system of or-
dinary differential equations, its homoclinic and peri-
odic solutions, called stationary action potentials, aris-
ing through Hopf (or more degenerate) bifurcations (cf.
also Homoclinic point; Homoclinic bifurcations;
Hopf bifurcation).
Modifications in the equation that retain the form
above, with possibly more variables, abound in the bio-
logical literature, accounting for variations in the bio-
chemistry of cells. There is also a simplified version
that has been much studied by mathematicians, the
FitzHugh-Nagumo equations.
References
[lJ HODGKIN, A.L., AND HUXLEY, A. F.: 'A quantitative descrip-
tion of membrane current and its application to conduction
and excitation in nerve', J. Physiology 117 (1952), 500-544.
[2J RINZEL, J.: 'Electrical excitability of cells, theory and ex-
periment: review of the Hodgkin-Huxley foundation and an
update', Bull. Math. Biology 52 (1990),5-23.
I.S. Labouriau
MSC 1991: 92C20, 35K57
HOEFFDING DECOMPOSITION - Let Xl,'" ,XN
be independent identically distributed random functions
with values in a measurable space (E, £) (cf. Ran-
dom variable). For m < N, let
be a measurable symmetric function in m variables and
consider the V-statistics (cf. U -statistic)
Extensions of this decomposition are known for the
multi-sample case [4], under various 'uncomplete' sum-
mation procedures in the definition of a V-statistic, in
some dependent situations and for non-identical dis-
tributions [3]. There are also versions of the theorem
for symmetric functions that have values in a Banach
space.
The decomposition theorem permits one to easily
calculate the variance of V-statistics. Since UN(h o ) =
Eh(X I , ... ,Xm ) and since UN(hd is a sum of centred
independent identically distributed random variables,
the central limit theorem for non-degenerate V-statistics
is an immediate consequence of the Hoeffding decompo-
si tion (cf. also Central limit theorem).
The terminology goes back to [2].
References
[lJ DENKER, M.: Asymptotic distribution theory in nonparamet-
ric statistics, Advanced Lectures in Mathematics. F. Vieweg,
1985.
[2J HOEFFDING, W.: 'A class of statistics with asymptotically
normal distribution', Ann. Math. Stat. 19 (1948),293-325.
[3J LEE, A.J.: U-statistics. Theory and practice, Vol. no of Sta-
tistics textbooks and monographs, M. Dekker, 1990.
[4J LEHMANN, E.L.: 'Consistency and unbiasedness of certain
nonparametric tests', Ann. Math. Stat. 22 (1951), 165-179.
M. Denker
MSC 1991: 60Exx, 62Bxx, 62Gxx, 62Hxx, 62Exx
HOLLEY INEQUALITY - An inequality for a finite
distributive lattice (f, --<), saying that if ILl and IL2
map f into (0,00) and satisfy L:rILI(a) = L:rIL2(a)
and
ILl (a)IL2(b) :::; ILl (a V b)IL2(a /\ b) for all a, bE r,
then

UN(h) =
1
(N) L h(XiJ"" ,Xi =).
m l:::;iJ< .. ·<im:::;N

292

for every f: r ---+ R that is non-decreasing in the sense
that a -< b implies f(a) ::; f(b). It is due to R. Holley
[4J and was motivated by the related FKG inequal-
ity [3J. It is an easy corollary [2J of the more powerful
Ahlswede-Daykin inequality [lJ.
See also Correlation inequalities; Fishburn-
Shepp inequality.
References
[1] AHLSWEDE, R., AND DAYKIN, D.E.: 'An inequality for the
weights of two families, their unions and intersections', Z.
Wahrsch. verw. Gebiete 43 (1978), 183-185.
[2] FISHBURN, P.C.: 'Correlation in partially ordered sets', Dis-
crete Appl. Math. 39 (1992), 173-191.
[3] FORTUIN, C.M., KASTELEYN, P.N., AND GINIBRE, J.: 'Cor-
relation inequalities for some partially ordered sets', Comm.
Math. Phys. 22 (1971),89-103.
[4] HOLLEY, R.: 'Remarks on the FKG inequalities', Comm.
Math. Phys. 36 (1974), 227-231.
P. C. Fishburn
MSC 1991: 60E15, 06A06
HOMOCLINIC BIFURCATIONS - Consider an au-
tonomous system of ordinary differential equations
depending on a parameter
x = f(x,a), (1)
where f is smooth. Denote by IP~ the flow
(continuous-time dynamical system) correspond-
ing to (1). Let Xo be an equilibrium of the system at
a = O. An orbit ro starting at a point x E R n is called
homoclinic to the equilibrium point Xo of (1) at a = 0 if
IPoxt ---+ Xo as t ---+ ±oo. Generically, presence of a homo-
clinic orbit at a = 0 implies a global codimension-one
bifurcation of (1), since the homo clinic orbit disap-
pears for all sufficiently small lal > o. Moreover, the
disappearance of a homo clinic orbit leads to the cre-
ation or destruction of one (or more) limit cycle nearby.
When such a cycle approaches the homo clinic orbit ro as
lal ---+ 0, its period tends to infinity. In some cases, there
are infinitely many limit cycles in a neighbourhood of
ro for sufficiently smalllal, since the Poincare return
map near the homo clinic orbit demonstrates Smale's
horseshoes [14J and their associated shift dynamics.
First, consider the case when Xo is an hyperbolic equi-
librium, i.e. the Jacobian matrix A = fx(xo,O) has no
eigenvalues on the imaginary axis. Suppose that A has
nu eigenvalues with positive real part
o < Re Al ::; ... ::; Re An ..
and ns eigenvalues with negative real part
Re ILn, ::; ... ::; Re ILl <0
(n s + nu = n). The equilibrium Xo has unstable and
stable invariant manifolds WU(xo) and WS(xo) com-
posed by outgoing and incoming orbits, respectively;
dim wu,S (xo) = nu,s.
HOMOCLINIC BIFURCATIONS
The eigenvalues with positive (negative) real part
that are closest to the imaginary axis are called the un-
stable (stable) leading eigenvalues, while the correspond-
ing eigenspaces are called the unstable (stable) leading
eigenspaces. Almost all orbits on the stable and unsta-
ble manifolds tend to the equilibrium Xo as t ---+ -00
(t ---+ +00) along the corresponding leading eigenspace.
Exceptional orbits form a non-leading manifold tan-
gent to the eigenspace corresponding to the non-leading
eigenvalues.
The saddle quantity 0"0 of a hyperbolic equilibrium
is the sum of the real parts of its leading eigenvalues:
0"0 = Re Al + Re ILl, where Al is a leading unstable eigen-
value and ILl is a leading stable eigenvalue. Generically,
leading eigenspaces are either one- or two-dimensional.
In the first case, an eigenspace corresponds to a simple
real eigenvalue, while in the second case it corresponds
to a simple pair of complex-conjugate eigenvalues. Re-
versing the time direction, if necessary, one has only
three typical configurations of the leading eigenvalues:
a) (saddle) the leading eigenvalues are real and sim-
ple: ILl < 0 < AI;
b) (saddle-focus) the stable leading eigenvalues are
non-real and simple: ILl = Ji2' Re ILI,2 < 0, while the
unstable leading eigenvalue Al > 0 is real and simple;
c) (focus-focus) the leading eigenvalues are non-real
and simple:
The following theorems by A.A. Andronov and E.A.
Leontovich [lJ (in the saddle case when n = 2) and L.P.
Shil'nikov (otherwise) [11], [13J are valid (see also [15],
[2], [5]).
• (Saddle) For any generic one-parameter system
(1) having a saddle equilibrium point Xo with a ho-
moclinic orbit ro at a = 0, there exists a neighbour-
hood Uo of ro U Xo in which a unique limit cycle LOt
bifurcates from r 0 as a passes through zero. Moreover,
dim WS(LOt) = ns + 1 if 0"0 < 0, and dim WS(LOt) = ns
if 0"0 > o.
• (Saddle-focus) For any generic one-parameter sys-
tem (1) having a saddle-focus equilibrium point Xo with
a homo clinic orbit ro at a = 0, there exists a neigh-
bourhood Uo of ro u Xo such that one of the following
alternatives holds:
a) if 0"0 < 0, a unique limit cycle LOt bifur-
cates from ro in Uo as a passes through zero,
dim WS(LOt) = ns + 1;
b) if 0"0 > 0, the system has an infinite number of
saddle limit cycles in Uo for all sufficiently small
lal·
293
HOMO CLINIC BIFURCATIONS
• (Focus-focus) For any generic one-parameter sys-
tem (1) having a focus-focus equilibrium point Xo with a
homo clinic orbit fo at a = 0, there exists a neighbour-
hood Uo of fo U Xo in which the system has an infinite
number of saddle limit cycles in Uo for all sufficiently
smalllal·
The genericity conditions mentioned above have some
common parts:
1) the leading eigenspaces are either one- or two-
dimensional and (10 :f. 0;
2) fo tends to Xo as t -+ ±oo along the leading
eigenspaces;
3) the intersection of the tangent spaces to WS(xo)
and W U (xo) at each point on f 0 is one-dimensional;
4) WS(xa) and WU(xa) split by an O(a) distance as
a moves away from zero, where Xa is the continuation
of Xo for small lal > O.
There is also a case-dependent non-degeneracy con-
dition dealing with the global topology of WS(xo) and
WU(xo) around fo at a = O. The exact formulation of
this condition can be found in [2]. In the planar case
(n = 2), only conditions 1) and 4) are relevant.
Suppose now that Xo is a non-hyperbolic equilibrium
of (1) at a = 0, having a homo clinic orbit fo. Only
the case when Xo has a simple zero eigenvalue and no
other eigenvalues on the imaginary axis (i.e., Xo is a
saddle-node, cf. Saddle node) appears in generic one-
parameter families (has codimension-one). If the saddle-
node has a single homo clinic orbit f o, then, generi-
cally, a unique limit cycle bifurcates from fo, when
the saddle-node disappears via the fold bifurcation. The
cycle can be either attracting/repelling or saddle type,
depending on the location of the non-zero eigenvalues of
Xo on the complex plane. If the saddle-node has more
than two homo clinic orbits, f l , ... , f m, then, generi-
cally, infinitely many saddle limit cycles appear from
fl u··· U f m, when the equilibrium Xo disappears. The
genericity conditions include the non-degeneracy of the
underlying fold bifurcation, as well as the requirement
that fo departs and returns to the saddle-node along
the null-vector of the Jacobian matrix evaluated at Xo
for a = O. The two-dimensional case has been treated in
[1]. The cases with n > 2 were considered by Shil'nikov
[9], [12] and presented in [2], [5].
In generic discrete-time dynamical systems defined
by iterations of diffeomorphisms, orbits which are ho-
moclinic to a hyperbolic fixed point persist under small
parameter variations. Stable and unstable manifolds of
the fixed point intersect transversally along the homo-
clinic orbits, implying the existence of the Poincare ho-
moclinic structure with infinitely many saddle periodic
orbits [14], [7], [10], [8], [6]. The homo clinic structure
294
appears/disappears via a non-transversal homo clinic bi-
furcation, when the stable and the unstable manifolds
of the fixed point become tangent along the homo clinic
orbit [3], [4], [16].
References
[1] ANDRONOV, A.A., LEONTOVICH, E.A., GORDON, 1.1., AND
MAIER, A.G.: Theory of bifurcations of dynamical systems
on a plane, Israel Program of Scientific Translations, 1971.
(Translated from the Russian.)
[2] ARNOL'D, V.I., AFRAIMOVICH, V.S., IL'YASHENKO, YU.S.,
AND SHIL'NIKOV, L.P.: 'Bifurcation theory', Dynamical Sys-
tems V, in V.I. ARNOL'D (ed.), Encycl. Math. Sci. Springer,
1994. (Translated from the Russian.)
[3] GAVRILOV, N.K., AND SHILNIKOV, L.P.: 'On three-
dimensional systems close to systems with a structurally un-
stable homoclinic curve: 1', Mat. USSR-Sb. 17 (1972), 467-
485. (In Russian.)
[4} GAVRILOV, N.K., AND SHILNIKOV, L.P.: 'On three-
dimensional systems close to systems with a structurally un-
stable homo clinic curve: II', Mat. USSR-Sb. 19 (1973), 139-
156. (In Russian.)
[5} KUZNETSOV, YU.A.: Elements of applied bifurcation theory,
Springer, 1995.
[6} MOSER, J.: Stable and random motions in dynamical sys-
tems, Princeton Univ. Press, 1973.
[7} NEIMARK, Yu.I.: 'On motions close to a bi-asymptotic mo-
tion', Dokl. AKad. Nauk SSSR 142 (1967), 1021-1024. (In
Russian.)
[8} NITECKI, Z.: Differentiable dynamics, MIT, 1971.
[9} SHIL'NIKOV, L.P.: 'On the generation of a periodic motion
from a trajectory which leaves and re-enters a saddle-saddle
state of equilibrium', Soviet Math. Dokl. 7 (1966), 1155-1158.
(Translated from the Russian.)
[10} SHIL'NIKOV, L.P.: 'On a Poincare-Birkhoff problem', Mat.
USSR Sb. 3 (1967),353-371. (In Russian.)
[11} SHIL'NIKOV, L.P.: 'On the generation of periodic motion from
trajectories doubly asymptotic to an equilibrium state of sad-
dle type', Mat. USSR-Sb. 6 (1968),427-437. (In Russian.)
[12} SHIL'NIKOV, L.P.: 'On a new type of bifurcation of multidi-
mensional dynamical systems', Soviet Math. Dokl. 10 (1969),
1368-1371. (Translated from the Russian.)
[13} SHIL'NIKOV, L.P.: 'A contribution to the problem of the struc-
ture of an extended neighborhood of a rough equilibrium
state of saddle-focus type', Mat. USSR-Sb. 10 (1970), 91-
102. (In Russian.)
[14} SMALE, S.: 'Differentiable dynamical systems', Bull. Amer.
Math. Soc. 73 (1967), 747-817.
[15} WIGGINS, S.: Global bifurcations and chaos, Springer, 1988.
[16} WIGGINS, S.: Introduction to applied non-linear dynamical
systems and chaos, Springer, 1990.
Yu.A. Kuznetsov
MSC 1991: 58F14
HOPF ALTERNATIVE - Let T be an invertible
transformation of a Borel space X with a (1-finite
quasi-invariant measure (cf. also Invariant measure)
m. One can single out the following natural types of be-
haviour of T on a measurable subset A eX:
1) A is invariant, i.e., TA = A;

2) A is recurrent, i.e., for almost every point x E A
there is an n = n(x) > 0 such that Tnx E A;
3) A is wandering, i.e., all its translations are pair-
wise disjoint (so that almost every point x E A never
returns to A under the iterated action of T).
The transformation T is called ergodic (cf. Ergodicity)
if there are no non-trivial invariant sets (i.e., such that
both the set and its complement have non-zero mea-
sure), conservative if there are no non-trivial wandering
sets, and completely dissipative if there exists a wander-
ing set A (a 'fundamental domain') such that the union
of its translations Tn A, nEZ, is the whole space X.
If A is a wandering set, then for almost every x E A
the orbit {Tnx} is an ergodic component of the action
of T, and the group Z ~ {Tn} acts freely on this or-
bit (an orbit with these two properties is a dissipative
orbit). Conversely, the restriction of T onto any mea-
surable set consisting of dissipative orbits is completely
dissipative. Hence, the space X admits a unique Hopf
decomposition into the union of two T-invariant disjoint
measurable sets C and D (the conservative and dissipa-
tive parts of X, respectively) such that the restriction
of the action onto C is conservative, and the restriction
onto D (which is the union of all dissipative orbits) is
completely dissipative.
For invertible transformations (i.e., measure-type
preserving actions of the group Z) the Hopf decompo-
sition was introduced in [1]. It can also be obtained for
actions of R (called flows), [5], [6], or for actions of gen-
eral countable groups, [4]. See [7] for general references
on the Hopf decomposition.
An ergodic transformation (cf. also Ergodicity) is
conservative unless the space (X, m) consists of a sin-
gle dissipative orbit. If m(X) < 00, then any measure-
preserving invertible transformation is conservative (the
Poincare recurrence theorem; cf. Poincare return the-
orem).
E. Hopf [2], [3] showed that for a surface M of con-
stant negative curvature, conservativity of the geodesic
flow {Tt} on the unit tangent bundle SM (with respect
to the Liouville invariant measure) implies its ergodic-
ity, so that the geodesic flow is either ergodic and con-
servative or completely dissipative. The original proof
of Hopf was based on the ratio ergodic theorem (cf.
Ornstein-Chacon ergodic theorem) for conserva-
tive measure-preserving transformations [1] and the fact
that the distance between any two geodesics on the hy-
perbolic plane with the same end-point tends to zero
(convergence of geodesics). Thus, the ratio Cesaro av-
erages of any uniformly continuous function must coin-
cide along any two geodesics which are asymptotic at
+00 (or at -00). Therefore, the ratio Cesaro averages
are the same for all geodesics, whence {Tt} is ergodic.
HOPF ALTERNATIVE
This argument easily carries over to more general sit-
uations. It can be simplified by using the usual Birkhoff
ergodic theorem for induced transformations instead
of the ratio ergodic theorem [4].
Below, a modern formulation of the Hopf alternative
for the geodesic flow on a Riemannian manifold M
with pinched negative curvature is given, [4]. The Hopf
alternative can similarly be formulated for geodesic flows
on CAT( -1 )-spaces, trees and general Gromov hyper-
bolic spaces (cf. also Gromov hyperbolic space).
Invariant measures of the geodesic flow on S Mare
in one-to-one correspondence with measures on SM (M
denotes the universal covering space of M) that are si-
multaneously invariant with respect to the geodesic flow
and the action of the fundamental group G = 7fl (M).
Since any infinite geodesic on M is (up to parametriza-
tion) uniquely determined by the pair of its end-points
on the sphere at infinity 8M, there is a one-to-one corre-
spondence between invariant Radon measures A of the
geodesic flow on SM and G-invariant Radon measures
A on 8M x 8M \ diag (the latter measures are called geo-
desic currents). Denote by Or C 8M the radial limit set
of the group G, see Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem.
Let A be a Radon-invariant measure of the geodesic
flow, and let A be the corresponding geodesic current.
Suppose that A is equivalent to a product of two mea-
sures on 8M (this is the case for the Liouville-invariant
measure of the geodesic flow as well as for other natural
invariant measures). Then either:
a) the geodesic flow on M is conservative and ergodic
with respect to the measure A;
b) the action of G on 8M x 8M \ diag is ergodic and
conservative with respect to the measure A;
c) the measure A is concentrated on Or X Or;
or:
a) the geodesic flow on M is completely dissipative
with respect to the measure A;
fJ) the action of G on 8M x 8M \ diag is completely
dissipative with respect to the measure A;
J) the measure A is concentrated on (8M\Or) x (8M\
Or).
References
[1] HOPF, E.: Ergodentheorie, Springer, 1937.
[2] HOPF, E.: 'Statistik der geodatischen Linien in Mannig-
faltigkeiten negativer Krummung', Ber. Verh. Sachs. Akad.
Wiss. Leipzig 91 (1939), 261-304.
[3] HOPF, E.: 'Ergodic theory and the geodesic flow on surfaces
of constant negative curvature', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 77
(1971), 863-877.
[4] KAIMANOVICH, V.A.: 'Ergodicity of harmonic invariant mea-
sures for the geodesic flow on hyperbolic spaces', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 455 (1994),57-103.
[5] KRENGEL, U.: 'Darstellungsatze fur Stromungen und Halb-
stromungen 1', Math. Ann. 176 (1968), 181-190.
295
HOPF ALTERNATIVE
[6] KRENGEL, u.: 'Darstellungsatze fur Stromungen und Halb-
stromungen II', Math. Ann. 182 (1969), 1-39.
[7] KRENGEL, U.: Ergodic theorems, de Gruyter, 1985.
V.A. Kaimanovich
MSC 1991: 28D15, 58F17
HOPF BIFURCATION - Consider an autonomous
system of ordinary differential equations depending on
a parameter
x = f(x, 0:), (1)
where f is a smooth function. Suppose that at 0: = 0, the
system (1) has an equilibrium position x = 0 with a
simple pair of purely imaginary eigenvalues A1,2 = ±iwo,
Wo > 0, of its Jacobian matrix A = fx(O, 0). Then, gener-
ically, a unique limit cycle bifurcates from the equilib-
rium while it changes stability, as 0: passes through 0: =
O. This phenomenon is called the Hopf (or Andronov-
Hop!) bifurcation [1], [7], [2], [3]. It is characterized by
a single bifurcation condition Re A1,2 = 0 (has codimen-
sion one) and appears generically in one-parameter fam-
ilies.
First, consider a smooth planar system
x = f(x, 0:), (2)
that has for all sufficiently small 10:1 the equilibrium
x = 0 with eigenvalues A1,2(0:) = Ji(o:)±iw(o:), Ji(O) = 0,
w(O) = Wo > o. If the following non-degeneracy (gener-
icity) conditions hold:
1) h(O) i=- 0, where h(o:) is the first Lyapunov coeffi-
cient (see below);
2) Ji' (0) i=- 0,
then (2) is locally topologically equivalent (cf. Equiva-
lence of dynamical systems) near the origin to the
normal form
= (3Y1 - Y2 + aY1 (Yi + y~),
Y1
{ (3)
Y2 = Y1 + (3Y2 + aY2(yi + y~),
where Y = (Y1,Y2)T E R2, (3 E Rl, a = signh(O) = ±1
(see [2], [6]).
~<o
G ~>o
Fig. 1: Supercritical Hopf bifurcation on the plane
Consider the case a = -1. Then the system (3) has
an equilibrium at the origin x = 0, which is stable for
(3 :::; 0 (weakly at (3 = 0) and unstable for (3 > o. More-
over, there is a unique and stable circular limit cycle
that exists for (3 > 0 and has radius J73 (see Fig. 1).
This is a supercritical Hopf bifurcation.
296
~=O
Fig. 2: Sub critical Hopf bifurcation on the plane
For a = 1, the origin in (3) is stable for (3 < 0 and
unstable for (3 2: 0 (weakly at (3 = 0), while a unique
and unstable limit cycle exists for (3 < 0 (see Fig. 2).
This is a subcritical Hopf bifurcation.
In the n-dimensional case, the Jacobian matrix A
evaluated at the equilibrium x = 0 has a simple pair
of purely imaginary eigenvalues A1,2 = ±wo, Wo > 0, as
well as ns eigenvalues with Re Aj < 0, and nu eigen-
values with Re Aj > 0 (ns + nu + 2 = n). According
to the centre manifold theorem (cf. Centre manifold)
[5], [7], [2], there is an invariant two-dimensional centre
manifold Me< near the origin, the restriction of (1) to
which has the form (2). Moreover, [2], under the non-
degeneracy conditions 1) and 2), the system (1) is locally
topologically equivalent (cf. Equivalence of dynami-
cal systems) near the origin to the suspension of the
normal form (3) by the standard saddle:
j Y1
~2
Ys -
= (3Y1 - Y2
:
+ aY1(yi + y~),
~1 + (3Y2 + aY2(yi + y~),
Ys,
(4)
Yu = +Yu,
where (3 E Rl, Y = (Y1,Y2)T E R2, Ys E Rns, Yu E Rnu.
Fig. 3 shows the phase portraits of the system (4) in the
three-dimensional case, when n = 3, ns = 1, nu = 0,
and a = -1.
13<0 13=0
Fig. 3: Hopf bifurcation in R3
13>0
The first Lyapunov coefficient h (0) can be computed
(to within a scalar multiple) in terms of the right-hand
side of (1) at 0: = o. Represent f(x,O) as
1 1 4
f(x,O) = Ax + 2B(x, x) + 6"C(x, x, x) + O(llxll ),
where B(x, y) and C(x, y, z) are multilinear functions
(cf. also Multilinear mapping). In coordinates one
 HOPF MANIFOLD

has a differentiable manifold, any CHr;: is diffeomorphic

to s2n-l X SI. Consequently, when n 2: 2 the first Betti
number bl (CHr;:) = 1; hence, such CHr;: provide exam-
ples of compact complex manifolds (cf. Complex man-
C(X
, ,y,
z)-
-
~
~
a3fi(~,0)1
atat at
.
XJYkZI,
ifold) not admitting any Kahler metric (note that, for
j,k,l=1 <,J <,k <,1 e=o n = 1, CHl is a I-dimensional complex torus). How-
ever, these manifolds do carry a particularly interest-
where i = 1, ... ,n. Let q be a complex eigenvector of A
ing class of Hermitian metrics (cf. Hermitian metric),
corresponding to the eigenvalue iwo:
namely locally conformal Kahler metrics (a Hermitian
Aq = iwoq, metric is locally conformal Kahler if its fundamental 2-
Introduce also the adjoint eigenvector p: form n satisfies the integrability condition dn = w /\ n
with a closed I-form w, called the Lee form). An ex-
ATp = -iwoP, (p,q) = 1, ample of such a metric is the projection of the follow-
where (p, q) = 'L,7=1 Pjqj is the inner product in cn. ing metric on cn \ {O}: 90 = Izl- 2 8jk dz j ® az k , whose
Then (see, for example, [6]) Lee form is Wo = Izl- 2 'L,(zj azj + zj dz j ). It is parallel
with respect to the Levi-Civita connection of go. This
II (0) = originated the study of the more general class of gener-
1
= -2 Re [(p,C(q,q,q)) - 2\p,B(q,A- I B(q,q))) + alized Hopf manifolds: locally conformal Kahler mani-
Wo folds with parallel Lee form. Their geometry is closely
+ \P, B(q, (2iwoln - A)-1 B(q, q)))] . related to Sasakian and Kiihlerian geometries. Generi-
There is an analogue of the Hopf bifurcation for cally, a compact generalized Hopf manifold arises as the
discrete-time dynamical systems, called the Ne1:mark- total space of a fiat, principal SI bundle over a com-
Sacker bifurcation [7], [4], [2], [8], [6]. Under certain pact Sasakian orbifold and, on the other hand, fibres
non-degeneracy conditions, it generates a closed invari- into I-dimensional complex tori over a Kahler orbifold.
ant curve around a fixed point which changes stability I. Vaisman conjectured that a compact locally con-
due to the transition of a pair of its complex eigenvalues formal Kahler manifold that is not globally conformal
through the unit circle. Kahler must have an odd Betti number. To date (1996),
this has only been proved for generalized Hopf manifolds
References
[1] ANDRONOV, A.A., LEONTOVICH, E.A., GORDON, 1.1., AND (see [6]).
MAIER, A.G.: Theory of bifurcations of dynamical systems It is rather difficult to characterize the Hopf man-
on a plane, Israel Program of Scientific Translations, 1971. ifolds among the locally conformal Kahler manifolds.
(Translated from the Russian.)
However, in complex dimension 2 several such charac-
[2] ARNOL'D, V.I.: Geometrical methods in the theory of or-
dinary differential equations, Vol. 250 of Grundlehren der terizations are available; for instance, the only compact
mathematischen Wissenschaften, Springer, 1983. (Translated complex surface with bl = 1 and admitting conformally
from the Russian.) fiat Hermitian metrics is CH~ (cf. [5]; see also [1]).
[3] GUCKENHEIMER, J., AND HOLMES, PH.: Nonlinear oscilla-
By analogy, 'real Hopf manifolds' were defined as
tions, dynamical systems and bifurcations of vector fields,
Springer, 1983.
(compact) quotients of R n \ {O} by an appropriate group
[4] looss, G.: Bifurcations of maps and applications, North- of conformal transformations (see [7] and [3]). Similarly,
Holland, 1979. 'quaternion Hopf manifolds' are defined as quotients of
[5] KELLEY, A.: 'The stable, center stable, center, center unstable Hn \ {O} (see [4]).
and unstable manifolds', J. Differential Equations 3 (1967),
546-570. References
[6] KUZNETSOV, Yu.A.: Elements of applied bifurcation theory, [1] BOYER, C.P.: 'Conformal duality and compact complex sur-
Springer, 1995. faces', Math. Ann. 274 (1986), 517-526.
[7] MARSDEN, J., AND MCCRACKEN, M.: Hopf bifurcation and [2] DRAGOMIR, S., AND ORNEA, L.: Locally conformal Kiihler ge-
its applications, Springer, 1976. ometry, Birkhiiuser, 1997.
[8] WHITLEY, D.C.: 'Discrete dynamical systems in dimensions [3] GAUDUCHON, P.: 'Structures de Weyl-Einstein, espaces de
one and two', Bull. London Math. Soc. 15 (1983), 177--217. twisteurs et varietes de type S1 X 8 3 " J. Reine Angew. Math.
Yu.A. Kuznetsov 455 (1995), 1-50.
MSC 1991: 58F14 [4] ORNEA, L., AND PICCINNI, P.: 'Locally conformal Kiihler
structures in quat ern ionic geometry', Trans. Amer. Math.
Soc. 349 (1997), 641-655.
HOPF MANIFOLD- A complex Hopf manifold is
[5] PONTECORVO, M.: 'Uniformization of conformally flat Her-
a quotient of cn \ {O} by the infinite cyclic group mitian surfaces', Diff. Geom. Appl. 3 (1992), 295-305.
of holomorphic transformations generated by Z f-t AZ, [6] VAISMAN, I.: 'Generalized Hopf manifolds', Geom. Dedicata
A E C \ {O}, IAI =I=- 1. It is usually denoted by CHr;:. As 13 (1982), 231-255.

297
HOPF MANIFOLD
[7J VAISMAN, I., AND REISCHER, C.: 'Local similarity manifolds',
Ann. Mat. Pura Appl. 35 (1983),279-292.
L. Ornea
MSC 1991: 53C25, 53C55
HOPF ORDER - Let K be a finite extension of the
p-adic rationals Qp endowed with the p-adic valuation
v with v(p) = 1 and let R be its ring of integers (cf.
Extension of a field; Norm on a field; p-adic num-
ber). Let KG be the group ring of a finite group G (cf.
also Group algebra; Cross product), with IGI = q.
An R-Hopf order in KG is a rank-q R-Hopf algebra H
(cf. Hopf algebra) satisfying H®RK ~ KG as K-Hopf
algebras.
There is a method [2] for constructing R-Hopf or-
ders in KG using so-called p-adic order-bounded group
valuations on G. Given a p-adic order-bounded group
valuation e,let Xe(g) be an element in R of value e(g).
Then the R- Hopf order in KG determined by (called e for some a, b, w.
a Larson order) is of the form
A(e) = R [{ 9 - 1: 9 E G, 9 -II}] .
xe(g)
For G Abelian (cf. Abelian group), the classification of
R-Hopf orders in KG is reduced to the case where Gis
a p-group. Specifically, one takes G = Cpn, Cpn cyclic
of order pn, and assumes that K contains a primitive
pnth root of unity, denoted by (n' In this case, a p-adic
e
order-bounded group valuation on Cpn is determined
by its values e(gPi) = Si for i = 0, ... ,n - 1, (g) = Cpn,
and the Larson order A(e) is denoted by
H(Sn-b'" ,so) = R [
gpn-l - 1'''., - 1] .
9-
X Sn _1 xSo
It is known [3] that every R-Hopf order H in KCp can
be written as a Tate-Dort algebra Hb = R[xl/(xP - bx),
which in turn can be expressed as the Larson order
Thus, every R-Hopf order in KCp is Larson. For n > 1
this is not the case, though every R-Hopf order does
contain a maximal Larson order [2].
For n = 2 there exists a large class of R- Hopf orders
in K Cp2 (called Greither orders), of the form
gP - 1 9 - av]
Hv(s,r)=R [- - , - - ,
Xs Xr
(g) = C p 2, where sand r are values from a p-adic order-
bounded group valuation on Cp 2 and a v is an element
in the Larson order H(s) (see [1]). The parameter v is
an element in the units group US'e+(re/p) n U(s'e/p)+re,
where e is the ramification index of p in R, and s' =
1/(p-l) - s. If v = 1, then the Greither order HI (s, r) is
298
the Larson order H(s, r); moreover, Hv(s, r) ~ Hw(s, r)
if and only if v/w E US'e+re'
Since (n E K, the linear dual H* of the R-Hopf order
H in KCpn is an R-Hopf order in KCpn. One has
H(s)* ~R [g -
X s'
1]
and
Hv(s,r)* ~ R [gP -1, 9 - av'] ,
X r' X s'
where v' = 1 + (2 - v, r' = 1/(p - 1) - r (see [5]). It
is known [4] that an arbitrary R-Hopf order in KCp2 is
either a Greither order or the linear dual of a Greither
order. Thus, every R-Hopf order in KCp2 can be written
in the form
The construction of Greither orders can be general-
ized to give a complete classification of R-Hopf orders
in KCp3, as well as a class of R-Hopf orders in KCpn,
n> 2, which are not Larson (see [5]). However, the com-
plete classification of R-Hopf orders in KCpn, n > 3,
remains an open problem.
See also Hopf orders, applications of.
References
[lJ GREITHER, c.: 'Extensions of finite group schemes, and Hopf
Galois theory over a complete discrete valuation ring', Math.
Zeit. 210 (1992), 37-67.
[2J LARSON, R.G.: 'Hopf algebra orders determined by group val-
uations', J. Algebra 38 (1976).
[3J TATE, J., AND OORT, F.: 'Group schemes of prime order',
Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm. Super. (4) 3 (1970).
[4J UNDERWOOD, R.G.: 'R-Hopf algebra orders in KCp 2', J. AL-
gebra 169 (1994).
[5J UNDERWOOD, R.G.: 'The valuative condition and R-Hopf al-
gebra orders in KCp 3', Amer. J. Math. (4) 118 (1996), 701-
743.
R. G. Underwood
MSC 1991: 16W30, 16S34
HOPF ORDERS, APPLICATIONS OF - Let K be
a finite extension of the p-adic rationals Qp endowed
with the p-adic valuation 1/ with v(p) = 1 and let R
be its ring of integers (cf. also Extension of a field;
Norm on a field; p-adic number). Let e be the ram-
ification index of p in R and assume that K contains a
primitive p2rd root of unity. If H(s) is an R-Hopf or-
der in KCp (cf. Hopf order), then the group scheme
SpH(s) = HOmR_alg(H(s),') can be resolved, i.e., in-
volved in a short exact sequence of group schemes
Sp H (s) --+ E S --+ Eps (taken in the flat topology).
Here, Es and Eps are represented by the R-Hopf alge-
bras R[X, (1 +xsX)-I] and R[X, (1 +xpsX)-I], respec-
tively (X an indeterminate). One uses this short exact

sequence in the long exact sequence in cohomology
to construct H1(R,SpH(s)), which is identified with
the group of H (s )-Galois extensions of R (cf. also Ga-
lois extension). One has UpsejUfe ~ H1(R,SpH(s)),
where the class [w] corresponds to the isomorphism class
[S] of the H -Galois extension
with uP = w (see [2]). Moreover, if H = H(O, 0)'
H(2 (t, t), t = 1j(p - 1), is the dual of the Lar-
son order H(O,O) ~ RCp2 (cf. Hopf order), then
Sp H can be involved in the short exact sequence of
group schemes SpH(O,O)' -+ Wt,t -+ Vpt,pt, where
Wt,t and Vpt,pt are represented by the R-Hopf algebras
R[X, Y, (1 +XtX)-l, (F1 (X) +Xty)-l] and R[X, Y, (1 +
XptX)-l, (G 1(X) + Xpty)-l] for appropriate polynomi-
als F1 (X), G 1(X) E R[X], respectively (see [3]). Work
has been completed to obtain a resolution of Sp Av (s, r)
when Av(s, r) is an arbitrary R-Hopf order in KCp 2 (see
[4]). This yields (via the long exact sequence in cohomol-
ogy) a characterization of all Av (s, r )-Galois extensions.
In general, if H is an R-Hopf order in KCpn, then S is
an H -Galois extension if and only if S is an H' -Galois
algebra (see [1]).
Examples of H-Galois extensions where H is a Tate-
Oort-Larson order in KCp can be recovered using the
corresponding classification theorem. For example, if
Lj K is a Kummer extension of prime degree, then
OL is an H(s)-Galois algebra if and only if the ramifi-
cation number t of Lj K satisfies t = pse - 1 (see [1]).
Therefore, OL is an H(s)' = H(s')-Galois extension,
thus
u --
OL =R [- 1]
X s'
for some parameter u. Knowledge of Tate-Oort Galois
extensions can also be used to characterize the ring of
integers of certain degree-p2 extensions. For example, if
Hv(s,r), r > 0, is a Greither order (cf. Hopf order)
with pi re and vK(l- v) = s' + (r jp), then there exists
a finite extension Lj K so that OL is an Hv(s, r)-Galois
algebra. In this case, OL is of the form
where u is an element in OL and A is an H(r')-Galois
extension (see [2]).
References
[1] CHILDS, L.: 'Taming wild extensions with Hopf algebras',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 304 (1987).
[2] GREITHER, C.: 'Extensions of finite group schemes, and Hopf
Galois theory over a complete discrete valuation ring', Math.
Zeit. 210 (1992), 37-67.
[3] SEKIGUCHI, T., AND SUWA, N.: 'Theories de Kummer-Artin-
Schreier-Witt', C.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. 1319 (1994), 1-21.
HOPF RING
[4] UNDERWOOD, R.G.: 'The group of Galois extensions in
KCp 2', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 349 (1997), 1503-1514.
R. G. Underwood
MSC 1991: 16W30, 11R54, 13B05
HOPF RING - A (graded) ring object in the cat-
egory of (graded) co-commutative co-algebras (cf. Co-
algebra). Such an object consists, first, of a sequence
{HJ of Abelian group objects in the category. These
~ are better known as commutative Hop! algebras with
conjugation. Since they belong to the category, they
have a coproduct:
'lj;: Hi -+ Hi 0 Hi.
Let 'lj; (x) = L x' 0 x". As group objects in a category of
co-algebras, the Hi also have a product Hi 0 Hi -+ Hi.
Below, this product is denoted by *. The '*' product
should be thought of as 'addition' in the ring as it is the
pairing which gives the Abelian group structure. For ring
'multiplication' one has
0: Hi 0 H j -+ Hi+j .
As with any ring, there must be a distributive law re-
lating the multiplication and the addition. Chasing dia-
grams in the category one sees that it is:
x 0 (y * z) = L ±(x' 0 y) * (x' 0 z).
Hopf rings arise naturally in the study of the n-
spectra associated with generalized cohomology theo-
ries. Any generalized cohomology theory, G'(X), gives
rise to a sequence of spaces, {G k}' with the property
that Gk(X) ~ [X, Gk], the homotopy classes of map-
pings. If G is a multiplicative theory, then {G k} is a
graded ring object in the homotopy category. If E rep-
resents a generalized homology theory and if there is a
Kiinneth isomorphism for the E-homology of the spaces
in the n-spectra for G, then the sequence {E.(G.)} be-
comes a Hopfring. One can thus use knowledge of gener-
alized homologies to further the understanding of gener-
alized co homologies by studying their classifying spaces
using Hopf rings.
There are a number of Hopf rings which have been
computed. Examples are E.(BP.) and E.(MU.), E
a complex orient able theory, [8] (the basic reference
--. --.
for Hopf rings); E.(K(n) ) and E.(P(n) ), E a com-
plex orientable theory with In = 0, [14] and [10];
H.(K(Zj(p), *)), [13, §8]; K(n).( -) for Eilenberg-
MacLane spaces, [9]; K(n).(k(n) J,
[6]; H.(KO), [11];
and the breakthrough description of H.(QSo,Zj(2)) in
[12], and its sequel for H. (QS', Zj (2)) in [1] followed
by corresponding results for odd primes in [7]. Other
references are [2], [3], [4], and [5].
Hopf rings have a very rich algebraic structure, useful
in two distinct ways: descriptive and computational. All
299
HOPF RING
of the above examples have their Hopf rings described
with just a few generators and relations. The compu-
tations are generally carried out using Hopf ring tech-
niques as well.
References
[1] ECCLES, P.J., TURNER, P.R., AND WILSON, W.S.: 'On the
Hopf ring for the sphere', Math. ZeitschriJt (to appear).
[2] HOPKINS, M.J., AND HUNTON, J.R.: 'The structure of spaces
representing a Landweber exact cohomology theory', Topol-
ogy (to appear).
[3] HUNTON, J.R., AND RAY, N.: 'A rational approach to Hopf
rings', J. Pure and Applied Algebra (to appear).
[4] KASHIWABARA, T.: 'Hopf rings and unstable operations', J.
Pure and Applied Algebra 194 (1994), 183-193.
[5] KASHIWABARA, T., STRICKLAND, N.P., AND TURNER, P.R.:
'Morava K-theory Hopf ring for BP', in C. BROTO ET AL.
(eds.): Algebraic Topology: New Trends in Localization and
Periodicity, Vol. 139 of Progress in Mathematics, Birkhauser,
1996, pp. 209-222.
[6] KRAMER, R.: 'The periodic Hopf ring of connective Morava
K-theory', PhD thesis, Johns Hopkins Univ. (1990).
[7] LI, Y.: 'On the Hopf ring for the sphere', PhD thesis, Johns
Hopkins Univ. (1996).
[8] RAVENEL, D.C., AND WILSON, W.S.: 'The Hopf ring for com-
plex cobordism', J. Pure and Applied Algebra 9 (1977),241-
280.
[9] RAVENEL, D.C., AND WILSON, W.S.: 'The Morava K-theories
of Eilenberg-Mac Lane spaces and the Conner-Floyd conjec-
ture', Amer. J. Math. 102 (1980),691-748.
[10] RAVENEL, D.C., AND WILSON, W.S.: 'The Hopf ring for
P(n)', Canadian J. Math. (to appear).
[11] STRICKLAND, N.: 'Bott periodicity and Hopf rings', PhD the-
sis, Univ. Manchester (1992).
[12] TURNER, P.R.: 'Dickson coinvariants and the homology of
H.QSo" Math. ZeitschriJt (to appear).
[13] WILSON, W.S.: Brown-Peterson homology: an introduction
and sampler, Vol. 48 of CBMS, Amer. Math. Soc., 1982.
[14] WILSON, W.S.: 'The Hopf ring for Morava K-theory', Publ.
RIMS Kyoto Univ. 20 (1984), 1025-1036.
W.S. Wilson
MSC 1991: 16W30, 55N20, 55N22
HOPF-TSUJI-SULLIVAN THEOREM - This the-
orem establishes the equivalence of several characteriza-
tions of 'smallness' of a Riemannian manifold of con-
stant negative curvature, or, more generally, of a discrete
group G of isometries of the (d + 1)-dimensional hyper-
bolic space HM! (cf. also Discrete group of trans-
formations) .
Denote by oH d+1 = Sd the sphere at infinity (the
visibility sphere), of H d+1, and fix an origin 0 E Hd+1.
A point 'Y E oHM! is called a radial limit point of the
group G if there exists a number R > 0 such that the
R-neighbourhood of the geodesic ray [0, 'Y] contains in-
finitely many points from the orbit Go = {go: g E G}.
The set Or C Sd of all radial limit points is called
the radial limit set of G. Alternatively, let the shadow
So(x, R) C oHM! of the ball B(x, R) of radius R > 0
centred at a point x E HM! be the set of end-points of
300
all geodesic rays which are issued from 0 and intersect
B(x, R). Then 'Y E Or if and only if there is an R > 0
such that 'Y belongs to an infinite number of shadows
So(go, R), g E G.
The following conditions are equivalent:
1) The Poincare. series'"
~gEG
e- d dist{o,go) diverges '
where dist ( " .) is the Riemannian distance on H d +1 .
2) The quotient M = Hd+1 IG has no Green func-
tion, i.e., M has no non-constant negative subharmonic
functions (cf. also Subharmonic function), or, equiv-
alently, the Brownian motion on M is recurrent.
3) The complement of the radial limit set oH d +1 \ Or
has Lebesgue measure zero.
4) The geodesic flow on M is ergodic with respect
to the Liouville-invariant measure (the one determined
by the Riemannian volume).
5) The action of G on the product oHM! X oHM!
is ergodic with respect to the Lebesgue measure.
Usually the term 'Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem' !s
applied to the equivalence of 1), 3) and 4). For d = 1
the implication 3):=;'4) was first proved by E. Hopf [2],
[3], and the implications 4):=;.1):=;.3) by M. Tsuji, see [9].
Tsuji's proof is essentially 2-dimensional, as it uses com-
plex function theory, whereas Hoprs argument easily
carries over to the higher-dimensional case. D. Sullivan
[8] used an entirely different way for proving the chain of
implications 4):=;.3):=;.1):=;.4) for an arbitrary dimension
d.
The equivalence of 1) and 2) follows from the asymp-
totic equivalence of the Green function on H d +1 to
e- d dist{x,y), whereas the equivalence of 3), 4) and 5) is
a much more general fact, see Hopf alternative. Sul-
livan's idea was to deduce the implication 2):=;'5) from
general properties of recurrent Markov operators. On
the other hand, the implication 3):=;' 1) is an easy corol-
lary of the estimate vo(S(R, go)) rv e- d dist(o,go), where
Vo is the image of the Lebesgue measure on the unit tan-
gent sphere at the point 0 under the exponential map-
ping (a particular case of the Sullivan shadow lemma).
Ergodicity of the action of G on oHM! (i.e., ab-
sence of bounded harmonic functions on M) is weaker
than 5). For Riemannian surfaces the implication 'no
Green function' :=;. 'no non-constant bounded harmonic
functions' is known as the Myrberg theorem, see [1].
In probabilistic terms, this implication can be reformu-
lated as 'ergodicity of the time shift in the bilateral path
space' :=;. 'ergodicity of the time shift in the unilateral
path space', or just that recurrence of the Brownian
motion M implies absence of non-constant bounded
harmonic functions [4]. The latter reformulation allows
one to construct examples of discrete groups of isome-
tries of H d +1 whose action on oH d +1 is ergodic and

on aHMl x aHMl is not, in a much simpler way than
original Riemann surface examples, [5].
An analogue of the Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem for
the invariant measure of the geodesic flow correspond-
ing to the Patterson-Sullivan measure on aHMl was
proved in [7], see also [6]. In this setup, condition 1)
is replaced by divergence of the Poincare series at the
critical exponent of the group C.
In the non-constant curvature case, generalizations
of the Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem were obtained in [4]
for the harmonic invariant measure of the geodesic flow
and in [10] for the Patterson-Sullivan measure.
References
[1] AHLFORS, L.V., AND SARlO, L.: Riemann surfaces, Prince-
ton Univ. Press, 1960.
[2] HOPF, E.: 'Statistik der geodiitischen Linien in Mannig-
faltigkeiten negativer Krummung', Ber. Verh. Sachs. Akad.
Wiss. Leipzig 91 (1939),261-304.
[3] HOPF, E.: 'Ergodic theory and the geodesic flow on surfaces
of constant negative curvature', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 77
(1971),863-877.
[4] KAIMANOVICH, V.A.: 'Ergodicity of harmonic invariant mea-
sures for the geodesic flow on hyperbolic spaces', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 455 (1994), 57-103.
[5] LYONS, T., AND SULLIVAN, D.: 'Function theory, random
paths and covering spaces', J. Diff. Geom. 19 (1984), 299-
323.
[6] NICHOLLS, P.J.: Ergodic theory of discrete groups, Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1989.
[7] SULLIVAN, D.: 'The density at infinity of a discrete group of
hyperbolic motions', IHES Publ. Math. 50 (1979), 171-202.
[8] SULLIVAN, D.: 'On the ergodic theory at infinity of an ar-
bitrary discrete group of hyperbolic motions', Ann. Math.
Studies 97 (1980), 465--496.
[9] TSUJI, M.: Potential theory in modern function theory,
Maruzen, 1959.
[10] YUE, C.B.: 'The ergodic theory of discrete isometry groups
on manifolds of variable negative curvature', Trans. Amer.
Math. Soc. 348 (1996), 4965-5005.
V.A. Kaimanovich
MSC 1991: 53C20, 58F17
HOUGH TRANSFORMATION - An approach to de-
tect straight lines (or curves) in an image (a picture), by
applying a coordinate transformation to the image such
that all the points belonging to a line (or a curve) are
mapped into a single point in the transformed space.
The method to detect lines may be explained as fol-
lows [2]. The set of all straight lines in the (x, y)-image
plane gives rise to a two-parameter family. When us-
ing the normal parametrization (cf. also Normal equa-
tion), the equation of a line is given by
x cos e + y sin e = p, (1)
where e is the oriented angle of the normal onto the
line, and where p is the algebraic distance of the line
e
from the origin. Restricting to the interval [O,1l'], the
normal parameters for a line are unique. Taking the
HOUGH TRANSFORMATION
(e, p)-space as the transformed space, every line in the
(x, y)-plane corresponds to a unique point in the trans-
formed space (in the original Hough-transform method
the slope-intercept representation of a line, namely y =
mx + b, was used, and the (m, b)-space was the trans-
formed space ; as both the slope and the intercept may
become infinite, the technique is more involved, [3]).
Taking now a fixed point (Xi, Yi) in the (x, y)-plane,
this point gives rise in the (e, p )-space to a curve defined
by
p = Xi cos e+ Yi sin e. (2)
Clearly, when one has a set {(Xl, yd, ... , (Xn' Yn)} of
picture points that are collinear in the (x, y)-plane, the
n curves in the (e, p)-space corresponding to these points
according to (2) have a common point of intersection,
say (es,ps)' Writing (1) with e == es and p == Ps, one
obtains the equation of a line in the (x, y)-plane passing
through the n points.
Having now a digital picture in the (x, y)-plane, and
mapping all these points to their corresponding curves in
the parameter space, collinear subsets of picture points
can be found by searching coincident points of inter-
section in the parameter space. In practice this is done
by quantizing both parameters e and p, and treating
the quantized region as a two-dimensional array of ac-
cumulators. For each point (Xi, Yi) in the (x, y)-picture
plane, the curve corresponding to it by (2) gives rise
to incrementing the count in some cells of the array.
After all picture points have been treated, the array is
inspected to find cells having high counts. When in some
cell (e a , Pb) there are m counts, then the line with nor-
mal parameters (e a , Pb) passes (approximately) through
m picture points.
The Hough-transform method as explained above to
detect straight lines in a picture can, in principle, be gen-
eralized to detect analytic curves involving more than
two parameters. For instance, as the equation of a circle
in the (x, y)-plane is given by
(3)
a point (Xi, Yi) on that circle determines a subset of
the three-dimensional (a, b, r )-parameter space. When
a number of picture points are arranged on a circle
with parameters (ao, bo, ro), the corresponding subsets
in the (a, b, r )-parameter space will intersect at the point
(ao, bo, ro), and this point may be detected by using a
three-dimensional array. As methods to detect curves in
a picture are usually applied to find out if edge points
are situated on a particular curve, it is often possible to
reduce the number of points to be checked, while also
the use of directional information may reduce the com-
putational burden [1].
301
HOUGH TRANSFORMATION
References
[IJ BALLARD, D.H.: 'Generalizing the Hough transform to detect
arbitrary shapes', Pattern Recognition 13 (1981), 111-122.
[2J BASSMANN, H., AND BESSLICH, PH.W.: Konturorientierte
Verfahren in der digitalen Bildverarbeitung, Springer, 1989.
[3J ROSENFELD, A., AND KAK, A.C: Digital picture processing,
Vol. 2, Acad. Press, 1982.
G. Crombez
MSC 1991: 68UlO
HOWELL DESIGN - A Howell design of side sand
order 2n, or more briefly an H (s, 2n), is an (s x s )-array
in which each cell is either empty or contains an un-
ordered pair of distinct elements from some 2n-set V
such that:
1) every element of V occurs in precisely one cell of
each row and each column;
2) every unordered pair of elements from V is in at
most one cell of the array.
It follows immediately from the definition of an H(s, 2n)
that n :::; s :::; 2n - 1. An example of a Howell design is
the following H (4, 6):
aO 13 002
23 a 1 000
003 a2 o1
001 02 a3
An H(2n - 1, 2n) is also called a Room square of
side 2n - 1. At the other extreme, the existence of a pair
of mutually orthogonal Latin squares implies the ex-
istence of an H(n,2n). The existence of Howell designs
has been completely determined [1], [5]: Let sand n be
positive integers such that 0 :::; n :::; s :::; 2n-1. There ex-
ists an H(s, 2n) if and only if (s, 2n) i- (2,4), (3,4), (5,6)
or (5,8). The proof uses a variety of direct and recursive
constructions.
An H* (s, 2n) is an H( s, 2n) in which there is a subset
W of V, IWI = 2n - s, such that no pair of elements
from W appears in the design. *-designs are quite use-
ful in recursive constructions. There exist H* (s, 2n) for
seven, n :::; s :::; 2n - 2, with two exceptions: there is
no H*(2,4) and there is no H*(6, 12) [1]. The existence
of H*(s, 2n) for s odd remains open, see [5]. The only
known case where an H(s,2n) exists but an H*(s,2n)
does not is for s = n = 6.
The pairs of elements in the cells of an H(s,2n) can
be thought of as the edges of an s-regular graph on the
2n-set V, the underlying graph ofthe Howell design. The
existence of an H(s, 2n) is equivalent to the existence of
a pair of orthogonal one-factorizations of the underlying
graph of the H(s, 2n) (cf. One-factorization). The un-
derlying graph of an H(2n-l, 2n) is the complete graph
K 2n , and the underlying graph of an H(2n-2, 2n) is the
cocktail party graph K 2n - j, where j is a one-factor.
An H(n, 2n) with underlying graph Kn,n is equivalent to
302
a pair of mutually orthogonal Latin squares of order
n. The general problem of determining which graphs are
the underlying graphs of a Howell design remains open
(1996), see [3].
Several special types of Howell designs have been
studied, including **-designs, skew designs, complemen-
tary designs, *-complementary designs, cyclic Howell de-
signs (used for Howell movements in duplicate bridge),
and Howell designs with Howell sub-designs (see [3] [4]).
A d-dimensional Howell design, H d(s,2n), is a d-
dimensional array in which every cell either is empty
or contains an unordered pair of elements from a 2n-
set V and such that each two-dimensional projection is
an H(s,2n). An H3(s,2n) is called a Howell cube. An
Hd(s,2n) is equivalent to d mutually orthogonal one-
factorizations of the underlying graph. Let v(s,2n) de-
note the maximum value of d such that an Hd(s,2n)
exists. Very little is known about upper bounds for
v(s,2n). It is easy to see that v(s,2n) :::; s - 1, and
it has been conjectured that v( s, 2n) :::; n -1. See [3], [2]
for results on v(s, 2n) and existence results on Hd(s, 2n).
The survey article [3] includes results and references
on Howell designs.
References
[1] ANDERSON, B.A., SCHELLENBERG, P.J., AND STINSON, D.R.:
'The existence of Howell designs of even side', J. Combin.
Th. A 36 (1984), 23-55.
[2J DINITZ, J.H.: 'Howell designs', in C.J. COLBOURN AND J.H.
DINITZ (eds.): CRC Handbook of Combinatorial Designs,
CRC Press, 1996, pp. 381-385.
[3] DINITZ, J.H., AND STINSON, D.R.: 'Room squares and related
designs', in J.H. DINITZ AND D.R. STINSON (eds.): Contem-
porary Design Theory: A Collection of Surveys, Wiley, 1992,
pp. 137-204.
[4] LAMKEN, E.R., AND VANSTONE, S.A.: 'The existence of skew
Howell designs of side 2n and order 2n + 2', J. Combin. Th.
A 54 (1990), 20-40.
[5J STINSON, D.R.: 'The existence of Howell designs of odd side',
J. Combin. Th. A 32 (1982), 53-65.
E.R. Lamken
MSC 1991: 05B30
HUFFMAN CODE - An algorithm for the construc-
tion of optimal (i.e., minimum redundancy) variable-
length D-ary codes (D ~ 2) for finite memoryless in-
formation sources with known statistics was proposed
by D. Huffman in 195~ (see [2], [1]). (The algorithm re-
fines the Morse alphabet, as it associates the shortest
codewords to the most probable source letters.)
Let AK be such a source with K letters, K ~ 2, and
let Pi be the probability that the source emits letter ai
(1:::; i:::; K). Let C = {WI,'" ,WK} be a uniquely deci-
pherable D-ary code for AK (i.e., a set of K sequences
Wi from an alphabet of D symbols) and let li be the
length (or number of D-ary symbols) of codeword Wi

(1 ::; i ::; K) associated to the letter ai. The difference
R(C) = l*(C) - H(P)
between the average length l*(C) = L~lPili of C
and the source entropy (cf. also Entropy) H(P) =
- L~l Pi 10gD Pi is called the redundancy of C. A Huff-
man code 1£ for AK minimizes R(C) (hence l*(C)) over
the set of all uniquely decipherable codes for A K .
In the binary case (D = 2), the algorithm consists
in the construction of a sequence of 'reduced' sources
{A K - 1 , ... , A 2 }, where A j - 1 is obtained from Aj by
merging the two least probable letters of Aj into one
letter of A j - 1 (K ~ j ~ 3) and leaving all other letters
unchanged (ties are broken arbitrarily). The probability
of the new letter is the sum of the probabilities of the
merged letters. The K - 2 mergings can be represented
by a binary code tree in which each letter of AK cor-
responds to a leaf and each codeword is the sequence
of binary labels of the path from root to leaf. (If the
code alphabet has D > 2 letters, each reduced source is
obtained by merging the D least probable letters of the
previous source, except possibly in the first step, where
2 + RD-l(K - 2) letters have to be grouped together,
Ra (b) being the remainder of the division of b by a. The
resulting D-ary code tree is labeled and again the code-
words are the sequences of labels from root to leaves.)
Owing to the arbitrary resolution of possible ties in
grouping the least probable sequences at each step, for a
given source AK there may be several distinct Huffman
codes, but two such codes are considered (essentially)
different only if the corresponding sets {h, ... , lK} of
codeword lengths do not coincide. However, the average
length of all Huffman codes for AK is the same.
More formally, consider the set PK of all K-order
probability distributions (cf. Probability distribu-
tion) P = {Pl,··· ,PK}, L~lPi = 1, Pi> 0 (1::;
i ::; K). The informational divergence (also called the
Kullback-Leibler information) between two proba-
bility distributions P, Q in PK is the non-negative quan-
tity D(P I Q) = L~l Pi log(p;jqi). D(P I Q) vanishes if
and only if P == Q, hence it can be considered as an ori-
ented pseudo-distance (cf. also Pseudo-metric) in PK.
Now, if {h, ... , lK} is the set of codeword lengths of a
Huffman code 1£ for A K , the redundancy R(1£) is equal
to the informational divergence D(P I H) between the
source probability distribution P and the 'dyadic' prob-
ability distribution H = {2- 11 , ... , 2- IK }.
The optimality of Huffman codes can now be restated
by saying that to any P E PK (i.e., to any source AK)'
the algorithm associates (one of) the dyadic probability
distribution(s) 'closest' to P in the sense of the pseudo-
metric D(· I .).
HULTHEN POTENTIAL
In several practical situations the statistics of the
source is not perfectly known or varies over time, and
the necessity arises of updating the Huffman code when
the new(ly known) P becomes 'closer' to a dyadic prob-
ability distribution different from the previous one (see
[4], [3]).
See also Coding and decoding; Information the-
ory.
References
[1] GALLAGER, R.: 'Variations on a theme by Huffman', IEEE
Trans. Inform. Theory IT-24 (1978), 668-674.
[2] HUFFMAN, D.A.: 'A method for the construction of minimum
redundancy codes', Proc. I.R.E. 40 (1952), 1098-1101.
[3] LELEwER, D.A., AND HIRSCHBERG, D.S.: 'Data compression',
ACM Comput. Surv. 19 (1987), 261-296.
[4] LONGO, G., AND GALASSO, G.: 'An application of informa-
tional divergence to Huffman codes', IEEE Trans. Inform.
Theory IT-28 (1982), 36-43.
G. Longo
MSC 1991: 94A29
HULTHEN POTENTIAL - The Hulthen potential [3]
is given by
V(r) = _~. exp~ (1)
a 1- exp -r'
a
where a is the screening parameter and z is a constant
which is identified with the atomic number when the
potential is used for atomic phenomena.
The Hulthen potential is a short-range potential
which behaves like a Coulomb potential for small val-
ues of r and decreases exponentially for large values
of r. The Hulthen potential has been used in many
branches of physics, such as nuclear physics [4], atomic
physics [12], [6], solid state physics [1], and chemical
physics [9]. The model of the three-dimensional delta-
function could well be considered as a Hulthen poten-
tial with the radius of the force going down to zero [2].
The Schrodinger equation for this potential can be
solved in a closed form for s waves. For l =j:. 0, a number
of methods have been employed to find approximate so-
lutions for the Schrodinger equation with the Hulthen
potential [5], [7], [8], [10]. The Dirac equation with the
Hulthen potential has also been studied using an alge-
braic approach [11].
References
[1] BEREZIN, A.A., Phys. Status. Solidi (b) 50 (1972), 71.
[2] BEREZIN, A.A., Phys. Rev. B 33 (1986),2122.
[3] HULTHEN, L., Ark. Mat. Astron. Pys 28A (1942), 5, Also:
29B,1.
[4] HULTHEN, L., AND SUGAWARA, M., in S. FLUGGE (ed.): Hand-
buch der Physik, Springer, 1957.
[5] LAI, C.S., AND LIN, W.C., Phys. Lett. A 78 (1980), 335.
[6] LAM, C.S., AND VARSHNI, Y.P., Phys. Rev. A 4 (1971), 1875.
[7] PATIL, S.H., J. Phys. A 17 (1984), 575.
[8] Popov, V.S., AND WIENBERG, V.M., Phys. Lett. A 107
(1985), 371.
303
HULTHEN POTENTIAL
[9] PYYKKO, P., AND JOKISAARI, J., Chem. Phys. 10 (1975), 293.
[10] ROY, B., AND ROYCHOUDHURY, R., J. Phys. A 20 (1987),
3051.
[11] Roy, B., AND ROYCHOUDHURY, R., J. Phys. A 23 (1990),
5095.
[12] TIETZ, T., J. Chem. Phys. 35 (1961), 1917.
R. Roychoudhury
MSC1991: 81Vxx
HURWITZ EQUATION, Markoff-Hurwitz equation,
Markov-Hurwitz equation - A Diophantine equation (cf.
Diophantine equations) of the form
X~ + ... + x; = aXl ... Xn (1)
for fixed a,n E Z+, n 2:: 3. The case n = a = 3 was
studied by A.A. Markoff [A.A. Markov] [5] because of
its relation to Diophantine approximations (cf. also
Markov spectrum problem). More generally, these
equations were studied by A. Hurwitz [4]. These equa-
tions are of interest because the set of integer solutions
to (1) is closed under the action of the group of automor-
phisms A generated by the permutations of the variables
{Xl, ... ,xn }, sign changes of pairs of variables, and the
mapping
If (1) has an integer solution P and P is not the triv-
ial solution (0, ... ,0), then its A-orbit A(P) is infinite.
Hurwitz showed that if (1) has a non-trivial integer solu-
tion, then a ~ n; and if a = n, then the full set of integer
solutions is the A-orbit of (1, ... ,1) together with the
trivial solution. N.P. Herzberg [3] gave an efficient algo-
rithm to find pairs (a, n) for which the Hurwitz equation
has a non-trivial solution. Hurwitz also showed that for
any pair (a, n) there exists a finite set of fundamental
solutions {Pl , ... ,Pr } such that the orbits A(Pi ) are
distinct and the set of non-trivial integer solutions is
exactly the union of these orbits. A. Baragar [2] showed
that for any r there exists a pair (a, n) such that (1) has
at least r fundamental solutions.
D. Zagier [9] investigated the asymptotic growth for
the number of solutions to the Markov equation (a =
n = 3) below a given bound, and Baragar [1] investi-
gated the cases n 2:: 4.
There are a few variations to the Hurwitz equations
which admit a similar group of automorphisms. These
include variations studied by L.J. Mordell [6] and G.
Rosenberger [7]. L. Wang [8] studied a class of smooth
variations.
References
[1] BARAGAR, A.: 'Asymptotic growth of Markoff-Hurwitz num-
bers', Compositio Math. 94 (1994), 1-18.
[2] BARAGAR, A.: 'Integral solutions of Markoff-Hurwitz equa-
tions', J. Number Th. 49, no. 1 (1994),27-44.
[3] HERZBERG, N.P.: 'On a problem of Hurwitz', Pacific J. Math.
50 (1974), 485-493.
304
[4] HURWITZ, A.: 'Uber eine Aufgabe der unbestimmten Analy-
sis', Archiv. Math. Phys. 3 (1907), 185-196, Also: Mathema-
tisch Werke, Vol. 2, Chapt. LXX (1933 and 1962), 410-421.
[5] MARKOFF, A.A.: 'Sur les formes binaires indefinies', Math.
Ann. 17 (1880), 379-399.
[6] MORDELL, L.J.: 'On the integer solutions of the equation
x 2 + y2 + z2 + 2xyz = n', J. London Math. Soc. 28 (1953),
500-510.
[7] ROSENBERGER, G.: 'Uber die Diophantische Gleichung ax 2 +
by2 + cz 2 = dxyz', J. Reine Angew. Math. 305 (1979), 122-
125.
[8] WANG, L.: 'Rational points and canonical heights on K3-
surfaces in pl x pl X pl', Contemporary Math. 186 (1995),
273-289.
[9] ZAGIER, D.: 'On the number of Markoff numbers below a
given bound', Math. Compo 39 (1982), 709-723.
A. Baragar
MSC 1991: 11D72, 11D41
HURWITZ TRANSFORMATION - The general
framework for defining and studying the Hurwitz trans-
formations is that of the Cayley-Dickson algebras (cf.
also Cayley-Dickson algebra). Familiar examples of
Cayley-Dickson algebras are:
• A( -1) == C and A(I) == n, the algebras of ordi-
nary and hyperbolic complex numbers, respectively;
• A(-I,-I) == Hand A(l,l) == N!, the algebras
of ordinary (or Hamilton) and hyperbolic quaternions,
respectively;
• A(-l,-l,-l) == 0 and A(I,I,I) == 0', the alge-
bras of ordinary (or Cayley) and hyperbolic octonions,
respectively.
Higher-dimensional Cayley-Dickson algebras over the
real field R are denoted by A(c), where c is a p-tuple
c = (Cl, ... , cp ) with Cs = ±1 (s = 1, ... ,p). Such a
2m-dimensional algebra A(c), with 2m = 2P , may be
constructed from an m-dimensional Cayley-Dickson al-
gebra by a 'doubling' process [1], [11], [8]. (This process
generalizes C = R + iR.) For fixed p, the algebra A(c)
with L~=l Cs = -p corresponds to ordinary (or ellip-
tic) hypercomplex numbers (cf. also Hypercomplex
number), while the 2m - 1 other algebras A(c) with
L~=l Cs =f. -p correspond to hyperbolic hypercomplex
numbers. The Cayley-Dickson algebra A(c) is referred
to as normed or pseudo-normed according to whether
the metric
Tf = diag(l, -Cl, -C2, C1C2, -C3,··· , (-I)PC1C2'" cp )
is Euclidean or pseudo-Euclidean (cf. also Euclidean
space; Pseudo-Euclidean space). For each algebra
A(c) there exist 2m anti-involutions j: A(c) -+ A(c):
u H j(u), (the mapping j satisfies j(uv) = j(v)j(u) and
j(j(u)) = u). One of the anti-involutions is the mapping
jo: u == (uo, ... , U2m-l) E A(c) H
H jo(u) = (uo, -Ul,'" , -U2m-l) E A(c);

the remaining 2m - 1 anti-involutions correspond to
anti-involutions of type jo on the various m-dimensional
Cayley~Dickson subalgebras of A( c).
An element u E A(c) has 2m real components
(uo, ... ,u2m~d; these define a vector in R 2m and can
thus be associated with a column vector u E R 2m Xl.
From the product w = uv of two elements u E A(c)
and v E A(c), an R2mx2m (generalized) Hurwitz matrix
H(u) is defined via w = H(u)v.
The application
du E R 2mxl f--t W = 2H(u)cdu E R2mxl,
where 10 = diag(l,cl, ... ,c2m~d with lOt = ±1 (t =
1, ... ,2m-I), defines a mapping R2m -t R2m~n, called
Hurwitz transformation and denoted by T[I; C; 10]. The
row vector W consists of:
i) 2m - n total differentials, leading to a vector
x E R2m~n;
ii) n one-forms WI, ... ,wn (when n -=I- 0) which are
not total differentials and which are taken to be equal
to zero to account for the non-bijectivity of the mapping
R2m -t R2m~n: U f--t x.
The integer n, 0 ::; n ::; 2m - 1, depends on c. The
various possibilities for 10 are:
1) 10is the unit (2m x 2m)-matrix;
2) 10 is such that lOt = -1 (t = 1, ... ,2m-I) and thus
corresponds to the anti-involution jo of A(c) (v = jo(u)
if and only if v = cu);
3) j corresponds to one of the 2m -1 remaining anti-
involutions of A(c);
4) 10 is a matrix not listed in the other cases.
Equation (1) defines the components of x as quadratic
functions of the components of u. For 2m = 2,4,8,
the vector x may also be generated from the product
H(u)cu that produces a column vector, with n vanishing
entries and 2m - n non-vanishing entries, corresponding
to x.
Another type of Hurwitz transformation, denoted by
T[N; C; 10], is formally obtained by replacing H(u) in (1)
or in H(u)cu by H(u)N with NEZ. This leads to
non-quadratic transformations [5].
The cases 2m = 2,4,8 deserve special attention, since
they correspond to the Hurwitz factorization problem
(the situations addressed in [4] concern Cl = C2 = C3 =
-1 for 2m = 8, Cl = C2 = -1 for 2m = 4 and Cl = -1
for 2m = 2). In these cases, the (2m x 2m)-matrix H(u)
satisfies
HURWITZ TRANSFORMATION
and may be written in terms of elements of a Clifford
algebra of degree 2m - 1. As a consequence, the factor-
ization property
for u and v fixed, is satisfied by w = H(u)v for
2m = 2,4,8.
The geometric and group-theoretical properties of the
transformations T[I; c; 10] for c = (Cl, C2, C3), C = (Cl, C2)
and C = (Cl) are well known. From the geometrical point
(1) of view, they correspond to fibrations on spheres and
hyperboloids [8], [10]. From the point of view of group
theory, they are associated to Lie algebras under con-
straints [6].
Some typical examples of T[N; c;c] are as follows.
The case T[l; (-1); I], where I is the unit (2 x 2)-matrix,
corresponds to the Levi-Civita transformation R 2 -t R 2
used in the restricted three-body problem of classi-
cal mechanics [9]. The case T[I; (-1, -1);10], where 10 =
diag(l, -1, 1, 1), corresponds to the Kustaanheimo-
Stiefel transformation R4 -t R3 used in the regu-
larization of the Kepler problem [7] and associated to
the Hopf fibration S3 -t S2 of fibre Sl [3]. The case
T[-l;(-l,-I);c]' where 10 = diag(l,I,I,-I), corre-
sponds to the Fock (stereographic) projection R4 -t S3
used in the quantum mechanical problem of the hydro-
gen atom [2]. More generally, Hurwitz transformations
are useful in number theory and in theoretical physics
(classical and quantum mechanics, quantum field the-
ory, local gauge symmetries). In particular, they can be
useful for transforming a dynamical system in R 2m into
a dynamical system in R2m~n subject to n constraints.
(Under such a transformation, the coupling constant of
one system is exchanged with the energy of the other.)
References
[1] DICKSON, L.E.: 'On quaternions and their generalization and
the history of the eight square theorem', Ann. of Math. 20
(1919), 155.
[2] FOCK, V.: 'Zur Theorie des Wasserstoffatoms', Z. Phys. 98
(1935), 145.
[3] HOPF, H.: 'Uber die Abbildungen der dreidimensionalen
Sphiire auf die Kugelfliiche', Math. Ann. 104 (1931), 637.
[4] HURWITZ, A.: 'Uber die Komposition der quadratischen
Formen von beliebig vie len Variablen', Nachrichten K.
Gesellschaft Wissenschaft. Gottingen (1898), 309.
[5] KIBLER, M., AND LAB ASTlE, P.: 'Transformations generaliz-
ing the Levi-Civita, Kustaanheimo-Stiefel and Fock trans-
formations', in Y. SAINT-AUBIN AND L. VINET (eds.): Group
Theoretical Methods in Physics, World Sci., 1989.
[6] KIBLER, M., AND WINTERNITZ, P.: 'Lie algebras under
constraints and non-bijective transformations', J. Phys. A:
Math. Gen. 21 (1988), 1787.
[7] KUSTAANHEIMO, P., AND STIEFEL, E.: 'Perturbation theory
of Kepler motion based on spinor regularization', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 218 (1965),204.
305
HURWITZ TRANSFORMATION
[8] LAMBERT, D., AND KIBLER, M.: 'An algebraic and geomet-
ric approach to non-bijective quadratic transformations', 1.
Phys. A: Math. Gen. 21 (1988), 307.
[9] LEVI-CIVITA, T.: 'Sur la regularisation du probleme des trois
corps', Acta Math. 42 (1918), 99.
[10] POLUBARINOV, I.V.: On the application of Hopf fiber bundles
in quantum theory, Report E2-84-607. JINR: Dubna (Rus-
sia), 1984.
[11] WENE, G.P.: 'A construction relating Clifford algebras and
Cayley-Dickson algebras', 1. Math. Phys. 25 (1984), 2351.
M. Kibler
MSC1991: 17Axx, 17D05, 17Bxx, 55Rxx, 16Sxx
HUTCHINSON EQUATION - Suppose a population
inhabits a bounded homogeneous area n c R2 with
piecewise-smooth boundary an. Assume that its food
base regularly restores itself to a certain level, whilst
the migration factor is so high that complete mixing
takes place. In [2J it was postulated that under these
idealized conditions the variation in population density
n(t) = N(t)/ K, where N(t) is the current size of the
population and K is the average number of the popu-
lation, which depends upon the size of the habitat and
the amount of food available, obeys the law
it = A[l - n(t - l)Jn,
Here, A is the Malthusian coefficient of linear growth,
provided that the age of sexual maturity of females is
taken as the unit of time. This equation is called the
Hutchinson equation. For A < 7r /2, the attractor of pos-
itive solutions of the equation is its unit state of equilib-
rium, whilst for A > 7r /2 it is an orbitally exponentially
stable cycle. This assertion is mainly based on the results
of numerical analysis (significantly less was obtained by
purely mathematical methods, [1]).
As A increases, the Hutchinson cycle no(t, A) acquires
a distinctive relaxation character, which is evident from
the following facts [3J. Assume, for the sake of being spe-
cific, that no( -1, A) = 1 and ito ( -1, A) > O. Then the
largest value nmax,O of the function no(t, >.) is reached
at t = 0:
1 Groups given by a finite presentation satisfying the
n max 0 = exp(>. - 1) + - + O(exp( ->.)).
, 2e
The smallest value, nmin,O of the function no(>', t) is re-
alized at t = 1 + to, where
_ In>. 0 (In2 >.)
to - A _ 1 + >.3'
The asymptotic equality
l+(l+>.)ln>.
In nmin,O = - exp A + 2>' - 1 + >. + even a solvable conjugacy problem. If G is a hyperbolic
o (In2 >.)
+ >.2
is valid.
306
If migration across the habitat's boundary is forbid-
den, the migration factor results in the boundary value
problem
it = D~n + >.[1 - n(t - 1, x)Jn, ani -0
aVail - ,
where x E R 2, ~ is the Laplace operator, D is the
mobility coefficient, and v is the direction of the ex-
ternal normal. When D decreases, Hutchinson's cycle
loses stability as a result of spacial perturbations con-
nected with the appearance of so-called self-organization
regimes, which are simultaneously complexly and regu-
larly arranged towards spacial and temporal variables
[3J.
References
[1] HALE, J.: Theory of functional differential equations, sec-
ond ed., Springer, 1977.
[2J HUTCHINSON, G.: 'Circular causal systems in ecology', Ann.
N. Y. Acad. Sci. 50 (1948-1950), 221-246.
[3] KOLESOV, A.Yu., AND KOLESOV, Yu.S.: 'Relaxation oscilla-
tion in mathematical models of ecology', Proc. Steklov Inst.
Math. 199, no. 1 (1995). (Translated from the Russian.)
Yu.S. Kolesov
MSC 1991: 34-02, 92-02, 34K15, 34K20, 34K25
HYPERBOLIC GROUP in the sense of Gromov,
Gromov hyperbolic group - A group G with a finite
generating subset 8 for which there is some constant
8 = 8(G,8) 2': 0 such that
(x, y) 2': min( (x, z) , (y, z)) - 8
for all x, y, z E G, where (x, y) = (Ixl + Iyl -lx- 1 yl)/2
and Ixl is the smallest integer k 2': 0 such that x can be
written as a product of k elements in 8 U 8- 1 .
Hyperbolic groups are sometimes called word hyper-
bolic groups or negatively curved groups.
A finite group is a trivial example of a hyper-
bolic group. Free groups of finite rank (cf. Free group)
and fundamental groups of compact Riemannian mani-
folds of negative sectional curvature (cf. fundamen-
tal group; Riemannian manifold) are hyperbolic.
C'(1/6) small-cancellation condition are also hyperbolic.
The free product of two hyperbolic groups is a hy-
perbolic group. If G is a group and Go eGis a sub-
group of finite index, then G is hyperbolic if and only
if Go is hyperbolic. Algebraic properties of hyperbolic
groups can be obtained via geometric methods. Ev-
ery hyperbolic group is finitely presented (cf. Finitely-
presented group), has a solvable word problem and
group with a fixed generating subset 8 and if an de-
notes the number of elements x E G such that Ixl = n,
then the growth function f(t) = En>o ant n is rational
(cf. Polynomial and exponential growth in groups

and algebras). Every hyperbolic group is automatic
in the sense of [2]. A hyperbolic group is said to be
elementary if it is finite or contains an infinite cyclic
subgroup of finite index. Every non-elementary hyper-
bolic group contains a free subgroup of rank 2. Torsion-
free hyperbolic groups (cf. Group without torsion)
have finite cohomological dimension. It is not known
(1996) whether every hyperbolic group admits a torsion-
free subgroup of finite index.
See also Gromov hyperbolic space.
References
[1] COORNAERT, M., DELZANT, T., AND PAPADOPOULOS, A.:
Geometrie et theorie des groupes: les groupes hyperboliques
de Gromov, Vol. 1441 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1991.
[2] EpSTEIN, D.B.A., CANNON, J.W.W., HOLT, D.F., LEVY,
S.V.F., PATERSON, M.S., AND THURSTON, W.P.: Word pro-
cessing in groups, Bartlett and Jones, 1992.
[3] GHYS, E., AND HARPE, P. DE LA (eds.): Sur les groupes hy-
perboliques d 'apres Mikhael Gromov, Vol. 83 of Progress in
Maths., Birkhiiuser, 1990.
[4] GROMOV, M.: 'Hyperbolic groups', in S.M. GERSTEN (ed.):
Essays in Group Theory, Vol. 8 of MSRI Publ., Springer,
1987, pp. 75-263.
M. Coornaert
MSC 1991: 20F32
HYPERCONTRACTIVE SEMI-GROUP - A semi-
group e- tH of Hermitian operators (cf. also Semi-
group of operators) on a Hilbert space L 2(X,J.L)
such that:
1) Ile- tH IIiLp :::; 1I/IILp for all t > 0, p E [1,00] and
1 E L2;
2) there exist T > 0 and b < 00 such that
lIe- TH IIIL4 :::; bll/ll L2 for all 1 E L 2 ·
Semi-groups having properties similar to 1) and 2) were
first introduced by E. Nelson [9] to prove that the Hamil-
tonian operators arising in some models of quantum
field theory are bounded below. In the important case
that J.L(X) < 00, condition 2) can be replaced by the fol-
lowing more natural condition, to which 2) is equivalent
in the presence of 1):
3) for every p, q E (1,00) there exists a t = t(p, q),
depending on p and q, such that e- tH (restricted or ex-
tended to Lp) is a bounded operator from Lp (X, J.L) to
Lq(X,J.L).
Interpolation theorems are used in the proof. Below, all
Lp spaces are taken to be real for simplicity and it is
assumed that J.L(X) = 1, this being the case of principal
interest.
The prototypical example of a hypercontractive semi-
group is given by choosing X = R nand
HYPERCONTRACTIVE SEMI-GROUP
Denote by (8/8xj)* the adjoint of differentiation com-
puted in L 2(R n ,J.L). Let
H= 22:
1 n ( 8
8x,
)* 8x,'
8
j=l J J
(This should be interpreted as a closed version of the
Ornstein-Uhlenbeck operator with C':' as a core.) Then
e- tH is a hypercontractive semi-group. In fact, b can
be taken equal to one in condition 2). Furthermore, for
this semi-group the smallest time t for boundedness in
condition 3) is known. One has Nelson's lamily 01 hy-
percontractive inequalities: for 1 < p :::; q < 00,
e- 2t < (p - 1) . (1)
- (q - 1)
Moreover, Ile-tHIIL p -tL q = 00 if e- 2t > (p - 1)/(q - 1).
In (1) one should regard the operators e- tH as restricted
or extended to Lp.
If in (1) one chooses p = 2 and q = q(t) = 1 + e 2t ,
then (1) yields
IIe- tH IIIL q(.) :::; 1I/IIL2 fort ~ 0,1 E L 2 (R n ,J.L). (2)
This inequality becomes an equality for t = O. Therefore
it can be differentiated at t = 0 for 1 smooth enough.
One gets the following logarithmic Sobolev inequality [7]:
in I/(x)1 2 1n I/(x)1 dJ.L(x) :::; (3)
: ; in
Igrad l(x)12 dJ.L(x) + 11/1I~21n 1I/IIL2 .
Nelson's family of hypercontractive inequalities (1) can
be recovered easily from the single logarithmic Sobolev
inequality (3) [7]. More generally, L. Gross [7] estab-
lished an equivalence between hypercontractivity condi-
tions such as 1) and 2), on the one hand, and, on the
other hand, coercivity inequalities for H of the form
Ix I/(x)1 2 1n I/(x)1 dJ.L(x) :::; (4)
:::; c(HI, f) + m 11/11~2 + 11/11~21n 1I/IIL2
(which reduces to (3) in the previous example if one
takes c = 1 and m = 0). These coercivity inequali-
ties have come to be known in general as logarithmic
Sobolev inequalities. Because of this equivalence the the-
ory of hypercontractive semi-groups has, to a great ex-
tent, been developed in conjunction with the theory of
logarithmic Sobolev inequalities. The equivalence of (4)
with 1) and 2) is valid only for a class of operators H
which includes the important category of Dirichlet-form
operators. See the survey [8] for further generality and
for references to the early history of these two topics.
By way of application, if one can establish inequalities
of the form (4) for an elliptic partial differential op-
erator H on a Riemannian manifold, then one half
307
HYPERCONTRACTIVE SEMI-GROUP
of the equivalence theorem shows that the semi-group
e- tH has boundedness properties similar to 3), with a
specifically given function t(p, q). Since e- tH is an in-
tegral operator, with kernel Kt(x, y) say, these norm
bounds on e- tH can be converted into direct estimates
on the size of the so-called 'heat kernel' Kt(x, y). See
[4] for a self-contained exposition of this method of ob-
taining pointwise heat kernel bounds for elliptic partial
differential operators.
There are three basic consequences of the logarith-
mic Sobolev inequality (4) which do not require H to
be a Dirichlet-form operator but merely self-adjoint (cf.
Self-adjoint operator).
i) The Federbush-Faris semi-boundedness theorem
asserts that (4) is equivalent to the condition that the
(generally unbounded) operator H +V is in fact bounded
below for all real-valued measurable functions V on X
satisfying Ile- v I L2 (/L) < 00.
ii) The Segal-Faris additivity theorem asserts that if
Hl and H2 both satisfy (4), then so does the indepen-
dent sum Hl ® I + I ® H 2.
iii) The Rothaus-Simon spectral gap theorem asserts
that if (4) holds with m = 0 and if HI = 0, then H has
no spectrum (cf. Spectrum of an operator) in the in-
terval (0, c- l ). For precise statements of these theorems
and proofs see the survey [8].
A very simple example of another semi-group satis-
fying Nelson's hypercontractivity inequalities (1) is as
follows. Denote by X the two-point set {-I, I}. Define
JL( {-I}) = JL( {I}) = 1/2. Let H be the projection onto
the orthogonal complement of the constant functions
in L 2 (X, JL). Then (1) holds. Moreover, (4) holds with
c = 1 and m = O. Since L 2 (X,JL) is two-dimensional,
the proof of (4) reduces in this example to a few lines
of elementary calculus (see, e.g., [8, Example 2.6]). The
resulting inequality is known as the two-point logarith-
mic Sobolev inequality. Now, by the Segal-Faris addi-
tivity theorem there follows by induction a logarithmic
Sobolev inequality on the product space { -1, l}k for the
product measure. An application of the central limit
theorem then allows one to take the limit as k --+ 00
and arrive at the inequality (3) (first for n = 1, then,
by additivity, for general n). This method of deriving
the differential inequalities (1) from discrete inequali-
ties via the central limit theorem [3], [7] has also been
used [2] to derive the sharp Hausdorff-Young inequality
(cf. Hausdorff-Young inequalities) for the Fourier
transform on R n .
The notions of hypercontractivity and logarithmic
Sobolev inequalities can also be formulated in the con-
text of non-commutative integration theory, specifically
308
over Clifford algebras (cf. Clifford algebra). See [8,
Sect. 6(v)] for a survey.
Applications of both concepts to statistical mechan-
ics are rapidly increasing at the present time (1996). For
a survey of work through 1992, see [10]. For applications
to the theory of large deviations, see [5]. For recent ap-
plications to statistics, see the survey [6].
Unlike the classical Sobolev inequalities, logarithmic
Sobolev inequalities tend to be dimension independent
and valid in many infinite-dimensional settings. For ex-
ample, the inequality (3) is meaningful and correct when
n = 00. One need only interpret the first integrand on
the right as
1~12
L00
k=l
aXk
The dimension independence accounts, in part, for their
usefulness in statistical mechanics (cf. also Statistical
mechanics, mathematical problems in), statistics,
and large deviations, and for their origin in constructive
quantum field theory.
The survey [8] discusses the topics up through 1992.
[1] also surveys related topics and describes various
methods for proving logarithmic Sobolev inequalities for
specific operators H.
References
[1] BAKRY, D.: 'L'hypercontractivite et son utilisation en theorie
des semi-groups', in P. BERNARD (ed.): Lectures on Prob-
ability Theory, Vol. 1581 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1994, pp. 1-114.
[2] BECKNER, W.: 'Inequalities in Fourier analysis', Ann. of
Math. 102 (1975), 159-182.
[3] BONAMI, A.: 'Etudes des coefficients de Fourier des fonctions
de L2(G)', Ann. Inst. Fourier 20, no. 2 (1970), 335-402.
[4] DAVIES, E.B.: Heat kernels and spectral theory, Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1989.
[5] DEUSCHEL, J. D., AND STROOCK, D. W.: Large deviations,
Vol. 137 of Pure Appl. Math., Acad. Press, 1989.
[6] DIACONIS, P., AND SALOFF-COSTE, L.: 'Logarithmic Sobolev
inequalities for finite Markov chains', Ann. Appl. Prob.
(1996).
[7] GROSS, L.: 'Logarithmic Sobolev inequalities', Amer. J. of
Math. 97 (1975), 1061-1083.
[8] GROSS, L.: 'Logarithmic Sobolev inequalities and contrac-
tivity properties of semigroups', in G. DELL'ANTONIO AND
U. Mosco (eds.): Dirichlet Forms, Vol. 1563 of Lecture
Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1993, pp. 54-88.
[9] NELSON, E.: 'A quartic interaction in two dimensions', in
R. GOODMAN AND I.E. SEGAL (eds.): Mathematical Theory
of Elementary Particles, MIT Press, 1966, pp. 69-73.
[10] STROOCK, D.: 'Logarithmic Sobolev inequalities for Gibbs
states', in G. DELL'ANTONIO AND U. Mosco (eds.): Dirichlet
Forms, Vol. 1563 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1993, pp. 194-228.
L. Gross
MSC 1991: 47D03, 46E35, 58G03, 46L89
 HYPERGROUPS, HARMONIC ANALYSIS ON LOCALLY COMPACT
HYPERGROUPS, HARMONIC ANALYSIS ON LO-
CALLY COMPACT - Locally compact hypergroups are
natural generalizations of locally compact group mea-
sure algebras; the field is therefore part of the research
programme designed under 'harmonic analysis without
a group to do it on' (cf. also Harmonic analysis; Har-
monic analysis, abstract; for the notion of a hyper-
group, see also Generalized displacement opera-
tors). The idea goes back to LM. Gel'fand, A. Povzner
and B. Levitan [14] on the one hand, and to J. Delsarte
[4] on the other. Another approach has been undertaken
by Yu. Berezanskii and collaborators [1].
For fundamentals and examples, as well as results ori-
ented towards probability theory, see [2]. It contains an
almost complete and up-to-date (1996) bibliography.
Haar measure. Basic results from [5] prove the exis-
tence and uniqueness of the Haar measure for locally
compact commutative hypergroups as well as for dis-
crete hypergroups. The compact case has been settled
independently and in a different way in [13], which im-
itates a construction by A. Weil. In the non-compact
case, Spector's proof involves a deep new fixed-point
theorem for not necessarily affine mappings preserving a
compact convex subset in a locally convex vector space.
The problem of whether the Haar measure exists on a
locally compact hypergroup is still open, but an impor-
tant step towards a complete answer is given by using a
generalization of the Ryll-Nardzewski fixed-point theo-
rem [10], embodying Spector's theorem.
Commutative locally compact hypergroups. The
basic facts about the Plancherel measure (cf. also
Plancherel formula) are presented in [3].
It is shown in [7] that the general L 2 -theory appears
as a consequence of the Plancherel-Godement theory for
an involutive algebra.
A crucial issue is to decide which (commutative) lo-
cally compact hypergroups possess a Fourier-Eymard
algebra. The question is widely open for further research;
notably, an elementary finite counterexample is provided
in [13].
The compact case. Whilst the L 2 -theory appears as gen-
eralizing known facts for compact commutative groups
(at least at first glance), the Lrtheory proves to be ex-
tremely involved and deep. R. Vrem proved [6] the cru-
cial property allowing one to work with trigonometric
polynomials: this subspace is dense in L 1 • Vrem's ap-
proach makes strong use of the compact group case and
does not allow further generalizations.
A radically new approach was provided in [7], which
showed the existence of a universal, and explicit,
bounded approximate identity comprising trigonometric
polynomials, using the Dixmier symbolic calculus [5].
The latter result allows one to develop basic defini-
tions of Sidon sets (in the classical sense) in full general-
ity (cf. also Harmonic analysis, abstract). Pioneer-
ing work related to that question was performed in [16].
The question here is to decide which class of commuta-
tive compact hypergroups do possess non-trivial Sidon
sets. See [2], [9]. The problem seems to be related to the
symmetry (or non-symmetry) of the associated measure
algebra, an extremely deep problem.
The general case. One basic approach is given in [7]: it
relies deeply upon the exploitation of Dixmier's symbolic
calculus. An important guideline is to obtain insight into
the spectral picture of L1 by taking care of the growth
of the hypergroup. Basic spectral synthesis results are
obtained in that way, generalizing the Abelian locally
compact group case as well as preliminary results [3].
Notably, amenability plays a crucial role (quite unex-
pectedly; cf. Invariant average). The theory is essen-
tially different from the locally compact group situation
(even for the commutative theory). A crucial question is
to be able to formulate an appropriate Fijiner property.
Discrete hypergroups. The basic axioms are elemen-
tary. Aside from commutative examples associated with
trees, very little has been accomplished so far (1996).
Amenability is again a crucial question: some results
have been obtained in [8] and [11].
Very important is the fact that discrete hypergroups
need not be unimodular [18]. P.G.A. Floris and T.
Koornwinder have found connections between quan-
tum groups and discrete hypergroups (cf. also Quan-
tum groups). A remarkable example is provided in [6]:
this example (based on q-Jacobi polynomials) is non-
unimodular, GCR, hence type-I; one may compare this
example with the relevant result for discrete groups: E.
Thoma proved that a discrete group is type-I if and
only if it is a finite extension of a commutative discrete
group.
References
[1] BEREZANSKII, Yu.: 'Hypercomplex systems with a discrete
basis', Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR (N.S.) 81 (1954), 825-828.
(In Russian.)
[2] BLOOM, W.R., AND HEYER, H.: Harmonic analysis of prob-
ability measures on hypergroups, Vol. 20 of Studies in Math-
ematics, W. de Gruyter, 1995.
[3] CHILANA, A., AND Ross, K.: 'Spectral synthesis in hyper-
groups', Pacific J. Math. 76 (1978), 313-328.
[4] DELSARTE, J.: 'Hypergroupes et operateurs de permutation et
de transmutation': La theorie des equations au:!: derivees par-
tielles (Nancy, 9-15 avril 1956), Vol. 71 of Colloque CNRS,
CNRS, 1956, pp. 29-45.
[5] DIXMIER, J.: 'Operateurs de rang fini dans les representation
unitaires', IHES Publ. Math. (1960),305-317.
[6] FLORIS, P.: 'On quantum groups, hypergroups and q-special
functions', Ph.D. Thesis RU Leiden (1995).
[7] GEBUHRER, M.O.: 'Analyse harmonique sur les espaces de
Gel'fand-Levitan et applications a la theorie des semigroupes
309
HYPERGROUPS, HARMONIC ANALYSIS ON LOCALLY COMPACT
de convolution', ThtBse de doctomt d'etat Univ. Louis Pas-
teur, Stmsbourg (1989).
[8J GEBUHRER, M.O.: 'Remarks on amenability of discrete hy-
pergroups', in M.A. PICARDELLO (ed.): Harmonic Analysis
and Discrete Potential Theory, Plenum, 1992, pp. 479-482.
[9J GEBUHRER, M.O.: About the fine structure of compact com-
mutative hypergroups, preprint. IRMA, Strasbourg, 1996.
[lOJ GEBUHRER, M.O.: 'The Haar measure on a locally compact
hypergroup', in PRo KOMRAKOV AND PRo LITVINOV (eds.):
Proc. Conf. Differential Geometry on Homogeneous Spaces
and Harmonic Analysis on Lie Groups (Moscow, 1994),
Kluwer Acad. Publ., 1996.
[l1J GEBUHRER, M.O., AND KUMAR, A.: 'The Wiener property
for a class of discrete hypergroups', Math. Z. 202 (1989),
271-274.
[12J GEBUHRER, M.O., AND SCHWARTZ, A.L.: 'Sidon sets and
Riesz sets on the disk algebra', Colloq. Math. (1996).
[13J JEWETT, R.I.: 'Spaces with an abstract convolution of mea-
sures', Adv. in Math. 18 (1975), 1-101.
[14J LEVITAN, B., AND POVZNER, A.: 'Differential equations of the
Sturm-Liouville type on the semi-axis and Plancherel's the-
orem', Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR (N.S.) 52 (1946), 479-482.
(In Russian.)
[15J SPECTOR, R.: 'Mesures invariantes sur les hypergroupes',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 239 (1978), 147-165.
[16J VREM, R.: 'Lacunarity on compact hypergroups', Math. Z.
164 (1968), 13-104.
[17J VREM, R.: 'Harmonic analysis on compact hypergroups',
Pacif. J. Math. 85 (1979), 239-251.
[18J WOESS, W., AND KAIMANOVITCH, V.: Construction of
discrete non-unimodular hypergroups, No. 9 in Preprint
Quaderno. Univ. Milano, 1995.
M.O. Gebuhrer
MSC 1991: 43A62, 43AlO, 43A46
HYSTERESIS Hysteresis (from the Greek
VO'Tcpc;(1t(: a coming short) is the collective name for a
class of non-linear natural phenomenon which arise in
mechanics, physics, etc., and have certain common fea-
tures. The best known examples are plastic hysteresis
in mechanics and ferro-magnetic hysteresis in physics,
but many other types of hystereses are also important.
A general mathematical theory which adequately de-
scribes phenomenological models of hysteresis and is
convenient for the analysis of closed-loop systems with
hysteresis non-linearities is presently (1996) under con-
struction [1], [2], [3].
In this theory, a hysteresis non-linearity is treated
as a tronsducer, with an input, an output and an in-
ternal state. The variable output and internal state for
t ~ to are uniquely defined by the internal state at the
moment to and the value of the input on [to, t]. The re-
lationships 'input-internal state' and 'input-output' for
a fixed internal state at the initial moment are opera-
tors in suitable function spaces. Usually, in hysteresis
models the output depends not only on the value of the
input but also on the direction of the input variation
and the input-output relationships are, at least in the
310
first approximation, independent from a time scale (the
rote-independence property).
The main types of hysteresis non-linerities are:
1) Elementary hysteresis non-linearities: the hys-
teron; in particular, play and generalized play, stop or
Prandtl non-linearity; Duhem non-linearity; non-ideal
relay or thermostate non-linearity; multi-dimensional
play and stop; etc.
2) Hysteresis non-linearities treated as block-
diagrams aggregated from elementary hysteresis non-
linearities. Especially important are non-linearities ad-
mitting spectral decompositions into (often infinite) sys-
tem of parallelly connected elementary non-linearities.
These include the Preisach-Giltay model of magnetism
and the Mayergoyz model of magnetism; the Besseling-
Ishlinskil model in plasticity, and many others.
3) Differential models. These models include vibro-
stable ordinary differential equations with delimiters
([1], [3]), the Bliman dry friction model and the
Sorinedry friction model. These models are connected
with other branches of mathematics, e.g. stochastic dif-
ferential equations (cf. also Stochastic differential
equation).
4) Non rate-independent hysteresis. The general in-
vestigation of such models is emerging (1996).
The operator properties of the non-linearities men-
tioned above can be investigated in detail. These opera-
tors are usually (with an exception of relay) continuous
in certain function spaces, which reflects robustness to
noises of the underlying physical phenomena; they have
different monotonicity properties, etc. These properties
allow one to describe the dynamics of closed systems by
ordinary or partial differential equations with hysteresis
operators and can be analyzed by topological methods.
The initial value problem is mostly studied and various
problems on forced and auto-oscillations, such as bifur-
cation at zero and at infinity (including the Hopf bifur-
cation), asymptotic and numerical methods (including
an averaging principle), etc. have also been investigated.
See also Hysteron; Non-ideal relay.
References
[IJ KRASNOSEL'SKII, M.A., AND POKROVSKII, A.V.: Systems with
hysteresis, Springer, 1989. (Translated from the Russian.)
[2J MAYERGOYZ, I.D.: Mathematical models of hysteresis,
Springer, 1991.
[3J VISINTIN, A.: Differential models of hysteresis, Vol. 111 of
Applied Math. Sci., Springer, 1994.
A.M. Krasnosel'skil
M.A. Krasnosel'skil
A. V. Pokrovskil
MSC 1991: 47H30
HYSTERON - Only a very simple modification of
the non-linearity 'hysteron' is described below. See [1]

for the general definition and an identification theorem,
that is, qualitative conditions under which a 'black box'
is a hysteron. Consider in the (x,g)-plane the graphs
of two continuous functions HI(X), H2(X) satisfying the
inequality HI (x) < H2(x), x E R. Suppose that the set
n = {{x,g}: x E R, HI(X) :s g:S H2(x)} is partitioned
into the disjoint union of the continuous family of graphs
of continuous functions go(x), where 0: is a parameter.
Each function go (x) is defined on its interval [11~, 11~],
11~ < 11~, and go(l1~) = HI(l1~), go(l1~) = H2(11~), that
is, the end-points of the graphs of the functions go(x)
belong to the union of the graphs of HI (x) and H 2 ( X )
(see Fig.).
9
h
I Ishlinskiz model.
o 0:-1 0:+1 x
-h
Fig: Hysteron: Prandtl non-linearity
HYSTERON
A hysteron is a transducer with internal states ~
from the segment [0,1] and with the following input-
output operators. The variable output 1l(~o)x(t) =
1I.(~o, to)x(t) (t ~ to) is defined by the formula
gO(X(t)), 11~ :s x(t) :s 11~,
1I.(~o)x(t) = { HI(X(t)), x(t) :s 11~,
H2(X(t)), 11~ :s x(t),
for monotone inputs x(t), t ~ to. The value of 0: is de-
termined by the initial state ~ to satisfy go(x(to)) =
~OHI(X(tO)) + (1 - ~O)H2(X(tO)) and the corresponding
variable internal state is defined by
3(~o)x(t) = 1I.(~o)x(t) - HI(x(t)).
H2(X(t)) - HI (x(t))
For piecewise-monotone continuous inputs the output
is constructed by the semi-group identity. The input-
output operators can then be extended to the totality of
all continuous inputs by continuity (see [1]). The opera-
tors 1l(~o)x(t), 3(~o)x(t) are defined for each continuous
input and each initial state. They are continuous as op-
erators in the space of continuous functions with the
uniform metric (cf. also Metric).
A hysteron is called a Prandtl non-linearity if
HI(X) == -h, H2(X) == hj go = kx-Ot, o:-h :s x :s o:+h,
0:E R. This non-linearity describes the Prandtl model of
ideal plasticity with Young modulus k and elastic lim-
its h. The parallel connections of a finite numbers of
such elements describe the Besseling model of elasto-
plasticity and the continual counterpart describe the
See also Hysteresis.
References
[1] KRASNOSEL'SKII, M.A., AND POKROVSKII, A.V.: Systems with
hysteresis, Springer, 1989. (Translated from the Russian.)
A.M. Krasnosel'skiz
M.A. Krasnosel'skiz
A. v. Pokrovskiz
MSC 1991: 47H30
311
________ 1________
IDEMPOTENT ALGORITHM - An algorithm based
on the concept of idempotent semi-ring (i.e. a semi-
ring with idempotent addition). Let A be an idempotent
semi-ring with operations EB (addition) and 8 (multipli-
cation) and neutral elements 0 and 1. It is well-known
that discrete versions of the Bellman equation can
be treated as linear over idempotent semi-rings. The so-
called (finite-dimensional) generalized stationary Bell-
man equation has the form
x = H8XEBF, (1)
where X, H, F are matrices with elements from A and
the corresponding matrix operations are component-
wise induced by the operations in A; the matrices Hand
F are given (specified) and it is necessary to determine
X from the equation. For example, standard dynamic
programming problems and the well-known shortest
path problem correspond to the case A = Rmax =
R U {-oo} with the operations EB = max (maximum)
and 8 = + (usual addition), 0 = -00, 1 = 0 or
A = Rmin = R U {oo} with the operations EB = min,
8 = +, 0 = 00, 1 = O. The well-known maximal width
path problem corresponds to the case A = Ru {-oo, oo}
with EB = max, 8 = min, 0 = -00, 1 = 00. The rela-
tion closure problem for finite sets corresponds to the
Boolean algebra (which is an idempotent semi-ring),
etc., see, e.g., [3]-[10]. A version of the Gauss elimina-
tion method for solving (1) was presented by S. Kleene
[7] in the case of the semi-ring of all languages over a
finite alphabet. B.A. Carre [3] used semi-rings to show
that many important problems for graphs can be formu-
lated in a unified manner and can be reduced to solving
systems of the type (1). For example, Bellman's method
of solving shortest path problems corresponds to a ver-
sion of the Jacobi method for solving (1), whereas
Ford's algorithm corresponds to a version of the Gauss-
Seidel method (cf. also Seidel method). This can be
treated as an aspect of the idempotent correspon-
dence principle. For algorithms, this heuristic princi-
ple means that 'if one has an important and interesting
numerical algorithm, then there is a good chance that
its semi-ring analogues are important and interesting as
well', [11], [10].
In particular, analogues of algorithms from linear
algebra are especially important. Note that numeri-
cal algorithms for standard infinite-dimensional linear
problems over semi-rings (i.e., for problems related to
integration, integral operators and transformations, the
Hamilton--Jacobi and generalized Bellman equations,
cf. Idempotent analysis) deal with the correspond-
ing finite-dimensional (or finite) 'linear approximations'.
Non-linear algorithms can often be approximated by lin-
ear ones. It is well-known that algorithms from linear
algebra are convenient for parallel computations (see,
e.g. [9], [13], [14]); so, their idempotent analogues ac-
cept a parallelization. This is a regular way to use par-
allel computations for many problems, including basic
optimization problems.
A systematic application of the idempotent corre-
spondence principle to computer calculations leads to
a unifying approach to software and hardware design
[11], [10].
The most important and standard numerical algo-
rithms have many hardware realizations in the form of
technical devices or special processors. These devices
can often be used as prototypes for new hardware units
generated by substitution of the usual arithmetic oper-
ations by semi-ring analogues. Good and efficient tech-
nical ideas and decisions can be transposed from pro-
totypes into new hardware units. The so-called systolic
processors are especially convenient for this purpose, see
e.g. [9], [13], [14].
Software implementations for universal semi-ring al-
gorithms are more flexible. Program modules can deal
with abstract (and variable) operations and data types.
Concrete values for these operations and data types can

be defined by input data types. For programs written
in this manner it is convenient to use special techniques
from so-called object-oriented design, see e.g. [12].
References
[1] AHO, A.V., HOPCROFT, J.E., AND ULLMAN, J.D.: The design
and analysis of computer algorithms, Addison-Wesley, 1976.
[2] BACCELLI, F.L., COHEN, G., OLSDER, G.J., AND QUADRAT,
J.-P.: Synchronization and linearity: an algebm for discrete
event systems, Wiley, 1992.
[3] CARRE, B.A.: 'An algebra for network routing problems', J.
Inst. Math. Appl 7 (1971), 273-294.
[4] CARRE, B.A.: Gmphs and networks, Clarendon Press and
Oxford Univ. Press, 1979.
[5] CUNINGHAM-GREEN, R.A.: 'Minimax algebra and its applica-
tions', Fuzzy Sets and Systems 41 (1991),251-267.
[6] GONDRAN, M., AND MINOUX, M.: Gmphes et algorithms, Edi-
tions Eyrolles, 1979; 1988.
[7] KLEENE, S.C.: 'Representation of events in nerve nets and
finite automata', in J. MCCARTHY AND C. SHANNON (eds.):
Automata Studies, Princeton Univ. Press, 1956, pp. 3-40.
[8] KOLOKOLTSOV, V.N., AND MASLOV, V.P.: Idempotent analy-
sis and applications, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1996. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[9] KUNG, H.T.: VLSI algorithms and architectures, Vo!' 227 of
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, 1986.
[10] LITVINOV, G.L., AND MASLOV, V.P.: 'Idempotent mathemat-
ics: correspondence principle and applications', Russian J.
Math. Phys 4, no. 4 (1996). (Translated from the Russian.)
[11] LITVINOV, G.L., AND MASLOV, V.P.: 'Correspondence princi-
ple for idempotent calculus and some computer applications',
in J. GUNAWARDENA (ed.): Idempotency, Pub!. I. Newton In-
stitute, Cambridge Univ. Press, to appear.
[12] LORENZ, M.: Object oriented software development: a pmc-
tical guide, Prentice-Hall, 1993.
[13] ROTE, G.: 'A systolic array algorithm for the algebraic path
problem', Computing 34 (1985), 191-219.
[14] SEDUKHIN, S.G.: 'Design and analysis of systolic algorithms
for the algebraic path problem', Computers and Artificial In-
telligence 11 (1992), 269-292.
[15] ZIMMERMANN, U.: 'Linear and combinatorial optimization in
ordered algebraic structures', Ann. Discrete Math. 10 (1981),
1-380.
G.L. Litvinov
MSC 1991: 16Y60, 49Lxx, 90C39
IDEMPOTENT ANALYSIS, idempotent calculus - A
branch of analysis based on replacing the usual arith-
metic operations by a new set of basic operations (e.g.,
such as maximum or minimum), that is, on the concept
of an idempotent semi-ring. In particular, idempo-
tent analysis deals with functions taking values in idem-
potent semi-rings and with the corresponding function
spaces (semi-modules). The term 'idempotent analysis'
(or idempotent calculus) is well established in the liter-
ature since the activity of V.P. Maslov and his collabo-
rators (see e.g. [1], [8], [13]' [12], [10], [11]).
The theory is well advanced and includes, in par-
ticular, idempotent integration theory, linear algebra,
spectral theory, and functional analysis. Applications
IDEMPOTENT ANALYSIS
include various optimization problems such as multicri-
teria decision making, optimization on graphs, discrete
optimization with a large parameter (asymptotic prob-
lems), optimal design of computer systems and com-
puter media, optimal organization of parallel data pro-
cessing, dynamic programming, discrete-event sys-
tems, computer science, discrete mathematics, mathe-
maticallogic, etc. (see, e.g., [1]-[5]).
An impetus to the development of the theory was pro-
vided by Maslov's observation that some problems that
are non-linear in the traditional sense turn out to be lin-
ear over a suitable semi-ring; this linearity considerably
simplifies the explicit construction of solutions [9], [1]-
[11]. This is a natural analogue of the so-called superpo-
sition principle in quantum mechanics (cf. Idempotent
superposition principle). In particular, the Bellman
equation (which is the main equation in optimal control
theory) and its generalizations and the Hamilton-Jacobi
equation (cf. also Hamilton-Jacobi theory) can be
treated as linear over suitable semi-rings. Maslov's su-
perposition principle leads to a unified approach to var-
ious optimization problems and optimal control prob-
lems with discrete or continuous state space as well to
the corresponding formulas and algorithms (cf. Idem-
potent algorithm).
The analogy with quantum physics is not limited to
the superposition principle. There is a correspondence
between important constructions and results over the
field ofreal (or complex) numbers and similar construc-
tions and results over appropriate idempotent semi-rings
in the spirit of N. Bohr's correspondence principle (cf.
Idempotent correspondence principle).
Basic idempotent semi-rings. A set A equipped with
binary operations E9 (addition) and 8 (mUltiplication)
is called an idempotent semi-ring if A is a semi-ring
with idempotent addition (that is, a E9 a = a for all
a E A) and neutral elements 0 and 1 (cf. Idempo-
tent semi-ring). Typical (and most common) exam-
ples are given by the so-called (max, + )-semi-ring Rmax
and (min, +)-semi-ring R min . Let R be the field of real
numbers. Then Rmax = R U { -(X)} with the operations
a E9 b = max(a, b) and a 8 b = a + b; 0 = -00, 1 = o.
Similarly, R min = R U { +oo} with operations E9 = min,
8 = +; in this case, 0 = +00, 1 = o. The so-called
(min, max)-semi-ring coincides with Ru {-(X)} U {+oo}
with operations E9 = min, 8 = +; 0= +00, 1 = -00.
The well-known Boolean algebra {O, I} is an exam-
ple of a finite idempotent semi-ring. Other interesting
examples and constructions can be found in [1]-[5].
Idempotent integration and Maslov measures.
See also [1]-[11]. Let X be a locally compact set and
A = Rmax the (max, + )-idempotent semi-ring. An idem-
potent analogue of the usual integration can be defined
313
IDEMPOTENT ANALYSIS
by the formula
ix
r) cp(x) dx = sup cp(x),
xEX
(1)
where cp: X --+ A is a continuous or upper semi-
continuous function. This integration is 'linear' over
A and (1) can be treated as a limit of Riemann or
Lebesgue sums. The set function B --+ m",(B) =
sUPxEB cp(x), where B C X, is called a Maslov A-
measure on X. This function is completely additive:
m",(UBa ) = EBam",(Ba). An integral with respect to
this A-measure is defined by the formula:
[fB 1j;(x) dm", [fB 1j;(x) 8 cp(x) dx.
= (2)
Let A be an arbitrary idempotent semi-ring equipped
with its canonical partial order (a ~ b if and only
if a EB b = b, cf. Idempotent semi-ring). Suppose
that A is boundedly complete, i.e. every bounded sub-
set B C A has a least upper bound sup B. In this case,
idempotent integration and A-measures can be defined
by the same formulas (1), (2) for an arbitrary set X
and bounded functions X --+ A. In particular, if A is
the (min, +)-semi-ring Rmin, then the canonical order
f:
is the opposite of the usual ordering of numbers and
cp(x) dx = infxEx cp(x) with respect to this usual or-
dering.
Idempotent semi-modules. Roughly speaking, semi-
modules are 'linear spaces' over semi-rings. A set V is
called an idempotent semi-module over an idempotent
semi-ring A (or an A-semi-module) if there is a com-
mutative associative idempotent addition EB in V with
a neutral element 0, and a multiplication 8 of elements
from V by elements of A is defined such that the follow-
ing properties hold:
i) (A8JL)8v=A8(JL8v);
ii) A8(VlEBV2)=A8vlEBA28v2;
iii) 08 v = A 8 0 = 0, for all A, JL E A, v, Vl, V2 E V.
It is often assumed that sUPaPa} 8 v = sUPaPa 8 v}
in the sense of the canonical order in A (where v E V
and SUPa{Aa} E A).
The simplest A-semi-module is the direct sum (prod-
uct) An = {(al, ... , an): aj E A}. The set of all
endomorphisms An --+ An coincides with the non-
commutative idempotent semi-ring Matn(A) of all A-
valued matrices (cf. Idempotent semi-ring, Example
4). Every element a E A is 'non-negative': 0 ~ a be-
cause 0 + a = a. So, the theory of A-valued matrices
is an analogue of the well-known Perron-Frobenius the-
ory of non-negative matrices (see, e.g., [12], [10], [11], [2],
[4]). For example, if A = Rmax (or R min ), then for every
endomorphism K of An (n ~ 1) there exist a non-trivial
sub-semi-module ScAn (an 'eigenspace') and element
A E A (an 'eigenvalue') such that Kv = A 8 v for all
314
v E S. Similar results are valid for the semi-modules of
bounded or continuous functions discussed below.
Let X be a set and denote by B(X, A) the set of
all bounded mappings (functions) X --+ A (i.e. map-
pings with order-bounded images), equipped with the
natural structure of an A-semi-module. If X is finite,
X = {Xl, ... , x n }, then B(X, A) can be identified with
the semi-module An. Actually, B(X, A) is an idempo-
tent semi-ring with respect to the corresponding point-
wise operations. Suppose that A is equipped with a com-
patible metric; then there is the corresponding uniform
metric (cf. also Metric) on B(X, A). Suppose that X is
a topological space and denote by C(X, A) the sub-
semi-module of continuous functions in B(X, A); if X
is locally compact (cf. Locally compact space), it is
natural to construct the A-semi-module Co(X, A) of all
continuous A-valued functions with compact supports
endowed with the natural topology. There are many
other interesting idempotent function spaces, including
analogues of the Sobolev spaces (the so-called Maslov
spaces).
By the idempotent correspondence principle,
many important concepts, ideas and results can be con-
verted from usual functional analysis to idempotent
analysis. For example, an idempotent scalar product can
be defined as
(cp,1j;) = [fB cp(x) 8 1j;(x) dx,
where cp, 1j; are A-valued functions belonging to an idem-
potent function space. There are analogues for the well-
known theorems of Riesz, Hahn-Banach and Banach-
Steinhaus; it is possible to treat dual spaces, operators,
and distributions (generalized functions), etc.; see [1]-
[11], [7], [6] for details.
Integral operators. See [12], [10], [11], [4], [14]. It is
natural to construct idempotent analogues of integral
operators (cf. Integral operator) in the form
K: cp(y) t-t (Kcp)(x) = [fB K(x,y) 8cp(y) dy, (3)
where cp(y) is an element of a space of functions defined
on a set Y and taking their values in an idempotent
semi-ring A, (Kcp)(x) is an A-valued function on a set
X and K(x, y) is an A-valued function on X x Y. If
A = Rmax, then (3) turns into the formula
(Kcp)(x) = sup{K(x, y) + cp(y)}.
yEY
Formulas of this type are standard in optimization prob-
lems. The operator defined by (3) is linear over A, i.e.
K is an A-endomorphism of the corresponding semi-
module (function space). Actually, every linear opera-
tor acting in an idempotent function space and satis-
fying some natural continuity-type conditions can be
 IDEMPOTENT CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE

presented in the form (3). This is an analogue of the [1] AVDOSHIN, S.M., BELOV, V.V., AND MASLOV, V.P.: 'Mathe-
well-known Schwartz kernel theorem. matical aspects of computing media synthesis', MIEM Publ.
(1984). (In Russian.)
Fourier-Legendre transform. See, e.g., [1]-[11]. Let
[2] BACCELLI, F.L., COHEN, G., OLSDER, G.J., AND QUADRAT,
A = Rmax, G = Rnj G is treated as a group. The J.-P.: Synchronization and linearity: an algebra for discrete
usual Fourier transform is defined by the formula event systems, Wiley, 1992.
cp(x) f-t cp(e) = fa eie·xcp(x) dx, where eie ·x is a char- [3] COHEN, G., AND QUADRAT, J.-P. (eds.): Discrete Event Sys-
acter of G, that is, a solution of the functional equation tems, Vol. 199 of Lecture Notes in Control and Information
Science, Springer, 1994.
f(x + y) = f(x)f(y)· The corresponding idempotent
[4] DUDNIKOV, P.I., AND SAMBORSKII, S.N.: 'Endomorphisms of
analogue (for the case A = Rmax) has the form semimodules over semirings with an idempotent operation',
f(x + y) = f(x) 0 f(y) = f(x) + f(y), Math. USSR-Izv. 38 (1991), 91-105. (Translated from the
Russian.)
so idempotent characters are linear functionals x f-t [5] GUNAWARDENA, J. (ed.): Idempotency, Publ. I. Newton Insti-
e . x = 6Xl + ... + enxn. This leads to the following tute. Cambridge Univ. Press, in press.
[6] LITVINOV, G.L., AND MASLOV, V.P.: 'Idempotent mathemat-
transform:
ics: correspondence principle and applications', Russian J.
cp(x) f-t cp(e) = Math. Phys. 4, no. 4 (1996). (Translated from the Russian.)
[7] LITVINOV, G.L., AND MASLOV, V.P.: 'Correspondence princi-
= t
Ja
fJ
e· x 0 cp(x) dx = sup(e· x
xEa
+ cp(x)). ple for idempotent calculus and some computer applications',
in J. GUNAWARDENA (ed.): Idempotency, Publ. I. Newton In-
This is the famous Legendre transform. Thus, this stitute, Cambridge Univ. Press, in press.
[8] MASLOV, V.P.: Methodes operatorielles, MIR, 1987. (Trans-
transform is an Rmax-version of the Fourier transform.
lated from the Russian.)
Of course, this construction can be generalized to differ- [9] MASLOV, V.P.: 'New superposition principle for optimization
ent classes of groups and semi-rings. problems', Russian Math. Surveys 42 (1987). (Translated
Basic equations. In the framework of idempotent anal- from the Russian.)
ysis, the Hamilton-Jacobi equation and the Bellman [10] MASLOV, V.P., AND KOLOKOLTSOV, V.N.: Idempotent analy-
sis and its applications in optimal control, Nauka, 1994. (In
equation and its generalizations can be treated as lin-
Russian.)
ear. [11] MASLOV, V.P., AND KOLOKOLTSOV, V.N.: Idempotent analy-
In the general case, the Hamilton-Jacobi equation sis and applications, Kluwer Acad. Publ., 1996. (Translated
has the form from the Russian.)
[12] MASLOV, V.P., AND SAMBORSKII, S.N. (eds.): Idempotent
as(x, t) H (as ) _ (4)
at + ax' x, t - 0, analysis, Amer. Math. Soc., 1992. (Translated from the Rus-
sian.)
where H is a smooth function on R2n X [0, T]. Con- [13] MASLOV, V.P., AND VOLOSOV, K.A. (eds.): Mathematical as-
sider the Cauchy problem for (4): S(x,O) = So(x), pects of computer engineering, MIR, 1988. (In Russian.)

o :::; t :::; T, x ERn. Denote by Ut the resolving oper- [14] SHUBIN, M.A.: 'Algebraic remarks on idempotent semirings
and the kernel theorem in spaces of bounded functions', in
ator, i.e. the mapping that assigns to each given So (x) V.P. MASLOV AND S.N. SAMBORSKI! (eds.): Idempotent anal-
the solution S(x, t) of this problem at the moment of ysis, Amer. Math. Soc., 1992, pp. 151-166. (Translated from
time t. Then for each t the mapping Ut is a linear in- the Russian.)
tegral operator over the (min, + )-semi-ring Rmin in the C.L. Litvinov
corresponding Rmin-semi-module. In general, solutions MSC 1991: 16Y60, 19Lxx, 90C39, 68QlO, 93C30,
of (4) are not smooth and the corresponding theory of 28Cxx, 81-XX, 15A48, 44-XX, 44A15
generalized functions has been constructed.
The situation is similar for the Cauchy problem for IDEMPOTENT CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE
the homogeneous Bellman equation - A heuristic principle in idempotent analysis. It
as (as) states that there is a correspondence between important,
at +H ax = 0, useful and interesting constructions and results over the
Slt=o = So(x), field ofreal (or complex) numbers and similar construc-
tions and results over idempotent semi-rings (cf. Idem-
where H: Rn --+ R is a convex (not strictly) first-order
potent semi-ring) in the spirit of N. Bohr's correspon-
homogeneous function
dence principle in quantum mechanics. The field of real
H(p)= sup (f.p+g), fERn, gER, numbers and other fields can be treated as 'quantum ob-
(J,g)EV
jects' with respect to idempotent semi-ringsj so, idem-
and V is a compact set in R n+!. See [12], [10], [11] for potent semi-rings can be treated as 'classical' or 'semi-
details. classical' objects and as results of a 'dequantization' of
References these quantum objects. The correspondence principle is

315
IDEMPOTENT CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE
a powerful tool for applying unexpected analogies and
ideas borrowed from different areas of mathematics and
theoretical physics [4], [3].
For example, the well-known superposition princi-
ple in quantum theory corresponds to the idempo-
tent correspondence principle in idempotent analysis;
this means that the Hamilton-Jacobi equation (cf. also
Hamilton-Jacobi theory) and the Bellman equa-
tion (and its generalizations) are linear over appropri-
ate semi-rings; see, e.g., [2]. There is a natural analogy
between idempotent measures and probability measures
(cf. also Probability measure). This analogy leads to
a parallelism between probability theory and stochas-
tic processes (cf. Stochastic process) on the one hand,
and optimization theory and decision processes on the
other hand (cf. also Decision problem). That is why it
is possible to develop optimization theory at the same
level of generality as probability theory and the the-
ory of stochastic processes. In particular, the Markov
causality principle corresponds to the Bellman optimal-
ity principle; so the Bellman equation is an idempotent
version of the Kolmogorov-Chapman equation for
Markov stochastic processes (see, e.g., [1] and Markov
process). The well-known Legendre transform is an
idempotent version of the usual Fourier transform.
There are many other examples of this type (see [4]-[2]
and Idempotent analysis).
The idempotent correspondence principle is also valid
for algorithms and their software and hardware imple-
mentations (cf. Idempotent algorithm).
References
[1] DEL MORAL, P.: 'A survey of Maslov optimization theory',
in V.N. KOLOKOLTSOY AND V.P. MASLOY (eds.): Idempotent
analysis and applications, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1996, p. Ap-
pendix. (Translated from the Russian.)
[2] KOLOKOLTSOY, V.N., AND MASLOY, V.P.: Idempotent analy-
sis and applications, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1996. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[3] LITYINOY, G.L., AND MASLOY, V.P.: 'Idempotent mathemat-
ics: correspondence principle and applications', Russian J.
Math. Phys 4, no. 4 (1996). (Translated from the Russian.)
[4] LITYINOY, G.L., AND MASLOY, V.P.: 'Correspondence princi-
ple for idempotent calculus and some computer applications',
in J. GUNAWARDENA (ed.): Idempotency, Pub!. I. Newton In-
stitute, Cambridge Univ. Press, to appear.
C.L. Litvinov
MSC 1991: 16Y60, 90C39, 81-XX, 49Lxx, 60J35,
44A15
IDEMPOTENT SEMI-RING, dioid - A semi-ring
with idempotent addition. So, a set A equipped with
binary operations EB (addition) and 8 (multiplication)
and neutral elements 0 and 1 is called an idempotent
semi-ring if the following basic properties are valid for
all elements a, b, c E A:
316
i) a EB a = a (idempotent addition);
ii) (a EB b) EB c = a EB (b EB c);
iii) a EB b = b EB a;
iv) 0 EB a = a EB 0 = a;
v) 18 a = a 81 = a;
vi) 08 a = a 8 0 = 0;
Yii) a 8 (b EB c) = (a 8 b) EB (a 8 c);
viii) (b EB c) 8 a = (b 8 a) EB (c 8 a).
An idempotent semi-ring A is commutative if a 8 b =
b 8 a for all a, b E A. Different versions of this axiom at-
ics are used, see e.g. [1], [3], [6], [4], [11], [10], [9], [8],
[2], [5]. Idempotent semi-rings are often called dioids,
see e.g. [6], [2]. The concept of an idempotent semi-
ring is a basic concept in idempotent analysis. This
concept has many applications in different optimization
problems (including dynamic programming), com-
puter science, automata and formal language theory,
numerical methods, parallel programming, etc. (cf.
also Idempotent algorithm and [1], [3], [6], [4], [11],
[10]' [9], [8], [2], [5], [7]).
Example 1. Let Rmax be the set A = R U {-oo} (where
R is the field of real numbers) equipped with the op-
erations EB = max and 8 = + (usual addition); set
o = -00, 1 = O. Similarly, let Rmin be the set Ru {+oo}
equipped with the operations EB = min and 8 = +; in
this case 0 = +00 and 1 = O. It is easy to check that
Rmax and Rmin are (isomorphic) commutative idempo-
tent semi-rings.
Example 2. Let A be the set R+ of all non-negative
real numbers endowed with the operations EB = max
and 8 = . (usual multiplication); 0 = 0, 1 = 1. This
idempotent semi-ring is isomorphic to Rmax. The iso-
morphism is given by x H In(x).
Example 3. A = [a, b] = {x E R: a ::; x ::; b} with the
operations EB = max, 8 = min and neutral elements
o = a and 1 = b (the cases a = -00, b = +00 are
possible).
Example 4. Let Matn(A) be the set of (n x n)-matrices
with entries belonging to an idempotent semi-ring A.
Then Matn(A) is a non-commutative idempotent semi-
ring with respect to matrix addition and matrix multi-
plication.
The Boolean algebra {O, I} is an example of a finite
idempotent semi-ring. There are many other interesting
examples of idempotent semi-rings, see e.g. [1], [3], [6],
[4], [11], [10]' [9], [8], [2], [5], [7].
There is a natural partial order on any idempotent
semi-ring (as well as on any idempotent semi-group; cf.
also Idempotent semi-ring). By definition, 0: ~ b if
and only if a EB b = b. For this relation, reflexivity
is equivalent to idempotency of the (generalized) addi-
tion, whereas transitivity, respectively anti-symmetry,
follow from associativity, respectively commutativity, of

this operation. On Rmax (and also on the semi-rings de-
scribed in the Examples 2 and 3), this ordering relation
coincides with the natural one; on Rmin it is the op-
posite of the natural ordering relation on the real axis.
Every element a in an idempotent semi-ring A is 'non-
negative': 0 j a. Indeed, 0 El:l a = a. Similarly, for all
a, b, c E A one has a El:l c j b El:l c, and a 8 c j b 8 c
if a j b. Using this standard partial order it is pos-
sible to define in the usual way the notions of upper
and lower bounds, bounded sets, sup M (and inf N) for
upper- (lower-) bounded sets M (respectively, N), etc.
H the multiplication in a semi-ring A is invertible
on A\{O}, then A is called a semi-field. For example,
Rmax is a semi-field. Idempotent semi-fields and semi-
rings with idempotent multiplication are especially in-
teresting.
References
[1] AHO, A.V., HOPCROFT, J.E., AND ULLMAN, J.D.: The design
and analysis of computer algorithms, Addison-Wesley, 1976.
[2] BACCELLI, F.L., COHEN, G., OLSDER, G.l., AND QUADRAT,
.J.-P.: Synchmnization and linearity: an algebra for discrete
event systems, Wiley, 1992.
[3] CARRE, B.A.: Graphs and networks, Clarendon Press and
Oxford Univ. Press, 1979.
[4] CUNINGIIAM-GREEN, R.A.: Min'imax algebra, Vo!' 166 of
Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems,
Springer, 1979.
[5] GOLAN, J.S.: The theory of semir'ings with applications in
mathematics and theoretical computer science, Vo!' 54 of Pit-
man monographs and surveys in pure and applied mathemat-
ics, Longman, 1992.
[6] GONDRAN, M., AND MINOllX, M.: Graphes et algorithms, Edi-
tions Eyrolles, 1979; 1988.
[7] GUNAWARDENA, .J. (ed.): Idempotency, Pub!. 1. Newton Insti-
tute. Cambridge Univ. Press, in press.
[8] KOLOKOLTSOY, V.N., AND MASLOY, V.P.: Idempotent analy-
sis and applications, Kluw()[ Acad. Pub!., 1996. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[9] MASLOY, V.P., AND SAMBORSKI!, S.N. (eds.): Idempotent
analysis, Amer. Math. Soc., 1992. (Translated from the Rus-
sian.)
[10] MASLOY, V.P., AND VOLOSOV, K.A. (eds.): Mathemat.ical as-
pects of comput.er engineering, MIR, 1988. (In Russian.)
[11] ZIMMERMANN, U.: 'Linear and combinatorial optimization in
ordered algebraic structures', Ann. Discrete Math. 10 (1981),
1-380.
C.L. Litvinov
MSC 1991: 16Y60
IDEMPOTENT SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE,
Maslov superposition principle- A method used in
idempotent analysis and similar to the well-known
superposition principle in quantum theory. Just as the
basic equations of quantum mechanics are linear, the
Hamilton-Jacobi equation (i.e. the basic equation in
classical mechanics; cf. also Hamilton-Jacobi the-
ory) and the Bellman equation (i.e. the basic equa-
tion for optimization problems) are linear over suitable
ILLATIVE COMBINATORY LOGIC
idempotent semi-rings (cf. Idempotent semi-ring).
Using this idea it is possible to generalize classical lin-
ear methods to these equations (which are non-linear in
the traditional sense); it is useful, e.g., for the explicit
construction of their solutions [2], [1].
References
[1] KOLOKOLTSOY, V.N., AND MASLOY, V.P.: Idempotent analy-
sis and applications, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1996. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[2] MASLOY, V.P.: 'New superposition principle for optimization
problems', Russian Math. Surveys 42 (1987). (Translated
from the Russian.)
C.L. Litvinov
MSC 1991: 81-XX, 90C39, 49Lxx
ILLATIVE COMBINATORY LOGIC - Combinatory
logic, which began with a paper by M. Sch()nfinkel [15],
was developed by H.B. Curry and others with the in-
tention of providing an alternative foundation for math-
ematics. Curry's theory is divided into two parts: pure
combinatory logic (CL). concerning itself with notions
like substitution and other (formula) manipulations;
and illative combinatory logic (ICL), concerning itself
with logical notions such as implication, quantification,
equality, and types. In pure combinatory logic there is a
set of terms built by application from variables and two
constants K and S, and there are two conversion rules:
(Kx)y = x and ((Sx)y)z = (xz)(yz). In the presence
of the rule of extensionality, the theory CL is equiva-
lent with untyped lambda-calculus (cf. also A-calculus)
with f3T]-conversion. ICL contains all of CL, but the al-
phabet is extended by extra logical constants, and there
are derivation rules capturing the intended meaning of
these constants.
Also, in the early papers [5], [6], A. Church attempted
to form a single foundation for the whole of logic by a
complicated combination of lambda-calculus and illative
notions. But in [14], S.C. Kleene and J.B. Rosser proved
that this system was inconsistent. This proof involved
GCidelization (cf. also Arithmetization), and with all
the relevant details took sixty pages. Church and his stu-
dents then abandoned the study of illative combinatory
logic.
An ICL-system of Curry. The following system, I,
due essentially to Curry, is an early and simple example
of an ICL-system.
i) The set of terms of I is built, by application, from
the terms of ICL plus the extra constant ::::.
ii) A statement of I is just a term. A basis is a set of
statements.
iii) Let r be a basis and X a statement; then X is
derivable from r, denoted by r f- X, if r f- X can be
317
ILLATIVE COMBINATORY LOGIC
produced by the following natural deduction system:
X E r => r f- X,
rf-X x=y=>rf-Y,
r f- 3XY r f- XZ => r f- YZ,
r Xxf-Yx x~FV(r,X,Y)=>rf-3Xy'
Here, = stands for ,81J-equality, X Z may be interpreted
as Z EX, and the intended meaning of 3 is C, so that
the intuition behind the rule r f- 3XY, r f- X Z => r f-
Y Z is: X C Y, Z EX=> Z E Y.
For terms X, Y write: X :J Y == 3(KX)(KY) and
Vu E X.Y == 3X(AU.Y). Then the definition of I imme-
diately implies:
i) rf-x:JY,rf-x=>rf-Y.
ii) r,Xf-y=>rf-x:JY.
iii) r f- Vu E X.Y, r f- Xt => r f- Y[u := t].
iv) r,xu f- Y, u ~ FV(r,X) => r f- Vu E X.Y.
Now it is possible to interpret the {:J, V} fragment
of first-order intuitionistic predicate logic into I (cf.
also Interpretation). For example, a sentence like
Vx(Rx :J Rx), holding in a universe A, is trans-
lated as the statement ("Ix E A.Rx :J Rx), which is
3A(Ax.3(K(Rx))(K(Rx))), and is provable in I.
Unfortunately, the interpretation is not complete be-
cause the system I is also inconsistent (cf. also Com-
pleteness (in logic); Inconsistency): every state-
ment X (i.e., every term) can be derived in I (from
the empty basis). This already followed from the paper
[14], involving Godelization, but a much easier proof, es-
sentially given in [8], is as follows. Let X be given. Take
Y == (Ay.(yy) :J X)(Ay.(yy) :J X). Then Y = Y :J X.
So,
Yf-Y=>Yf-Y:JX=>Yf-X=>
=> f- Y :J X => f- Y =>f- X.
Curry and his school then define weaker systems which
were still strong enough to interpret logic, but the con-
sistency of these systems remained an open question; cf.
[9], [2], [3], [4].
A consistent ICL-system. The essential step in the
inconsistency proof above is Y f- X => f- Y :J X. This
should hold only for 'formulas' X and Y. This is taken
into account in the system I3 defined from I as follows.
Let L be an extra constant and write H == L 0 K. (The
intended meaning of LX is: X is a set, and for HX it is:
X is a proposition.) Now add in the 3-introduction rule
for I the extra condition LX and add an extra rule:
r,xx =>
=> H(Yx), r f- LX,x ~ FV(r,X, Y) =>
=> r f- H(3XY).
318
The resulting system I3 is consistent and the obvious
interpretation of the {:J, V} fragment of first-order in-
tuitionistic predicate logic into IS is sound (cf. Com-
pleteness (in logic»), and, moreover, complete; cf. [1].
Other ICL-systems. Similarly one has systems IF,
IF and IG, where one has, instead of 3, extra con-
stants P, F and G, respectively. The intended interpre-
tation of these constants is as follows. P XY is X :J Y,
FXY is yX, and GXY is "Ix E X.Yx. First-order in-
tuitionistic proposition logic PROP and predicate logic
PRED can be interpreted in ICL-systems in two ways:
following the propositions-as-types paradigm, in which
derivations become combinators, or in a more direct way,
in which derivations are not translated. Here, PROP is
interpreted in IF and IF and PRED in IS and IG.
In [1] and [12] it is proved that all four interpretations
are sound and complete. This fulfills, after sixty years,
the programme of Church and Curry to base logic on a
consistent system of A-terms or combinators. Extensions
to deal with higher-order notions and type theories are
being studied.
References
[1] BARENDREGT, H., BUNDER, M., AND DEKKERS, W.: 'Systems
of illative combinatory logic complete for first-order proposi-
tional and predicate calculus', J. Symbolic Logic 58 (1993),
769-888.
[2] BUNDER, M.W.: 'Set theory based on combinatory logic',
Ph.D. Thesis RU Groningen (1969).
[3] BUNDER, M.W.: 'A deduction theorem for restricted general-
ity', Notre Dame J. Formal Logic 14 (1973), 341-346.
[4] BUNDER, M.W.: 'Propositional and predicate calculus based
on combinatory logic', Notre Dame J. Formal Logic 15
(1974), 25-32.
[5] CHURCH, A.: 'A set of postulates for the foundation of logic',
Ann. of Math. (2) 33 (1932), 346-366.
[6] CHURCH, A.: 'A set of postulates for the foundation of logic',
Ann. of Math. (2) 34 (1933), 839-864.
[7] CURRY, H.B.: 'Grundlagen der kombinatorischen Logik. In-
auguraldissertation', Amer. J. Math. 52 (1930), 509-536;
789-834.
[8] CURRY, H.B.: 'The inconsistency of certain formal logics', J.
Symbolic Logic 7 (1942), 115-117.
[9] CURRY, H.B.: 'Some advances in the combinatory theory of
quantification', Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 28 (1942), 564-
569.
[10] CURRY, H.B., AND FEYS, R.: Combinatory logic, Vol. 1,
North-Holland, 1958.
[11] CURRY, H.B., HINDLEY, J.R., AND SELDIN, J.P.: Combina-
tory logic, Vol. 2, Noruh-Holland, 1972.
[12] DEKKERS, W., BUNDER, M., AND BARENDREGT, H.: 'Com-
pleteness of the propositions-as-types interpretation of intu-
itionistic logic into illative combinatory logic', available via
wil@cs.kun.nl.
[13] HINDLEY, J.R., AND SELDIN, J.P.: Introduction to combina-
tors and A-calculus, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986.
[14] KLEENE, S., AND ROSSER, J.B.: 'The inconsistency of certain
formal logics', Ann. of Math. (2) 36 (1935),630-636.
[15] SCHONFINKEL, M.: 'Uber die Bausteine de mathematischen
Logik', Math. Ann. 92 (1924),305-316.
 INTEGRAL REPRESENTATIONS OF LINEAR OPERATORS
W.J.M. Dekkers
MSC 1991: 03B40
INCIDENCE CALCULUS - A mechanism for auto-
matic reasoning about uncertain knowledge. Most au-
tomatic reasoning mechanisms represent knowledge us-
ing logical formulas and manipulate these formulas with
rules of inference (cf. Permissible law (inference»).
When the knowledge is uncertain, an uncertainty value
is associated with each formula and a propagation rule
is associated to each rule of inference. Probabilities are
often used as uncertainty values. The propagation rule
calculates the new uncertainty for the conclusion of the
rule of inference from the old uncertainty values of its
premises. More generally, it may only be possible to
place upper and lower bounds on the uncertainty val-
ues of formulas, so that the propagation rule generates
upper and lower bounds for the conclusion from those
on the premises.
One problem with using probabilities as uncertainty
values is that the probability of a compound formula
cannot be calculated solely from the probabilities of its
sub-formulas. Consider, for instance, a formula P with
probability 0.5. Note that its negation, oP, will also
have probability 0.5. Now one would like PAP to also
have probability 0.5, but P A oP to have probability O.
But both these compound formulas are conjunctions of
two sub-formulas each with probability 0.5. One conse-
quence of this is that either the uncertainty propagation
rule has to appeal to information additional to proba-
bilities or it will calculate bounds that are much too
loose. For instance, without additional information the
probability of P A Q can be anything between 0 and the
minimum of the probabilities of P and Q.
Incidence calculus solves this problem by appealing to
the foundations of probability theory. Instead of asso-
ciating probabilities directly with formulas, sets of possi-
ble worlds (called 'outcomes' in probability and 'points'
in statistics) are associated with formulas. Probabilities
are then associated with possible worlds and the proba-
bilities of formulas are calculated by summing the prob-
abilities of their associated possible worlds. The set of
possible worlds associated with a formula is called its
incidence. To see how this solves the problem, suppose
there are two possible worlds a and b with equal prob-
ability. The incidence of P might be {a}. Then, by def-
inition, the incidence of OP will be {b}, that of PAP
will be {a} and that of P A op will be { }, as required
to give the desired probabilities. An algorithm called
the legal assignment finder is provided in incidence cal-
culus to propagate incidence bounds between proposi-
tional formulas and their sub-formulas and hence infer
new probability bounds from old.
Introductions to incidence calculus can be found in
[1], [2].
References
[lJ BUNDY, A.: 'Incidence calculus: a mechanism for probabilistic
reasoning', J. Automated Reasoning 1, no. 3 (1985), 263-284,
Earlier version in: Proceedings of FGCS-84 and in: Proceed-
ings of the Workshop on Uncertainty and Probability. Also
available from Edinburgh as DAI Research Paper No 216.
[2J BUNDY, A.: 'Incidence calculus': Encycl. Artificial Intelli-
gence, 1992, pp. 663-668, Also available from Edinburgh as
DAI Research Paper No. 497.
A. Bundy
MSC 1991: 03B48,68T99
INTEGRAL REPRESENTATIONS OF LINEAR OP-
ERATORS - Let (X, A, J.L) and (Y, E, /I) be a-finite mea-
sure spaces (cf. Measure space) and let Lo(X, J.L)
and Lo(Y, /I) be the spaces of the complex-valued J.L-
measurable functions on X and the complex-valued /1-
measurable functions on Y, respectively. A linear sub-
space E = E(X, J.L) of Lo(X, J.L) is called an ideal space,
or a solid linear subspace, of Lo if f E L o , gEE and
If I :S Igl, J.L-a.e., imply fEE. The classical Lp-spaces
(1 :S p :S 00), the Orlicz spaces and, more generally, Ba-
nach function spaces (cf. also Orlicz space; Banach
space) are typical examples of normed ideal spaces.
If E, F are ideal spaces contained in Lo (Y, /I) and
Lo(X, J.L), respectively, then T E C(E, F), the linear
space of all linear operators from E into F, is called
an integral operator, kernel operator, if there exists a
(J.LX /I)-measurable function T = T(x, y), (x, y) EX xY,
such that for all fEE and J.L-a.e. with respect to x,
(Tf)(x) = Jy T(x, y)f(y) d/l(y).
Integral operators, also known as integral transforms,
play an important role in analysis. It is a natural ques-
tion to ask: Which T E C( E, F) are integral opera-
tors? J. von Neumann [6] was the first to show that
for the ideal spaces E = F = L 2([0,1]) the identity
operator does not admit an integral representation. He
proved, however, that a bounded self-adjoint linear op-
erator T E C(L2' L 2) is unitarily equivalent (cf. also
Unitarily-equivalent operators) to an integral oper-
ator if and only if 0 is an element of the limit spectrum
ofT.
T E C(E, F) is called a positive linear operator if for
all 0 :S fEE one has T f ~ 0 (J.L-a.e.). An integral op-
erator T with kernel T(x, y) ((x, y) E X x Y) is positive
if and only if T(x, y) ~ 0, (J.L x /I)-a.e.; T E C(E, F) is
called regular if T maps order-bounded sets into order-
bounded sets, i.e., for all fEE there exists agE F
such that for all h E E satisfying Ihl :S If I, one has
IThl :S g; T E C(E, F) is ordered bounded if and only if
T can be written as the difference of two positive linear
operators if and only if its modulus ITI, where for all
319
INTEGRAL REPRESENTATIONS OF LINEAR OPERATORS
o :S fEE, ITIU) = sup{ITgl: Igl :S j}, is a positive
linear operator mapping E into F.
The following theorem holds: An integral operator
T E C(E, F) is regular if and only if its modulus ITI
is a positive linear operator mapping E into F. In that
case, the kernel of ITI is given by the modulus IT(x, y)1
((x, y) E X x Y) of the kernel of T.
An integral transform need not be regular, as is
shown, for instance, by the Fourier transform and
the Hilbert transform.
Integral operators can be characterized via a continu-
ity property: T E C(E, F) is a linear integral operator if
and only if 0 :S f n :S fEE (n = 1, 2, ... ) and f n --+ 0 in
II-measure as n --+ 00 imply Tfn --+ 0 (/l-a.e.) as n --+ 00.
An earlier version of this theorem for bilinear forms
is due to H. Nakano [4]. For regular linear operators
defined on KB-spaces (cf. also K -space), the result ap-
peared in a slightly different form in a paper by G. Va.
Lozonovski'l [3]. The present version is due to A.V.
Bukhvalov [1]. A pure measure-theoretic proof and re-
lated results were given by A. Schep [5]. For details and
further results see [2].
References
[1] BUKHVALOV, A.V.: 'A criterion for integral represent ability
of linear operators', Funktsional. Anal. i Prilozhen. 9, no. 1
(1975),51. (In Russian.)
[2] KUTATELADZE, S.S. (ed.): Vector lattices and integral oper-
ators, Vo!' 358 of Mathematics and its Applications, Kluwer
Acad. Pub!., 1996.
[3] LOZANOVSKY, G.YA.: 'On almost integral operators in KB-
spaces', Vestnik Leningrad Gos. Univ. 7 (1966), 35-44. (In
Russian.)
[4] NAKANO, H.: 'Product spaces of semi-ordered linear spaces',
J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaid6 Univ. Ser. I 12, no. 3 (1953), 163-210.
[5] SCHEP, A.R.: 'Kernel operators', Proc. Kon. Nederl. Akad.
Wetensch. A 82 (1979), 39-53.
[6] NEUMANN, J. VON: Charakterisierung des Spektrums eines
Integraloperators, Vo!' 229 of Actualites Sc. et Industr., Her-
mann, 1935.
W. Luxemburg
MSC 1991: 45P05, 46E30, 47B55
INTERCEPT - Old-fashioned, somewhat loosely
used term in geometry that is used to refer to a part of
a line, curve, plane, or surface intercepted (i.e. cut out
or marked) by other lines, curves, etc.
For instance, the axis intercept form of the equation
of a line in R2 is x/a+y/b = 1. This line cuts the x-axis
at (a,O) and the y-axis at (0, b) (see [1]).
References
[1] BRONSHTEIN, LN., AND SEMENDYAYEV, K.A.: Handbook of
mathematics, H. Deutsch, 1985. (Translated from the Rus-
sian.)
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 51Mxx, 51N20
320
INTERIOR-POINT METHODS IN MATHEMATI-
CAL PROGRAMMING - A class of theoretically and
practically efficient techniques for solving certain struc-
tured convex programming problems, including lin-
ear programming problems. Besides, ideas arising
from research on interior-point methods have influenced
the areas of non-convex programming, combinatorial op-
timization and decomposition methods. A recent survey
is given in [7].
Interior-point methods originate from K.R. Frisch
(1955), [3]. To solve a convex programming problem
min {go(x): gi(X):S 0, i
x
= 1,00' ,m},
where gi : R n --+ R are convex functions, he introduced
the logarithmic barrier function
m
L(x;/l) = go(x) - /l Lln(-gi(x)),
i=l
parametrized by /l ~ O. Under certain conditions, con-
cerning the existence of a Slater point (i.e. a point
that satisfies the Slater regularity condition gi < 0,
i = 1, ... ,m; cf. also Mathematical programming)
and boundedness of level-sets, this function has a min-
imizer x(/l) for fixed /l; for /l converging to zero, it has
been shown that x(/l) converges to an optimal solution.
The set
{X(/l): /l > O}
is called the central path of the optimization problem.
The generic interior-point method, or path-following
method, works as follows. Given a value /l, compute an
approximate minimizer of L(x; /l); reduce /l and pro-
ceed. Different methods are obtained by: using different
barrier functions, varying the updating scheme for /l, the
method used for minimizing the barrier function (mainly
a variant of the Newton method), and the criterion
that judges approximation to the exact minimizer. The
latter aspect is related to the use of neighbourhoods of
the central path.
Interior-point techniques were extensively investi-
gated in the 1960s (see [2]) and early 1970s. Compu-
tational difficulties with minimizing L(x; /l) efficiently
caused these methods to get out of sight. In 1984,
N.K. Karmarkar [4] proved a variant of an interior-point
method to have polynomial worst-case complexity when
applied to the linear programming problem. Thereafter,
many new variants have been theoretically analyzed as
well as implemented. Especially, primal-dual interior-
point algorithms (i.e., methods generating primal and
dual solutions in each iteration) proved to be extremely
efficient to solve large-scale linear programming prob-
lems, see [5].

The analysis that shows which properties make it
possible to prove polynomial convergence of interior-
point methods for classes of convex programming prob-
lems should mainly be attributed to Yu. Nesterov and
A.S. Nemirovskil, [6]. These classes include: convex qua-
dratic programming with linear and/or quadratic con-
straints, geometric programming, entropy optimization,
£p-optimization, and semi-definite optimization. The
self-concordance condition they introduced for convex
(barrier) functions essentially shows when such a func-
tion can be efficiently (i.e., with quadratic convergence)
minimized using the Newton method.
References
[IJ HERTOG, D. DEN: Interior point approach to linear, quadratic
and convex programming, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1994.
[2J FIACCO, A.V., AND MCCORMICK, G.P.: Nonlinear program-
ming: sequential unconstrained minimization techniques,
Vo!' 4 of Classics in Applied Math, SIAM, 1990, reprint.
[3J FRISCH, K.R.: 'The logarithmic potential method for convex
programming', Institute of Economics, Univ. Oslo (1955).
[4J KARMARKAR, N.K.: 'A new polynomial-time algorithm for
linear programming', Combinatorica 4 (1984), 373-395.
[5J LUSTIG, 1.J., MARSTEN, R.E., AND SHANNO, D.F.: 'Interior
point methods: computational state of the art', ORSA J.
Computing 6 (1994), 1-15.
[6J NESTEROV, Yu., AND NEMIROVSKII, A.S.: Interior point poly-
nomial algorithms in convex programming, Vo!' 13 of Studies
in Applied Mathematics, SIAM, 1994. (Translated from the
Russian.)
[7J TERLAKY, T. (ed.): Interior point view of mathematical pro-
gramming, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1996.
B. Jansen
MSC 1991: 90C25, 90C05, 90C20
ITERATED FUNCTION SYSTEM - A family
{];:X --+ X:i E I} of mappings, where (X,p) is
a complete metric space. Usually, I is a finite set,
I = {l, ... ,N}. An iterated function system is called
hyperbolic if all fi are contracting (cf. Contraction)
for i = 1, ... ,N. An iterated function system induces
a mapping F from the space 2 x to itself by F(A) =
h (A) U ... U f N (A). If the iterated function system is
hyperbolic and one restricts F to the space of non-empty
closed bounded sets equipped with the Hausdorff met-
ric, then it follows from the contracting-mapping
principle that F has a unique fixed point K; moreover,
K is compact ([8], [7]). The set K is called the attrac-
tor, or invariant set, of the iterated function system. If
X is a Euclidean space and the j; are similitudes, then
the attractor is called a self-similar set. These sets are
usually fractals (cf. Fractals); an example is the triadic
Cantor set (cf. also Cantor set), which is the attractor
of the iterated function system
{ X r-+ ~x
3 '
x r-+ ~x
3
+ ~} .
3 MSC 1991: 28A80, 58Fll, 60J05
ITERATED FUNCTION SYSTEM
A generalization is the concept of a recurrent self-
similar (or mixed self-similar) set generated by a re-
current iterated function system. Let M = (mij) be an
(N x N)-matrix of zeros and ones satisfying M n > 0 for
some n > 0, and let contracting mappings fij : X --+ X
be given for each (i,j) such that mij = 1. Then (see
[3] or [1]) there is a unique vector (K I , ... ,KN ) of non-
empty compact sets such that for i = 1, ... ,N,
Ki = u
An iterated function system with probabilities is an iter-
ated function system {h, ... ,fN} together with a prob-
ability vector (PI,." ,PN) (i.e., Pi > 0 and PI + ... +
P N = 1). This induces a mapping G on the space of Borel
probability measures by Gp,(B) = L~l PiP,Ui- 1 B) for
all Borel sets (cf. also Borel set) B. If the iterated func-
tion system is hyperbolic, then there is a unique fixed
point l/ for G, i.e. an invariant measure, whose topologi-
cal support is the attractor of the iterated function sys-
tem [7]. Convergence to l/ is also obtained by associating
a random dynamical system with the iterated function
system via the Markov chain X n + 1 = fYn(Xn), where
the (Yn ) form a sequence of independent random vari-
ables with distributions P[Yn = i] = Pi [2]. The same
type of result holds for recurrent iterated function sys-
tems, taking for (Yn ) a Markov chain on {l, ... ,N}
whose transition probabilities are positive if and only
if the mij are positive [3], [4]. Iterated function systems
are applied for approximation purposes (see, e.g., [5])
and the construction of wavelets (see, e.g., [6]).
References
[IJ BANDT, C.: 'Self similar sets 1. Topological Markov chains and
mixed self-similar sets', Math. Nachr. 142 (1989),107-123.
[2J BARNSLEY, M.F., AND DEMKO, D.: 'Iterated function systems
and the global construction offractals', Proc. Royal Soc. Lon-
don A 399 (1985),243-275.
[3J BARNSLEY, M.F., ELTON, J.H., AND HARDIN, D.P.: 'Recur-
rent iterated function systems', Constr. Approx. 5 (1989),
3-31.
[4J ELTON, J.: 'An ergodic theorem for iterated maps', Ergodic
Th. fj Dynamical Systems 7 (1987), 481-488.
[5J FORTE, B., AND VRSCAY, E.R.: 'Solving the inverse prob-
lem for measures using iterated function systems: a new ap-
proach', Adv. Appl. Prob. 27 (1995), 800-820.
[6J GERONIMO, J.S., HARDIN, D.P., AND MASSOPUST, P.R.:
'Fractal functions and wavelet expansions based on several
scaling functions', J. Approx. Th. 78 (1994),373-401.
[7J HUTCHINSON, J.E.: 'Fractals and self-similarity', Indiana
Univ. Math. J. 30 (1981),713-747.
[8J WILLIAMS, R.F.: 'Composition of contractions', Bal. Soc.
Brasil. Mat. 2 (1971), 55-59.
F.M. Dekking
321
________ J ________
JACOBSON-BoURBAKI THEOREM The
Jacobson-Bourbaki theorem is especially useful for gen-
eralizations of the Galois theory of finite, normal and
separable field extensions.
Let G be a finite group of automorphisms of a field
P, and let <P be the subfield of elements of P that are in-
variant under the action of G. Then P is a normal and
separable extension of <P (cf. Extension of afield),
and there is a one-to-one correspondence between the
subfields of P containing <P and the subgroups of G (cf.
also Galois theory). The elements of G are linear op-
erators on the vector space P over <P; by the operation
of multiplication, the elements of P can be represented
as linear operators on P over <P (the regular represen-
tation), and the ring Hom<I>(P, P) of all linear operators
on P over <P is generated by P and G; indeed, it is the
cross product of P and G.
Now, let <P be a subfield of P such that P is a finite-
dimensional vector space over <P and to each subfield
E c P containing <P let correspond the ring HomE(P, P)
of linear operators on the vector space P over E. The
Jacobson~Bourbaki theorem asserts that this correspon-
dence is a bijection between the subfields of P con-
taining <P and the set of subrings of Hom<I>(P, P) that
are left vector spaces over P of finite dimension. More-
over, the dimension of P over E equals the dimension
of HomE(P, P) over P.
This theorem has been used by N. Jacobson to de-
velop a Galois theory of finite, purely inseparable field
extensions of exponent one, in which groups of auto-
morphisms are replaced by Lie algebras of derivations,
[1].
The Jacobson-Bourbaki theorem can be regarded
as an instance of Morita duality. From the theory of
Morita equivalence the following very general result
is obtained. Let P be a ring, let End(P, +) be the ring
of endomorphisms of the additive group of P an note
that End(P, +) is a left module over P. There is a one-
to-one correspondence between those subrings E of P
such that P is a finitely generated projective generator
in the category of right E-modules and the subrings
L c End(P, +) such that L is a submodule of the left
P-module End(P, +) and P is a finitely generated pro-
jective generator in the category of left L-modules.
References
[1] JACOBSON, N.: 'Galois theory of purely inseparable fields of
exponent one', Amer. J. Math. 66 (1944), 645~648.
F. Kreimer
MSC 1991: 12FlO, 16D90
JACOBSON CATEGORY - An abstract model of
the category of Jacobson-commutative algebras (cf.
Commutative algebra). It is a special instance of a
Zariski category. To be precise, it a Zariski category
in which all objects are Jacobson objects, i.e., objects
whose prime congruences are meets of maximal congru-
ences. Jacobson categories are axiomatically defined as
categories A satisfying the following five axioms:
1) A is co-complete, i.e., has all small colimits;
2) A has a strong generating set of objects
whose objects are finitely presentable and directly co-
disjunctable;
3) regular epimorphisms in A are universal, i.e., sta-
ble under pull-backs along any morphism (cf. also Mor-
phism);
4) the terminal object of A is finitely presentable and
has no proper subobject;
5) the product of two objects in A is co-universal,
i.e., stable under pushouts along any morphism.
The notion of a directly co-disjunct able object used
in 2) is defined as follows. A morphism d: A -+ D in
A is a direct factor morphism if there is a morphism
d': A -+ D' in A such that (d: A -+ D,d': A -+ D') is
a product of objects in A. An object A E A is directly
co-disjunctable if the pair of inductions A =t A LI A of
A into its coproduct by itself has a co-disjunctor (cf.
Zariski category) that is a direct factor morphism.
 JEU DE TAQUIN

What makes Jacobson categories special is the fact Further, A. Lascoux and Schiitzenberger have estab-
that co-disjunctors are co-equalizers or, more concretely, lished that the equivalence relation generated by this
that algebras of fractions are quotient algebras. It fol- set of relations is compatible with concatenation. The
lows that integral or local reduced algebras are fields, quotient monoid (which is in bijection with the set of
that reduced algebras are von Neumann regular (cf. also . semi-standard tableaux) is known as the plactic monoid.
Regular ring (in the sense of von Neumann)), They have also given the fundamental properties of this
that prime ideals are maximal, that prime spectra are monoid, in [2].
Hausdorff and Boolean spaces, that the set of finitely The plactic (or Knuth) congruences are the following:
generated ideals of an algebra is equipped with, next to Let the alphabet X be totally ordered and suppose that
the usual addition and multiplication of ideals, an ex- a < b < c. Then
tra multiplication of ideals, giving it the structure of a
Stone semi-algebra, etc. bca == bac, acb == cab,
A typical example of a Jacobson category is the cat- aba == baa, bba == bab.
egory Alg C Alg( k) of algebraic commutative algebras
This equivalence can be transferred to (semi-
over a commutative ring k (cf. also Algebraic alge-
standard) skew Young tableaux (cf. Skew Young
bra), i.e., algebras whose elements are algebraic over k.
tableau) in the following way. Two skew Young
More generally, the category of algebraic objects of any
tableaux are equivalent if and only if one can be ob-
Zariski category A is a Jacobson category, and is indeed
tained from the other by a succession of local transfor-
the universal Jacobson category associated to A [2].
mations corresponding, respectively, to the four plactic
References congruences:
[lJ DIERS, Y.: 'Jacobson categories', J. Algebra 168, no. 3
(1994), 949-967.
[2J DIERS, Y.: 'Clear objects in categories of commutative alge-
bras', J. Pure Appl. Algebra 10 (1995), 155-171.

Y. Diers
MSC 1991: 13Fxx, 18Fxx, 14Axx, 08C05, 18C05
JEU DE TAQUIN - The French name of a puzzle
game introduced in France by H.E. Lucas. It consists of
fifteen wooden squares, numbered from one to fifteen,
which can be moved in a (4 x 4)-box. A single space is
free, and must be used to restore the consecutive num-
bering of the smaller squares. This game is still on sale
with some variations (a typical example is the 'puzzle'
program distributed with the Macintosh operating sys-
tem).
By analogy, this same name has been given by M.-P.
Schiitzenberger (cf. [4], [5]) to a graphical representation
of the plactic, or Knuth, congruences.
The Robinson-Schensted construction (cf.
Robinson-Schensted correspondence) establishes
a bijection between a permutation and a pair of stan-
dard Young tableaux (cf. Young tableau and [1]). It is
a fundamental tool in the combinatorics of representa-
tions of symmetric groups (cf. [3]). This construction has
been extended to words (i.e. allowing repetitions) by D.
Knuth. In the latter case, the first tableau is no longer
standard, but semi-standard (the entries are increasing
along the columns and non-decreasing along the rows).
Knuth has also shown that two words correspond to the
same semi-standard tableau if and only if it is possible
to obtain one from the other by a succession of certain
commutations of letters.
Under this equivalence relation each class of skew Young
tableaux contains exactly one Young tableau. This state-
ment is in fact equivalent to Knuth's theorem. This game
of transformation of tableaux is what is called jeu de
taquin.
It can be used to provide an alternative to the original
Schensted insertion algorithm as generalized by Knuth.
Let w be a word. Consider any skew Young tableau such
that, reading its entries from left to right and from bot-
tom to top, one obtains precisely w. Then apply jeu de
taquin transformations to that tableau a Young tableau
is obtained. This last tableau depends only on w, but
not on the choices of starting tableau and of transforma-
tions. It is exactly the first tableau of the pair associated
to w.
For example, start with w = abcba. One can produce
the following sequence of transformations. Note that the
starting tableau has the 'reading property' mentioned
above.
~-+ ~-+~-+
~0iJ~
c
~b
-+ab
Fab
-+b
c
References

323
JORDAN-DEDEKIND SPACE
[1] KNUTH, D.: The art of computer progmmming, Vol. 3,
Addison-Wesley, 1973.
[2] LASCOUX, A., AND SCHihZENBERGER, M.-P.: 'Le monoi'de
plaxique': Non Commutative Structures in Algebm and
Geometric Combinatorics, Areo Felice (1978), Vol. 109
of Quaderni Ricerea Sci., Consiglio Naz. Ricerche, 1981,
pp. 129-156.
[3] MACDONALD, I.G.: Symmetric functions and Hall polynomi-
als, second ed., Clarendon Press, 1995.
[4] SCHUTZENBERGER, M.-P.: 'Sur une construction de Gilbert
de B. Robinson': Algebre (1971/2), Vol. 1: 8 of Seminaire P.
Dubreuil 25e annee, Secretariat Mathematique, Paris, 1973.
[5] SCHUTZENBERGER, M.-P.: 'La correspondance de Robinson':
Combinatoire et Representations du Groupe Symetrique,
Stmsboury (1976), Vol. 579 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1977, pp. 59-135.
J. Desarmenien
MSC 1991: 05ElO, 20C30
J ORDAN-DEDEKIND LATTICE - A lattice sat-
isfying the following condition, known as the lordan-
Dedekind chain condition: All maximal chains have the
same length.
The condition arose in connection with the Jordan-
Holder theorems for groups (cf. Jordan-Holder the-
orem), and is equivalent to the condition of supersolv-
ability in the lattice of all subgroups of a finite group.
A general reference is [IJ. See also Partially ordered
set; Chain.
References
[1] HALL, JR., M.: The theory of groups, Macmillan, 1968.
L.M. Batten
MSC 1991: 06Bxx, 20D30
JORDAN-DEDEKIND PROPERTY, lordan-
Dedekind chain condition of a partially ordered set
- All maximal chains have the same length.
See Jordan-Dedekind lattice; Partially ordered
set; Chain.
L.M. Batten
MSC 1991: 06Bxx
JORDAN-DEDEKIND SPACE - Let C be a closure
space on a set S. The elements of C, partially ordered
324
by set-inclusion, form a complete atomic lattice [3J (cf.
also Atom). For any subset X of S, let (X) denote the
closure of X. A chain in a closed set A is a totally or-
dered set of closed subsets of A. The rank r(X) of a set
X is
max {IMI : M a chain of (X)} - 1.
A Jordan-Dedekind space is a closure space of finite
rank satisfying the Jordan-Dedekind chain condition
(see Jordan-Dedekind lattice).
Characterizations of Jordan-Dedekind spaces in
terms of an exchange property and in terms of inde-
pendence were given by L.M. Batten in [IJ and [2J. In
particular, let C be a closure space. C is said to have the
weak exchange property if for all elements y of Sand
subsets X of S,
r((X U {y})) = 1 +r((X)).
The following theorem holds: In any closure space of
finite rank, the weak exchange property is equivalent
to the Jordan-Dedekind chain condition (cf. Jordan-
Dedekind property).
The notion of an independent set is recursively de-
fined: X is independent if X = 0 or a singleton; X is
independent if for some x EX, X \ {x} is independent
and x ~ (X \ {x}). The set X is m-independent if for
all x E X, x ~ (X \ {x}).
The following theorem holds: For a Jordan-
Dedekind space C the following assertions are equiva-
lent: 1) C is a matroid [4J; and 2) m-independence and
independence are the same.
References
[1] BATTEN, L.M.: 'A rank-associated notion of independence':
Finite Geometries, M. Dekker, 1983.
[2] BATTEN, L.M.: 'Jordan-Dedekind spaces', Quart. J. Math.
Oxford 35 (1984), 373-381.
[3] BIRKHOFF, G.: Lattice theory, third ed., Colloquium Publica-
tions. Amer. Math. Soc., 1967.
[4] WELSH, D.J.A.: Matroid theory, Acad. Press, 1976.
L.M. Batten
MSC 1991: 06Bxx, 05B35
________ K________
K -CONTACT FLOW - A contact form on a smooth
(2n + 1)-dimensional manifold M is a 1-form a such
that a 1\ (da)n is everywhere non-zero. The pair (M, a)
is called a contact manifold. See also Contact struc-
ture.
A contact manifold (M, a) carries a distinguished
vector field Z, called the characteristic vector field or
Reeb field, which is uniquely determined by the follow-
ing equations: a(Z) = 1 and da(Z, X) = 0 for all vector
fields X. The flow cPt generated by Z (when it is com-
plete) is called the contact flow. Sometimes the name
'contact flow' is used for the 1-dimensional foliation F
consisting of the unparametrized orbits of Z, [5].
If the flow F is a Riemannian foliation in the sense
of Reinhart-Molino [7], i.e., if there is a holonomy-
invariant transverse metric for F, then F is called a K-
contact flow, and the pair (M, a) is called a K -contact
manifold. This definition is equivalent to requiring that
the flow cPt of Z is a 1-parameter group of isometries for
some contact metric (a Riemannian metric 9 such
that there exists an endomorphism J of the tangent
bundle TM such that JZ = 0, J2 X = -X + a(X)Z,
da(X, Y) = g(X, JY), and g(X, Y) = g(JX, JY) +
a(X)a(Y) for all vector fields X and Y on M). If one
has in addition (V'xJ)Y = g(X, Y)Z - a(Y)X, where
V' is the Levi-Civita connection of g, then one says
that (M, a) is a Sasakian manifold, [4], [12].
As a consequence of the Meyer-Steenrod theorem [6]'
a K-contact flow cPt on a compact (2n + 1)-dimensional
manifold is almost periodic: the closure of cPt in the isom-
etry group of M (of the associated contact metric) is a
torus Tk, of dimension k in between 1 and n + 1, which
acts on M while preserving the contact form a, [3]. The
'completely integrable' case k = n + 1 has been studied
in [2]: these structures are determined by the image of
their contact moment mapping.
The existence of K -contact flows poses restrictions
on the topology of the manifold. For instance, since a
K -contact flow can be approximated by a periodic K-
contact flow, only Seifert fibred compact manifolds can
carry a K-contact flow. Another example of a restriction
is the Tachibana theorem, asserting that the first Betti
number of a compact Sasakian manifold is either zero
or even, [9]. This shows that no torus T 2n+1 can carry
a Sasakian structure. Actually, P. Rukimbira [8] showed
that no torus can carry a K-contact flow.
A. Weinstein [11] has conjectured that the contact
flow of a compact contact manifold has at least one pe-
riodic orbit. Despite important breakthroughs (includ-
ing [10]), this conjecture is not quite settled at present
(1996). However, it is known that K-contact flows on
compact manifolds have at least two periodic orbits [3].
Examples of K-contact manifolds include the con-
tact manifolds (M, a) with a periodic contact flow cPt
(these include the regular contact manifolds), such as
the sphere s2n+1 equipped with the contact form a that
is the restriction to s2n+1 of the 1-form
n+1
2: Xi dYi - Yi dXi
i=1
on R2n+2. More generally, compact contact hypersur-
faces (in the sense of M. Okumura) [1] in Kahler man-
ifolds of constant positive holomorphic sectional curva-
ture carry K-contact flows. A large set of examples is
provided by the Brieskorn manifolds: In [12] it is shown
that every Brieskorn manifold admits many Sasakian
structures, hence carries many K -contact flows.
References
[IJ BANYAGA, A.: 'On characteristics of hypersurfaces in sym-
plectic manifolds': Proc. Symp. Pure Math., Vol. 54, Amer.
Math. Soc., 1993, pp. 9-17.
[2J BANYAGA, A., AND MOLINO, P.: Complete integrability in
contact geometry, Memoirs. Amer. Math. Soc., submitted.
[3J BANYAGA, A., AND RUKIMBIRA, P.: 'On characteristics of cir-
cle invariant presymplectic forms', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc.
123 (1995),3901-3906.
[4J BLAIR, D.E.: Contact manifolds in Riemannian geometry,
Vol. 509 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1976.
K-CONTACT FLOW
[5J CARRIERE, Y.: 'Flots riemanniens', Asterisque 116 (1982),
31-52.
[6J MEYER, S.B., AND STEENROD, N.E.: 'The group of isome-
tries of a Riemannian manifold', Ann. of Math. 40 (1939),
400-416.
[7J MOLINO, P.: Riemannian foliations, Progress in Math.
Birkhauser, 1984.
[8J RUKIMBIRA, P.: 'Some remarks on R-contact flows', Ann.
Global Anal. and Geom. 11 (1993),165-171.
[9J TACHIBANA, S.: 'On harmonic tensors in compact sasakian
spaces', Tohoku Math. J. 17 (1965), 271-284.
[lOJ VITERBO, C.: 'A proof of the Weinstein conjecture for R 2n "
Ann. Inst. H. Poincare. Anal. Non-Lin. 4 (1987), 337-356.
[l1J WEINSTEIN, A.: 'On the hypothesis of Rabinowicz' periodic
orbit theorem', J. Diff. Geom. 33 (1978),353-358.
[12J YANO, K., AND KON, M.: Structures on manifolds, World
Sci., 1984.
A. Banyaga
MSC 1991: 58F05, 53C15, 53C57
KAPLANSKY FIELD - A field K equipped with a
valuation v and satisfying Kaplansky's hypothesis A,
as introduced in [2]. Let p denote the characteristic of
the residue field K v if it is a positive prime; otherwise,
set p = 1. Hypothesis A requires that:
i) the value group vK is a p-divisible group;
ii) for every additive polynomial (d. [5]) f with coef-
ficients in Kv and every a E Kv, the equation f(X) = a
has a solution in K v.
Requirement ii) implies that K v is a perfect field. Us-
ing Galois cohomology, G. Whaples [6] showed that
ii) means that the degree of every finite extension of K v
is prime to p. An elementary proof of this was given by
F. Delon in 1981.
I. Kaplansky considered immediate extensions (d.
also Valuation) of fields with valuations. He used
pseudo-Cauchy sequences (also called Ostrowski nets),
which were introduced by A. Ostrowski in 1935. These
are analogues of Cauchy sequences (d. Cauchy se-
quence) for the metric induced by the valuation, but
their limits need not be unique; for this reason, they are
called pseudo-limits.
In [3], W. Krull proved that there always exist max-
imal immediate extensions (in order to apply the Zorn
lemma, Krull gave an upper bound for the cardinality
of immediate extensions of a fixed field; an elegant de-
duction of this bound was later given by K.A.H. Gravett
in [1]). Kaplansky showed that if (K, v) satisfies hy-
pothesis A, then its maximal immediate extensions are
unique up to a valuation-preserving isomorphism over
K. The same holds for the maximal immediate alge-
braic extensions, and this fact can also be shown via a
Galois-theoretic interpretation of hypothesis A (d. [4]).
The former result follows from the latter by a theorem of
Kaplansky (which has a certain analogue in the theory
of real closed fields, cf. Real closed field): If K has
326
no non-trivial immediate algebraic extensions, then the
isomorphism type of an immediate extension K (x) over
K is determined by the pseudo-Cauchy sequences in K
that have pseudo-limit x.
See also Model theory of valued fields.
References
[lJ GRAVETT, K.A.H.: 'Note on a result of Krull', Proc. Cam-
bridge Philos. Soc. 52 (1956), 379.
[2J KAPLANSKY, 1.: 'Maximal fields with valuations 1', Duke
Math. J. 9 (1942),303-321.
[3J KRULL, W.: 'Allgemeine Bewertungstheorie', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 167 (1932), 160-196.
[4J KUHLMANN, F.-V., PANK, M., AND ROQUETTE, P.: 'Immedi-
ate and purely wild extensions of valued fields', Manuscripta
Math. 55 (1986), 39-67.
[5J LANG, S.: Algebra, Addison-Wesley, 1974.
[6J WHAPLES, G.: 'Galois cohomology of additive polynomials
and n-th power mappings of fields', Duke Math. J. 24 (1957),
143-150.
F. - V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 12J10, 12J20
KARAMATA THEORY - The basic form of the the-
ory of regular variation, a subject initiated in 1930 by
the Yugoslav mathematician J. Karamata.
Viewed from a modern perspective, Karamata theory
is the study of asymptotic relations of the form
f(AX)
f(x) --+ g(A) E (0,00) (x --+ 00), VA> 0, (1)
together with their consequences and ramifications. The
case g == 1 is particularly important; measurable func-
tions f satisfying (1) with g == 1 are called slowly vary-
ing; such slowly varying functions are often written L
or £ (for 'lente').
Many useful and interesting properties are implied by
such relations. For instance:
i) The uniform convergence theorem: for f slowly
varying, (1) holds uniformly on compact A-sets in (0,00).
There is a topological analogue, with measurability re-
placed by the Baire property.
ii) The representation theorem: f is slowly varying if
and only if, for x large enough, f is of the form
f(x) = c(x) exp (l X
E(U) d:) ,
where cO, EO are measurable, c(x) --+ c E (0,00),
E(X) --+ 0 as x --+ 00.
iii) The characterization theorem: for measurable f,
g(A) in (1) must be of the form g(A) == AP for some
PER, called the index of regular variation: f E Rp.
Then f(x) = xP£(x) with £ slowly varying (£ E Ro).
iv) Karamata's theorem: if f E Rp and (J > -(p + 1),
then
(x --+ 00). (2)

(That is, the £ in f(x) = xP£(x) 'behaves asymptoti-
cally like a constant' under integration.) Conversely, (2)
implies f E Rp.
Perhaps the most important application of Karamata
theory to analysis is K aramata's Tauberian theorem (or
the Hardy-Littlewood-Karamata theorem): if f E Rp
(p ~ 0) is increasing, with Laplace-Stieltjes transform
10
l(s) = 00 c sX df(x), then f(x) '" cx P£(x)jr(1 + p)
(x -+ 00) with c ~ 0, £ E Ro if and only if l(s) '"
cs- P£(ljs) (s.j.. 0).
For details, background and references on these and
other results, see e.g. [1, Chap. 1].
The union over all pER of the classes Rp gives the
class R of regularly varying functions. This is contained
in the larger class ER of extended regularly varying func-
tions, itself included in the class OR of O-regularly vary-
ing functions: R c ER c OR. Just as a function fER
has an index p of regular variation, and then f E R p ,
so a function f E ER has a pair c(f), d(f) of upper
and lower Karamata indices (and these are equal, to p
say, if and only if f E Rp), and a function f E OR
has a pair a(f), (3(f) of upper and lower Matuszewska
indices. These larger classes E R, OR have analogues of
the results above; for instance, uniform convergence and
representation theorems. For details, see e.g. [1, Chap.
2].
Karamata theory may be regarded as the 'first-order'
theory of regular variation. There is a corresponding
'second-order' theory: de Haan theory [1, Chap. 3].
Karamata theory has found extensive use in several
areas of analysis, such as Abelian, Tauberian and Merce-
rian theorems ([1, Chap. 4, 5]; cf. also Tauberian the-
orems; Mercer theorem; Abel theorem) and the
Levin-Pfluger theory of completely regular growth of
entire functions ([1, Chap. 6]; cf. also Entire function),
and is also useful in asymptotic questions in analytic
number theory [1, Chap. 7]. It has been widely used
also in probability theory, following the work of W.
Feller [2]; [1, Chap. 8].
References
[1] BINGHAM, N.H., GOLDIE, C.M., AND TEUGELS, J.L.: Regular
variation, second ed., Vol. 27 of Encycl. Math. Appl., Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1989.
[2] FELLER, W.: An introduction to probability theory and its
applications, second ed., Vol. 2, Springer, 1976.
N.H. Bingham
MSC 1991: 26A12
KARNAUGH MAP - A graphic representation of
sets, formulas of mathematical logic, events of prob-
ability theory, and statements or propositions con-
cerning Boolean algebras or any isomorphic entities
thereof (cf. also Boolean algebra). A classical Kar-
naugh map of n variables is a two-dimensional display of
KARNAUGH MAP
a Boolean or switching function f: B n -+ B, where B is
the two-element Boolean algebra {O, I} or {false, true}.
The map is usually drawn as a rectilinear figure of 2n
cells whose boundaries are rectilinear segments, so that
a cell will have a square (or, sometimes, triangular) con-
tour. The combinations of the input map variables (usu-
ally called discriminants of the map function) are or-
dered according to the reflected binary code (known also
as the Gray code). This ordering gives the map the vi-
sual advantage that neighbouring cells are represented
by adjacent input variable combinations, i.e., by binary
numbers that differ in only one bit position. The top
and bottom rows of the map are viewed as contiguous.
Similarly, the leftmost and rightmost columns are con-
sidered adjacent. In that sense, a Karnaugh map can be
imagined to exist on the surface of a torus, not that of
a plane.
The Karnaugh map is particularly useful in the rep-
resentation and manipulation of incompletely-specified
switching functions (also called partial functions), of the
form f: X -+ B, where X C Bn. When a Karnaugh
map is drawn, it is usually implicitly assumed that its n
input variables are independent. However, the map can
be readily modified to handle certain variable depen-
dencies (such as certain cell mutual exclusions), which
results in reducing the number of cells to less than 2n.
The Karnaugh map is most useful for functions of 4
or fewer variables, because the cells for which a given
variable is assigned the value 1 form a contiguous band.
For maps of more than 4 variables, not all variables are
associated with such bands, but as much visual help as
possible is offered. Therefore, the map is used normally
to handle up to 6 variables only, though it may be used,
with increasing complexity, to handle up to 9 variables.
With slight modifications, however, the map can be con-
veniently used to handle more variables.
There are several entities that the Karnaugh map re-
sembles. The Karnaugh map is simply a different way
of representing a truth table. However, it is more
concise, saves time, space and effort and gives a pic-
torial insight to many algebraic concepts. The Venn
diagram (Euler diagram) offers the visual help of the
Karnaugh map. However, it is essentially a curvilinear
figure whose boundaries are closed and without self-
intersections. The widespread practice is to draw these
boundaries as convex curves such as circles or ellipses.
This unfortunate practice unnecessarily limits the use of
the Venn diagram to 4 variables only. Both the Carroll
diagram and the Karnaugh map are rectilinear figures
that offer good visual aid by keeping subdivisions of any
general class within one boundary. In fact, they are ex-
actly the same for n = 2. Carroll diagrams can handle
up to 10 variables, but they seem to have not been much
327
KARNAUGH MAP

explored. The ancestor of the Karnaugh map is the log-
ical diagram proposed by Marquand and rediscovered
by Veitch as a logical chart. The Marquand- Veitch dia-
gram lacks the property of adjacency of rows, columns
and cells enjoyed by the Karnaugh map.
There are map types other than the classical or con-
ventional type. The variable-entered Karnaugh map has
been developed to double the variable-handling capabil-
ity of the classical map. Its input consists of m variables,
called map variables, while its entries are Boolean for-
mulas or functions of n-m variables, called entered vari-
ables. Hence, it can be used to represent 'big' Boolean
functions of the form f: Bn-m --+ B, where B = {O, I},
or of the form f: Bk --+ B, where B = {O, l}j, j > 1, is
the Boolean algebra of 2j elements. A Karnaugh map
of real entries is used to represent pseudo-switching
(pseudo-Boolean) functions of the form f: Bn --+ R,
where R is the field of real numbers. The Karnaugh map
is also useful as a probability map for representing prob-
ability functions f: xn --+ X, where X = [0.0, 1.0] C R.
The Karnaugh map is widely used by logical design-
ers. It is discussed in almost every text on logic de-
sign and switching theory. It can serve as a pictorial
and pedagogical demonstration of basic switching the-
ory concepts such as duality, prime implicants and es-
sential prime implicants. In addition, it can be used for
implementing Boolean operations collectively on signif-
icant portions of the input domain without going down
to the cell level. The most famous use of the map is
for minimization of a switching function, i.e., to obtain
a formula for the function in sum-of-products (disjunc-
tion of conjunctions) form that has a minimum number
of prime implicants as the primary objective and that
has a minimum number of literals as the secondary ob-
jective. The map is also used for obtaining the minimal
dual form, i.e., the minimal product-of-sums (conjunc-
[6] RUSHDJ, A.M.: 'Map derivation of the minimal sum of a
switching function from that of its complement', Microelec-
tronics and Reliability 25, no. 6 (1985), 1055-1065.
[7] RUSHDJ, A.M.: 'Map 'differentiation' of switching functions',
Microelectronics and Reliability 26, no. 5 (1986), 891-908.
[8] RUSHDJ, A.M.: 'Improved variable-entered Karnaugh map
procedures', Computers and Electrical Engineering 13, no. 1
(1987),41-52.
[9] RUSHDJ, A.M.: 'Logic design of NAND (NOR) by the entered-
map-factoring method', Microelectronics and Reliability 27,
no. 4 (1987), 693-701.
[10] RUSHDJ, A.M.: 'Performance indexes of a telecommunication
network', IEEE Trans. Reliability 37, no. 1 (1988),57-64.
[11] RUSHDJ, A.M., AND AL-KHATEEB, D.L.: 'A review of methods
for system reliability analysis: a Karnaugh-map perspective':
Proc. First Saudi Engineering Conf., Jeddah, Saudi Arabia,
Vo!' 1, 1983, pp. 57-95.
[12] TUCKER, J.H., AND TAPIA, M.A.: 'Using Karnaugh maps
to solve Boolean equations by successive elimination': Proc.
First IEEE South East Conference, Vo!' 2, 1992, pp. 589-592.
[13] VENN, J.: Symbolic logic, Macmillan, 1894.
[14] WHEELER, R.F.: Rethinking mathematical concepts, Ellis
Horwood, 1981.
A.M. Rushdi
MSC 1991: 06Exx, 03Bxx, 94ClO
KARUSH-KuHN-TuCKER CONDITIONS, KKT
conditions, Karush-Kuhn-Tucker optimality condi-
tions, KKT optimality conditions, Kuhn-Tucker condi-
tions - Consider the general mathematical programming
problem (see also Mathematical programming):
minimize f(x), x ERn,
subject to
gi(X) ::; 0, i = q, ... ,p,
hj(x) = 0, j = 1, ... ,q,
with f, gi, h j all continuously differentiable, and form
the Lagrangian function
p q
L(x,A,/L) = f(x) + 2: Aigi(X) + 2:/Ljhj (x).
i=1 j=1

tion of disjunctions) form. The map finds other uses in The Karush-Kuhn-Tucker optimality conditions now
the complementation, differencing (the so-called 'differ- are:
entiation') and spectral-coefficient evaluation of switch- {)
ing functions, symbolic reliability analysis, solution of ~L(x,A,/L)=O, k=l, ... ,n,
UXk
Boolean equations, and the like. Ai 2': 0, i = 1, ... ,p,

References Aigi(X) = 0, i = 1, ... ,p,

[1] BROWN, F.M.: Boolean reasoning, the logic of Boolean equa-

gi(X) ::; 0, i = 1, ... ,p,
tions, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1990. hj(x) = 0, j = 1, ... ,q.
[2] CARROLL, L.: Symbolic logic, Harvester, 1977.
[3] MUROGA, S.: Logic design and switching theory, Wiley, 1979. Note that the two last conditions just say that x is fea-

[4] RUSHDJ, A.M.: 'Symbolic reliability analysis with the aid of
variable-entered Karnaugh maps', IEEE Trans. Reliability
R-32, no. 2 (1983), 134-139.
[5] RUSHDJ, A.M.: 'On reliability evaluation by network decom-
position', IEEE Trans. Reliability R-33, no. 5 (1984), 379-
384, Corrections: IEEE Trans. Reliability R-34, no. 4 (1985),
319.
°
sible and that the third conditions could be replaced
by L Aigi(X) = (given the second and fourth). Under
suitable constraint qualifications, the KKT optimality
conditions are necessary conditions for a local solution
X* of the general mathematical programming problem,
in the following sense.

328

If x* is a local minimum, then there are correspond-
ing A*, 11: such that the triple (X*,A*,IL*) satisfies the
KKT optimality conditions. A triple satisfying the KKT
optimality conditions is sometimes called a KKT-triple.
This generalizes the familiar Lagrange multipliers
rule (see Lagrange multipliers) to the case where
there are also inequality constraints.
The result was obtained independently by Karush in
1939, by F. John in 1948, and by H.W. Kuhn and J.W.
Tucker in 1951, see [1].
One suitable constraint qualification (for the case
where there are no equality constraints) is lJ(x*) =
V(x*), where lJ(x*) is the closure of
D(x*) = {d:
:30" > 0: 0" 2: T 2: 0 implies x* + Td feasible}
and
V( x*) = {d: 'Vg i (x* f d 2: 0, i = 1, ... ,p} ,
where 'V gi (x*) is the gradient vector of gi at x*,
"v gi (*)T
x = OXl ( X*) , ... , oX
(Ogi Ogi ( X
n
*)) ,
[5].
Given a KKT-triple (X*,A*,IL*), there are also (as in
the case of Lagrange multipliers) second-order sufficient
conditions that ensure local optimality of x* .
References
[1] FIACCO, A.V., AND MCCORMICK, G.P.: Nonlinear program-
ming, sequential unconstrained minimization techniques,
reprinted ed., SIAM, 1968.
[2] MANGASARIAN, O.L.: Nonlinear programming, McGraw-Hill,
1969.
[3] MCCORMICK, G.P.: Nonlinear programming: theory, algo-
rithms, and applications, Wiley, 1983.
[4] PANG, JONG-SHI: 'Complementarity problems', in R. HORST
AND P.M. PARDALOS (eds.): Handbook of Global Optimiza-
tion, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1995, pp. 271-338.
[5] ZANGWILL, W.I.: Nonlinear programming, Prentice-Hall,
1969.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 90C30
KEISLER-SHELAH ISOMORPHISM THEOREM -
Interpretations for a first-order language L are said to be
elementarily equivalent (in L) provided that they make
exactly the same sentences in L true (cf. also Inter-
pretation). The Keisler-Shelah isomorphism theorem
provides a characterization of elementary equivalence:
interpretations for L are elementarily equivalent if and
only if they have isomorphic ultrapowers (cf. also Ul-
trafilter) .
This theorem was formulated and proved by H.J.
Keisler in 1961 [2]. Keisler gave a second proof in 1964
using saturated ultrapowers [3]. Both proofs use the
generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH). In 1971
KEISLER-SHELAH ISOMORPHISM THEOREM
S. Shelah gave a third proof [5]. This proof avoids the
generalized continuum hypothesis.
Given {2ti : i E I}, a non-empty family of interpreta-
tions for L, and F an ultrafilter on I, the ultraproduct
n 2td F of the family is the quotient system on the di-
rect product of the family induced by F. When there
is a fixed interpretation, 2t, such that each 2t i coincides
with 2t, n 2td F is denoted by 2t 1/ F and is called an
ultrapower of 2t. It follows from results of J. Los [4] that
2t and any of its ultrapowers are elementarily equivalent
(the Los isomorphism theorem). Hence, interpretations
with isomorphic ultrapowers are elementarily equiva-
lent.
Let A be an infinite cardinal no smaller than the car-
dinality of the set of sentences in L, and let 2t and 123
be interpretations for L of cardinality less than or equal
to 2A. Let A+ denote the cardinal successor of A. Keisler
showed (assuming that 2A = A+) that 2t and 123 are ele-
mentarily equivalent if and only if there are ultrafilters
F, F' on A such that 2t A / F and 123 A / F' are isomorphic.
Let A be as above and let (3 be the least cardinal
such that A{3 > A. Shelah showed (without assuming
that 2A = A+) that there is an ultrafilter F on A such
that, given 2t and 123, elementarily equivalent interpre-
tations of cardinality less than (3, 2t A / F and 123 A / Fare
isomorphic.
The motivation for Keisler's results can be found
in a programme propounded by A. Tarski [6]: to pro-
vide characterizations of meta-mathematical notions in
'purely mathematical terms'. A discussion of this pro-
gramme and its history can be found in [7]. To appre-
ciate what was intended here, recall G. Birkhoff's 1935
characterization [1] of the classes of models of sets of
equations (the equational classes): A class of algebras is
an equational class if and only if it is closed under subal-
gebras, homomorphic images and direct products. This
result characterizes equational classes without mention-
ing equations.
Amongst the consequences of the Keisler-Shelah iso-
morphism theorem is a comparable 'mathematical' char-
acterization of the classes of models of sentences in L.
Given T, a class of interpretations for L, T is an el-
ementary class provided that there is a sentence in L
whose models are exactly the members of T; T is an
elementary class in the wider sense provided that there
is a set of sentences in L whose models are exactly the
members of T. It follows from the compactness theorem
that T is an elementary class if and only if both T and
its complement (relative to the class of interpretations
for L) are elementary classes in the wider sense. Keisler
[2] showed (assuming GCH) that:
329
KEISLER-SHELAH ISOMORPHISM THEOREM
1) 7 is an elementary class in the wider sense, pro-
vided that 7 is closed under isomorphic images and ul-
traproducts and the complement of 7 is closed under
ultrapowers;
2) 7 is an elementary class if and only if both 7 and
its complement are closed under isomorphic images and
ultraproducts.
Whilst Keisler's proof of this result used the gen-
eralized continuum hypothesis, its use was restricted
to establishing that elementarily equivalent interpreta-
tions have isomorphic ultrapowers. Hence, by eliminat-
ing GCH in the proof of the latter result, Shelah also
eliminated the use of GCH from Keisler's characteriza-
tion of elementary classes.
References
[1] BIRKHOFF, G.: 'On the structure of abstract algebras', Pmc.
Cambridge Philos. Soc. 31 (1935), 433-454.
[2] KEISLER, H.J.: 'Ultraproducts and elementary models', Inda-
gationes Mathematicae 23 (1961), 477-495.
[3] KEISLER, H.J.: 'Ultraproducts and saturated classes', Inda-
gationes Mathematicae 26 (1964), 178-186.
[4] Los, J.: 'Quelques remarqes, theoremes et problemes sur
les classes definissables d'algebres': Mathematical Interpre-
tations of Formal Systems, North-Holland, 1955, pp. 98-113.
[5] SHELAH, S.: 'Every two elementarily equivalent models have
isomorphic ultrapowers', Israel J. Math. 10 (1971), 224-233.
[6] TARSKI, A.: 'Some notions and methods on the borderline
of algebra and metamathematics': Pmc. Intern. Congress of
Math. (Cambridge, MA, 1950), Vol. 1, Amer. Math. Soc.,
1952, pp. 705-720.
[7] VAUGHT, R.L.: 'Model theory before 1945': Pmc. Tarski
Symp., Amer. Math. Soc., 1974, pp. 153-172.
G. Weaver
MSC 1991: 03C05, 03C20, 03C07
KEMPF VANISHING THEOREM - Let k denote an
algebraically closed field and let G be a semi-simple
linear algebraic group over k. Cohomology will al-
ways refer to the coherent cohomology on an algebraic
variety, that is, Cech cohomology with coefficients in a
coherent sheaf of modules. Let B be a Borel subgroup
of G, i.e., a maximal connected solvable subgroup of G.
The homogeneous space G / B is called the generalized
flag variety of G and it is a projective algebraic variety
(cf. also Projective algebraic set). Let 71': G -+ G/B
be the projection.
For each character X of G (cf. Character of a
group) one may construct an invertible sheaf on G / B,
denoted by ex' Its value on the open subset U <; G / B
is
ex(U) = understanding of the geometry of generalized flag vari-
= {J: 71'-l(U) -+ k: f(gb) = f(g)X(b),g E G,b E B}
By the Borel- Weil theorem, its space of global sections
is a finite-dimensional representation of G containing
a unique irreducible submodule and a unique highest
330
weight vector. The B-weight of the highest weight vec-
tor is -wo(X), where Wo is the inversion in the Weyl
group of G (cf. also Weight of a representation of
a Lie algebra). This space of global sections is non-zero
if and only if X is dominant, i.e., if X is a non-negative
integral linear combination of the fundamental domi-
nant weights of G. Then the Kempf vanishing theorem
states: Let G be semi-simple, let B be a Borel subgroup
and let X be a dominant character of B. Then for all
i > 0, Hi(G/B, ex) = (0).
Over fields of characteristic zero, this is a simple con-
sequence ofthe Bott theorem (see [2]), an algebraic proof
of which has been given by M. Demazure in 1968 (see
[3] and [6]). An algebraic proof was needed at the time
because no proof of the Kodaira vanishing theorem (cf.
Kodaira theorem) over fields of characteristic zero in
the algebraic category was then known. (It is known to
fail in positive characteristic.) At the time there were
two pressing motives for establishing it over fields of
positive characteristic. The first was purely rooted in
the theory of algebraic groups. Over fields of charac-
teristic zero, algebraic proofs that the character of the
G-module HO(G/B,e x ) for dominant X is given by the
Weyl character formula had been given by T.A. Springer
[17] and M. Demazure [4]. These proofs imply that the
Weyl character gives the Euler characteristic of ex
even over fields of positive characteristic. Hence Kempf
vanishing would have established that HO (G / B, ex) is
described by the Weyl character.
For G. Kempf, the result was important to his path-
breaking work on the theta-divisors in Jacobians of
curves (see [8]). This work involved computations of
Chern classes in which they were represented as pull-
backs of Schubert cells. Hence, controlling the cohomo-
logical behaviour of line bundles on flag varieties and
Schubert cells was critical to his results. Consequently,
he established the theorem for special linear groups in
[8]. His methods involved a careful examination of the
geometry of Schubert cells and induction on the dimen-
sions of Schubert cells.
Kempf's work inspired the attempt by Lakshmi Bai,
C. Musili and C.S. Seshadri in [12] and subsequent pa-
pers to generalize Kempfs methods and to prove van-
ishing. They failed to obtain vanishing, but that work,
along with Demazure's paper [5] on desingularizing gen-
eralized Schubert cells, established the basic geometrical
eties which is used by all contemporary researchers in
the area.
Kempf continued his work on the problem, [11], [10],
finally giving the first general proof of vanishing in [9].

The paper contains a masterful examination of the ge-
ometry of the singularities of Schubert cells, the con-
struction of certain special desingularizations and inge-
nious inductive arguments. It represents the high point
of the use of geometrical methods in the area.
The modern approach to the proof of this theorem be-
gins with [7]. In this paper, W.J. Haboush gave a proof
which completely circumvented the geometrical prob-
lems and which was based on the observation that the
direct image of £(p"-l)p under the lith Frobenius power
is free of rank pV - 1. This same proof was included in
H. Andersen's paper [1], in which the method is also
somewhat extended.
The Frobenius methods of [7] inspired the extremely
important series of papers by V.B. Mehta, S. Ramanan
and above all A. Ramanathan [13], [14], [15], [16]. They
used the notion of Frobenius splitting to establish the
basic geometric vanishing properties of line bundles on
generalized flag varieties and generalized Schubert va-
rieties. These have turned out to be the most efficient
proofs even of the characteristic zero results, which fol-
lows from the results over fields of positive character-
istic. In fact, Ramanathan was able to use Frobenius
splitting methods in [16] to repair a serious error in [5]
discovered by V. Kac in the early 1980s.
See also Flag structure; Schubert variety; Rep-
resentation theory; Character formula.
References
[1] ANDERSEN, H.H.: 'The Frobenius morphism on the coho-
mology of homogeneous vector bundles on GIB', Ann. of
Math. (2) 112 (1980), 113-12l.
[2] BOTT, R.: 'Homogeneous vector bundles', Ann. of Math. (2)
66 (1957), 203-248.
[3] DEMAZURE, M.: 'Une demonstration algebrique d'une
theoreme de Bott', Invent. Math. 5 (1968),349-356.
[4] DEMAZURE, M.: 'Sur la formule des characteres de H. Weyl',
Invent. Math. 9 (1969), 249-252.
[5] DEMAZURE, M.: 'Desingularization des varietes de Schubert
generalisees', Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm. Sup. Ser. 4 7 (1974),
53-88.
[6] DEMAZURE, M.: 'A very simple proof of Bott's theorem', In-
vent. Math. 33 (1976),271-272.
[7] HABOUSH, W.J.: 'A short proof of the Kempf vanishing the-
orem', Invent. Math. 56 (1980), 109-112.
[8] KEMPF, G.: Schubert methods with an application to al-
gebraic curves, Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam, 1971,
mimeographed notes.
[9] KEMPF, G., ET AL.: 'Linear systems on homogeneous spaces',
Ann. of Math. 103 (1976), 557-59l.
[10] KEMPF, G., ET AL.: 'Vanishing theorems for flag manifolds',
Amer. J. Math. 98 (1976), 325-33l.
[11] KEMPF, G., AND LAKSOV, D.: 'The determinental formula of
Schubert calculus', Acta Math. 132 (1974), 153-162.
[12] LAKSHMI BAI, MUSILI, C., AND SESHADRI, C.S.: 'Cohomology
of line bundles on GI B', Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm. Sup. Ser. 4
7 (1974), 89-137.
KERDOCK AND PREPARATA CODES
[13] MEHTA, V.B., RAMANATHAN, A., ET AL.: 'Frobenius split-
ting and cohomology vanishing for Schubert varieties', Ann.
of Math. (2) 122 (1985), 27-40.
[14] MEHTA, V.B., RAMANATHAN, A., ET AL.: 'Schubert varieties
in GIB x GIB', Compositio Math. 67 (1988), 355-358.
[15] RAMANAN, S., AND RAMANATHAN, A.: 'Projective normality
of flag varieties and Schubert varieties', Invent. Math. 79
(1985),217-114.
[16] RAMANATHAN, A.: 'Schubert varieties are arithmetically
Cohen-Macaulay', Invent. Math. 80 (1985), 283-294.
[17] SPRINGER, T.A.: 'Weyl's character formula for algebraic
groups', Invent. Math. 5 (1968),85-105.
w.J. Haboush
MSC 1991: 14F17, 20GlO, 14M15
KERDOCK AND PREPARATA CODES - A most
famous relation in coding theory is a discrete avatar of
the Fourier transform which relates the weight enu-
merator W C of a linear code C and the weight enumer-
ator of its dual C~ with respect to the standard scalar
product, namely
1
WC-L(x,y) = ICTWc(x+y,x- y ).
(Cf. MacWilliams identities.) A simple example of
a dual pair of codes is the Hamming code H m , a (big)
[n = 2m ,n - m - 1,4] code whose dual is the (small)
first-order Reed-Muller code Rm. The matrix
1
1
where n = 2m -1 and a is a root ofj(x), is both a gen-
erator matrix for Rm and a parity check matrix for Hm.
The small code Rm has the simple weight distribution
The MacWilliams formula now gives an explicit expres-
sion for W H", which would be cumbersome to obtain
directly.
There is no Fourier transform without Abelian groups
and therefore there is no Mac Williams formula for
non-linear codes. The discovery first of the (16,256,6)
Nordstrom-Robinson code in 1967, non-linear and still
formally self-dual for the MacWilliams relation, followed
in 1968 and 1972 [8] by the discovery of two infinite
families of non-linear codes, the Preparata and Ker-
dock codes, respectively, whose weight enumerators are
MacWilliams dual of each other, were until [4] an unex-
plained phenomenon. The unsuccessful efforts of many
distinguished researchers on this notoriously difficult
problem [8] led one of them to declare [5] that it was
'merely a coincidence'.
A well-known trick in modulation theory to address
the 4-PSK constellation consists of using a (very simple)
case of the Gray mapping. This is a mapping from Z4
331
KERDOCK AND PREPARATA CODES
to GF(2)2 defined by
o --+ 00, 1 --+ 01, 2 --+ 11, 3 --+ 10,
and extended to a mapping from Z~ to GF(2)2n in the
natural way. The key property is that the mapping ¢
from Z~ equipped with the Lee distance to GF(2)2n
equipped with the Hamming distance is an isometric
mapping of metric spaces. The trace parametrization
of quaternary M -sequences can be used to show that the
Kerdock code as defined in [8, p. 1107] is essentially the
cyclic code associated to construction A of [1, p. 458]
and the construction of [9]. In particular, if ~ denotes a
primitive root of n in a suitable Galois ring, [7], then
the matrix
1 1 1 1
1 ~ e e
(n = 2m - 1, with m ~ 3 odd) is both a generator ma-
trix for the Kerdock code and a parity check matrix for
the 'Preparata' code. One sees that the Kerdock and
Preparata codes are quaternary analogues of the first-
order Reed-Muller code and of the extended Hamming
code, respectively. The Goethals and Delsarte-Goethals
codes, which are also a quaternary dual pair, are related
in a less simple manner to three error-correcting BCH
codes.
Besides MacWilliams duality, the Z4 structure also
bears influence on the decoding (cf. [4, Fig. 2]) and on
the coset structure of the Preparata code, which gives
rise to a new distance-regular graph of diameter 4 [4].
The article [4], which solves a twenty-year-old riddle,
was awarded the 1995 IEEE Information Theory award
for best paper. Geometrical repercussions can be found
in [2], [6].
References
[IJ BOZTAS, S., HAMMONS, A.R., AND KUMAR, P. V.: '4-phase
sequence with near optimum correlation properties', IEEE
Trans. Inform. Th. 38 (1992), 1101-1113.
[2J CALDERBANK, A.R., CAMERON, P.J., KANTOR, W.M., AND
SEIDEL, J.J.: 'Z4-Kerdock codes, orthogonal spreads, and ex-
tremal euclidean line sets', Proc. London Math. Soc. (to ap-
pear).
[3J CONWAY, J.H., AND SLOANE, N.J.A.: Sphere packings, lat-
tices and groups, Springer, 1992.
[4J HAMMONS, A.R., KUMAR, P.V., CALDERBANK, A.R.,
SLOANE, N.J.A., AND SOLll:, P.: 'The Z4-linearity of Kerdock,
Preparata, Goethals, and related codes', IEEE Trans. Infor-
mation Th. 40 (1994), 301-319.
[5J KANTOR, W.M.: 'On the inequivalence of generalized
Preparata codes', IEEE Inform. Th. 29 (1983),345-348.
[6J KANTOR, W.M.: 'Quaternionic line sets and quaternionic
Kerdock codes', Linear Alg. & Its Appl. (special issue in
honor of J.J. Seidel) 226-228 (1995), 749-779.
[7J MACDoNALD, B.R.: Finite rings with identity, M. Dekker,
1974.
[8J MACWILLIAMS, F.J., AND SLOANE, N.J.A.: The theory of
error-correcting codes, North-Holland, 1977.
332
[9J SOLl~, P.: A quaternary cyclic code and a family of qua-
ternary sequences with low correlation, Vol. 388 of Lecture
Notes in Computer Science, Springer, 1989.
P. Sole
MSC 1991: 94B15, 94B35, 05E30
KERNEL OF A MATRIX - A matrix A = (aij)
of size n x m over a field K defines a linear function
a: Km --+ Kn between the standard vector spaces Km
and K n by the well-known formula
The kernel of the matrix A is the kernel of the linear
mapping a. The kernel of A (respectively, of a) is also
called the null space or nullspace of A (respectively, a).
References
[IJ CULLEN, CH.G.: Matrices and linear transformations, Dover,
reprint, 1990, p. 187.
[2J NOBLE, B., AND DANIEL, J.W.: Applied linear algebra,
Prentice-Hall, 1977, p. 157.
[3J SCHNEIDER, H., AND BARKER, G.P.: Matrices and linear al-
gebra, Dover, reprint, 1989, p. 215.
[4J STRANG, G.: Linear algebra and its applications, Harcourt-
Brace-Jovanovich, 1988, p. 92.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 15A04
KHARITONOV POLYNOMIAL THEORY - A the-
ory concerned with the root locations for a family of
polynomials (cf. Polynomial). A good general refer-
ence for this area is [1]. The motivation for this theory
derives from the issue of robust stability for systems of
linear time-invariant differential equations. For a system
of linear differential equations (cf. Differential equa-
tion, ordinary)
x=Ax,
stability is determined by the roots of the characteristic
polynomial
p(s) = ao + alS + ... + ans n = det(sI - A).
The system of differential equations will be stable if and
only if all roots of this characteristic polynomial lie in
the open left half of the complex plane. In this case, the
polynomial p( s) is said to be Hurwitz stable. For a single
polynomial, the question of stability can be determined
using the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
The question of robust stability arises when it is sup-
posed that the system of differential equations depends
on uncertain parameters whose values are unknown but
satisfy known bounds. The presence of such uncertain
parameters means that the coefficients of the character-
istic polynomial are unknown but bounded. This then

defines a family of characteristic polynomials. The sys-
tem will be robustly stable if all polynomials in this fam-
ily have all their roots in the open left half of the complex
plane.
The most important result in this area is a theorem
due to V.L. Kharitonov [3]. In this result, the polynomial
family considered is a collection of polynomials with the
following specific form:
p(s) = ao + a1s + ... + ans n ,
i = 0, ... ,n.
Thus, each coefficient of the polynomial is contained
within a given interval. Such a polynomial family is re-
ferred to as an interval polynomial. Kharitonov's the-
orem gives a necessary and sufficient condition for the
robust stability of such an interval polynomial in terms
of the following four polynomials:
pds) = ar; + als + ats 2 + ais 3 + a4 s 4 + ... ,
p2(S) = at + ats + a2" s2 + a:;s3 + ats 4 + ... ,
P3(S) = at + als + a2" s2 + ais 3 + ats 4 + ... ,
p4(S) = ar; + at s + at s2 + a:; s3 + a4s4 + ... .
The interval polynomial is robustly stable if and only if
these four polynomials are Hurwitz stable.
One of the main limitations of Kharitonov's theorem
is the restriction that the polynomial family must have
the structure of an interval polynomial. An important
result which applies to a much more general class of
polynomial families is the edge theorem, [2]. This theo-
rem applies to a polynomial family consisting of a col-
lection of polynomials of the form:
where
i = 0, 1, ... ,k,
and where the functions ao (.), ... , an (-) are affine lin-
ear. In such a polynomial family, the polynomial coef-
ficients are contained in a polytope. The edge theorem
states that the polynomial family will be robustly sta-
ble if and only if for each exposed edge of this polytope,
the corresponding one-dimensional polynomial family is
robustly stable.
References
[1] BARMISH, B.R.: New tools for robustness of linear systems,
Macmillan, 1994.
[2] BARTLETT, A.C., HOLLOT, C.V., AND HUANG, L.: 'Root loca-
tions of an entire polytope of polynomials: It suffices to check
the edges', Math. Control, Signals and Systems 1 (1988),61-
71.
[3] KHARITONOV, V.L.: 'Asymptotic stability of an equilibrium
position of a family of systems of linear differential equations',
Differentsial'nye Umveniya 14 (1978), 2086-2088. (In Rus-
sian.)
KOBAYASHI HYPERBOLICITY
l.R. Petersen
MSC 1991: 93D09, 34Dxx
KIRILLOV CONJECTURE - Let F be a local
field and 7r an irreducible unitary representation of
GLn(F). Let
Pn(F) = {s E GLn(F): last row(s) = (0, ... ,O,l)}.
Then 7r(Pn(F)) is irreducible (cf. also Irreducible rep-
resentation).
A related conjecture is that for two irreducible rep-
resentations 7r1 and 7r2 of, respectively, GL(n1' F) and
GL(n2' F), the product
GL(nl +n2,F)
7r17r2 = I n d GL(n"F)xGL(n2,F)
is irreducible.
For F non-Archimedean (cf. also Archimedean ax-
iom), both conjectures are true (Bernstein's theorems).
For F = C, these conjectures have been proved by S.
Sahi [1].
References
[1] SAHI, S.: 'On Kirillov's conjecture for Archimedean fields',
Compositio Math. 12, no. 1 (1989), 67-86.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 20G05, 22E50
KOBAYASHI HYPERBOLICITY, domain without
large complex discs - Kobayashi hyperbolicity describes
in a precise sense whether a complex manifold con-
tains arbitrarily large copies of a one-dimensional com-
plex disc. Extreme examples are the complex disc and
the whole complex plane. The former is an example of a
Kobayashi-hyperbolic manifold while the latter has arbi-
trarily large discs in it and is not Kobayashi hyperbolic.
Denote by .6. the unit disc in the complex plane C.
Let M be a complex manifold, p a point in M and
X E TpM a tangent vector. Consider any holomorphic
mapping f: .6. -+ M with f(O) = p, f;(f)/f)z) = cx·
The infinitesimal Kobayashi pseudo-metric is defined by
The complex manifold M is said to be Kobayashi hy-
perbolic if ds(p, X) is locally bounded below by a strictly
positive constant as (p, X) varies over the tangent bun-
dle, X =f. O.
General references for this area are: [2], [3] and [1].
Examples.
1) The unit disc .6.. In this case the Kobayashi
pseudo-metric coincides with the Poincare metric (cf.
also Poincare model).
2) More generally than Example I), any bounded do-
main in cnis Kobayashi hyperbolic.
333
KOBAYASHI HYPERBOLICITY
3) At the opposite end, the Kobayashi pseudo-metric
of the complex plane C as well as C \ {o} vanishes iden-
tically.
4) On the other hand, C \ {O, I} is again Kobayashi
hyperbolic. The reason for this is that there is a cov-
ering of C \ {O, I} by the unit disc, and coverings are
isometries.
5) The remarkable Brody theorem states that a com-
pact complex manifold M of any dimension is Kobayashi
hyperbolic if and only if there is no non-constant holo-
morphic mapping of C to M.
The proof of this theorem starts, assuming non-
°
hyperbolicity, with a sequence of holomorphic mappings
of the unit disc to M with derivatives at converging to
°
infinity. Next one does a suitable scaling to normalize to
a sequence which has derivative of length one at and
which converges to a mapping on the whole plane.
6) Generalizations of 4) and 5) have been obtained by
M. Green, see [3], who gave some criteria ensuring that
the complement of a finite family of complex hypersur-
faces in complex projective space is Kobayashi hyper-
bolic.
7) The hyperbolicity of C \ {O, I} has traditionally
been a useful tool in complex dynamics in one dimen-
sion. Recently, Kobayashi hyperbolicity has been used
in complex dynamics in higher dimensions. For exam-
ple, T. Ueda, see [1], showed that all Fatou components,
i.e. sets of normality of iterates, of a holomorphic map-
ping on pn are Kobayashi hyperbolic.
References
[1] FORNIESS, J.E.: Dynamics in severol complex variables,
Vol. 87 of CMBS, Amer. Math. Soc., 1996.
[2] KOBAYASHI, S.: Hyperbolic manifolds and holomorphic map-
pings, M. Dekker, 1970.
[3] LANG, S.: Introduction to complex hyperbolic spaces,
Springer, 1987.
J.E. FornlEss
MSC 1991: 32H20
KOROVKIN THEOREMS - K orovkin 's first theorem
states that if (Ln)n2:1 is an arbitrary sequence of posi-
tive linear operators on the space C[O, 1] of real-valued
continuous functions on the interval [0, 1] (cf. Contin-
uous functions, space of; Linear operator) and if
lim Ln(h)
n-too
=h uniformly on [0, 1]
for all h E {eO,el,e2}, where ek(t) = t k (0 :S t < 1,
k = 0,1,2), then
lim Ln(f) =I uniformly on [0, 1]
n-too
for all I E C[O, 1].
The statement of Korovkin's second theorem is simi-
lar to that of the first theorem, but C[O, 1] is replaced by
C 2 ".(R) (the space of 27r-periodic real-valued functions
334
on R, endowed with the topology of uniform conver-
gence on R) and h is taken from the set {eo, cos, sin}.
These theorems were proved by P.P. Korovkin in 1953
([3], [4]). In 1952, H. Bohman [2] had proved a result
similar to Korovkin's first theorem but concerning se-
quences of positive linear operators on C[O, 1] of the form
L(f) = L I(ai)¢>i, IE C[O, 1],
iEI
where (ai)iEI is a finite set of numbers in [0,1] and
¢>i E C[O, 1] (i E 1). Therefore Korovkin's first theo-
rem is also known as the Bohman-Korovkin theo-
rem. However, T. Popoviciu [5] had already proved the
essence of the theorem in 1950.
Korovkin has tried to generalize his first theorem by
replacing {eo, el, ed with other finite subsets of C[O, 1].
He has shown that if a subset {h, ... ,In} C C[O, 1] 'be-
haves like' {eo, el, e2}, then n > 2 (K orovkin's third the-
orem). Moreover, he showed that a subset {fa, h, h} c
C[O, 1] 'behaves like' {eO,el,e2} if and only if it is a
Chebyshev system of order two.
The Korovkin theorems are simple yet powerful tools
for deciding whether a given sequence of positive lin-
ear operators on C[O, 1] or C 2".(R) is an approximation
process. Furthermore, they have been the source of a
considerable amount of research in several other fields
of mathematics (cf. Korovkin-type approximation
theory).
See [1] for a modern and comprehensive exposition of
these results and for (some) applications.
References
[1] ALTOMARE, F., AND CAMPITI, M.: Korovkin-type approxima-
tion theory and its application, Vol. 17 of de Gruyter studies
in math., de Gruyter, 1994.
[2] BOHMAN, H.: 'On approximation of continuous and analytic
functions', Ark. Math. 2 (1952/4), 43-56.
[3] KOROVKIN, P.P.: 'On convergence of linear positive opera-
tors in the space of continuous functions', Dokl. Akad. Nauk.
SSSR (N.S.) 90 (1953), 961-964. (In Russian.)
[4] KOROVKIN, P.P.: Linear operotors and approximation theory,
Gordon&Breach, 1960. (Translated from the Russian.)
[5] POPOVICIU, T.: 'On the proof of the Weierstrass theorem us-
ing interpolation polynomials', Lucr. Ses. Gen. Stiintific. 2,
no. 12 (1950), 1664-1667.
F. Altomare
MSC 1991: 41A36
KOROVKIN-TYPE APPROXIMATION THEORY -
Originating from Korovkin's theorems (cf. Korovkin
theorems), this theory consists of a collection of results
whose main objective is to investigate under what cir-
cumstances the convergence of a (particular) sequence
(more generally, net) of linear operators acting on a
topological vector space is, in fact, a consequence
of their convergence on special (possibly finite) subsets.

More precisely, let E and F be topological vector
spaces, and consider classes Co and C of continuous lin-
ear operators from E to F (cf. also Linear operator;
Topological vector space).
For a linear operator T E Co, a subset H c E is called
a Korovkin subset of E (for T with respect to C) if for
every equicontinuous net (Li)fEI (cf. also Equiconti-
nuity) of operators in C satisfying
lim~ Li(h) = T(h) for all hE H, (1)
'EI
one has
lim~ Li(f) = T(f) for all fEE. (2)
'EI
One of the main problems in this theory is to state
sufficient (and necessary) conditions under which a given
subset is a Korovkin subset in E (for T with respect to
C). Such theorems are called Korovkin-type theorems.
Similar problems have been settled for nets (Li)fEI of
operators that are not necessarily continuous or linear.
Another important aspect of the theory is the charac-
terization of the K orovkin closure, or K orovkin shadow,
of a given subset H (for T with respect to C), which
is defined as the subspace of all elements fEE such
that if (Li)fEI is an equicontinuous net of operators in
C satisfying (1), then limiEl~ Li(f) = T(f).
Korovkin-type approximation theory has been devel-
oped in the context of classical function spaces and
in more abstract spaces, such as locally convex or-
dered spaces, Banach lattices, Banach algebras, Banach
spaces, etc.
Powerful and fruitful connections of this theory have
been discovered not only with classical approximation
theory, but also with fields such as: functional anal-
ysis; harmonic analysis; measure theory; probabil-
ity theory; potential theory; and the theory of par-
tial differential equations (d. Differential equation,
partial).
References
[1] ALTOMARE, F., AND CAMPITI, M.: Korovkin-type approxima-
tion theory and its application, Vol. 17 of de Gruyter studies
in math., de Gruyter, 1994.
[2] BAUER, H.: 'Approximation and abstract boundaries', Amer.
Math. Monthly 85 (1978), 632-647.
[3] DONNER, K.: Extension of positive operators and Korovkin
theorem, Vol. 904 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1982.
[4] KEIMEL, K., AND ROTH, W.: Ordered cones and approxima-
tion, Vol. 1517 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1992.
F. Altomare
MSC 1991: 41A35, 41A36, 41A65, 47 A58, 46-02, 47B38,
47B48, 47B60, 47C10
KOWALEWSKI TOP
KOTHE-ToEPLITZ DUAL - For any subset X of
the set w of all sequences x = (Xk), the set
X" ~ {o Ew, ~ lOkx,I < 00 fo"illx EX}
is called a Kothc-Toeplitz or a-dual of X. These du-
als play an important role in the representation of lin-
ear functionals (cf. Linear functional) and the charac-
terization of matrix transformations between sequence
spaces. They are special cases of the more general mul-
tiplier sequence spaces
Z = M(X,Y) =
= {a E w: ax = (akxk) E Y for all x E X},
which for Y = cs and Y = bs, the sets of convergent
or bounded series, reduce to Xf3 and X,, the so-called
{3- and /,-duals, also referred to as Kothe-Toeplitz du-
als by some authors (see [2]). If t denotes any of the
symbols a, {3 or /', then for all X, Yew one has:
X C xtt = (xt)t, xttt = xt, and X c Y im-
plies yt C xt. A set X C w is called (t -) perfect if
xtt = X; xt is perfect, so is ¢> (the set of sequences
that terminate in naughts); the set c of convergent se-
quences is not perfect. For any X :J ¢>, X and xa (and
analogously X and X(3) are in duality with respect to
the bilinear functional (".) on xa X X defined by
(a, x) = l:k akXk, and various topologies may be intro-
duced on X and X a , usually on X the weak a(X, xa),
the Mackey T(X, X a ), or the normal topology is taken
(see [1]; cf. also Weak topology; Mackey topology;
Normal space). If X :J ¢> and Yare BK-spaces (i.e.,
Banach FK-spaces; cf. FK-space), then Z is a BK-
space with respect to Iiall = sup{ll(akxk)ll: Ilxll ~ I}.
However, if X is not a BK space, then Z need not even
be an FK-space; for instance, wf3 = ¢> is not an FK-
space. The {3-dual of an FK space X :J ¢> is contained
in its continuous dual X· in the following sense: The
mapping , : Xf3 --+ X· defined by '(a) = a = (a,')
(a E X(3) is linear and one-to-one; if X :J ¢> has the
AK-property (i.e. every sequence x = (Xk) E X has a
unique representation x = l:k Xke(k), where for each k,
e(k) is the sequence with e~k) = 1 and e;k) = 0 if j -I- k),
then ' is an isomorphism.
References
[1] RUCKLE, W.H.: Sequence spaces, Pitman, 1989.
[2] WILANSKY, A.: Summability through functional analysis,
North-Holland, 1984.
E. Malkowsky
MSC 1991: 40H05, 46A45
KOWALEWSKI TOP, Kovalevskaya top - In 1889,
S. Kovalevskaya [10] solved the following problem: find
all rigid bodies, rotating about a fixed point in the pres-
ence of gravity, such that the equations of motion are
335
KOWALEWSKI TOP

integrable in the sense of Kowalewski. The latter means
that the system admits solutions, expressible as Lau-
rent series in time t, which contain a number of free
parameters equal to the number of degrees of freedom
minus one; the 6-dimensional phase space for such a
rigid body is SO(3) x so(3). After the standard reduction
to the body coordinates (reduction to the Lie algebra
so(3)), for the system to be integrable in the sense of
Kowalewski, the Jacobian matrix of the indicial locus
(of the equations of motion) must have integer spec-
trum. This strong condition leads to the following three
cases of integrable rotating bodies: i) the Euler top, for
which the fixed point and the centre of mass coincide;
ii) the Lagrange top, which is an axially-symmetric rigid
body, with centre of mass on the axis of symmetry; and
iii) the so-called Kowalewski top, which is a solid body
rotating about a fixed point such that:
a) its principal moments of inertia A = (AI, A2, A3)
with regard to the fixed point satisfy the relation Al =
A2 = 2A3;
b) its centre of mass belongs to the equatorial plane
(corresponding to the moment Al and A2) through the
fixed point.
The motion (in body coordinates) is governed by the
equations
T6 of polarization (2,4) (cf. Polarized algebraic vari-
ety) , and the complement T6 \A is a union of two ample
divisors (curves) of genus 3, each of them being a doubly
ramified (in 4 points) cover of an elliptic curve. The
Kowalewski system then 'linearizes' on these Abelian
varieties, and the motion can be written in terms of
Abelian integrals (quadratures; cf. also Abelian inte-
gral), involving an intricate change of variables, gov-
erned by the algebraic geometry above; see [9] and for
the quadratures [13]. A birational mapping transforms
Kowalewski's motion into a geodesic flow on SO(4) for
the Manakov metric [4].
Lax pairs. The Kowalewski top equations can be ex-
pressed as a Lax pair (see [6]) of the following form:
-~(L_lh-l + Lo + Llht = (1)
= [L_lh- l + Lo + Llh, Bo - Llh],
where h is an indeterminate, and where the Li and Bo
are sl( 4) matrices, defined below. The motion then lin-
earizes on the Jacobian of the corresponding spectral
curve det(L_lh- l + Lo + Llh - zI) = 0, which is a
double cover (of genus 5) of a hyper-elliptic curve of
genus 2, ramified at 4 points. The matrices in (1) are
given by:

m= (m x Am) + (r xl), Y2 - x~ 0
"I = "'/ x Am, L-l = (Xl ~ y, 0
-Y3
Y3
0
-y, )
2
0
'
where m, land "'/ denote, respectively, the angular mo- Xl ~ Yl
Y3 0 Y2 - X~
mentum, the centre of mass and the unit vector in the
direction of gravity; also, Am = (Alml, A2m2, A3m3). 0 -X2
Upon appropriate rescaling and picking the axes of iner-
tia in the equatorial plane, one can achieve 1 = (2,0,0)
and Am = (ml' m2, 2m3). Besides the Casimir invari-
Lo =
(-~, 0
0
X2
0
-X3
0
~,)
o '
X3
ants, the angular momentum in the direction of gravity 0 0
Ql = (m,,,,/) = AI, the length of the squared gravity
axis Q2 = bl 2 = A 2 , and the conservation of energy
Q3 = (Am, m) /2 + (l, ",/) = A 3 /2, Kovalevskaya exhib-
L, ~ (~ 0
0
0
0
0
1
~}
e'
ited a 4th invariant, which is quartic, upon giving weight 0 X2
1 to the m's and 2 to the ",/'s:
Bo =
Xl
X3
0
0
X3
-~,)
o '
0 -X2 0 -X3

where

(Xl,X2,X3,Yl,Y2,Y3) =
Algebraic integrability. The motion is 'algebraically ml + im2 ml - im2
integrable' in a sense defined by M. Adler and P. van Mo- = ( 2 ' 2 ,m3,
erbeke [3], [5]: for fixed but arbitrary values of the con-
stants of motion, the level surfaces are affine parts A of xi - (rl + h2), x~ - (rl - h2), "'/3) .
Abelian varieties TC (complex algebraic tori; cf. Alge-
braic torus). For the Kowalewski top, the level surfaces Such Lax pairs arise in the context of Kostant-
nt= I { Qi = Ai} are affine parts A of Abelian surfaces Kirillov-Souriau orbits, for Lie algebra splittings into

336

two Lie subalgebras, as summarized by the Adler-
Kostant-Symes theorem [1], [2]. A variation of the lat-
ter theorem was applied in [6] to a loop algebra £ (cf.
also Loop) with a new bracket [X,Y]R, constructed as
follows: consider the Lie algebra 9 = so(p, q) and its
decomposition 9 = go + gl into even and odd sub-
spaces for the automorphism v: M ~ _MT. Then
go = so(p) + so( q). From this, construct the twisted loop
algebra £ = £(g, v) = (J)hig i (mod 1), together with
its splitting and dual splitting, for a non-degenerate ad-
invariant pairing:
For the Kowalewski top, pick 9 = so(3, 2), viewed
as a lO-dimensional subspace of the 15-dimensional
so(3,3) ~ sl(4). After conjugation by a constant matrix,
the Lax pair has the form (1).
Another Lax pair mentioned in [4] and, in a slight
variation, in [8] is based on the following idea: the bira-
tional mapping, mentioned above, from the Kowalewski
top to the geodesic flow on SO( 4) for the Manakov met-
ric leads to the following Lax pair:
(2)
and the motion linearizes on the Jacobian of the spectral
curve det(Lh - zI) = 0, which is Kowalewski's original
hyper-elliptic curve. In (2),
Lh = (M + I)(v - vO") 18>
l8>(v - vO") + h(v + vO")" + Ih 2,
Bh = (M + I)(v + vO")" + Ih 2,
i(A3+ 1 ))
-iA2
-(A3 - 1)
v = -~((x~ - 1), -2X2, i(x~ + 1)),
2p
p = -Y2Y3 - X2 X3 + X1 x 3Y2 + Y3,
0': (XI,X2,X3,Y1,Y2,Y3) ~ (X2,X1,-X3,Y1,Y2,-Y3),
/\: R3 ~ so(3),
-c
(a, b, c) ---+ (~ o Kuhn and A.W. Tucker.
-b a Suppose f and 'l/Jl are of class C 1 , and let int A =1=
See also Goryachev-Chaplygin top.
References
[1] ADLER, M.: 'On a trace functional for formal pseudodifferen-
tial operators and the symplectic structure for the Korteweg-
de Vries type equations', Invent. Math. 50 (1979),451-500.
KUHN-TUCKER CONDITIONS
[2] ADLER, M., AND MOERBEKE, P. VAN: 'Completely integrable
systems, Euclidean Lie algebras and curves; Linearization
of Hamiltonian Systems, Jacobi varieties and representation
theory', Adv. Math. 38 (1980), 267-317;318-379.
[3] ADLER, M., AND MOERBEKE, P. VAN: 'The algebraic integra-
bility of geodesic flow on 80(4)', Invent. Math. 67 (1982),
297-331.
[4] ADLER, M., AND MOERBEKE, P. VAN: 'The Kowalevski and
Henon-Heiles motions as Manakov geodesic flows on 80(4) -
a two-dimensional family of Lax pairs', Comm. Math. Phys.
113 (1988), 659-700.
[5] ADLER, M., AND MOERBEKE, P. VAN: 'The complex geome-
try of the Kowalevski-Painleve analysis', Invent. Math. 97
(1989), 3-51.
[6] BOBENKO, A.I., REYMAN, A.G., AND SEMENOV-TIAN-
SHANSKY, M.A.: 'The Kowalevski top 9 years later: A Lax
pair, generalizations and explicit solutions', Comm. Math.
Phys. 122 (1989), 321-354.
[7] GOLUBEV, V.V.: Lectures on the integration of equations of
motions of a heavy solid about a fixed point, Gostekhizdat,
1953, English translation by the Israeli information agency.
[8] HAINE, L., AND HORozov, E.: 'A Lax pair for Kowalevski's
top', Physica D 29 (1987), 173-180.
[9] HORozov, E., AND MOERBEKE, P. VAN: 'The full geometry
of Kowalevski's top and (1, 2)-abelian surfaces', Comm. Pure
Appl. Math 42 (1989), 357-407.
[10] KOWALEWSKI, S.: 'Sur Ie probleme de la rotation d'un corps
solide autour d'un point fixe', Acta Math. 14 (1889), 81-93.
[11] REYMAN, A.G., AND SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKI, M.A.: 'Reduc-
tion of Hamiltonian systems, affine Lie algebras and Lax
equations 1', Invent. Math. 54 (1979), 81-100.
[12] REYMAN, A.G., AND SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKI, M.A.: 'Reduc-
tion of Hamiltonian systems, affine Lie algebras and Lax
equations II', Invent. Math. 63 (1981),423-432.
[13] VANHAECKE, P.: 'Linearising two-dimensional integrable sys-
tems and the construction of angle-action variables', Math.
Z. 211 (1992), 265-313.
P. van Afoerbeke
MSC 1991: 58F07
KUHN-TuCKER CONDITIONS - Let (M,g) be
a complete finite-dimensional Riemannian manifold,
let f: M ~ R be a convex objective function and
let A C M be a totally convex subset described by
a system of inequalities 'l/J1(X) ~ 0, l = 1, ... , r,
where 'l/Jl: M ~ R are concave functions (cf. Concave
function). The solution of the convex programming
problem minxEA f(x) is completely characterized by a
saddle-point theorem initially stated on Rn [2] by H.W.
0. Introduce the Lagrange function L(x, v) = f(x) -
E~=l vl'l/JI(X), X E A, v = (vI, ... ,VT) E R+.. A point
Xo E A is the optimal solution of the convex program-
ming problem minxEA f(x) if and only if there exists a
Vo = (v~, ... ,vli) such that the so-called Kuhn-Tucker
337
KUHN-TUCKER CONDITIONS

conditions hold:
vb ~ 0, vb'l/J/(xo) = 0, l = 1, ... ,r;
L(xo, v) ::; L(xo, vo) ::; L(x, vo), "Ix E M, v E
These equations provide a criterion for testing
whether a solution which has been found by other meth-
ods is in fact an optimal solution.
The Kuhn-Tucker theorem has been generalized in
various directions:
• to necessary or sufficient conditions, or both types,
for an extremum of a function subject to equality or in-
equality constraints [1];
• to changing the geometrical structure of the un-
derlying manifold [1], [3].
References
[1] ARROW, K.J., HURWICZ, L., AND UZAWA, H.: Studies in lin-
ear and nonlinear programming, Stanford Univ. Press, 1958.
[2] KUHN, H.W., AND TUCKER, A.W.: 'Nonlinear programming':
Proc. Second Berkeley Symp. Math. Stat. Probab., Califor-
nia Univ. Press, 1951, pp. 481-492.
[3] UDRI§TE, C.: Convex functions and optimization methods on
Riemannian manifolds, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1994.
C. Udri§te
MSC 1991: 90C25, 90C30
KULLBACK-LEIBLER INFORMATION, Kullback-
Leibler quantity of information, Kullback-Leibler infor-
mation quantity, directed divergence - For discrete dis-
[1] KULLBACK, S.: Information theory and statistics, Wiley,
1959.
[2] KULLBACK, S., AND LEIBLER, R.A.: 'On information and suf-
R+. ficiency', Ann. Math. Stat. 22 (1951),79-86.
[3] SAKAMOTO, J., ISHIGURO, M., AND KITAGAWA, G.: Akaike
information criterion statistics, Reidel, 1986.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 60Exx, 62BlO, 94A15, 94A17
KULLBACK-LEIBLER-TYPE DISTANCE MEA-
SURES - In mathematical statistics one usually con-
siders, among others, estimation, testing of hypothe-
sis, discrimination, etc. When considering the statisti-
cal problem of discrimination, S. Kullback and R.A.
Leibler [13] introduced a measure of the 'distance' or
'divergence' between statistical populations, known var-
iously as information for discrimination, I-divergence,
the error, or the directed divergence. While the Shannon
entropy is fundamental in information theory, sev-
eral generalizations of Shannon's entropy have also been
proposed. In statistical estimation problems, measures
between probability distributions playa significant role.
The Chernoff coefficient, Hellinger-Bhattacharyya co-
efficient, Jeffreys distance, the directed divergence and
its symmetrization, J-divergence, f-divergence, etc. are
examples of such measures. These measures have many
applications in statistics, pattern recognition, numerical
taxonomy, etc.

t
tributions (cf. Discrete distribution) given by prob- Let
ability vectors P = (Pl. .. · ,Pn), q = (ql. ... ,qn), the
Kullback-Leibler (quantity of) information of P with re-
spect to q is:
rn = {p = (PI, ... ,Pn I Pi> 0) and pi = 1}
m
1 (p; q) = L Pi (log Pi - log qi), be the set of all complete discrete probability distribu-
tions of length n ~ 2 (cf. Density of a probability
i=1
distribution). Let 1 = (0,1) and let R be the set of
where log is the natural logarithm (cf. also Logarithm
real numbers. For P, Q in r n, Kullback and Leibler [13]
of a number).
defined the directed divergence as
More generally, one has:

I(P; Q) = In log :~:~ P(dw)

for probability distributions P(dw) and Q(dw) with den-
sities p(w) and q(w) (cf. Density of a probability dis-
tribution).
The negative of I(P; Q) is the conditional entropy
(or relative entropy) of P(dw) with respect to Q(dw);
see Entropy.
Various notions of (asymmetric and symmetric) in-
formation distances are based on the Kullback-Leibler
information.
The quantity l(p, q) is also called the informational
divergence (see Huffman code).
See also Information distance; Kullback-
Leibler-type distance measures.
References
Usually, measures are characterized by using the many
algebraic properties possessed by them, for example, see
[9] for (1). A sequence of measures I-Ln: r n X r n -t R is
said to have the sum property if there exists a function
f: 12 -t R such that I-Ln(P II Q) = }:~=1 f(pi, qi) for
P, Q Ern. In this case f is said to be a generating func-
tion of {I-Ln}. A stronger version of the sum property is
f-divergence [6]. The measure I-Ln is an f-divergence if
and only if it has a representation
for some f: (0,00) -t R. The measures I-Ln are
said to be (m, n)-additive if I-Lmn{P * R II Q *

338

S) = J-Lm(R II S) + J-Ln(P II Q) where P * R =
(Pl r !, ... ,Pl r m,P2 r l,··· ,P2 r m,··· ,Pnrm).
Measures J-Ln having the sum property with a
Lebesgue-measurable generating function I are (2,2)-
additive if and only if they are given by
J-Ln(P I Q) =
= 4aH~(P) + 4a' H~(Q) - 9aH~(P) - 9a' H~(Q) +
+bHn(P) + b' Hn(Q) +
+cIn(P I Q) + c'In(Q II P) + dn,
where a, a', b, b', c, c', d are constants, Hn(P) =
- EPi log Pi (Shannon entropy), H~(P) = (2 1 -.8 -
l)-I(E1lf - 1) (entropy 01 degree f3 =I- 1) and In(P II
Q) = - E Pi log qi (inaccuracy). However, (1) is nei-
ther symmetric nor satisfies the triangle inequality and
thus its use as a metric is limited. In [7], the symmet-
ric divergence or J-divergence In(P I Q) = Dn(P I
Q) + Dn(Q II P) was introduced to restore symmetry.
A sequence of measures {J-Lm} is said to be symmet-
rically additive if
J-Lnm(p*R II Q*S) + J-Lnm(P*S I Q*R) =
= 2J-Ln(P II Q) + 2J-Lm(R I S)
for all P, Q Ern, R, S E r m.
Sum-form measures {J-Ln} with a measurable symmet-
ric generating function I: 12 ---+ R are symmetrically
additive for all pairs of integers m, n ~ 2 and have the
form [5]
J-Ln(P I Q) =
n
= L[Pi(alogpi + blogqi) + qi(alogqi + blogpi)].
i=1
It is well known that Hn(P) :s In(P II Q), that is,
- LPi logpi :s - LPi logqi,
which is known as the Shannon inequality. This inequal-
ity gives rise to the error Dn(P II Q) ~ 0 in (1).
A function J-Ln: r~ ---+ R is called a separability mea-
sure if and only if J-Ln(P II Q) ~ 0 and J-Ln(P II Q)
attains a minimum if P = Q for all P, Q Ern with
n ~ 2. A separability measure J-Ln is a distance measure
01 K ullback-Leibler type if there exists an I: I ---+ R such
that J-Ln(P II Q) = EPi(J(Pi) - I(qi)). Any Kullback-
Leibler-type distance measure with generating function
I satisfies the inequality Epk/(qk) :s EPkl(Pk) (see
[10], [2]).
References
[1] ACZEL, J., AND DAROCZY, Z.: On measures of information
and their characterizations, Acad. Press, 1975.
[2] ACZEL, J., AND OSTROWSKI, A.M.: 'On the characterization
of Shannon's entropy by Shannon's inequality', J. Australian
Math. Soc. 16 (1973), 368-374.
KURZWEIL-HENSTOCK INTEGRAL
[3] BHATTACHARYYA, A.: 'On a measure of divergence between
two statistical populations defined by their probability dis-
tributions', Bull. Calcutta Math. Soc. 35 (1943), 99-109.
[4] BHATTACHARYYA, A.: 'On a measure of divergence between
two multinomial populations', Sankhya 7 (1946), 401-406.
[5] CHUNG, J.K., KANNAPPAN, PL., NG, C.T., AND SHAHOO,
P .K.: 'Measures of distance between probability distribu-
tions', J. Math. Anal. Appl. 139 (1989), 280-292.
[6] CSISZAR, I.: 'Eine informationstheoretische Ungleichung und
ihre Anwendung auf den Beweis der Ergodizitat von Markoff-
schen Ketten', Magyar Thd. Kutato Int. Kozi. 8 (1963), 85-
108.
[7] JEFFREYS, H.: 'An invariant form for the prior probability in
estimation pro', Proc. Roy. Soc. London Ser. A. 186 (1946),
453-461.
[8] KANNAPPAN, PL., AND NG, C.T.: 'Representation of mea-
sures information': 'Irans. Eighth Prague Conference, Vol. C,
Prague, 1979, pp. 203-206.
[9] KANNAPPAN, PL., AND RATHIE, P.N.: 'On various character-
izations of directed divergence': Proc. Sixth Prague Confer-
ence on Information Theory, Statistical Decision Functions
and Random Process, 1971.
[10] KANNAPPAN, PL., AND SHAHOO, P.K.: 'Kullback-Leibler
type distance measures between probability distributions', J.
Math. Phy. Sci. 26 (1993), 443-454.
[11] KANNAPPAN, PL., SHAHOO, P.K., AND CHUNG, J.K.: 'On a
functional equation associated with the symmetric divergence
measures', Utilita Math. 44 (1993), 75-83.
[12] KULLBACK, S.: Information theory and statistics, Peter
Smith, reprint, Gloucester, 1978.
[13] KULLBACK, S., AND LEIBLER, R.A.: 'On information and suf-
ficiency', Ann. Math. Stat. 22 (1951), 79-86.
[14] SHANNON, C.E.: 'A mathematical theory of communication',
Bell System J. 27 (1948), 379-423; 623-656.
Pl. Kannappan
MSC 1991: 60Exx, 60BIO, 62Exx
KURZWEIL-HENSTOCK INTEGRAL - The Den-
joy and Perron integrals (cf. Denjoy integral; Per-
ron integral), which are equivalent and more general
than the Lebesgue integral, were introduced in the
second decade of the 20th century to invert the finite or-
dinary derivative. Much more recently, J. Kurzweil [6],
and independently R. Henstock [2], made a simple mod-
ification to the Riemann integral and defined another
integral that is equivalent to the Denjoy and Perron in-
tegrals. This integral is known as the gauge integral, the
Riemann-complete integral, the generalized Riemann in-
tegral, or the Kurzweil-Henstock integral, also abbrevi-
ated to K-H integral. A further simple modification, by
E.J. MacShane [9], gave an integral that is equivalent to
the Lebesgue integral.
A positive function 8 on a compact interval [a, b] is
called a gauge, and with any such gauge one can asso-
ciate a lull covering of [a, b] by:
I = ((u,v) n [a,b]:
u :s x :s v, u =I- v, v - u < 8(x), a :s x :s b}.
339
KURZWEIL-HENSTOCK INTEGRAL
This covering is said to be a-fine. It is easy to see
that every such I can be used to give a partition
of [a, b], also called a-fine, that is, a partition tv =
{ao, ... ,anjX!, ... ,xn } = {[ai-l,ai]jXi: 1 ~ i ~ n},
where a = ao < ... < an = b, ai-l ~ Xi ~ ai,
al - ai-l < a(Xi), i = 1, ... ,n. The existence of such a
partition is known as Cousin's lemma, and is equivalent
to the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem. It is easy to
see that there is no loss in generality in assuming the
tags, the Xi, to be end-points of the sub-intervals (that
is, for all i either Xi = ai or Xi = bi ), although it is
not possible to assume the tags are always left, or right,
end-points.
Once the existence of a a-fine partition tv is known,
one can associate with any finite function f on [a, b] a
Riemann sum, Ew f = E~=l f(xi)(ai - ai-d· The def-
inition of the K-H integral follows that of the Riemann
integral: f is K-H-integrable on [a, b] if there is a real
number I such that for all f > 0 there exists a gauge a tion of sub-intervals from the partition tv, then:
such that for all a-fine partitions tv one has
(1)
The number I is then the value of the integral of f. The
similarity of this definition to the classical Riemann def-
inition means that the proofs of all the basic properties
of the K-H integral follow those of the more elementary
integral, corresponding to the case where the gauge is a
continuous or constant function.
However, the power given by the use of a locally fine
gauge, that can be made to adapt to the function bet-
ter than a uniform gauge, is shown by the following two
examples.
A) Let f be the derivative of F and define a gauge
a for f > 0 as follows:for all X there is a: 0 = o(x) such
that IF(x) - F(a) - (x - a)f(x)1 < fix - al. If tv is a
a-fine partition whose tags are always end-points, then
I~f- (F(b) -F(a))1 ~
= ItF(ai) - F(ai-d - f(xi)(ai - ai-1)1 <
,=1
< f(b - a).
SO I, an arbitrary finite derivative, is K-H-integrable.
B) Let E be a set of measure zero with I arbitrary
on E but zero elsewhere. Given an f > 0, let {I} be an
open covering of E of total length less than f. Define a
gauge a as follows: if I(x) = 0 then a(x) = b - a, and if
f(x) =f. 0 then a(x) = IIl/lf(x)l, where I is any interval
from the open covering that contains x. If tv is a o-fine
340
partition, then
w i,!(Xi),pO
Hence such an f is K-H-integrable with integral value
zero. This allows one: 1) to deduce that if two func-
tions are equal almost-everywhere, then they are K-H-
integrable together, and 2) to extend the definition of
the integral to include functions that are only defined
almost-everywhere.
Deeper properties, such as the continuity and differ-
entiability properties of the primitive, a monotone con-
vergence theorem, a proof that the absolutely integrable
functions are precisely the Lebesgue-integrable func-
tions, depend on the so-called Saks-Henstock lemma,
[1], [2], [3]: If f is K-H-integrable, with indefinite inte-
gral F, where I = F(b) - F(a), if f, tv are as in the
definition (1) above, and if {[ai-I, ai]hEJ is any collec-
L f(xi)(ai - ai-d - (F(ai) - F(ai-l)) < fj
iEJ
L If(xi)(ai - ai-d - (F(ai) - F(ai-l))1 < 2€.
iEJ
As a simple application, suppose that the primitive of
a K-H-integrable function is everywhere zero. Then one
can show that III is K-H-integrable to zero. Indeed, let f,
tv be as in the definition (1) and let J be as in the Saks-
Henstock lemma. Then the hypothesis and the lemma
imply
2f> L If(xi)(ai - ai-d - (F(ai) - F(ai-d)1 =
iEJ
= L If(Xi)1 (ai - ai-I),
iEJ
which proves the statement.
There has been much work on these techniques, and
they have been used to obtain many properties of the
Denjoy and Perron integrals that were often proved by
much more onerous methods. In particular, P.- Y. Lee
has developed a theory of controlled convergence, [8].
This theory gives to this integral a real convergence the-
orem, since once use can be made of the monotone con-
vergence theorem one is really in the Lebesgue theory.
His result is based on a Dzharsheishvili theorem that
generalizes Vitali's theorem to the Denjoy integral.
The definition above can easily be extended to give a
Stieltjes integral that is equivalent to Ward's Perron-
Stieltjes integral, and even more general interval func-
tions can be integrated very simply by this method, as
has been shown in detail by R. Henstock, [2], [3], [7].
If, in the definition of the a-fine covering I the re-
quirement u ~ x ~ v is changed to (u, v) C (x-o(x), X+

8(x)), the above procedure will give the MacShane in-
tegral, which is equivalent to the Lebesgue integral.
Inspection of A) shows that one needs the original form
of the definition here. Further extensions of I have been
studied, such as requiring that u, v belong to a set of
density 1 at x, or that [u, v] be symmetric with respect
to the tag x, [1], [3], [13]. The purpose of these exten-
sions is to define integrals that will invert approximate
and symmetric derivatives. Such extensions are far from
obvious and require deep and subtle considerations. The
same is true of the extensions of the theory that have
been made to higher dimensions [12]. However, these ex-
tensions are much more successful than the attempts to
do the same for the Denjoy and Perron integrals. On
the other hand, the extension of the Kurzweil~Henstock
theory to general spaces is much less natural than the
general measure theory that follows from the Lebesgue
theory, [5].
References
[1] GORDON, R.A.: 'The integrals of Denjoy, Perron and Hen-
stock', Amer. Math. Soc. Graduate Stud. Math. 4 (1994).
[2] HENSTOCK, R.: 'The equivalence of generalized forms of the
Ward, variational, Denjoy-Stieltjes, and Perron-Sieltjes in-
tegrals', Proc. London Math. Soc. 3, no. 10 (1960), 281-303.
[3] HENSTOCK, R.: Theory of integration, Butterworth's, 1963.
[4] HENSTOCK, R.: Lectures on the theory of integration, World
Sci., 1988.
[5] HENSTOCK, R.: The general theory of integration, Ox-
ford Univ. Press, 1991.
[6] KURZWEIL, J.: 'Generalized ordinary differential equations
and continuous dependence on a parameter', Czechoslovak.
Math. J. 7, no. 82 (1957), 418-446.
[7] KURZWEIL, J.: Nichtabsolut Konvergente Integrale, Leipzig,
1988.
[8] LEE, P.-Y.: Lanzhou lectures on Henstock integation, World
Sci., 1989.
[9] MACSHANE, E.J.: 'A unified theory of integration', Amer.
Math. Monthly 80 (1973), 349-359.
[10] MACSHANE, E.J.: Unified integration, New York, 1983.
[11] McLEOD, R.M.: The generalized Riemann integral, Vol. 20
of Carus Math. Monograph, Math. Assoc. America, 1980.
[12] PFEFFER, W.F.: The Riemann approach to integration the-
ory: local geometric theory, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993.
[13] THOMSON, B.S.: Symmetric properties of real junctions, M.
Dekker, 1994.
P. Bullen
MSC 1991: 26A39, 26A42
KUSTAANHEIMO-STIEFEL TRANSFORMATION
~ A particular case of the surjective application R4 -+
R3: (UO,Ul,U2,U3) H (XO,X2,X3) defined by
Xo = u5 - pur + qu~ - pqU~'}
X2 = 2(UOU2 + PUlU3), (1)
X3 = 2(UOU3 +UlU2),
subject to the constraint w = 0 with
w = 2(Ul duo - Uo dUl + qU3 dU2 - qU2 dU3), (2)
KUSTAANHEIMO~STIEFEL TRANSFORMATION
where the parameters p and q can take the values ±l.
The transformation introduced by P. Kustaanheimo and
E. Stiefel [4] corresponds to p = q = -1, while the cases
p = -q = -1 [2] and p = -q = 1 (or p = q = 1) [5]
correspond to two other (inequivalent) transformations.
There are several ways of introducing these three
transformations. For instance, the Kustaanheimo-
Stiefel mapping is inherent to the Cartan spinor the-
ory, since (1), with p = q = -1, can be rewritten as
Xo = ~ta3~, X2 = ~tal~ and X3 = ~ta2~' where the ai
(with i = 1,2,3) are the Pauli matrices and ~ is a
spinor of components Uo - iUl and U2 + iU3 (e
stands
for the adjoint of ~). Furthermore, the Kustaanheimo~
Stiefel transformation, along with the two other trans-
formations, can be introduced as a particular Hurwitz
transformation (see also Hurwitz transformation)
in the framework of the Cayley-Dickson algebra
A(p, q). (The algebra A(p, q) turns out to be the algebra
of ordinary (or elliptic) quaternions when p+q = -2 and
the algebra of hyperbolic quaternions when p+q =j:. -2.)
The main properties of the transformations (1)~(2) are
as follows.
1) These transformations satisfy
dx~ - q dx~ + pq dx~ = 4r(tdu 1] du)
and
X~ - qx~ + pqx~ = r2, (3)
where the metric 1] is 1] = diag(l, -p, -q,pq), so that
r = (t u1]u ) = Uo2 - PUl2 - qU2
2 + pqu32 (4)
(u denotes a column vector, the transposed of which is
the row vector tu = (UO,Ul,U2,U3)).
2) Equations (3)~(4) show that the various map-
pings (1) correspond to three types of fibrations (cf. Fi-
bration): the celebrated Hopf fibration (on spheres)
S3 -+ S2 of compact fibre Sl for p = q = -1 and two
other fibrations (on hyperboloids), namely, R2 x Sl -+
R2 of compact fibre Sl for p = -q = -1 and R2 x Sl -+
R X Sl of non-compact fibre R for p = -q = 1 and
p=q=l.
3) The preceding geometrical property can be made
precise by transformation properties of (first- and)
second-order elliptic and hyperbolic differential opera-
tors. For example, this yields (for I E C 2(R3))
1
!:l.xl = -!:l.ul,
4r
XI = 0,
where
!:l.x = a xoxo - qax2x2+ pqax3x3 ,
!:l.u = a uouo - p8U1U1 - qau2u2 + pq8u3u3 ,
X = -pul 8 uo - u08 U1 + pU38u2 + u2aU3'
341
KUSTAANHEIMO-STIEFEL TRANSFORMATION
4) The vector field X associated to the I-form w
(with an action satisfying w[I/(4r)X] = 1) is an ele-
ment of the symplectic Lie algebra sp(8, R) which gen-
erates either the subalgebra so(2) or so(l, 1), according
to whether the fibre is compact or non-compact. The
introduction of the (Dirac primary) constraint X = 0 in
sp(8, R) produces a Lie algebra under constraint (i.e.,
the centralizer of X in sp(8, R)), which is isomorphic
to so( 4,2) or so(3,3), depending on the compactness or
non-compactness of the fibre, respectively (see [5] and
the references therein).
. The applications of the transformations (1 )-( 2) range
from number theory to physics (classical and quantum
mechanics, gauge theories). By way of illustration, the
(generalized) Hurwitz matrix corresponding to (1)-(2)
is connected to the (generalized) problem of factoring
the sum of four squared numbers, addressed by A. Hur-
witz (1898) in the specific case p = q = -1. In addi-
tion, for p and q fixed, the solutions of the generalized
Pythagorean equation (3) with (XQ,xl,x2,r) E Z4 are
parametrized by (1) and (4) with (UQ,UbU2,U3) E Z4.
In classical mechanics, the K ustaanheimo-Stiefel trans-
formation is used for the regularization of the Kepler
problem. In quantum mechanics (cf. also MIC-Kepler
342
problem), the latter transformation makes it possi-
ble to transform the Schrodinger equation for the
three-dimensional hydrogen atom (in an electromagnetic
field) into a Schrodinger equation for a four-dimensional
isotropic harmonic oscillator (with quartic and sextic
anharmonic terms) subject to a constraint [1], [3]. Con-
versely, the mappings (1)-(2) may be used in some di-
mensional reduction process for converting a dynamical
system in R 4 or R 2 X R 2 into a dynamical system in
R3.
References
[1] BOITEUX, M.: 'Theory of nonbijective canonical transforma-
tions in mechanics: Application to the Coulomb problem', J .
Math. Phys. 23 (1982), 1311.
[2] IWAI, T.: 'On reduction of two degrees of freedom Hamilton-
ian system by an 8 1 action, and SOo(I,2) as a dynamical
group', J. Math. Phys. 26 (1985),885.
[3] KIBLER, M., AND NEGADI, T.: 'Hydrogen atom in a uni-
form electromagnetic field as an anharmonic oscillator', Lett.
Nuovo Cimento 39 (1984), 319.
[4] KUSTAANHEIMO, P., AND STIEFEL, E.: 'Perturbation theory
of Kepler motion based on spinor regularization', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 218 (1965), 204.
[5] LAMBERT, D., AND KIBLER, M.: 'An algebraic and geomet-
ric approach to non-bijective quadratic transformations', J.
Phys. A: Math. Gen. 21 (1988), 307.
M. Kibler
MSC 1991: 70-XX, 70M20, 53A50, 17Dxx, 55R05
________ L________
l-ALGEBRA, lattice-ordered algebra - An algebraic
system {A; P, +, ., :::s} over a totally ordered field P
such that {A; P, +, .} is an associative algebra over P
(cf. Associative rings and algebras), {A;:::s} is a lat-
tice respect with the partial order :::S and the following
axioms hold:
1) for all a, b, c E A,
a :::S b =? a + c :::S b + c,
2) for all a, b, c E A,
(c> O)&(a :::S b) =? (ac :::S bc)&(ca :::S cb),
3) for all a, bE A and a E P,
(a> O)&(a :::S b) =? (aa :::S ac).
An l-algebra A is called a strict l-algebra if for a < b
and c > 0 one has ac < bc, ca < cb. It is useful to de-
scribe an l-algebra {A; P, +, ., :::S} as an algebraic system
of signature {P, +,., v, I\}, where V,I\ are the join and
meet operations in the lattice {A, :::S}.
The most important examples of l-algebras are: the l-
algebra C(X, R) of all continuous real-valued functions
on a topological space X with respect to the natu-
ral operations and equipped with the order f :::S g, for
f,g E C(X,R), if and only if f(x) :::S g(x) for all x E X;
and the l-algebra Mn(R) of all (n x n)-matrices over R
with order Ilaijll :::S Ilbijll if and only if aij :::S bij for all
i,j.
A homomorphism <p: A -+ B of l-algebras A and B
is an l-homomorphism if <p is a homomorphism of the
algebras A and B and a homomorphism of the lattices
A and B. The kernel of an l-homomorphism of A is an
l-ideal, i.e., an ideal of A that is also a convex sublattice
of A.
If P = {x E A: x C:: O}, then P is called the positive
cone of the l-algebra A. For the positive cone P of an
l-algebra A the following properties hold:
1) p+pc;,p;
2) P n P = {O};
3) p. P c;, P;
4) p+. P c;, P;
5) P is a lattice respect with the induced order.
Here, p+ = {a E P: a 2: O}. If, in an algebra A over P,
one can find a subset P with the properties 1)-5), then
A can be given the structure of an l-algebra with posi-
tive cone P by setting: x:::s y =? Y - x E P for x,y E A.
It is correct to identify the order of an l-algebra with its
positive cone, and so an l-algebra A is often denoted by
(A,P).
An l-algebra (A, P) is strict if and only if xy i=- 0 for
all x,y E P.
An l-algebra A is totally-ordered (an o-algebra) if its
order is total (cf. also Totally ordered set). An l-
algebra is called an f-algebra if it is an l-subalgebra
of the Cartesian product of O-algebras. An l-algebra
(A, P) is an f-algebra if and only if there exists a set
{Pi: i E I} of total orders on A such that P = niEI Pi.
0- and f-algebras have been well investigated. Every
Archimedean f-algebra over R is commutative. The set
N of nilpotent elements in an o-algebra A is a convex
ideal of A and the quotient algebra AIN has no zero
divisors. There exists a full description of the finite-
dimensional o-algebras. An l-algebra A is an f-algebra
if and only if for all a, b, c E A,
(a 1\ b = O)&(c C:: 0) =? (ca 1\ b = O)&(ac 1\ b = 0).
The structure of the convex l-subalgebras and prime
ideals has been investigated.
The theory of l-algebras is used in the study of order-
preserving linear transformations and orthomorphisms
of ordered vector spaces (i.e., linear transformations pre-
serving the orthogonality properties).
References
[1] BIGARD, A., KEIMEL, K., AND WOLFENSTEIN, S.: Groupes et
anneaux retiqules, Springer, 1977.
[2] FUCHS, L.: Partially ordered algebraic systems, Pergamon,
1963.
V.M. Kopytov
i-ALGEBRA
MSC 1991: 06F25
[-GROUP, lattice-ordered group ~ A partially ordered
group {G;·,::S} (cf. o-group) such that {G;::s} is a
lattice (cf. also Lattice-ordered group). It is use-
ful to consider the i-group G as an algebraic system
{G; " e, ~1 , V, A}, where {G;·, e, ~1} is a group with
identity element e, and {G; V, A} is a lattice with join
and meet operations V, A in the lattice {G; ::S}. The fol-
lowing identities hold in any l-group:
x(y V z)t = xyt V xzt,
x(y A z)t = xyt A xzt.
The lattice of an l-group is distributive (cf. Distribu-
tive lattice). The class of alIi-groups is a variety of sig-
nature {-, e,~1 ,V, A} (cf. i-variety); it is locally closed,
and closed under taking direct and Cartesian products,
l-subgroups (i.e., subgroups that are sublattices), and i-
homomorphisms (i.e., homomorphisms that preserve the
group operation· and the lattice operations V, A).
The most important examples of l-groups are: 1) the
additive group C[R] of the set of real-valued continuous
functions defined on the real number set R, with the
order: f ::S g, for f,g E C[R], if and only if f(x) ::S g(x)
for all x E R; and 2) the automorphism group Aut(X)
of a totally ordered set X with order: cp ::S 1/;, for
cp,1/; E Aut(X), if and only if xCP::S x1/; for all x E X.
The theory of l-groups is used in the study of the
structure of ordered vector spaces, function spaces and
infinite groups, in particular for the groups Aut(X).
The most important fact of the theory of l-groups is
that every l-group is l-isomorphic to some l-subgroup
of the i-group Aut(X) for a suitable totally ordered X.
Using this theorem, it can be proved that every l-group
is imbeddable in a divisible l-group as well as in a simple
group. The class of groups that may be endowed with
the structure of an i-group is large. E.g., it contains the
classes of Abelian torsion-free groups, locally nilpotent
torsion-free groups, and many others. There are torsion-
free groups that cannot be imbedded in any l-group.
Every l-group is a torsion-free group and has a decom-
position property: if a ::S b1 ... bn for positive elements
a, b1, ... ,bn , then a = C1 ... Cn, where e ::S Ci ::S bi ·
Let G be an i-group and put x+ = x V e, x~ = x A e,
Ixl = x V x~1 for x E G. Then
x = x+x~, x+ A (X~)~1 = e,
Ixl = x+(x~)~1,
Ix V yl ::S Ixl V Iyl ::S IxllYI ,
Ixyl ::S Ixllyllxl ,
(x V y)~1 = X~1 A y~1.
344
Elements x, y E G are called orthogonal if Ixl A Iyl = e.
Orthogonal elements commute.
An l-group may be described by its positive cone
P = P(G) = {x E G: x ~ e}, for which the follow-
ing properties hold:
1) p.p~p;
2) pnp={e};
3) \/x: x~1px ~ P;
4) P is a lattice respect with the partial order induced
from G.
If, in a group G, a set P with the properties 1)-4) can
be found, then it is possible to turn G in an i-group by
setting x ::S y if and only if yx~1 E P. It is correct to
identify the order in an l-group with its positive cone.
The notation 'l-group' is connected with the notation
for right-ordered groups (cf. ro-group). In particular,
the positive cone P( G) of any i-group G is the intersec-
tion of a suitable set of right orders Pa on the group
G.
It is useful to describe the structure of an i-group in
terms of convex l-subgroups (cf. Convex subgroup). A
subgroup H of an I-group G is called a convex subgroup
if for all x, y E H, z E G:
x ::S z ::S y =* z E H.
The set C(G) of all convex l-subgroups of G is a complete
sublattice of the lattice of all subgroups (cf. Complete
lattice). A subset N of an i-group G is the kernel of an
i-homomorphism of G if and only if it is an i-ideal, i.e.,
a normal convex i-subgroup of G.
If M is a subset of an i-group G, then the set
M~ = {x E G: Ixl A Iml = efor allm E M} is called a
polar. Every polar in a i-group G is a convex l-subgroup
of G. The following properties hold for polars M and N
of an l-group G:
M~~~ = M~,
M ~ N =* M~;2 N~,
M ~ n N ~ = (M U N) ~ ,
(M~ U N~)~ = M~~ n N~~.
The set of all polars of an i-group G is a Boolean al-
gebra, but not a sublattice of the lattice C(G). The
properties and the significance of polars are well inves-
tigated.
An o-group is an l-group with a total order (cf.
also Totally ordered group). If an l-group G is an
I-subgroup of the Cartesian product of totally ordered
groups, then G is called a representable group. The class
R of representable groups has been well investigated. It
is the l-variety given by the identity (xAy~1x~1y)Ve = e
in the variety of alII-groups. An i-group is representable
if and only if every polar of it is an l-ideal. The positive

cone P of a representable l-group G is the intersection
of all total orders of G restricted to P. Every locally
nilpotent l-group is representable.
An l-group G is called Archimedean if the equality
b = e holds for all a, bEG such that an :S b for any
integer n. Every Archimedean l-group is Abelian (cf.
Abelian group) and it is an l-subgroup of the Carte-
sian product of copies of the totally ordered additive
group of real numbers R. The class A of Archimedean
l-groups is closed under formation of subgroups, di-
rect and Cartesian products. It is not closed under l-
homomorphisms and is not an l-variety. The l-group
C[X, R] of real-valued functions on a compact topologic
space X is Archimedean.
This article extends and complements the article
Lattice-ordered group (Volume 5).
References
[1] BIGARD, A., KEIMEL, K., AND WOLFENSTEIN, S.: Groupes et
anneaux retiqu/es, Springer, 1977.
[2] FUCHS, L.: Partially ordered algebraic systems, Pergamon,
1963.
[3] GLASS, A.M.W., AND HOLLAND, W.CH. (eds.): Lattice-
ordered groups: advances and techniques, Kluwer Acad.
Pub!., 1989.
[4] KOPYTOV, V.M., AND MEDVEDEV, N.YA.: The theory of
lattice-ordered groups, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1994. (Translated
from the Russian.)
V.M. Kopytov
MSC 1991: 06F15, 20F60
L-SPACE OF A STATISTICAL EXPERIMENT - An
order-complete Banach lattice (cf. also Riesz space)
of measures on a measurable space (0, F), defined in
the context of statistical decision theory [2], [5], [7],
[8], [10]. Prime object of this theory is the statistical ex-
periment £ = (0, F, P) where P is a set of probability
measures on (0, F). A statistical decision problem is to
determine which of the distributions in P are most likely
to generate the observations (or data) collected. While
the Radon-Nikodym theorem guarantees that one
can operate with densities
dP
df..L E L1(f..L)
of distributions if all PEP are dominated by a a-finite
measure f. L on (0, F), there is no such possibility in the
undominated case. Nevertheless, there is a substitute for
the space generated by the dP / df..L which respects both
the linear and the order structure of measures: the L-
space L(£) of the experiment, introduced in [4]. This is
a subspace of the Banach lattice of all signed measures
on (0, F), and can be defined in three different ways, as
follows [1].
Denote by ca(O, F) the vector lattice of all signed
finite measures on (O,F), put 1f..L1 = sup(f..L,-f..L) E
ca(O, F) and use f. L 1. v as an abbreviation for
L-SPACE OF A STATISTICAL EXPERIMENT
inf(If..LI, Ivl) = O. Equipped with the variational norm
11f..L11 = 1f..L1 (0), ca(O, F) is an order-complete Banach
lattice. More precisely, ca(O, F) is an abstract L-space,
which means that the norm 11·11 is additive on ca(O, F)+.
A solid linear subspace V ~ ca(O, F) is called a band if
sUPiEI f..Li E V whenever the f..Li E V satisfy f..Li :S f. L E
ca(O, F) for all i E I.
If £ = (0, F, P) is a statistical experiment, then one
defines
a) L 1 ( £) to be the smallest band (with respect to ~)
in ca(O, F) containing P;
b) L2(£) to be the II· II-closure of L'(£), where
L'(£) = {f..L E ca(O,F): 1f..L1 :S to:iPi
for some Pi E P,O:i 2: 0, alli;n EN};
c) L3(£) = {f..L E ca(O, F): f. L 1. a for all a 1. Pl.
Then L1 (£) = L2 (£) = L3 (£). This space is called the
L-space of £ and is denoted by L(£).
If there exists a Q E ca(O, F) such that for A E F
one has Q(A) = 0 if and only if P(A) = 0 for all PEP,
then £ is dominated (and vice versa). In this case, the
L-space L(£) of £ is, as a Banach lattice, isomorphic
to L 1 (Q). The situation for undominated experiments
is different. As an abstract L-space, L(£) is always iso-
morphic to Ll(m), with m a Radon measure on a
locally compact topological space [3]. However, in gen-
eral m is not even semi-finite [6] (Le., lacks the finite
subset property [11]), and then there is no representa-
tion of the topological dual M(£) = L(£)* as LOO(m).
M(£) is called the M-space of the experiment £ and
generalizes the space of equivalence classes of bounded
°
random variables in the following sense. Let X denote
the set of all real-valued functions defined on that are
F-measurable and bounded. For any cp EX, denote by
cp the mapping assigning In
cp df..L to every f. L E L(£).
Then M(£) coincides with the a(M(£), L(£))-closure of
X [1], [4], [8]. For an alternative representation of M(£),
see [9].
An experiment £ is called coherent if M(£) = X.
Every dominated experiment is also coherent, due to
the familiar isomorphism between [Ll(Q)]* and LOO(Q),
the reverse implication being false in general (for even
larger classes of statistical experiments, see, e.g., [6]).
However, every coherent experiment is weakly dominated
(and vice versa) in the following sense [7]: there exists
a semi-finite (not a-finite, in general) and localizable
[11] measure f. L on (O,F) such that for A E F one has
f..L(A) = 0 if and only if P(A) = 0 for all PEP. This
result is an alternative interpretation of the fact that
345
L-SPACE OF A STATISTICAL EXPERIMENT
Loo(J.l) is isomorphic to [LI(J.l)]* if and only if J.l is semi-
finite and localizable [11].
The experiment [; = (n, F, P) with n = [0,1], F the
Borel field, and P = {8 x : x E [0, 1]} is not coherent,
since the counting measure J.l is not localizable on F
because F is count ably generated but J.l is not (T-finite
[6] (this argument needs the assumption that each un-
countable metric space contains a non-Borel set).
References
[1] BOMZE, I.M.: A functional analytic approach to statistical
experiments, Longman, 1990.
[2] HEYER, H.: Theory of statistical experiments, Springer, 1982.
[3] KAKUTANI, S.: 'Concrete representation of abstract L-spaces
and the mean ergodic theorem', Ann. of Math. 42 (1941),
523-537.
[4] LE CAM, L.: 'Sufficiency and approximate sufficiency', Ann.
Math. Stat. 35 (1964), 1419-1455.
[5] LE CAM, L.: Asymptotic methods in statistical decision the-
ory, Springer, 1986.
[6] LUSCHGY, H., AND MUSSMANN, D.: 'Products of majorized
experiments', Statistics and Decision 4 (1986), 321-335.
[7] SIEBERT, E.: 'Pairwise sufficiency', ZWVG 46 (1979), 237-
246.
[8] STRASSER, H.: Mathematical theory of statistics, de Gruyter,
1985.
[9] TORGERSEN, E.N.: 'On complete sufficient statistics and uni-
formly minimum variance unbiased estimators', Teoria sta-
tistica delle decisioni. Symp. Math. 25 (1980), 137-153.
[10] TORGERSEN, E.N.: Comparison of statistical experiments,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991.
[11] ZAANEN, A.C.: Integration, North-Holland, 1967.
I.M. Bomze
MSC 1991: 62B15, 62B20, 62C05, 28A99
l-VARIETY - A class X of i-groups (cf. i-group)
that is distinguished within the class £ of all i-groups
by some system X of i-group identities: an i-group G
belongs to X if and only if for all Xl, ... ,X n E G,
where Wi are terms in the variables Xl, ... ,X n in the
signature of £, l = {-, e,-I, V, II}. (Cf. also Variety of
groups.)
The class £ is defined by the following axiom system:
1) if G E £, then {G, .,e,-I} is a group;
2) if G E £, then {G, V, II} is a lattice;
3) for all x, y, z, t, x(y V z)t = xyt V xzt;
4) for all x, y, z, t, x(y II z)t = xyt II xzt.
Any i-variety is closed under taking i-subgroups, l-
homomorphisms, direct and Cartesian products, and is
locally closed. If G is an i-group and X is an i-variety,
then there exists in G an i-ideal X (G) E X such that
H ~ X(G) for every convex i-subgroup H of G, HEX.
For every i-variety X and set T there exists an i-group
Fx(T) E X that is a free object in X with set of gen-
erators T, i.e., Fx(T) has the property: a mapping 'P
from T into the i-group G EX, can be extended to
346
an i-homomorphism from Fx(Y) into G. There exists
a description of the free i-groups Fx in terms of ro-
groups and groups Aut(X) of order automorphisms of a
suitable totally ordered set X (cf. ro-group). The free
i-group F = F.e on n :::: 2 free generators has a faithful
transitive representation in Aut(X) for some X. It is a
group with unique roots and orderable.
The most important i-varieties are as follows: a) the
class of Abelian i-groups A; b) the class of the normal-
valued i-groups V; and c) the class of representable l-
groups R.
The i-variety V is distinguished in £ by the identity
(here, Ixi = X V [1). An i-group G belongs to V if and
only if for any jump A C B in the lattice C(G) of con-
vex subgroups of G one has: A is an i-ideal of B and the
quotient group B / A is Abelian. If X =f. £ for an i-variety
X, then X ~ V.
The i-variety R is distinguished in £ by the identity
(x II y-Ixy) V e = e. An i-group G belongs to R if and
only if G is an i-subgroup of a Cartesian product of 0-
groups. If G is a locally nilpotent i-group, then GER.
The set of all i-varieties is a complete distributive
lattice. The power of this lattice is the continuum. For
any i-variety X =f. £ there exists an i-variety Y such
that Y covers X in the lattice of i-varieties. The set of
all covers of A has been described.
References
[1] GLASS, A.M.W., AND HOLLAND, W.CH. (eds.): Lattice-
ordered groups: advances and techniques, Kluwer Acad.
Pub!.,1989.
[2] KOPYTOV, V.M., AND MEDVEDEV, N.YA.: The theory of
lattice-ordered groups, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1994. (Translated
from the Russian.)
V. M. K opytov
MSC 1991: 06F15, 20F60, 08Bxx
LAGRANGEAN RELAXATION, Lagrangian relax-
ation -- Consider the mixed integer programming prob-
lem
P) v(P) = min cT X
subject to
Alx :::: bI ,
A 2 x :::: b2 ,
x:::: 0,
j E N' C {1, ... ,n},
with x ERn, bi E Rm" b2 E Rm 2 , cERn, i.e., cT,
the transpose of c, is a row vector of length n, and AI,
A2 are matrices of the right sizes. One assumes that in
some way the constraints Alx :::: bi are hard (to deal
 LAH NUMBER

with) and that the A 2 x ~ b2 are easy. Form the La- Two surveys of Lagrangean relaxation techniques are
grangean function cT x + u T (b - Ax) and consider the [2], [4].
so-called Lagrangean relaxation References
Lu) v(Lu) = min( cT x + u T (b i - AiX)) [1] ELSTER, K.-H. (ed.): Modern mathermatical methods of op-
timization, Akademie Verlag, 1993.
subject to [2] FISHER, M.L.: 'The Lagrangian relaxation method for solving
integer programming problems', Management Sci. 21 (1981),
1-18.
[3] NEMHAUSER, G.L., AND WOLSEY, L.A.: 'Integer program-
ming', in G.L. NEMHAUSER, A.H.G. RINNOOY KAN, AND M.J.
Xj E Z, j E N' ,
TODD (eds.): Optimization, North-Holland, 1989, pp. 447-
where u E Rml. Note that Lo) is simply the problem 528.
P) obtained by dropping the 'complicated constraints' [4] SHAPIRO, J.F.: 'A survey of Lagrangian techniques for dis-
crete optimization', Ann. Discrete Math. 5 (1979), 113-138,
Aix ~ bi . The relaxed problem gives a lower bound for
Special issue: Discrete Optimization II; eds: P.L. Hummer
v(P). Better lower bounds can be obtained by choosing and E.L. Johnson and B.H. Korte.
u i- o. Problem Lu) is indeed a relaxation of the origi- [5] WALUKIEVICZ, S.: Integer programming, Kluwer Acad. Publ.,
nal programming problem P) because the feasible set of 1991.
Lu) contains that of P) and for all u ~ 0 and feasible x, M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 90ClO, 90CH, 90C27
cTx+uT(b-Ax) ~ cTx, because uT(b-Ax) ~ o. Thus,
v(Lu) ~ v(P). The partition of the constraints should
LAH NUMBER - A coefficient in the expansion
be such that Lu) is much easier to solve than P). For an
n
example of this in the case of the knapsack problem see,
(_x)(n) = L Ln,kX(k),
e.g., [5] (where Lu) is solvable in O(n) time whereas the
k=O
knapsack problem itself is NP-hard).
where
Lagrangean relaxation is often used in combination
with an enumeration technique such as branch-and- X(k) = x(x - 1) ... (x - k + 1), k ~ 1,
bound (see Branch-and-bound algorithm) to pro- x(O) = 1,
vide lower bounds. One should therefore choose u E
Rml such that it solves the partial dual problem are the falling factorials.
Replacing x by -x, it follows that
v(D) = maxv(Lu) = n
u~O

= max min (cx + u(b i - Aix)). x(n) = LLn,k(-X)(k).

u~O xEFeas(Lu) k=O
The difference v(P) - v(D) is called the duality gap. The Lah numbers are given explicitly by
Also, if there is no splitting up of the constraints
n(n-1)n! n ~ k ~ 1,
into hard and easy parts, one can fruitfully consider Ln,k=(-l) k-1 k!'
Lagrangean relaxations. Take the general mathematical
programming problem Lo,o = 1, Ln,o = 0, n ~ 1,
P) v(P) = min{f(x): g(x) ~ b,x EX}, and they are tabulated in [1] for 1 ~ k ~ n ~ 10.
and the corresponding Lagrangean (Lagrangean func- The numbers satisfy the recurrence relation
tion)
Ln+i,k = -(n + k)Ln,k - Ln,k-l,
L(x,y) = f(x) + yT(b - g(x)).
and have the generating function
The problem
00 n L ktn
min max L(x, y) exp(ut(l- t)-i) = L L( _l)n n,k~
xEX y~O n=Ok=O n.
is equivalent to the original one. The dual problem is They are related to Stirling numbers of the first and sec-
D) v(D) = maxy~O M(y), M(y) = minxEx L(x, y), ond kinds (cf. Combinatorial analysis), and to Bell
and one has v(D) ~ v(P). For a convex programming polynomials (cf. Bell polynomial) by
problem under regularity conditions, v(D) = v(P), i.e., Ln,k = I:(-lt s (n,r)S(r,k) =
the duality gap v(P) - v(D) is zero. In general this is not
the case. The dual problem D) is often called the La-
= (_l)n B n ,k(l!, ... ,(n - k + I)!).
grangean relaxation (of P)), especially in integer pro- See also [4] for a connection with Laguerre polyno-
gramming. mials.

347
LAH NUMBER

If an and bn are sequences, then The first result in this direction was obtained in 1954
by P.D. Lax and A.N. Milgram [2], who established suf-
ficient conditions for the existence and uniqueness of the
solution for (1).
Let V be a reflexive Banach space (cf. also Re-
References flexive space) and let V x V: C -+ be a sesquilinear
[1] COMTET, L.: Advanced combinatorics, Reidel, 1974.
mapping (bilinear when b is real; cf. also Sesquilinear
[2] LAH, I.: 'Eine neue Art von Zahlen, ihre Eigenschaften und
Anwendung in der mathematischen Statistik', Mitteilungsbl. form) such that
Math. Statist. 7 (1955), 203-216.
[3] RIORDAN, J.: Combinatorial analysis, Wiley, 1958. Ib(11.,v)1 ::; MII11.II'llvll, 11.,V E V
[4] ROMAN, S.: The umbral calculus, Acad. Press, 1984.
(continuity) and
E.K. Lloyd
MSC 1991: 05A19, 1IB83 Ib(u,11.)1 2: "'( Ilu112, 11. E V

LAPLACE-STIELTJES TRANSFORM - Let G(t) be (strong coercivity), where M,,,,( > O. Then there exists a
a function of bounded variation on 0 ::; t ::; R, for unique bijective linear mapping B: V -+ V', continuous
all positive R. The integral in both directions and uniquely determined by b, with

b(11.,v) (B11.,v), \l11.,v E V,

f(s) = roo e- st dG(t) = R-toolo
10
lim r
R
e- st dG(t)
=

b(B-Il,v) = (l,v), \Iv E V, lEV',

is known as a (formal) Laplace-Stieltjes integral. and for the norms one has:
If the integral converges for some complex number so,
then it converges for all s with Re( s) > Re( so), and the IIBllqv,v') ::; M,
function f (s) is then the Laplace-Stieltjes transform of
G. If Gis of the form G(t) = f~ g(t) dt for a function 9 on IIB-IIIL(v',v) ::; ~.
[0, t] that is Lebesgue integrable for all t (see Lebesgue
This implies that u = B-Il is the solution of (1).
integral), then the Laplace-Stieltjes transform becomes
The above theorem only establishes existence of a so-
the Laplace transform f(s) = fooo e-stg(t) dt of g.
lution to (1), namely 11. = B-II, but does not say any-
There is also a corresponding two-sided Laplace-
thing about the construction of this solution. In 1965,
Stieltjes transform (or bilateral Laplace -Stieltjes trans-
W.V. Petryshyn [5] proved the following result: Let V
form) for suitable functions G.
be a separable reflexive Banach space (cf. also Separa-
See Laplace transform for additional references.
ble space), (ei )iEN a basis of V and b a continuous
References sesquilinear strongly coercive mapping on V x V. Then
[1] WIDDER, D.V.: An introduction to transform theory, Acad.
for alII E V':
Press, 1971.
M. Hazewinkel i) for all n E N the system
MSC 1991: 44AlO
1 ::; i ::; n,
LAX-MILGRAM LEMMA - Many boundary-value j=1
problems for ordinary and partial differential equations
.
IS .
ulllque Iy soI va ble Clor [(n) (n)] ;
tl , ... , tn
can be posed in the following abstract variational form
(cf. also Boundary value problem, ordinary differ- ii) the sequence {Un}nEN determined by Un
ential equations; Boundary value problem, par- tl
'E.7=1 n ) converges in V to a u that is the solution
tial differential equations): Find 11. E V such that of (1).
To see that the strong coerciveness property of the
b(11.,v) = l(v), \Iv E V, (1)
sesquilinear mapping b is not necessary for the existence
where V is a normed linear space (cf. also Norm), b of the solution to (1), consider the following very simple
denotes a functional on V x V and l is an element in example.
V' (the dual of V). Let b: R2 X R2 -+ R be defined by
The essential question here is what conditions can be
imposed on b(·,·) and the normed space V so that a
unique solution to (1) exists and depends continuously where U = ('Ill, U2), v = (VI, V2). It is easy to see that
on the data l. b is bilinear and continuous. It is not strongly coercive,

348
 LEIBNIZ-HOPF ALGEBRA

because b( u, u) = 0 when u = (1, 1 - )2). However, for
alII = (11,z2) E R2,
1
u=-(h+12,h- 12)
2
is the unique solution to (1).
In 1971, I. Babuska [1] gave a significant generaliza-
tion of the Lax-Milgram theorem using weak coercive-
ness (cf. Babuska-Lax-Milgram theorem).
An extensive literature exists on applications of the
Lax-Milgram lemma to various classes of boundary-
value problems (see, e.g., [4], [3]).
References
[1] BABUSKA, I.: 'Error bound for the finite element method',
Numer. Math. 16 (1971),322-333.
[2] LAX, P.O., AND MILGRAM, A.N.: 'Parabolic equations', Ann.
Math. Studies 33 (1954), 167-190.
[3] NECAS, J.: Les methodes directes dans la theorie des
equations elliptiques, Masson, 1967.
[4] ODEN, J.T., AND REDDY, J.N.: An introduction to the math-
ematical theory of finite elements, Wiley, 1976.
[5] PETRYSHYN, W.V.: 'Constructional proof of Lax-Milgram
lemma and its applications to non-k-p.d. abstract and dif-
ferential operator equation', SIAM Numer. Anal. Ser. B 2,
no. 3 (1965), 404-·420.
I. Ro§ca
MSC 1991: 35A15, 35G15
LAZARD SET - A subset T of the free magma
M(A), i.e. the free non-associative structure over A (cf.
also Associative rings and algebras). The elements
of M (A) correspond to completely bracketed words over
A (or rooted planar binary trees with leaves labelled by
generators aI, a2, ... ; cf. also Binary tree). These are
defined recursively as brackets t = [tf, til] where tf, til
are bracketed words of lower weight; bracketed words
of weight one correspond to the generators aI, a2, .... A
subset E c M(A) is said to be closed, iffor each element
t = [tf, til] E E one has tf, til E E. Given two elements
s, t E M(A), one writes [stP] to denote the element
[... [[s, t], t]··· t] (p closing brackets).
Lazard sets may be shown to coincide with Hall sets
(cf. Hall set). Thus, they give bases of the free Lie alge-
bra over A; that is, one may associate a Lie polynomial
'Ij;(t) to each element tEL of a Lazard set such that the
free Lie algebra .e(A) (over A; cf. Lie algebra, free) is
freely generated (as a module over a commutative ring
K) by the Lie polynomials {'Ij;(t): tEL}. Lazard's elim-
ination process may then be phrased as follows: One has
the direct sum decomposition (as a module over a com-
mutative ring K):
where .en+! is the Lie subalgebra freely generated by
Tn+!.
Lazard sets were introduced by X. Viennot [3] in
order to unify combinatorial constructions of bases of
the free Lie algebra. The Lyndon basis (see Lyndon
word) was thought to be of a different nature from the
one considered by M. Hall [1], and generalizations of it
were proposed by many authors. Viennot gave a uni-
fying framework for all these constructions. One may
present Lazard sets in terms of words, rather than trees
in M(A). It can then be shown that a unique tree struc-
ture is attached to every word of a Lazard set. More-
over, a Lazard set of words is totally ordered, as is a
Lazard set of trees, and it is a complete factorization of
the free monoid. That is, every word is a unique non-
increasing product of Lazard words. This result makes
explicit the link between bases of free Lie algebras and
complete factorizations of free monoids.
See also Hall word.
References
[1] HALL, M.: 'A basis for free Lie rings and higher commutators
in free groups', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 1 (1950),57-581.
[2] REUTENAUER, C.: Free Lie algebras, Vol. 7 of London Math.
Soc. Monographs New Series, Oxford Univ. Press, 1993.
[3] VIENNOT, X.: Algebres de Lie libres et mon02des libres,
Vol. 691 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1978.

Consider trees to, ... ,tn and subsets To, ... ,Tn+! C G. Melanr;on
M(A) defined as follows:
MSC 1991: 17BOl, 20M05
to E To = A,
tl E Tl = {[tt~]: p 2': O,t E To \ to}, LEIBNIZ-HoPF ALGEBRA - Let Z(Z) be the free
(1) associative algebra on Z = {Zl' Z2, ... } over the inte-
tn E Tn = {[tt~_l]: p 2': 0, t E Tn- l \ tn-d, gers. Give Z(Z) a Hopf algebra structure by means of
Tn+! = {[tt~]: p 2': 0, t E Tn \ tn}. the following co-multiplication, augmentation, and an-
tipode:
A Lazard set is a subset L C M(A) such that for any
finite, non-empty and closed subset E C M(A) one has:
n = 1,2, ... ,
LnE = {to > ... > tn }
i + j = n,
for some n 2': 0, (1) holds and, moreover, T n + l n E = 0. i,j EN U {O}

349
LEIBNIZ-HOPF ALGEBRA
where
Zo = 1,
E(Zn) = 0, n = 1,2, ... ,
~(Zn) = L ( -l)kZ·tl ... Z lk'
where the sum is over all strings i l , ... , ik, i j E N =
{I, 2, ... }, such that i l + ... + ik = n. This makes Z(Z)
a Hopf algebra, called the Leibniz-HopJ algebra. This
Hopf algebra is important, e.g., in the theory of curves
of non-commutative formal groups (see Formal group)
[1], [2], [5J. Its commutative quotient Z[Zl, Z2,"'], with
the same co-multiplication, is the underlying Hopf al-
gebra of the (big) Witt vector functor R H W(R) (see
Witt vector) and it plays an important role in the
classification theory of unipotent commutative algebraic
groups and in the theory of commutative formal groups
(amongst other things) [3J.
The Leibniz-Hopf algebra Z(Z) is free as a Z-module
and graded. Its graded dual is also a Hopf algebra,
whose underlying algebra is the overlapping shuffie al-
gebra OSh(N). As a Z-module, OSh(N) is free with
basis N*, the free monoid (see Free semi-group) of
all words in the alphabet N with the duality pairing
Z(Z) x OSh(N) --+ Z given by
(w, Zi , ... Zir ) = { I, w = i 1 ... i r
0, otherwise.
The overlapping shuffie product of two such words
u = (al, ...
, as), v = (b l , ... , bt ) is equal to
u x OSh v = L (Cl, . .. , Cr ),
j,g
where the sum is over all r E N and pairs of
order-preserving injective mappings J: {l, ... , s} --+
{l,oo. ,r},g: {l,oo. ,t}--+{l,oo. ,r}suchthatIm(J)U
Im(g) = {I, ... ,r}, and where
= aj-l(i) + bg-l(i),
Ci i = 1, ...
with aj-l(i) = 0 if rl(i) = 0, and similarly for
For example,
(a)(b l ,b2 ) = + (b l ,a,b2 ) + (b l ,b2 ,a) +
(a,b l ,b2 )
+(a + bl , b2 ) + (b l , a + b2 ).
The terms of maximal length of the overlapping shuffle
product form the shuffle product, see Shuffle algebra.
A word wE N*, w = (al,oo. ,as), is elementary if
the greatest common divisor of aI, ... , as is 1. With
this terminology, the Ditters-Scholtens theorem [4], [5J
says that, as an algebra over Z, the overlapping shuf-
fle algebra OSh(N) is the free commutative polynomial
algebra with as generators the elementary concatena-
tion powers of elementary Lyndon words (see Lyndon
word). (E.g., the third concatenation power of (aI, a2)
350
is (aI, a2, aI, a2, aI, a2)') In contrast with the case of the
shuffle algebra, this theorem already holds over Z (not
just over Q).
References
[1] DITTERS, E.J.: 'Curves and formal (co)groups', Invent. Math.
17 (1972), 1-20.
[2] DITTERS, E.J.: Groupes formels, Lecture Notes. Univ. Paris
XI: Orsay, 1974.
[3] HAZEWINKEL, M.: Formal groups and applications, Acad.
Press, 1978.
[4] HAZEWINKEL, M.: 'The Leibniz Hopf algebra and Lyndon
words', Preprint AM aWl 9612 (1996).
[5] SCHOLTENS, A.C.J.: S-Typical curves in non-commutative
Hopf algebras, Free Univ. Amsterdam, 1996, Thesis.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 16W30, 13K05, 14L05
LENSTRA POLYNOMIAL-TIME THEOREM - A
result in integer programming. It states that integer
programming problems in a fixed number of variables
can be solved in polynomial time.
References
[1] LENsTRA, H.W.: 'Integer programming with a fixed number
of variables', Math. of Oper. Res. 8, no. 4 (1983), 538-548.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 90C10
LEOPOLDT CONJECTURE - Let F be a totally real
algebraic number field (cf. also Field; Algebraic num-
,
ber) and let p be a prime number. Let (Tl,'" , (Tr, : F --+
C p denote the distinct embeddings of F into the comple-
tion C p of the algebraic closure of Qp. By the Dirichlet
unit theorem (cf. also Dirichlet theorem), the unit
group UF of F has rank r = rl - 1. Let Eb ... , Er be a
Z-basis of UF' In [5], H.-W. Leopoldt defined the p-adic
regulator Rp (F) as the p-adic analogue of the Dirichlet
regulator:
Rp(F) = ± det (logp( (Ti (Ej) h~i,j~r) ,
where logp: U F --+ C p denotes the p-adic logarithm.
, r, Leopoldt's conjecture is: Rp(F) =/:. O.
bg-l(i)' The definition of Rp(F) (and therefore also the con-
jecture) extends to arbitrary number fields (cf. [7]) and is
nowadays considered in this generality. A. Brumer used
transcendental methods developed by A. Baker to prove
Leopoldt's conjecture for fields F that are Abelian over
Q or over an imaginary quadratic field [2J. For specific
non-Abelian fields the conjecture has also been verified
(cf., e.g., [1]), but in general it is still (1996) open.
For a totally real field F, Leopoldt's conjecture is
equivalent to the non-vanishing of the p-adic (-function
(F,p(S) at s = 1 (cf. [5], [3]).
For a prime v in F, let Uv denote the group of units
of the local field Fv. There is a canonical mapping
Jp: UF ® Zp --+ II U v
vip

and the Leopoldt deject 8F is defined as the Zp-rank of
ker Jp. Class field theory yields the following equiv-
alent formulation of the Leopoldt conjecture (cf. [7]):
Leopoldt's conjecture holds if and only if 8F = O.
Relation to I wasawa theory. An extension Fool F
of a number field F is called a Zp-extension if it is a
Galois extension and Gal(Fool F) ~ Zp. The number
of independent Zp-extensions of F is related via class
field theory to the Zp-rank of coker JP and is equal to
1 + r2(F) + 8F (cf. [4]), where r2(F) is the number of
pairs of complex-conjugate embeddings of F.
For n 2: 0, let Fn denote the unique subfield of Fool F
of degree pn over F and let 8n denote the Leopoldt de-
fect of Fn. The Zp-extension Fool F satisfies the weak
Leopoldt conjecture if the defects 8n are bounded in-
dependent of n. It is known (cf. [4]) that the weak
Leopoldt conjecture holds for the so-called cyclotomic
Zp-extension of F, i.e. for the unique Zp-extension con-
tained in F(JLp=).
Relation to Galois cohomology. Let Gp(F) denote
the Galois group of the maximal pro-p-extension of
F, which is unramified outside p. Leopoldt's conjecture
is equivalent to the vanishing of the Galois cohomol-
ogy group H2(G p(F), QplZp) [6]. More generally, it is
conjectured that
for all i i=- 1 [6]. This is known to be true for i 2: 2
as a consequence of a profound result of A. Borel in
algebraic K-theory.
References
[1] BERTRANDIAS, F., AND PAYAN, J.-J.: 'r-extensions et in-
variants cyclotomiques', Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm. Sup. (4) 5
(1972), 517-543.
[2] BRUMER, A.: 'On the units of algebraic number fields', Math-
ematica 14 (1967), 121-124.
[3] COLMEZ, P.: 'Residu en s = 1 des [onctions zeta p-adiques',
Invent. Math. 91 (1988),371-389.
[4] IWAsAwA, K.: 'On Zl-extensions of algebraic number fields',
Ann. of Math. 98 (1973), 246-326.
[5] LEOPOLDT, H.-W.: 'Zur Arithmetik in abelschen
Zahlkorpern', J. Reine Angew. Math. 209 (1962), 54-
71.
[6] SCHNEIDER, P.: 'Uber gewisse Galoiscohomologiegruppen',
Math. Z. 168 (1979), 181-205.
[7] WASHINGTON, L.C.: Introduction to cyclotomic fields,
Springer, 1982.
M. Kaister
MSC 1991: llR23, llR37, llR42
LIE POLYNOMIAL - Let Z(X) denote the free as-
sociative algebra over Z in the indeterminates X =
{Xi: i E I}. Give Z(X) bi-algebra and Hopf algebra
structures by means of the co-multiplication, antipode,
LIE SYMMETRY ANALYSIS
and augmentation defined by:
JLi(Xi ) = 10 Xi + Xi 0 1, i E I,
E(Xi ) = 0, i E I,
[(Xi) = -Xi, i E I.
Then Z(X) becomes the Leibniz-Hopf algebra. A
Lie polynomial is an element P of Z(X) such that
JL(P) = P 0 1 + 1 0 P, i.e., the Lie polynomials are
the primitive elements of the Hopf algebra Z(X) (see
Primitive element in a co-algebra). These form a
Lie algebra L under the commutator difference prod-
uct [P, Q] = PQ - QP. The Lie algebra L is the free Lie
algebra on X over Z (Friedrich's theorem; cf. also Lie
algebra, free) and Z(X) is its universal enveloping
algebra.
For bases of L viewed as a submodule of Z(X),
see Hall set; Shirshov basis; Lyndon word. Still
other bases, such as the Meier- Wunderli basis and the
Spitzer-Foata basis, can be found in [4].
References
[1] BOURBAKI, N.: Groupes de Lie, Vol. II: Algebres de Lie libres,
Hermann, 1972.
[2] REUTENAUER, C.: Free Lie algebras, Oxford Univ. Press,
1993.
[3] SERRE, J.-P.: Lie algebras and Lie groups, Benjamin, 1965.
[4] VIENNOT, X.: Algebres de Lie libres et monoi'des libres,
Springer, 1978.
M. Hazewinkei
MSC 1991: 17B01, 17B35
LIE SYMMETRY ANALYSIS with symbolic software
- The Norwegian mathematician S. Lie pioneered the
study of continuous Lie transformation groups (cf. Lie
transformation group) that leave invariant systems of
differential equations. As a result of Lie's work [2], [3], di-
verse and ad hoc integration methods for solving special
classes of differential equations came under a common
conceptual umbrella. For ordinary differential equations
(ODEs), Lie's infinitesimal transformation method pro-
vides a widely applicable technique to find closed-form
similarity solutions. Nearly all standard solution meth-
ods for first-order or linear ODEs can be characterized in
terms of symmetries. Through the group classification of
ODEs, Lie also succeeded in identifying all ODEs that
can either be reduced to lower-order ones or be com-
pletely integrated via group-theoretic techniques.
Applied to partial differential equations (PDEs), Lie's
method leads to group-invariant solutions and conser-
vation laws. Exploiting the symmetries of PDEs, new
solutions can be derived from known ones, and PDEs
can be classified into equivalence classes. Furthermore,
group-invariant solutions obtained via Lie's approach
may provide insight into the physical models themselves,
and explicit solutions can serve as benchmarks in the
351
LIE SYMMETRY ANALYSIS

design, accuracy testing, and comparison of numerical
algorithms.
Lie's original ideas had great potential to profoundly
influence the study of physically important systems of
differential equations. However, the application of Lie
group methods to concrete physical systems involves te-
dious and unwieldy computations. Even the calculation
of the continuous symmetry group of a modest system
of differential equations is prone to errors, if done with
pencil and paper. The availability of computer algebra
systems (such as Mathematica or Maple) has changed
all that. There now exist many symbolic packages that
can aid in the computation of Lie symmetries and sim-
ilarity solutions of differential equations. Sophisticated
packages not only automatically compute the system of
determining equations of the Lie symmetry group, but
also reduce these into an equivalent yet more suitable
system, subsequently solve it in closed form, and go on
to calculate the infinitesimal generators that span the
Lie algebra of symmetries. In [1], detailed information
is given about numerous Lie symmetry computer pack-
ages, together with a review of their strengths and weak-
nesses.
The classical Lie symmetry group of a system of dif-
ferential equations is a local group of point transforma-
tions, meaning diffeomorphisms on the space of inde-
pendent and dependent variables, that map solutions of
the system into other solutions.
Elementary examples of Lie point symmetries.
Example 1. This example illustrates the concept of Lie's
method. It is well known that homogeneous first-order
ODEs, like
, y2 + 2xy
y = (1)
can be simplified upon substitution of y = xv(x). In-
deed, (1) then reduces to xv' = v + v2, which can be
readily integrated, leading to y( x) = ex 2 / (1- ex), where
e is the integration constant, as solution of (1).
Lie realized that the substitution y = xv leads to a
separable equation because (1) is invariant under the
one-parameter group of scaling transformations, with
parameter 10:
x(€) = xexp(€), y(€) = yexp(€),
which obviously leaves invariant the quantity
exp(-€)f(xexp(-€)) solves (2) with tilde on all the
variables. Hence, starting with a known solution, Lie's
method yields a family of new solutions. Quite often,
interesting solutions can be obtained from trivial ones.
Example 3. This example shows that Lie's method is
applicable to PDE's, such as the linear heat equation,
au a2u
at - ax2 = Ut - U xx = 0, (3)
which admits, amongst several others, the one-
parameter group of combined scalings:
x(€) = xexp(f), t(f) = texp(2f), U(f) = u.
Therefore, if u = f(x, t) solves (3), so will
u = f(xexp( -f), texp( -210)).
A less obvious symmetry group of (3) is determined by
X(f) = X + 2ft, t(f) = t, u(€) = uexp(-fx - f 2t), which
expresses that u = exp( -lOX + €2t)f(x - 2ft, t) is a solu-
tion to (3) when u = f(x, t) is.
Computation of Lie point symmetries. There are
two major methods to compute Lie symmetries. The
first method, which is implemented in most of the Lie
symmetry packages, uses prolonged vector fields, the
second one utilizes Cartan's exterior calculus.
The steps of the prolongation method can be summa-
rized as follows.
For a system of m differential equations,
boi(x, u(k») = 0, i = 1, ... ,m, (4)
of arbitrary order k, with p independent variables x =
(Xl, ... ,xp) E RP and q dependent variables u =
(u l , ... ,uq ) E Rq, the partial derivatives of u l are rep-
resented using a multi-index notation,
(5)
where for J = (jl,'" ,jp) E NP, IJI = jl + ... + jp,
and u(k) stands for the vector whose components are
the partial derivatives up to order k of all u l .
The group transformations, parametrized by 10, have
the form X(f) = AG(x, u, f), U(f) = nG(x, u, f), where
the functions AG and nG are to be determined. Lie real-
ized that the one-parameter Lie group G can be com-
pletely recovered from the knowledge of the linear terms
in the Taylor series of AG and nG:

aAG(X,U,f) I
y
v= - =::::.
y -()
Xif = Xi +f a + v""( f 2)_
-
X x f <=0
Example 2. Consider the Riccati equation = Xi + fry i (x, u) + O(f),
2
i = 1, ... ,p,
2 = 0,
y , +y 2 - 2"
x
( 2) -l( f )
U =U
I +10 anG(x, u, f) I //1( 10 2) =
+v
af <=0
which is invariant under the one-parameter group of
transformations, x(€) = xexp(€), y(€) = yexp( -10).
= ul + fCf'I(X, u) + O(f2), l = 1, ... ,q,
Hence, if y f(x) solves (2), then y(x) where x(O) =x and u(O) = u.

352
 LIE SYMMETRY ANALYSIS

Therefore, in the method of prolonged vector fields, assures that a is an infinitesimal symmetry generator of
[2], [3], instead of considering the Lie group G, one con- x u
the group transformation = AG(x, u), = nG(x, u).
centrates on its Lie algebra £, realized by vector fields Hence, u(x) is a solution of (4) whenever u(x) is one.
of the form Step 3. Choose m components of the vector u(k), say
a a vI, ... ,v m , such that:
L "7'(x, u)~ + L
p - q
a = ipl(X, u)az· (6)
i=1 X, 1=1 U i) each vi is a derivative of some u l (l = 1, ... ,q)
with respect to at least one variable Xi (i = 1, ... ,p);
To determine the coefficients "7i (x, u) and ipl(X, u) one
ii) none of the vi is the derivative of another one in
has to construct the kth prolongation pr(k) a of the vec-
the set;
tor field a (cf. also Prolongation of solutions of dif-
iii) the system (4) can be solved algebraically for the
ferential equations), apply it to the system (4), and
vi in terms of the remaining components of u(k), which
make the resulting expression vanish on the solution set
are denoted by W; thus, vi = Si(x, w), i = 1, ... ,m;
of (4).
iv) the derivatives of vi, v~ = DJSi(x, w), where
The result is a system of linear homogeneous PDEs
DJ == D{l ... D~P, can be expressed in terms of the
for "7 i and ipl, in which x and u are treated as indepen-
components of wand their derivatives, without ever re-
dent variables. That system is called the determining
introducing the vi or their derivatives.
or defining system for the symmetries. Solution of the
system by hand, interactively or automatically with a The requirements in Step 3 put some restrictions on
symbolic package, yields the explicit forms of "7i (x, u) the system (4), but for many systems the choice of the
and ipl(X, u). appropriate vi is quite obvious. For example, for a sys-
This sounds straightforward, but the method involves tem of evolution equations (cf. Evolution equation)
tedious calculations. In particular, the complexity of the au
i
m(Xl, ... ,Xp-l,
_ i
t) - F (Xl, ... ,Xp-l, t, u
(k)
), (12)
expressions for the prolongations increases rapidly as the
order k increases. i = 1, ... ,m,
Algorithm for Lie point symmetries. The technical
steps of the algorithm for the computation of Lie point where u(k) involves derivatives with respect to the vari-
symmetries are: ables Xi but not t, an appropriate choice is
Step 1. Construct the kth prolongation of the vector _ aui
v'=-.
field a in (6) by means of the formula at
a
+L L 1/it (x, u(k))81'
q Step 4. Use vi = Si(x, w) to eliminate all vi and their
pr(k) a = a 1::; IJI ::; k,
1=1 J UJ
derivatives from the expression (11), so that all the re-
(7) maining variables are now independent of each other. It
is tacitly assumed that the resulting expression is now
where the coefficients 1/it
are defined as follows. The co-
a polynomial in the u~.
efficients of the first prolongation are:
Step 5. Obtain the determining equations for "7i (x, u)
p

1/iti = Diipl(X, u) - L U~jDi"7j (x, u), (8)

and ipl(X, u) by equating to zero the coefficients of all
functionally independent expressions (monomials) in the
j=1
remaining derivatives u~.
where J i is a p-tuple with 1 on the ith position and zeros
In the above algorithm the variables Xi, u l and u~ are
elsewhere, and Di is the total derivative operator
treated as independent; the dependent ones are "7i and
a q a
Di = ax- + L L U~+Ji 81' 0::; IJI ::; k. (9)
ipl·
In summary: First, one generates the so-called deter-
, 1=1 J u J

The higher-order prolongations are defined recursively mining or defining equations for the symmetries of the
as system. Secondly, one solves these by hand, interactively
p or automatically with a symbolic package, to determine
.I,J+Ji _
'1'1 -
D i'l'l
.I,J
-
~ 1
L...J uJ+Jj
D i"7 j( x, u ) , III ~ 1. (10) the explicit forms of the "7i (x, u) and ipl(X, u).
j=1 From the Lie algebra of symmetry generators, one
Step 2. Apply the prolonged operator pr(k) a to each can obtain the Lie group of point transformations upon
equation ~i(x, u(k)) and require that integration of a system of first-order characteristic equa-
tions. A detailed review of innovative ways of classify-
Ail'
pr (k) a L.l d1=O -0
- . '-1
~,J - , ... , m. (11)
ing, subsequently reducing, and finally solving overde-
Condition (11) expresses that pr(k) a vanishes on the termined systems of linear homogeneous PDEs is given
solution set of the system (4). Precisely, this condition in [1].

353
LIE SYMMETRY ANALYSIS

Lie symmetry software. To design a reliable and pow- There are only eight determining equations:
erful integration algorithm for a system of determining aTJ2 aTJ2 aTJI a 2'P1
equations the system needs to be brought into a stan- aul = 0, aXI = 0, aul = 0, a(ul )2 = 0,
dard form. Standard form procedures can be viewed as
a 2'P1 a 2T}1
generalizations to systems of linear PDEs of the Gauss- aulaXI - a(XI)2 = 0,
ian reduction method (cf. Gauss method) for matrices
or linear systems, except that integrability conditions a'Pl _
aX2
(u l )3 a3'P1=
a(xt)3'
°
are also added to the system. In essence, the standard
(or involutive) form of a system of PDEs is an equivalent I 3 0 3'PI aTJI I 3 a 3TJI
simplified ordered triangular system with all integrabil-
3(u ) aUl a(Xt)2 + aX2 - (u ) a(xt)3 = 0,
ity conditions included and all redundancies (differential I aTJ2 I aTJI
u - - 3u - + 3'PI = 0.
and algebraic) eliminated. aX2 aXI
Customized, yet sophisticated symbolic code in Without intervention of the user, these determining
MACSYMA, Maple, and REDUCE exists for that pur- equations are then solved explicitly. The general solu-
pose. The algorithms of the major Lie symmetry pack- tion, rewritten in the original variables, is
ages have roots in the Riquier-Janet theory of differ- TJI = kl + k3X + k5X2,
ential equations (to transform a linear system of PDEs
TJ2 = k2 - 3k 4t,
into involutive form). Modern implementations of 'tri-
angulation' algorithms use a differential version of the 'PI = (k3 + k4 + 2k5X)U,
Grabner basis algorithm for algebraic equations. Par- where k l , ... ,k5 are arbitrary constants. The five infin-
enthetically, Lie's group theory for differential equations itesimal generators are:
also mirrors Galois' theory for solving algebraic equa-
tions. The group of point transformations for an ODE
GI = ax,
in Lie theory plays the role of the permutation group G2 = at,
of solutions in Galois theory. Both group structures G3 = xa x + uau ,
provide insight in the existence and types of solutions.
G4 = -3t8t+ uau ,
Triangulation algorithms may be used to bypass the
G 5 = x 2a x + 2xuau ·
explicit integration of the determining equations and
compute the dimension of the Lie symmetry group and Clearly, (13) is invariant under translations (G I and G 2 )
the commutators immediately. Once systems are re- and scaling (G 3 and G 4). The flow corresponding to each
duced to standard involutive form, subsequent integra- of the infinitesimal generators can be obtained via sim-
tion is more tractable and reliable. One could use sepa- ple integration. As an example, the flow corresponding
ration of variables, standard techniques for linear differ- to G 5 is computed. This requires integration of the first-
ential equations, and specific heuristic rules as given in order system
[1]. The only determining equations left for manual han- dx
dE = x, = x,
-2 -()
dling should be the 'constraint' equations or any other X 0
equations whose general solutions cannot be written ex- dt
plicitly in closed form. dE = 0, t(O) = t,
Worked example. To illustrate the computation of Lie
point symmetries, consider a PDE due to H. Dym and
du
dE = 2xu,
__ _()
u °= u,
M.D. Kruskal: where E is the parameter of the transformation group.
One readily obtains
(13)

Clearly, this is a single equation with two independent Therefore, one concludes that for any solution u
variables, Xl = X, X2 = t, and one dependent variable, f(x, t) of (13) the transformed solution
u l = u.
u(x, t) = (1 + EX)2 f(~, t)
Symmetry software will automatically generate the 1 + EX
determining equations for the coefficients TJ I , T}2 and 'PI will solve
of the vector field

I a 2 a a Beyond Lie point symmetries. For the computation

a=TJ n-+TJ n-+'PI!ll' of generalized symmetries or Lie-Backlund symmetries
VXI vX2 vU

354
 LLL BASIS REDUCTION METHOD

[2], [3], the use of symbolic programs is even more ap- For the complete classification, see [2].
propriate, since the calculations are lengthier and more The Liouville equation (1) is invariant under the in-
time consuming. In a generalized vector field, which still finite group of point transformations
takes the form of (6), the functions TJi and 'PI may now
t=o:(t), 'f={3(T), 4>=¢>-lno:'(t)-ln{3'(T) (5)
depend on a finite number of derivatives of u.
Lie symmetry packages have proven to be an effec- with arbitrary invertible differentiable functions o:(t)
tive tool in solving overdetermined systems of linear and and (3( T). The infinitesimal generator of this group is:
non-linear PDEs in the study of various Lie symmetries.
Yet, no general algorithm is available to integrate an
arbitrary (overdetermined) system of determining equa-
X = :t
~(t) + TJ(T) :T - (((t) + TJ'(T)) :¢>,
where ~(t), TJ(T) are arbitrary functions and ~'(t), TJ'(T)
tions that consists of linear homogeneous PDEs for the
are their first derivatives. It is shown in [3] that the
components of TJ and 'P. Most computer programs still
equation (4), and in particular the Liouville equation,
use some heuristic rules for the integration of the deter-
does not admit non-trivial (i.e. non-point) Lie tangent
mining system.
transformations.
The availability of sophisticated symbolic programs
In addition to the transformations (3), it is known
for Lie symmetry computations certainly will accelerate
(see, e.g., [1]) that the Liouville equation is related with
the study of symmetries of physically important systems
the wave equation (2) by the following Backlund trans-
of differential equations in classical mechanics, fluid dy-
formation:
namics, elasticity, and other applied areas.
References ¢>t - Ut + ae(<p+ u )/2 = 0, ¢>r + U r + ~e(<P-u)/2 = O.
[1] HEREMAN, W.: 'Symbolic software for Lie symmetry analy- a
sis', in N.H. ISRAGIMOV (ed.): CRC Handbook of Lie Group By letting x = t + T, y = i(t - T) in (1), (2) and (3),
Analysis of Differential Equations: New Trends in Theoreti- where i = yCI, one can transform the elliptic Liouville
equation ¢>xx + ¢>yy = e<P into the Laplace equation
cal Developments and Computational Methods, Vol. 3, CRC
Press, 1996, pp. Ch. 13; 367-413.
[2] OLVER, P.J.: Applications of Lie groups to differential equa- U xx + U yy = O.

tions, second ed., Vol. 107 of GTM, Springer, 1993. References

[3] STEPHANI, H.: Differential equations: their solution using [1] ISRAGIMOV, N.H.: Transformation groups applied to mathe-
symmetries, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989. matical physics, Reidel, 1985. (Translated from the Russian.)
W. A. H ereman [2] ISRAGIMOV, N.H. (ed.): CRC Handbook of Lie group analy-
MSC 1991: 34C20, 35A30, 58D19, 58G35 sis of differential equations, Vol. 1, CRC Press, 1994, p. Ch.
12.3.
LIOUVILLE EQUATION, 8t 8r ¢>(t, T) = e<p(t,r) - The [3] LIE, S.: 'Discussion der Differentialgleichung d~2dy = F{z)',
Liouville equation Arch. for Math. 6 (1881), 112-124, Reprinted as: S. Lie:
Gesammelte Abhandlungen, Vol. 3, pp. 469-478.
(1) [4] LIOUVILLE, J.: 'Sur l'equation aux differences partielles
d~~~~>' ± ~ = 0', J. Math. Pures Appl. 8 (1853), 71-72.
is a non-linear partial differential equation (cf. Differ- N. H. Ibragimov
ential equation, partial) that can be linearized and MSC 1991: 58F07, 35L05, 35Axx, 35A30, 58F37
subsequently solved. Namely, it can be transformed into
the linear wave equation LLL BASIS REDUCTION METHOD - Basis reduc-
Utr =0 (2) tion is the process of transforming an arbitrary basis of a
lattice into a reduced basis, where a reduced basis con-
by any of the following two differential substitutions (see sists of short vectors, or, equivalently, a basis that has
[4, formulas (4) and (2)]): a small orthogonality defect. Various notions of reduced
basis have been proposed by Ch. Hermite [3], and by A.
¢> = In (2~~r), ¢> = In (~::~:) . (3)
Korkin, G. Zolotarev and H. Minkowski in the language
In other words, the formulas (3) provide the general so- of quadratic forms (cf. also Geometry of numbers;
lution to the Liouville equation, in terms of the well- Quadratic form). A.K. Lenstra, H.W. Lenstra and L.
known general solution u = f (t) + g( T) of the wave Lovasz [5] introduced a notion of reduced lattice basis
equation (2). together with an efficient algorithm that transforms a
The Liouville equation appears also in Lie's classifi- given lattice basis into a reduced basis of the same lat-
cation [3] of second-order differential equations of the tice. This algorithm has found numerous applications
form in number theory and integer optimization, and vari-
ous cryptographic schemes have been broken using this
Zxy = F(z). (4) algorithm.

355
LLL BASIS REDUCTION METHOD
Let R n be the n-dimensional real vector space with
inner product (".) and the Euclidean norm Ilyll =
(y, y)1/2. A lattice L c R n is a discrete additive sub-
group of R n (cf. Group). Its rank or dimension is the
dimension of the smallest linear subspace that contains
L. A lattice L of rank m has a basis, that is, a set of m
linearly independent vectors bl , . .. ,bm , so that L con-
sists of all linear integer combinations of the basis vec-
tors, L = {tlb l + ... + tmb m : t l , ... ,tm E Z}.
Let bl , ... ,bm ERn be a basis of L with basis ma-
trix B = [b l , ... ,bm ] consisting of the column vectors
bl , ... ,bm . Then all basis matrices of L are of the form
B = BM, where M is an (m x m) integer matrix with
determinant ±l.
With an ordered basis bl , ... ,bm ERn one can asso-
ciate the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization hI, ... ,hm E
Rn, which can be computed, together with the Gram-
Schmidt coefficients J.1i,j = (b i , hj ) / (hj, hj ), by the re-
, , . 1 '
cursion bl = bl , bi = bi - 2::j:l J.1i,jbj for i = 2, ... ,m
(cf. also Orthogonalization method). A lattice basis
bl , . .. ,bm is LLL-reduced if
1) lJ.1i,jl :S 1/2 for 1 :S j < i:S m;
2) for 1 < i :S m,
For every LLL-reduced basis the length Ilbill approx-
imates the ith successive minimum '\i of L, where '\i (L)
is the smallest radius of a ball centred at the origin that
contains i linearly independent lattice vectors. Always:
2l - i :s [[hi[[2 '\i(L)-2:s Ilbi l1 2 '\i(L)-2:s 2m -
The novelty of LLL-reduction is a polynomial-time
algorithm that transforms an arbitrary integer lattice
basis into an LLL-reduced basis [5]. This algorithm has
numerous applications.
For example, polynomials with integer coefficients
Co + ClX + ... + cnxn can be factored in polynomial
time into irreducible factors [5]. There is a polynomial-
time algorithm which, given a rational point x E Rn
and an integer lattice basis bl , ... ,bm , finds a lattice
point b that is nearest to x up to a factor 2n / 2 [1].
Linear inequalities with integer coefficients in n vari-
ables Xl, ... ,X n can be solved over the integers in time
nO(n) MO(l), where M is the maximal bit length of the
entries in the inequalities [4], [6]. In particular, 0-1 solu-
tions of a single equation with integer coefficients can be
found quite efficiently [2]. Univariate polynomial equa-
tions p(x) = 0 (mod N) with an arbitrary integer mod-
ulus N can be solved in polynomial time for small solu-
tions, i.e., solutions x with Ixi :S O(N l / 4 ).
Some applications of LLL-reduction are possible be-
cause LLL-reduction can be refined to block reduction
356
so that every reduced basis contains a vector that is not
longer than (1 + E)n times the shortest lattice vector,
where E > 0 is fixed [8], [9]. Block reduction strongly
reduces blocks bi , ... ,bi+fJ-l of the basis with fixed
size (3. LLL-reduction is the case (3 = 2. The running
time of block-reduction increases with (3 as E approaches
O. Shortest lattice vectors of lattices of dimension up
to 80 can be found within a few hours running time.
LLL-reduction can be extended to reduce a set of lin-
early dependent real vectors. One can derive from LLL-
reduction a continued fraction algorithm for arbitrary
dimension [4].
References
[1] BABAI, L.: 'On Lovasz' lattice reduction and the nearest lat-
tice point problem', Combinatorica 6 (1986), 1-13.
[2] COSTER, M.J., Joux, A., LAMACCHIA, B.A., ODLYZKO,
A.M., SCHNORR, C.P., AND STERN, J.: 'An improved low-
density subset sum algorithm', Compo Complexity 2 (1992),
111-128.
[3] HERMITE, C.: 'Extraits de lettres de M. Ch. Hermite a M.
Jacobi sur differents objets de la theorie des nombres (2eme
lettre du 6-8-1845)', J. Reine Angew. Math. 40 (1850), 279-
290.
[4] JUST, B.: 'Generalizing the continued fraction algorithm to
arbitrary dimensions', Siam J. Comput. 21 (1992),909-926.
[5] KANNAN, R.: 'Minkowski's convex body theorem and integer
programming', Math. Oper. Res. 12 (1987), 415-440.
[6] LENSTRA, A.K., LENSTRA, JR., H.W., AND LOVASZ, L.: 'Fac-
toring polynomials with rational coefficients', Math. Ann.
261 (1982),515-534.
[7] LENSTRA, JR., H.W.: 'Integer programming with a fixed num-
ber of variables', Math. Oper. Res. 8 (1983),538-548.
[8] LOVASZ, L.: An algorithmic theory of numbers, graphs and
convexity, SIAM, 1986.
I. [9] SCHNORR, C.P.: 'A hierarchy of polynomial time lattice ba-
sis reduction algorithms', Theoret. Comput. Sci. 53 (1987),
201-224.
C.P. Schnorr
MSC 1991: llH06, llH16, llH31, llH46, llH50,
51Mll, 51M15, 51M16, 51M20, 51M25
LOGIC PROGRAMMING, LP - Logic programming
came into existence in the early 1970s. Its ideal is to
write programs in the language of logic, thereby aiming
at an immediately obvious intuitive meaning, whereas
execution can be left to an interpreter.
This ideal has been realized to a great extent in the
case of positive logic programming, which forms the com-
mon core of systems of LP. The logical language em-
ployed here is that of Horn-clause (first-order) logic.
Programs can be executed by linear resolution, which
is the special case of the resolution procedure that not
only is capable of refuting but has computing power at
the same time.
Herbrand universa. Suppose that :F is a finite set of
function symbols. Every symbol in :F has an arity: a
non-negative integer. Assume that :F contains at least

one O-ary symbol (a constant symbol). The set F deter-
mines a corresponding H erbrand universe UF of closed
F-terms, which is the least set U of formal expres-
sions (built using the symbols from F, brackets, and
the comma) such that if h, ... ,tn E U and f E F is
n-ary, then f(h, ... , tn) E U. UF constitutes the free F-
algebra in which a function symbol f E F is interpreted
as the function that assigns the value f(t 1, ... ,tn ) to
arguments t 1 , ... ,tn.
Most data types can be viewed as Herbrand universa.
For instance, the non-negative integers 0, 1,2, ... can be
identified with the terms o,s(o),s(s(o)), ... generated
°
from one constant symbol with the help of one unary
function symbol s. Similarly, one can view lists, trees,
etc. as generated by means of suitable function symbols.
Horn-clause logic. The set of F-terms is generated
from F in the same way as is UF, but this time allowing
variable symbols x, y, z, ... as terms as well.
Let R be a finite set of relation symbols (with arities).
An R-atom is an expression of the form r(t1, ... ,tn )
where r is an n-ary relation symbol and t 1 , ... , tn are
terms.
A positive literal is the same as an atom. A negative
literal is the negation ,A of an atom A.
A clause is a finite sequence of (positive and/or neg-
ative) literals. Logically, a clause (L 1 , ... ,Lk) is iden-
tified with the disjunctive formula L1 V ... V L k , where
variables are read as if they were quantified universally.
A rule or Horn clause is a clause in which exactly one
literal is positive. Finally, a (logic) program is a finite set
of rules.
Note that a Horn clause like (A, ,B1 , ... "Bk) is
identified with the formula A V ,B1 V ... V ,Bk, which
in turn is logically equivalent with the implication B1 1\
. . . 1\ Bk -+ A. It is LP custom to write this as
A+- B 1 , ... ,Bk,
suggesting a ('procedural') interpretation of rules as
something to be executed ('in order to execute A, ex-
ecute B 1 , .•. ,Bk').
Meaning of programs. LP started with the observa-
tion that many operations over a Herbrand universe can
be described using a program. For instance, consider the
simple case of addition over the non-negative integers.
This operation is determined by the following two re-
cursion equations:
x+o = x,
x+s(y) =s(x+y),
which enable a unique evaluation of every sum of two
°
numbers expressed in terms of and s. (E.g., 3 + 2 =
3+s(1) = s(3+1) = s(3+s(0)) = s(s(3+0)) = s(s(3)) =
5.) The recursion equations transform into the following
LOGIC PROGRAMMING
program involving a 3-ary relation symbol sum:
sum(x,o,x) +-
sum(x, s(y), s(z)) +- sum(x, y, z).
In what way do these rules express addition? First,
they are clearly satisfied by the Herbrand model that
consists of the Herbrand universe Ufo,s} (the free alge-
°
bra over and s) supplied with the graph of the addition
operation as a meaning for the symbol sum. However,
there are many more relations that similarly make Ufo,s}
into a Herbrand model of this program. Nevertheless,
addition here stands out: it happens to make Ufo,s} into
the least Herbrand model (having fewest true atoms) of
this program.
The following computational completeness theorem
holds: For every computable operation over UF one can
construct a program such that in its least Herbrand
model the graph of the operation occurs as meaning of
one of the relation symbols.
Execution of programs. The above explains that least
Herbrand models can be viewed as meanings of pro-
grams and that every computable operation surfaces in
such a meaning. However, programs are meant to be
executed. This is where the notion of linear resolution
comes in.
A substitution is a finite function that maps variables
to terms. If E is an expression and a a substitution, then
Ea is the expression obtained from E by replacing ev-
ery variable from the domain of a occurring in E by its
a-image.
The substitution a unifies the expressions E1 and E2
if E1 a = E 2a. It is a most general unifier (mgu) of E1
and E2 if it unifies them and for every other unifier (3
there exists a substitution "( such that (3 = a"( .
The following unification theorem holds: If two ex-
pressions have a unifier, then they have an mgu as well.
Both unifiability and mgu can be determined algorith-
mically.
A query is a finite sequence of atoms. In particular,
the empty sequence is a query. The intuitive meaning
of a query is the conjunction of its atoms (variables
conceived of as universally quantified). Therefore, the
empty query stands for the logically true formula.
A query represents a condition to be solved. Linear
resolution aims at finding such solutions.
The notation Q1 ~ Q2, query Q1 resolves to Q2
via mgu a, is used to describe the circumstance that for
some atom A of Q1 and some rule B +- B 1, ... ,Bk of
the program under consideration:
a) a is an mgu of A and B,
b) Q2 is obtained from Q1 a by replacing Aa by
B 1 a, ... ,Bk a .
357
LOGIC PROGRAMMING
A derivation of the query Q relative to a program is
a finite sequence
Qo = Q ~ Ql ~ ... ~ Qn
where every step employs a variant of a rule of the pro-
gram in which all variables are fresh (i.e., not entering
earlier steps).
Such a derivation is successful if its last query is
empty. As an example, here is a successful derivation of
the atomic query sum(3, 2, y) (that 'asks' for the sum y
of 3 and 2) relative to the program of sum rules given
earlier. Numbers are identified with suitable terms and
y It indicates substituting t for y.
sum (3 , 2,y ) y/s(y)
--t sum (3 , 1,y ) y/s(y)
--t
y/s(y)
--t sum (3 , 0, y ) y/3
--t
0 one rule is applicable to the selected atom. A branch
The first two steps of this derivation are executed us-
ing the second rule, whereas the last step employs the
first one. Only the relevant portions of the mgu's are
indicated.
Composing the three mgu's in this example results in
the computed answer substitution of the derivation that
sets y to s(s(3)), i.e., to 5. The derivation is nothing but
a transform of the earlier computation showing that 3
and 2 add up to 5.
Correspondence. Meanings of programs and execu-
tions (computations) correspond in the following way
(cf. the example derivation), thereby witnessing the suc-
cessful accomplishment of the LP ideal in this context.
The soundness theorem: If a is the computed answer
substitution of a successful derivation of the query Q via
a program, then Qa follows logically from that program.
The converse is almost true.
The completeness theorem: If Qa follows logically
from a program, then there exists a computed answer
substitution /3 of a successful derivation of Q via that
program such that for some substitution ry, Qa = Q/3ry.
(The reason that a itself may not be computed is
that resolution produces answers that are 'as general as
possible'. )
Prolog. Linear resolution is the core of the Prolog sys-
tem, which was developed more or less independently
from, but at the same time as, LP theory. Thus, LP can
be viewed as the theoretical basis underlying Prolog.
However, many divergencies exist between LP theory
and Prolog practice.
Occur check. A relatively small difference is the fact that
the Prolog implementation of the mgu algorithm is in-
correct. For reasons of cheapness it omits the so-called
occur check. In most situations in practice, though, this
incorrectness will not surface.
Search strategy. At every stage in the construction of a
derivation, two choices have to be made:
358
i) which of the atoms in the given query should be
resolved;
ii) which of the rules of the program should be em-
ployed to accomplish this.
(The example derivation does not illustrate these
choices.)
It can be shown that the choice of i) has no influence
on the final outcome. (If a successful derivation exists,
one with the same computed answer substitution will be
found no matter how i) is dealt with. Usual Prolog im-
plementations always resolve left-most atoms.) However,
choice of ii) is of utmost importance. Given a selection
rule that handles i), all derivations for a query via a
given program form a tree. The tree splits if more than
through the tree can be successful (ending at the empty
query), unsuccessful (ending at a non-empty query the
selected atom of which is not resolvable using any rule),
or infinite. Prolog's search of this tree is 'depth-first' (cf.
also Depth-first search), employing at every step the
first rule in the listing of the program that is applicable
to the selected (i.e., left-most) atom. At the end of an
unsuccessful branch it backtracks to the last choice and
tries the next rule. It goes without saying that Prolog
may follow an infinite branch all the way, and, so doing,
can miss a successful branch. This brings along the im-
portant question of which programs terminate on which
queries.
Negation. Although the LP model as described above is
computationally complete, in many cases the need arises
for more expressibility. In particular, it is sometimes
desirable to allow rules A +- B 1 , ... ,Bk and queries
B 1 , ... ,Bk where one or more of the literals B 1 , .•. ,Bk
carry a negation symbol. Prolog does offer this possibil-
ity.
A main problem is that this move destroys the LP
ideal: the intuitive meaning of such rules is no longer
evident, although several proposals (some employing
many-valued logic) have tried to restore this defi-
ciency. The second problem, that of execution, is dealt
with by Prolog in a practical way. A negated atom ...,B
is resolved successfully only if the tree of derivations for
the atom B has no infinite branch and no successful
derivation.
Although this way of executing negations has many
useful applications, the general meaning of this way of
handling negation remains problematic.
Prolog has many extra features (such as the cut, of
which negation is but one application), most of which
are equally cooperative in destroying the LP ideal de-
scribed above. The problem to close the gap between LP
theory and Prolog practice is a persistent one.

Where to look. LP has its own periodical: the Journal
of Logic Programming. A few introductory texts are [1],
[5] and [3]. The problem of negation in LP is reviewed in
[2]. One of the many texts on Prolog is [7]. The history
of LP theory can be traced to [4]. The general notion of
resolution, in particular that of most general unification,
is due to [6].
References
[IJ APT, K.R.: 'Logic programming', in J. VAN LEEUWEN (ed.):
Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science, Elsevier, 1990,
pp.493-574.
[2J APT, K.R., AND BOL, R.: 'Logic programming and negation:
a survey', J. Logic Programming 19-20 (1994), 9-71.
[3J DOETS, K.: From logic to logic programming, MIT Press,
1994.
[4J KOWALSKI, R.A.: 'Predicate logic as a programming lan-
guage': Proceedings IFIP'74, North-Holland, 1974, pp. 569-
574.
[5J LLOYD, J.W.: Foundations of logic programming, second, ex-
tended ed., Springer, 1987.
[6J ROBINSON, J.A.: 'A machine-oriented logic based on the res-
olution principle', J. ACM 12 (1965), 23-41.
[7J STERLING, L., AND SHAPIRO, E.: The art of Prolog, sec-
ond ed., MIT Press, 1994.
K. Doets
MSC 1991: 68N17
LORENZ EQUATIONS, Lorenz system - The system
of equations
x= -ax+ay,
iJ = rx - y - xz,
Z = -bz + xy.
It arises as the 3-mode truncation of the two-
dimensional convection equations for parallel hori-
zontal walls at constant, but different, temperatures.
See Lorenz attractor for more details and refer-
ences; see, e.g., [2] for a picture.
References
[IJ NEIMARK, Yu.l., AND LANDA, P.S.: Stochastic and chaotic
oscillations, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1992. (Translated from the
Russian.)
[2J SCHUSTER, H.G.: Deterministic chaos. An introduction,
VCH,1988.
[3J SPARROW, C.: The Lorenz equations: bifurcations, chaos, and
strange attractors, Springer, 1982.
[4J THOMPSON, J.M.T., AND STEWART, H.B.: Nonlinear dynam-
ics and chaos, Wiley, 1986.
M. H azewinkel
MSC 1991: 58Fxx, 54H20
LOWNER-HEINZ INEQUALITY - In the sequel, a
capital letter denotes a bounded linear operator on a
Hilbert space H. An operator T is said to be positive
(denoted by T ~ 0) if (Tx, x) ~ 0 for all x E H.
LYNDON WORD
A real-valued continuous function f is called an
operator-monotone function if
A ~ B ~ 0 :::} f(A) ~ f(B).
K. Lowner [3] has completely characterized all operator-
monotone functions as the class of Pick functions. These
functions play an essential and very important role in
the theory of analytic functions. He has also proved that
a real-valued continuous function f on (0,00) is operator
monotone if and only if it has a representation
1-
00 t
f(t) = at + b + d/L(s),
o t+ s
where a ~ 0 and b are two arbitrary real constants.
This representation shows that f(t) = to. is operator
monotone if O! E [0,1] and it is not operator monotone
if O! > 1. This fact can be expressed as follows (the
Lowner-Heinz inequality, 1934): A ~ B ~ 0 implies
Ao. ~ Bo. for all O! E [0,1].
The Lowner-Heinz inequality is not only the most
famous and profound one in operator theory, but also
a useful and fundamental tool for treating operator in-
equalities. The original proof in [3] used the above in-
tegral representation for operator-monotone functions;
an alternative proof was been discovered in 1951 (cf.
[1]), while a short proof can be found in [2]. Various dif-
ferent proofs of the Lowner-Heinz inequality have been
given by many authors. There are proofs based on an
analytical method in the theory of differential equations
as well as simple algebraic proofs. A breathtakingly ele-
gant proof can be found in [4]. (This is a motivation of
the Furuta inequality.) It is known that the Lowner-
Heinz inequality, the Heinz-Kato inequality and the
Cordes inequality are mutually equivalent, although the
first is an operator inequality while the latter two are
norm inequalities. Moreover, they are also equivalent to
the Jensen inequality:
(X* AX)o. ~ X* AX
for A ~ 0, contractions X, O! E [0,1].
See also Furuta inequality.
References
[IJ HEINZ, E.: 'Beitrage zur Storungstheorie der Spektralzer-
legung', Math. Ann. 123 (1951),415-438.
[2J KATO, T.: 'Notes on some inequalities for linear operators',
Math. Ann. 125 (1952), 208-212.
[3J L6wNER, K.: 'Uber monotone Matrixfunktionen', Math. Z.
38 (1934), 177-216.
[4J PEDERSEN, G.K.: 'Some operator monotone functions',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 36 (1972), 309-310.
M. Fujii
MSC 1991: 47A63
LYNDON WORD - A word is a sequence of letters
(al' ... ,an), that is, elements chosen from a set A called
an alphabet. A word is usually written as al'" an,
359
LYNDON WORD
or abbreviated by a single symbol: u = al ... an- The
length of w is equal to the number of letters in w,
i.e. n. One may concatenate two words u = al··· an,
V = bl ··· bm , and this operation is concisely writ-
ten as uv = al··· anb l ... bm . Words may be ordered
lexicographically; more precisely, given a total order
< on A, one may extend it over the set of words
by setting al··· am < bl ··· bn if either m < nand
al = bl , ... ,am = bm or there exists an i such that
1 :S i :S min(m,n) with al = bt, ... ,ai-l = bi - l and
ai < bi . This word order is sometimes referred to as
alphabetical order. For more details, see [4J.
Lyndon words are words strictly less than any of their
non-empty proper right factors (or strict suffixes), that
is, al ... am is a Lyndon word if it is strictly less than
ai ... an for i = 2, ... ,n (with respect to the lexico-
graphic order). These were introduced by R.C. Lyn-
don [1 J for constructing bases of the lower central series
for free groups (cf. Central series of a group). From
the definition one can see that letters are Lyndon words.
Equivalently, al ... am is a Lyndon word if it is strictly
less than any of the circular shifts ai··· anal· .. ai-l
(i = 2, ... ,n). One important characterization of these
words yields a recursive process to generate them: a
word w is a Lyndon word if and only if there exists
two Lyndon words u, v such that u < v and w = uv.
J.P. Duval [3J gave a beautiful, and clever, algorithm
that generates Lyndon words of bounded length over a
finite alphabet. The number of Lyndon words of length
n over a finite alphabet of cardinality p may be explicitly
computed, using Witt's formula:
where p, is the Mobius function.
A multi-homogeneous version of Witt's formula may
be found in [6J. The central result about Lyndon words
is the following Chen-Fox-Lyndon theorem: Any word
can be expressed as a unique non-increasing product of
Lyndon words. The preceding characterization suggests
an algorithm to compute this factorization. Duval [2J
gave a simple and efficient algorithm that factorizes a
word in linear time.
The applications of Lyndon words, in algebra and
combinatorics, seem innumerable. For instance, there
360
are as many Lyndon words over an alphabet of cardi-
nality p (p a prime) as there are irreducible polynomials
over a finite field of characteristic p; see [6J. The factor-
ization theorem, when applied to permutations (consid-
ered as words without repetitions), yields a variant of
the so-called Foata transform [4, Chap. lOJ.
Given any Lyndon word w, one may compute the
factorization of w as a product w = uv, where v is a
Lyndon word of maximal length (less than the length
of w). The strict suffix (or proper right factor) v can
also be characterized as the smallest strict suffix of w.
Then u is also a Lyndon word and u < uv < v. This
factorization of w is called its right standard factoriza-
tion. Similarly, one may define its left standard factor-
ization. Let A be a mapping from the set of Lyndon
words into the free associative algebra on A by set-
ting A(a) = a, and A(W) = A(U)A(V) - A(V)A(U), where
w = uv is its right standard factorization. The polyno-
mial thus associated to w is a Lie polynomial, and the
set p( w): w is a Lyndon word over A} forms a linear
basis of the free Lie algebra over A (see Lie algebra,
free). Note that the iterated right standard factoriza-
tions recursively define a bracketing of w (see Binary
tree), and thus define a Hall set. The corresponding
basis is called the Chen-Fox-Lyndon basis, or simply the
Lyndon basis. It is practically identical with the Shir-
shov basis.
A good introduction to Lyndon words is [4, Chap.
5J. For applications of Lyndon words related to free Lie
algebras, see [6J.
See also Hall word; Hall set; Lazard set.
References
[1] CHEN, K.T., Fox, R.H., AND LYNDON, R.C.: 'Free differen-
tial calculus, IV. The quotient groups of the lower central
series', Ann. of Math. 68 (1958),81-95.
[2] DUVAL, J.P.: 'Factorizing words over an ordered alphabet',
J. Algorithms 4 (1983), 363-381.
[3] DUVAL, J.P.: 'Generation d'une section des classes de con-
jugaison et arbre de mots de Lyndon de longueur bornee',
Theoret. Computer Sci. 60 (1988), 255-283.
[4] LOTHAIRE, M. (ed.): Combinatorics on words, Addison-
Wesley, 1983.
[5] MELANC;;ON, G., AND REUTENAUER, C.: 'Lyndon words, free
algebras and shuffles', Canad. J. Math. XLI, no. 4 (1989),
577-591.
[6] REUTENAUER, C.: Free Lie algebras, Vol. 7 of London Math.
Soc. Monographs New Series, Oxford Univ. Press, 1993.
G. Melancon
MSC 1991: 17B01, 05Axx, 20M05
_ _ _ _ M _ _ __

MACWILLIAMS IDENTITIES - A k-dimensional are two equivalent sets of MacWilliams equations [1]:
subspace C of the linear space V of all n-tuples over
the finite field GF(q) is called an [n, k] linear code (1)
over GF(q). The vectors in C are called code words.
The weight of a vector is the number of its non-zero
components. A generator matrix for a code C is any t
J=V
(~)Aj = qk-v t( -l)j (: =~) (q -1)v-j B j ,
J=O
(k x n)-matrix G whose rows form a basis of C. The (2)
ordinary inner product of vectors u = (u b . .. , un),
V = (Vi, . . . , v n ) in V is
where 0 :S v :S n.
n If v = 0, both sets of equations say that 'Lj=o Aj =
U· V = L UiVi·
qk Bo = qk, which states the obvious result that an [n, k]
i=i code over GF(q) contains qk codewords. The other equa-
The dual of C is the [n, n - k]linear code C~ defined tions are not so obvious. One can solve either set of
by equations for the weight distribution of C~, obtaining
Bo = 1 and B4 = 7.
C~ = {v E V: U . v = 0 for all U E C} .
An elegant and much used way to express these rela-
The weight distribution of a code C of length n gives the tions is in terms of polynomials. The weight enumerator
number of vectors of each weight i, 0 :S i :S n, denoted of a code C of length n is:
by Ai. For example, let C be the [7, 4] linear code over n
GF(2) with generating matrix WC(x,y) = LAixn-iyi.
1 0 0 0 o 1
i=O

~)
The following equation is equivalent to either (1) or (2)
G= ( 0 1 0 0 1 0
for a code Cover GF(q):
o0 1 0 1 1 0 .
1
000 1 1 1 1 WCi- (x, y) = ICf Wc(x + (q - l)y, x - y). (3)
The only non-zero weights in Care Ao = A7 = 1,
A3 = A4 = 7. Two other sets of equations equivalent to either (1),
While the weight distribution does not, in general, (2) or (3) and more convenient for some calculations
uniquely determine a code, it gives important informa- are called the power moment identities [3]. They involve
tion that has both practical and theoretical significance. the Stirling numbers of the second kind S(r, v) (cf. also
The most fundamental result about weight distributions Combinatorial analysis). One such set is
are the Mac Williams equations, a set of linear relations n min(n,r)

between the weight distributions of C and C~. These LjrAj = L (-l)jBj . (4)
equations imply that the weight distribution of C~ is j=o j=o
uniquely determined by the weight distribution of C.
These relations have been the most significant tool avail-
able for investigating and calculating weight distribu-
tions. where 0 :S r.
Let Bi denote the number of vectors of weight i in The power moments are particularly useful for giv-
C~. If C is an [n, k]linear code over GF(q), then there ing conditions under which the weight distributions of
MACWILLIAMS IDENTITIES
a code and its dual are uniquely determined. This is il-
lustrated in the following theorem: A unique solution to
the power moments exists under the conditions that s
or fewer Ai's are unknown and that B b ... , B S - l are
known [3J. In this situation, the weight distributions of
both C and C1- are uniquely determined.
There are also MacWilliams equations for non-linear
codes [2J.
References
[1] MACWILLIAMS, F.J.: 'A theorem on the distribution of
weights in a systematic code', Bell System Techn. J. 42
(1963), 79-94.
[2] MACWILLIAMS, F.J., SLOANE, N.J.A., AND GOETHALS, J.M.:
'The MacWilliams identities for nonlinear codes', Bell System
Techn. J. 51 (1972), 803-819.
[3] PLESS, V.: 'Power moment identities on weight distributions
in error-correcting codes', Inform. and Control 6 (1963), 147-
152.
V. Pless
MSC 1991: 94B25
MAGAR! ALGEBRA, diagonalizable algebra - A
Boolean algebra enriched with a unary operation 6.
In the so-expanded signature, the Magari algebra is de-
fined by the axioms of Boolean algebra and the following
three specific axioms:
1) 61 = 1;
2) 6(x 1\ y) = 6x 1\ 6y;
3) 6(C6x V x) = 6x.
Here, C denotes complementation and the unit 1 is
the greatest element of the Magari algebra with respect
to the relation ::;. The notation T is often employed in-
stead of .6...
One sometimes regards the Magari algebra with the
dual operation u (u = C6C), defined by the axioms:
1') uO=O;
2') u(x V y) = ux V uy;
3') u(x 1\ Cux) = ux.
Here, the zero 0 is the least element of the Magari
algebra. In order to distinguish the Boolean part of a
Magari algebra, one writes the Magari algebra as the
pair (A,.6..) or (A, u), where A is a Boolean algebra.
Magari algebras arose [8J as an attempt to treat diag-
onal phenomena (cf. the diagonalization lemma in [16],
[4]) in the formal Peano arithmetic, PA, or other 'strong
enough' arithmetical theories (cf. Arithmetic, formal)
in an algebraic manner. Indeed, the Lindenbaum sen-
tence algebra [13J of Peano arithmetic, .c PA, equipped
with 6 defined by
is an example of a Magari algebra. Here Pr(x) is the
Hilbert-Bernays standard provability predicate, I<P1 is
the Godel number of the sentence <P and 11<p11 means
362
the equivalence class of the arithmetical sentences for-
mally equivalent in Peano arithmetic to the sentence <po
Then, the axioms 1)-2) of Magari algebra correspond
to the Lob derivability conditions and 3) corresponds to
the formalized Lob theorem (cf. [16]). The diagonaliza-
tion lemma is simulated with the following fixed-point
theorem: For every Magari algebra and polynomial f(x)
in its signature, with all the occurrences of x inside the
scopes of 6, the equation x = f(x) can be solved in this
algebra. Moreover, the solution is unique. It is called the
fixed point of the polynomial f( x) in the given Magari al-
gebra. Thus, considering the polynomial C6x on .cPA,
one can conclude that there is an arithmetical sentence
<p such that
i.e., PA f- <p f--+ ---, Pr( I<p l), which leads to Godel's first in-
completeness theorem; cf. Godel incompleteness the-
orem.
Other examples of Magari algebras arise when one
considers a pair (Q, R), where R is a binary relation on
Q. Furthermore, denote by (Q, R, 6) the Boolean alge-
bra 2Q endowed with the operation
6X = {x E Q: for every y E CX, not yRx},
where X <;:; Q. Then (Q, R, 6) is a Magari algebra if
R is an irreflexive transitive relation satisfying the de-
scending chain condition [3J. In fact, every finite Magari
algebra is isomorphic to an algebra (Q, R, 6) with a
finite Q and irreflexive transitive R.
Let Q be the Stone space [13J of the Boolean restric-
tion of a Magari algebra A, which is a Stone compactum
(see Boolean algebra), and let R <;:; Q x Q be defined
as:
xRy {:} 6a E y =} aEx for every a E A.
Then the mapping a t--+ {x E Q: a EX} is an embed-
ding of A into (Q, R, 6). Moreover, R is transitive and
relatively founded, i.e. every non-empty open-and-closed
subset of Q contains minimal elements with respect to
R (the representation theorem).
There is also a duality theorem: The category of
Magari algebras with homomorphisms is equivalent to
the category S defined as follows. The objects of S are
the pairs (X, R), where X is a Stone compactum and
R is a Boolean relation [5J on X such that R- l is
transitive and relatively founded; the morphisms, say
f: (Xl,R l ) ~ (X 2 ,R2 ), are the continuous mappings
f: Xl ~ X 2 satisfying the equation f 0 Rl = R2 0 f.
(Here 0 denotes composition of two relations.)
The operation u defined by the axioms 1')-3') has an
interesting topological interpretation: Let Q be a scat-
tered space, i.e. a topological space in which every
non-empty subset contains an isolated point, regarded

along with the derived set operator u [6]. Then (2Q, u)
is a Magari algebra with respect to the axioms 1')-3').
Conversely, if for some set Q, (2Q, u) is a Magari alge-
bra, then 0 = {CX: uX ~ X} is a topology on Q so
that the space (Q,O) is scattered with the derived set
operator u. A duality between Magari algebras in the
form (A, u) and relatively scattered bitopological spaces
with the derived set operator has been established in [2].
The entire set of Magari algebras constitutes a variety
(see Variety of universal algebras), which is gener-
ated by its finite members. CPA is a generic (or func-
tionally free) algebra of this variety, though it is proved
to be non-isomorphic to the free Magari algebra of rank
No, FN o (see Free algebraic system). Moreover, up
to isomorphism, FN o is a proper subalgebra of CPA. If
one departs from the Zermelo-Fraenkel axiomatic set
theory ZF, one arrives at another generic Magari al-
gebra, C ZF, the Lindenbaum sentence algebra of ZF.
It is not isomorphic to either CPA or FN o ' although
the Boolean restrictions of the former and latter are iso-
morphic. Magari algebras that are Lindenbaum algebras
with an additional operation related to other theories
interpreting arithmetic are of current interest (cf. [15],
[10], [16], [14]).
Magari algebras are an algebraic interpretation for
provability logic, when the modality connective is in-
terpreted by the operation 6.; cf. Modal logic. This
interpretation is related to the normal extensions of
provability logic, because there exists a natural isomor-
phism between the lattice of those extensions and the
lattice of varieties of Magari algebras. Introducing a
new operation 0 on a Magari algebra A, defined as
Ox = x 1\ 6.x, and reading 0 for 6., one arrives at
the Grzegorczyk algebra A D . In view of the equation
06.x = 6.x, one can reduce 6. to the open elements
of A D , thereby obtaining the 6.-pseudo-Boolean alge-
bra A l'.. Finally, one gets the pseudo-Boolean algebra
A 0 [13] by deleting 6. from the signature of A l'.. These
transfers give rise to the following connections: The lat-
tice of varieties of Magari algebras and the lattice of
varieties of 6.-pseudo-Boolean algebras are isomorphic;
there are semi-lattice epimorphisms from the lattice of
varieties of Magari algebras onto the lattice of varieties
of Grzegorczyk algebras and onto the lattice of varieties
of pseudo-Boolean algebras. These connections reflect
the corresponding connections between the lattices of
extensions of provability logic, proof-intuitionistic logic,
intuitionistic propositional logic, and the Grzegorczyk
system (cf. [11], [7]).
References
[1] BERNARDI, C.: 'The fixed-point theorem for diagonalizable
algebras', Stud. Log. 34, no. 3 (1975), 239-251.
MAGMA
[2] BERNARDI, C., AND D'AQUINO, P.: 'Topological duality for
diagonalizable algebras', Notre Dame J. Form. Log. 29, no. 3
(1988), 345-364.
[3] GRATZER, G.: General lattice theory, Akademie, 1978.
[4] HAJEK, P., AND PUDLAK, P.: Metamathematics of first-order
arithmetic, Springer, 1993.
[5] HALMOS, P.R.: Algebraic logic, Chelsea, reprint, 1962.
[6] KURATOWSKI, K.: Topology, Vo!' 1, Acad. Press & PWN,
1966.
[7] KUZNETSOV, A.V., AND MURAVITSKY, A.: 'On superintuition-
istic logics as fragments of proof logic extensions', Stud. Log.
50, no. 1 (1986), 77-99.
[8] MAGARI, R.: 'The diagonalizable algebras', Boll. Unione
Mat. Ital. 12 (1975), 117-125, supp!. fasc 3.
[9] MAGARI, R.: 'Representation and duality theory for diago-
nalizable algebras', Stud. Log. 34, no. 4 (1975), 305-313.
[10] MAGARI, R.: 'Algebraic logic and diagonal phenomena': Logic
Colloquium '82, Elsevier, 1984, pp. 135-144.
[11] MURAVITSKY, A.: 'Correspondence of proof-intuitionistic
logic extensions to proof-logic extensions', Soviet Math. Dokl.
31, no. 2 (1985), 345-348. (Translated from the Russian.)
[12] MURAVITSKY, A.: 'Magari and ~-pseudo-Boolean algebras',
Siberian Math. J. 31, no. 4 (1990), 623-628. (Translated from
the Russian.)
[13] RASIOWA, H., AND SIKORSKI, R.: The mathematics of meta-
mathematics, third ed., PWN, 1970.
[14] SHAVRUKOV, V.Yu.: 'A note on the diagonalizable algebras
of PA and ZF', Ann. Pure Appl. Logic 60, no. 1-2 (1993),
161-173.
[15] SMORYNSKI, C.: 'Fixed point algebras', Bull. Amer. Math.
Soc. (N.S.) 6, no. 3 (1982), 317-356.
[16] SMORYNSKI, C.: Self-reference and modal logic, Springer,
1985.
A. Mumvitsky
MSC 1991: 06Exx, 06E25, 03C62, 03B45, 03Bxx,
03Exx, 08Bxx
MAGARI THEOREM - The assertion that every va-
riety of universal algebras with a non-trivial member
contains also a member whose lattice of congruences is 2-
element. Such universal algebras are called congruence-
simple or simple [1] (see also Universal algebra).
References
[1] BURRIS, S., AND SANKAPPANAVAR, H.P.: A course in univer-
sal algebra, Springer, 1981.
[2] CSAKANY, B.: 'Magari via Malcev', Algebra Universalis 36
(1996),421-422.
[3] MAGARI, R.: 'Una dimonstrazione del fatto che ogni va-
rieta ammette algebre semplici', Ann. Univ. Ferrara Sez. VII
(N.S.) 14 (1969), 1-4.
A. Mumvitsky
MSC 1991: 08Bxx
MAGMA - A set M endowed with an everywhere
defined binary relation mM: M x M -t M on it. No
conditions are imposed. In particular, a magma need
not be commutative or associative. Of particular impor-
tance is the free magma on an alphabet (set) X. A
mapping f: N -t M of one magma into another is a
morphism of magmas if f(mN(a, b)) = mM(f(a), f(b))
for all a, bEN, i.e., if it respects the binary relations.
363
MAGMA
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 20N02
MALLIAVIN CALCULUS - In infinite-dimensional
vector spaces, translation-invariant measures like the
Lebesgue measure do not exist. Therefore, to con-
struct a Sobolev differential calculus in which one can
work with the measure-equivalence classes of functions
instead of the functions themselves, one should use other
measures. A very pleasant candidate for this is the
Gaussian measure, since it shares several nice proper-
ties with the Lebesgue measure in finite dimensions and
inherits some of them in infinite dimensions. In particu-
lar, for any Gaussian measure J1. on a separable Banach
space W there exists a separable Hilbert space H,
called a Cameron-Martin space, which is densely and
continuously injected in W, such that the measure is
quasi-invariant under the translations with respect to
the elements of H. In other words, for any given hE H,
there exists a strictly positive random variable Lh
such that Lh E Lp(J1.) (where Lp(J1.) denotes the space of
J1.-equivalence classes of random variables having finite
moments up to order p) for any p > 1 and such that
for any continuous, bounded function F on W. Further-
more, the mapping h H Lh is infinitely differentiable as
a mapping from H into Lp(J1.).
The quasi-invariance of the Gaussian measure Ii al-
lows one to define the directional derivatives of the J1.-
equivalence classes of the functions defined on W, in the
directions of the Cameron-Martin space H. The Lp-
differentiability of the mapping h H Lh implies that
the derivative operator V', first defined on the cylin-
drical functions, is closeable in Lp (J1.) for p > 1. Con-
sequently, one can define the Sobolev spaces Vp,k (X)
of equivalence classes of X -valued functions (or random
variables; cf. also Sobolev space; Sobolev classes (of
functions», where X is any separable Hilbert space,
p> 1, kEN, as the completion of X-valued cylindrical
functions with respect to the norm
k
11<fJllp,k = 11<fJIILp(/L,x) + L
j=l
lIV' j <fJIILp(/L,H 0J 0X)
where Lp(J1., Y) denotes the equivalence classes of Y-
valued random variables with finite moments up to or-
der p and Y = X or Y = H0j (>9 X, H0j (>9 X =
H (>9 .•. (>9 H (>9 X, and (>9 is the Hilbert-Schmidt ten-
sor product (cf. also Tensor product).
Since V' and its iterates are closeable, Vp,k (X) in-
jects continuously and densely into Vq,l(X) for q :::; p
364
and l :::; k. Hence there is a sequence of spaces
as 1Il the finite-dimensional case, and V'j extends
as a linear, continuous mapping from Vp,k(X) into
V p ,k_j(H0j (>9 X) for any p > 1, k :::: j and j :::: 1.
To define Sobolev spaces of negative order one uses
the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck operator £, known as the num-
ber operator in physics, which is defined for any cylin-
drical function 7jJ on W as
£'ljJ(W) = -~
&jw
r 7jJ(e- t w + \11 - e- 2t y) J1.(dy) I
t~
.
The inequalities of P.A. Meyer (cf. [8]) say that the
norms ofVp,k(X), defined above, are equivalent to those
defined by
for any p > 1 and kEN. Moreover, such 111·lllp,k norms
can also be defined for negative k, and in this way one
can complete the Sobolev scale as
... -:) V p,_2(X) -:) V p,_l(X) -:)
-:) Lp(J1.,X) -:) V p,l(X) -:) ....
It follows from the construction that Vp,dX) is the dual
of Vq,-dX'), where q-1 = 1 - p-1 and X' is the dual
of X. The adjoint of V', denoted by 8 and called the di-
vergence operator, is then a linear, continuous mapping
from Vp,k(X (>9 H) into V p,k-1(X) for any p > 1, k E Z.
If H = H1 ([0, 1]), i.e., the space of absolutely contin-
uous functions on [0,1] with square-integrable deriva-
tives, one can take W = C([O, 1]), and ifu E V p ,l(H)
is such that the Lebesgue density of u is adapted to the
family of sigma-algebras Ft, t E [0,1]' generated by the
mappings {s H w( s): s :::; t} (cf. also Optional ran-
dom process), then the I to stochastic integral of the
Lebesgue density of u coincides with the divergence of
u, i.e., with 8u. This is a key observation which explains
the applicability of all this theory in the Ito stochastic
calculus.
Although the quasi-invariance properties of the
Gaussian measures were well-known since the 1940s, the
'
subject has become very popular after important work
of P. Malliavin (cf. [7]), who showed that an integral of
the form
/w aC>.f(<fJ(w»M(w) J1.(dw) ,
where <fJ E np,kVp,k(Rd), ME np,kVp,k(R), f: Rd -+ R
is a smooth function, and a E N d , can be written as

where K,:x.(¢, M) is a function of V i ¢, vj M, with
i,j ::; lal, which, however, is independent of I, pro-
vided that the inverse of the determinant of the ma-
trix {(V¢i, V¢j)H: i,j ::; d} is in npLp(J.L). Conse-
quently, the measure I H IwI(¢)M dJ.L can be writ-
ten as I H IRd I(X)PM,c/J(X) dx with PM,c/J an infinitely
differentiable function (it is even rapidly decreasing) (cf.
[11]). Malliavin has applied this observation to prove the
regularity of the fundamental solutions of second-order,
degenerate, parabolic partial differential operators satis-
fying the Hormander condition (cf. [1], [16], [17]), which
correspond to the infinitesimal generators of certain dif-
fusion processes defined by the Ito stochastic differential
equations . This result is accepted as a cornerstone in
probability theory, since before it was known one always
used the theory of partial differential equations to show
the regularity of the densities of the solutions of Ito sto-
chastic differential equations.
Since then, the theory has developed in several differ-
ent directions; for instance, the notion of causality has
been better understood and non-causal problems have
been attacked (cf. [3], [9], [14]). The Girsanov theorem
has been extended to the general non-causal case (cf. [5],
[10], [13]) and then applied to the proof of the existence
of solutions of non-linear stochastic partial differential
equations via degree theory on the Wiener space (cf. [15]
and Wiener space, abstract). Some of these results
have further been extended to the path spaces of com-
pact Riemannian manifold-valued Brownian motion
and the corresponding loop spaces (cf. [2], [4], [12]).
References
[1] BISMUT, J.-M.: 'Martingales, Malliavin calculus and hy-
poellipticity under general Hormander's condition', Z.
Wahrscheinlichkeitsth. verw. Gebiete 63 (1981), 469-505.
[2] CRUZEIRO, A.-B., AND MALLIAVIN, P.: 'Renormalized differ-
ential geometry on path space: structural equation, curva-
ture', J. Jilunct. Anal. 139 (1996), 119-181.
[3] DECREUSEFOND, L., AND USTUNEL, A.S.: 'Stochastic analysis
of fractional Brownian motion', Preprint.
[4] GROSS, L.: 'Uniqueness of ground states for Schrodinger oper-
ators over loop groups', J. Funct. Anal. 112 (1993), 373-441.
[5] KUSUOKA, S.: 'The non-linear transformation of Gaussian
measure on Banach space and its absolute continuity 1', J.
Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo, IA 29 (1982), 567-597.
[6] KUSUOKA, S.: 'The nonlinear transformation of Gaussian
measures on Banach space and its absolute continuity, 1', J.
Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo Sect.IA, Math. 29 (1982), 567-598.
[7] MALLIAVIN, P.: 'Stochastic calculus of variations and hypoel-
liptic operators': Proc. Int. Symp. Stochastic Diff. Eq. (Ky-
oto, 1976), Wiley, 1978, pp. 195-263.
[8] MEYER, P.A.: 'Transformations de Riesz pour les lois gaussi-
ennes': Sem. Probab. XVIII, Vol. 1059 of Lecture Notes in
Mathematics, Springer, 1984, pp. 179-193.
[9] NUALART, D.: The Malliavin calculus and related topics.
Probability and its applications, Springer, 1995.
[10] RAMER, R.: 'On nonlinear transformations of Gaussian mea-
sures', J. Funct. Anal. 15 (1974), 166-187.
MARKOV-BERNSTEIN-TYPE INEQUALITIES
[11] USTUNEL, A.S.: An introduction to analysis on Wiener space,
Vol. 1610 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1995.
[12] USTUNEL, A.S.: 'Stochastic analysis on Lie groups': Proc.
Sixth Workshop Oslo-Silivri on Stochastic Anal., Progress
in Math., Birkhiiuser, forthcoming.
[13] USTUNEL, A.S., AND ZAKAI, M.: 'Transformation of the
Wiener measure under non-invertible shifts', Probab. Th. Rei.
Fields 99 (1994), 485-500.
[14] USTUNEL, A.S., AND ZAKAI, M.: 'The constructions of filtra-
tions on abstract Wiener spaces', J. Jilunct. Anal. (forthcom-
ing).
[15] USTUNEL, A.S., AND ZAKAI, M.: 'The degree theory on the
Wiener space', Probab. Th. Rei. Fields (forthcoming).
[16] STROOCK, D.W.: 'Some applications of stochastic calculus
to partial differential equations': Ecole d'EU de Probab.
de Saint-Flour, Vol. 976 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1983, pp. 267-382.
[17] WATANABE, S.: Lectures on stochastic differential equa-
tions and Malliavin calculus, Tata lnst. Fundam. Res. and
Springer, 1984.
A.S. Ustiinel
MSC 1991: 60H07, 60Hxx
MARKOV-BERNSTEIN-TYPE INEQUALITIES -
Bernstein's inequality asserts that
max IQ'(x)l::; n max IQ(x)1
xE[-7r,7r] xE[-7r,7r]
for every trigonometric polynomial Q of degree at
most n with complex coefficients. The inequality
max IQ'(x)l::; n 2 max IQ(x)1
xE[-l,l] xE[-l,l]
for every (algebraic) polynomial Q of degree at most
n with complex coefficients is known as Markov's in-
equality. These inequalities can be extended to higher
derivatives. The sharp extension of Bernstein's inequal-
ity is easy by induction, while the sharp extension of
the Markov inequality requires some serious extra work.
S.N. Bernstein (S.N. Bernshteln) proved the first in-
equality above in 1912 with 2n in place of n. The sharp
inequality appears first in a paper of M. Fekete (1916)
who attributes the proofto L. Fejer. Bernstein attributes
the proof to E. Landau. The inequality
max IQ(m)(x)l::; T~m)(l). max IQ(x)1
xE[-l,l] xE[-l,l]
for every (algebraic) polynomial Q of degree at most
n with complex coefficients was first proved by V.A.
Markov in 1892 (here, Tn denotes the Chebyshev poly-
nomial of degree n; cf. also Chebyshev polynomials).
He was the brother of the more famous A.A. Markov,
who proved the above inequality for m = 1 in 1889,
thereby answering a question raised by the prominent
Russian chemist D. Mendeleev. Bernstein presented a
shorter variational proof of V.A. Markov's inequality in
1938 (see [1]). The simplest known proof of Markov's in-
equality for higher derivatives is due to R.S. Duffin and
A.C. Shaeffer, who gave various extensions as well.
365
MARKOV-BERNSTEIN-TYPE INEQUALITIES
Various analogues of the above two inequalities are
known, in which the underlying intervals, the maxi-
mum norms, or the family of functions are replaced by
more general sets, norms, and families of functions, re-
spectively. These inequalities are called Markov- and
Bernstein-type inequalities. If the norms are the same
in both sides, the inequality is called Markov-type, oth-
erwise it is called Bernstein-type (this distinction is not
completely standard). Markov- and Bernstein-type in-
equalities are known on various regions of the com-
plex plane and n-dimensional Euclidean space, for var-
ious norms, such as weighted Lp norms, and for many
classes of functions such as polynomials with various
constraints, exponential sums of n terms, just to men-
tion a few. Markov- and Bernstein-type inequalities have
their own intrinsic interest. In addition, they playa fun-
damental role in proving so-called inverse approximation
theorems (cf. Approximation of functions, direct
and inverse theorems).
Many books dealing with approximation theory dis-
cuss Markov- and Bernstein-type inequalities in detail.
References
[1] BERNSTEIN, S.N.: Collected Works: Vol 1. Constructive The-
ory of l'Unctions (1905-1930), Atomic Energy Commission,
1958. (In Russian.)
[2] BORWEIN, P.B., AND ERDELYI, T.: Polynomials and polyno-
mial inequalities, GTM. Springer, 1995.
[3] CHENEY, E.W.: Introduction to approximation theory,
McGraw-Hill, 1966.
[4] DEVORE, R.A., AND LORENTZ, G.G.: Constructive approxi-
mation, Springer, 1993.
[5] LORENTZ, G.G., GOLITSCHEK, M. VON, AND MAKOVOZ, Y.:
Constructive approximation: Advanced problems, Springer,
1996.
[6] MILOVANOVIC, G.V., MITRINOVIC, D.S., AND RASSIAS,
TH.M.: Topics in polynomials: Extremal problems, inequali-
ties, zeros, World Sci., 1994.
[7] RAHMAN, Q.I., AND SCHMEISSER, G.: Les inegalites de
Markoff et de Bernstein, Presses Univ. Montreal, 1983.
P. Borwein
T. Erdelyi
MSC 1991: 41A17
MASSIVE THIRRING MODEL - A relativistic
quantum field theory in one space and one time di-
mension [11]. It is defined in terms of a two-component
quantized fermion field \Ilk (x, t) (k = 1,2) obeying the
equal-time anti-commutation relations (cf. Commuta-
tion and anti-commutation relationships, repre-
sentation of)
tn = c5km c5(x - y);
{\Ilk (x, t), \IItn(y,
{\Ilk (x, t), \IIm(y, tn = {\IIt(x, t), \IItn(y, tn = o.
Here t denotes Hermitian conjugation, c5kl is the Kro-
necker delta and c5(x - y) is the Dirac delta-function.
366
The Lagrangian of the model is
L= ! dx [i \111'1-1 81-1 \II - mo \11\11 - ~ : [\111'1-1 \11]2 :] ,
where
1'0 = (~ ~), 1'1 = (~1 ~), ~ = \IIt1'0,
mo is the bare fermion mass and 9 is the bare coupling
constant. Colons denote normal ordering, which means
that \II stands to the right and \lit to the left. Due to ul-
traviolet divergences, mass renormalization is necessary
to obtain finite expressions for physical quantities.
The massive Thirring model is integrable and can be
solved by the Bethe Ansatz method [1], [5], [7].
In the region 0 < 9 < 7r, the spectrum of low-lying ex-
citations is described in terms of an elementary fermion,
its anti-particle and their bound states. All dispersion
relations are of the relativistic form E2 = m 2 +p2 , where
p is the momentum and m is the mass of the particle
considered. If one denotes the (renormalized) fermion
mass by M, the bound state masses are given by
Mn = 2M sin (;i: ~ ;j n), n = 1, ... , [7r 2: 1'] - 1.
Here, [xl denotes the largest integer smaller than or
equal to x. The fermion-antifermion scattering ma-
trix for a state with definite parity (symmetrized or
anti-symmetrized wave function) is given by ([12], [4],
[5]):
S±(O) = u±(O)S(O),
S(O) =
= exp (_ roo dx sinh(2iOxh) sinh(x(7r - 1')h))
10 x sinh(x) cosh(7rxh) ,
where
7r-g
l' = 7r--
7r+g
and 0 = /31 - /32 is the rapidity difference of the scat-
tering particles. The rapidity variable is related to the
momentum by the relation p = M sinh /3. The poles
in S± (0) correspond to the fermion-antifermion bound
states mentioned above. The bound state scattering ma-
trices are obtained from S± (0) by taking the residues at
the poles. The multi-particle scattering matrices factor-
ize into products of two-particle ones. Due to the infi-
nite number of (quantum) integrals of motion there is
no particle production.
The massive Thirring model is equivalent to the quan-
tum sine-Gordon model in the sector of zero topologi-
cal charge [2], [9]. The fermion in the massive Thirring
model corresponds to the soliton in this sine-Gordon
 MASTER EQUATIONS IN COOPERATIVE AND SOCIAL PHENOMENA
model. Correspondingly, the soliton-antisoliton scatter-
ing matrix in the sine-Gordon model is given by S± (0).
The ultraviolet divergences in the massive Thirring
model can be regularized by putting the model on a
lattice. One such lattice regularization is given by the
XYZ Heisenberg spin chain, [8].
In the repulsive region -7r < 9 < 0, the massive
Thirring model can also be solved by the Bethe Ansatz
method. However different ways of regularizing the the-
ory lead to different answers for the spectrum and scat-
tering matrices [3], [8], [6].
Recently (1992), form-factors for the massive
Thirring model have been computed in [10].
References
[1] BERGKNOFF, H., AND THACKER, H.: 'Structure and solution
of the massive Thirring model', Phys. Rev. 019 (1979),3666.
[2] COLEMAN, S.: 'Quantum sine-Gordon equation as the massive
Thirring model', Phys. Rev. 011 (1975), 2088.
[3] JAPARIDZE, G.!" NERSESYAN, A.A., AND WIEGMANN, P.B.:
'Exact results in the two-dimensional U(1)-symmetric
Thirring model', Nucl. Phys. B230 (1984), 511.
[4] KAROWSKI, M., THUN, H.-J., TRUONG, T.T., AND WEISZ,
P.H.: 'On the uniqueness of a purely elastic S-matrix in (1+1)
dimensions', Phys. Lett. 67B (1977),321.
[5] KOREPIN, V.E.: 'Direct calculation of the S-matrix in the
massive Thirring model', Theor. Math. Phys. 41 (1979), 169.
[6] KOREPIN, V.E.: 'The mass spectrum and the S-matrix of the
massive Thirring model in the repulsive case', Comm. Math.
Phys. 76 (1980), 165.
[7] KOREPIN, V.E., BOGOLIUBOV, N.M., AND IZERGIN, A.G.:
Quantum inverse scattering method, correlation functions
and algebraic Bethe Ansatz, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993.
[8] LUTHER, A.: 'Eigenvalue spectrum of interacting massive
Fermions in one dimension', Phys. Rev. B14 (1976), 2153.
[9] MANDELSTAM, S.: 'Soliton operators for the quantized sine-
Gordon equation', Phys. Rev. 011 (1975),3026.
[10] SMIRNOV, F.A.: Form factors in completely integrable models
of quantum field theory, World Sci., 1992.
[11] THIRRING, W.: 'A solvable relativistic field theory', Ann. of
Phys. 3 (1958), 91.
[12] ZAMOLODCHIKOV, A.B.: 'Exact two-particle S-matrix of
quantum solitons of the sine-Gordon model', Soviet Phys.
JETP Lett. 25 (1977),468.
V.E. Korepin
F.H.L. Essler
MSC 1991: 58F07, 81 T20, 83C47, 81 TIO
MASTER EQUATIONS IN COOPERATIVE AND
SOCIAL PHENOMENA - Master equations when ap-
plied to model the behaviour and/or attitudes of inter-
acting living beings, resulting in supra-individual pat-
terns of behaviour and collective effects. Master equa-
tions give frequently a good framework for the develop-
ment of the mechanistic models needed in social sciences
when dealing with probabilistic human behaviour. They
have been applied in some models of public-opinion dy-
namics and other social processes in [25] and [23], in the
dynamics of urban systems in [2], in the dynamics of ve-
hicular traffic in [18], in the migration of populations in
[24], in informational processes in [10], and in networks
of cognitive systems in [15] and [16].
In these models, the transition probabilities are,
in general, obtained either experimentally, by means of
some theoretical model or by means of ad hoc hypothe-
ses.
In many of the most complex social processes one
finds that:
i) the process involves many individual behaviours;
ii) individual behaviour is not deterministically pre-
dictable, but it can be considered as a (probabilistic)
function of the internal attitude and the external con-
text (or scenario);
iii) the individual interactions and synchronized ac-
tions bring about social regularities (e.g., mobilizations
[21]) as well as institutions;
iv) the macro-social patterns obtained in this manner
are projected in mental meanings which are negotiated
between groups and individuals; during the whole pro-
cess these meanings have an influence on the individuals
attitudes;
v) any change in these attitudes must imply a change
in the probability of persistence and no-persistence of
the individual contributions to the specific synchroniza-
tion that is viewed as the origin of the macro pattern.
Models in which the transition probabilities depend
on the form of the distribution p(x, t) are appropriate
when dealing with these social and cooperative self-
organizing processes, [14], [9], [10], [19], with feedbacks
between the micro and the macro levels. In this kind
of problems, a set of micro processes synchronize them-
selves in such a way that they produce a macroscopic
space-temporal structure; subsequently, this structure
probabilistic ally facilitates the maintenance of the syn-
chronization that is able to produce it.
Bifurcation phenomena and other non-linear be-
haviours obtainable from master and Fokker-Planck
equations (cf. Fokker-Planck equation) when the
transitions probabilities are non-linear functions of the
state or depend on the whole distribution solution are
given in [7], [8].
Probabilistic models can also be used in more com-
plex social processes, involving many self-organizing sys-
tems.
In this regard, technological systems of production,
distribution and control can be considered as 'networks'
of self-organizing systems, and the economic, technolog-
ical and social change in human societies can be consid-
ered as an evolutive dynamics of cooperation between
367
MASTER EQUATIONS IN COOPERATIVE AND SOCIAL PHENOMENA
those lower-level systems. This kind of non-linear net-
work models is increasingly used in thermodynamics
[17], evolutive biology [5], [20], [6], physiology [4], ecol-
ogy [22], [1], and receives an increasing attention in so-
cial systems [11], [3], [13], [12]. In this context, one hy-
percycle of fluxes between self-organizing systems can
define the higher-level organization by means of some
probabilistic equation, e.g. one master equation for the
relevant variables in the new macro level, contributing
a good framework to the research of the system's deter-
ministic and stochastic dynamics.
References
[1] ALLEN, P.M.: 'Evolution: why the whole is greater than the
sum ofthe parts', in W. WOLFF (ed.): Ecodynamics, Springer,
1988.
[2] ALLEN, P.M., SANGLIER, M., AND ENGELEN, G.: 'Chance and
necessity in urban systems', in P. SCHUSTER (ed.): Stochas-
tic phenomena and chaotic behaviour in complex systems,
Springer, 1984, pp. 231-249.
[3] CALLON, M.: 'Society in the making: the study of technol-
ogy as a tool for sociological analysis', in W.E. BIJKER, T.P.
HUGHES, AND T. PINCH (eds.): The Social Construction of
the Technological Systems, MIT, 1989.
[4] CHAUVET, G.: Traite de physiologie theorique. Physiolo-
gie integrative-champ et organization fonctionnelle, Vo!' III,
Masson, 1990.
[5] EIGEN, M., AND SCHUSTER, P.: The hypercycle: a principle
of natural self-organization, Springer, 1979.
[6] FEISTEL, R., AND EBELING, W.: Evolution of complex sys-
tems, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1989.
[7] GARciA-OLIVARES, A.: 'Self-organization and intermittency
in social sciences: towards a science of complexity', Kyber-
netes 22, no. 3 (1993), 14-24.
[8] GARciA-OLIVARES, A., AND MUNoz, A.: 'Fokker-Planck
equations in the simulation of complex systems', Mathemat-
ics and Computers in Simulation 36 (1994), 17-48.
[9] HAKEN, H.: Synergetics: an introduction, Springer, 1983.
[10] HAKEN, H.: Information and self-organization, Springer,
1988.
[11] HEJL, P.M.: 'Towards a theory of social systems: self-
organization and self-maintainance, self-reference and syn-
reference': Self-Organization and Management of Social Sys-
tems, Springer, 1984.
[12] LATOUR, B.: Nous n'avons jamais ete modemes, Ed. La
Decouverte, 1991.
[13] LAW, J.: 'Technology and heterogeneous engineering: the case
of Portuguese expansion', in W.E. BIJKER, T.P. HUGHES,
AND T.PINCH (eds.): The Social Construction of the Techno-
logical Systems, MIT, 1989.
[14] NICOLlS, G., AND PRIGOGINE, 1.: Self-organization in non-
equilibrium systems, Wiley, 1977, p. Ch. 9.3; 10.
[15] NICOLlS, J.S.: 'Bifurcations in cognitive networks: a paradigm
ofself-organization via desyncronization', in H. HAKEN (ed.):
Dynamics of Synergetic Systems, Springer, 1980, pp. 220-
234.
[16] NICOLlS, J.S.: Dynamics of hierarchical systems, an evolu-
tionary approach, Springer, 1986.
[17] OSTER, G., PERELSON, A., AND KATCHALSKY, A.: 'Network
thermodynamics', Nature 234 (1971), 393-399.
[18] PRIGOGINE, 1., AND HERMAN, R.: Kinetic theory of vehicular
traffic, Amer. Elsevier, 1971.
368
[19] SCHUSTER, P.: 'Introductory remarks', in P. SCHUSTER (ed.):
Stochastic phenomena and chaotic behaviour in complex sys-
tems, Series in Synergetics, Springer, 1984.
[20] SCHUSTER, P.: 'Polynucleotide replication and biological evo-
lution', in FREHLAND (ed.): Synergetics: From Microscopic to
Macroscopic Order, Springer, 1984.
[21] TILLY, CH.: From mobylisation to revolution, Addison-
Wesley, 1978.
[22] ULLANOWICZ, R.E.: Growth and development. Ecosystems
phenomenology, Springer, 1986.
[23] WEIDLICH, W.: 'Physics and social science: the approach of
synergetics', Phys. Reports 204, no. 1 (1991), 1-163.
[24] WEIDLICH, W., AND HAAG, G.: 'Dynamics of interacting
groups in society with application to the migration of popu-
lation', in H. HAKEN (ed.): Dynamics of Synergetic Systems,
Springer, 1980, pp. 235-243.
[25] WEIDLICH, W., AND HAAG, G.: Concepts and models of a
quantitative sociology, Springer, 1983.
A. Garcia-Olivares
MSC 1991: 92Exx, 92Hxx, 92Kxx, 92Dxx, 90Axx,
60J35, 60Hxx
MATHEMATICAL MORPHOLOGY - A branch III
digital image processing based on set-theoretical, geo-
metrical and topological concepts, and as such partic-
ularly useful for the analysis of geometrical structure
in an image. It has been applied in various disciplines,
such as mineralogy, medical diagnostics, histology, re-
mote sensing, pattern recognition, computer vision,
etc. To a large extent, the current status is due to its
founders G. Matheron [4] and J. Serra [5], [6]. The first
reference contains a comprehensive discussion on ran-
dom sets and integral geometry. Actually, it is this
probabilistic branch which has made morphology into
such a powerful methodology. Other main references are
[2], [1J.
The central idea of mathematical morphology is
to examine the geometrical structure of an image by
matching it with small patterns at various locations in
the image. By varying the size and the shape of the
matching patterns, called structuring elements, one can
extract useful information about the shape of the differ-
ent parts of the image and their interrelations. In gen-
eral, this procedure results in non-linear image opera-
tors, some of which will be described briefly below.
Originally, mathematical morphology has been devel-
oped for binary images; these can be represented math-
ematically as sets. The corresponding morphological op-
erators use essentially three ingredients from set theory,
namely set intersection, union, complementation. In the
Euclidean case, translation is added to these three. Let
E = R d (continuous case) or E = Zd (discrete case).
Two basic morphological operators are dilation 8 and
erosion €, respectively given by Minkowski addition and
 MAZUR-ORLICZ THEOREM

subtraction: (cf. Complete lattice). A comprehensive discussion of

c5(X) = X EB A = UX a, this framework is given in [2].

n
aEA References
[1] GIARDINA, C.R., AND DOUGHERTY, E.R.: Morphological
E(X) = X 8 A = X-a. methods in image and signal processing, Prentice-Hall, 1988.
aEA
[2] HEIJMANS, H.J.A.M.: Morphological image operators, Acad.
Here, Xa = {x + a: x E X}. The set X represents the Press, 1994.
binary image and A the so-called structuring element. [3] MARAGOS, P.: 'Pattern spectrum and multiscale shape repre-
sentation', IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and Machine In-
The choice of the structuring element depends on the
telligence 11 (1989), 701-716.
application at hand.
[4] MATHERON, G.: Random sets and integral geometry, Wiley,
It is obvious that dilation and erosion define increas- 1975.
ing (or monotone) translation-invariant operators on [5] SERRA, J.: Image analysis and mathematical morphology,
P(E) = 2E. Every increasing translation-invariant op- AP,1982.
[6] SERRA, J. (ed.): Image analysis and mathematical morphol-
erator can be written as
'Ij;(X) = U
AEV(,p)
X 8 A = n
AEV(,p)*
X EB A.
ogy. II: theoretical advances, AP, 1988.

MSC 1991: 68U10, 60D05

H.J.A.M. Heijmans

Here,
MAZUR-ORLICZ THEOREM - A sequence x =
V('Ij;) = {A ~ E: 0 E 'Ij;(A)} (~i)l is said to be summable to A(x) by a method A

is called the kernel of 'Ij;, and A = -A. Furthermore, given by an infinite matrix (ai,k), if
'Ij;* denotes the negative operator given by 'Ij;* (X) = 00

['Ij;(XCW, where Xc is the complement of X. A(x) = lim

The composition
a(X) = X 0 A = (X 8 A) EB A
is an idempotent (a 2 = a), anti-extensive (a(X) ~ X,
for every X) operator. Operators with such properties
are called openings. Dually, the composition
(3(X) = X 0 A = (X EB A) 8 A
is called a closing; it is idempotent and extensive (X ~
(3(X), for every X).
Openings and closings are used for many different
tasks. First, they can be used for image restoration (e.g.,
noise filtering). Towards that goal, one generally builds
compositions of openings and closings, called alternat-
ing sequential filters. Secondly, these operators can be
used to compute the so-called pattern spectrum PS x of
an image:
d
PSx(r,A) = --area(XorA),
dr
d
PS x (-r, A) = dr area(X 0 r A),
Here, A has to be a convex set. This pattern spec-
trum yields information about shape and/or texture of
images: see [3].
Some other important morphological transformations
are the distance transform, the skeleton (or medial axis),
geodesic reconstruction, and the hit-or-miss transform.
Most of these tools were originally developed for bi-
nary images. Later, most of them have been extended
for grey-scale images. Nowadays (1996), it is gener-
ally accepted that complete lattices constitute a nat-
ural theoretical framework for morphological operators
, L ai,k~i'
k=l
Let A * be the set of all sequences summables by a
method A. Such a method is said to be convergence
preserving if A * contains all convergent sequences (it is
not assumed, however, that for a convergent sequence
x = (~i) one has A(x) = lim~i; if the latter holds,
A is called a permanent summability method). For a
convergence-preserving method A there is a well-defined
quantity
X(A) = lim
, Lai,k - Llimai,k'
,
k k
Let A and B be convergence-preserving methods with
X(A) -=I- 0, and assume that for each convergent sequence
x one has A(x) = B(x). Then the Mazur-Orlicz theo-
rem is usually given to the following statement: If every
bounded sequence in A * is in B*, then also for these
sequences A(x) = B(x) ([3, Thm. 2]; see also [1] and
r 2: 0, [2]).
A related result is as follows. If A is a convergence-
r > O. preserving method, then A * contains an unbounded se-
quence if either of the following is satisfied ([3, Thm.
7]):
i) X(A) -=I- 0;
ii) X(A) = 0 and A * contains a bounded divergent
sequence.
A permanent method A is said to be perfectly inconsis-
tent if for each divergent sequence x in A * there is a
permanent method B with B* :J A* and A(x) -=I- B(x).
A permanent method A is perfectly inconsistent if
and only if every sequence in A * is either convergent or
unbounded ([3, Thm. 10]).

369
MAZUR-ORLICZ THEOREM
8. Mazur and W. Orlicz also worked also in func-
tional analysis; e.g., the Banach-Steinhaus theo-
rem for F-spaces (see Frechet topology) is due to
them.
References
[1] BRUDNO, A.L.: 'Summability of bounded sequences by means
of matrices', Mat. Sb. 16 (1949), 191-247. (In Russian.)
[2] MAZUR, S., AND ORLICZ, W.: 'Sur les methodes lineaires de
sommation', C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 196 (1933),32-34.
[3] MAZUR, S., AND ORLICZ, W.: 'On linear methods of summa-
bility', Studia Math. 14 (1954), 129-160.
W. Zelazko
M8C 1991: 40C05
MEIJER G-FUNCTIONS - Generalizations of the
hypergeometric functions pFq of one variable (cf. also
Hypergeometric function). They can be defined by
an integral as
where 0 ~ m ~ p, 0 ~ n ~ q and the parameters aT) br
are such that no pole of the functions r(b j - s) coincides
with any pole of the functions r(1 - aj + s). There are
three possible choices for the contour L:
a) L goes from -ioo to +ioo remaining to the right
of the poles of r(b j - s) and to the left of the poles of
r(1-aj+s);
b) L begins and ends at +00, encircles counterclock-
wise all poles of r(b j - s) and does not encircle any pole
ofr(1-aj+s);
c) L begins and ends at -00, encircles clockwise all
poles of f(1 - aj + s) and does not encircle any pole of
r(b j - s).
The integral converges if p + q < 2(m + n), largxl <
(m + n - 1/2)(p + q)1l" in case a); if q :::0: 1 and either
p < q or p = q and Ixl < 1 in case b); and if p :::0: 1 and
either p > q or p = q and Ixl > 1 in case c).
The integral defining the Meijer C-functions can be
calculated by means of the residue theorem and one ob-
tains expressions for Cr;:t in terms of the hypergeomet-
ric functions pFq- 1 or qFp- 1 . The function Cr;:t satisfies
the linear differential equation
Cy = 0,
where
C=
370
Many functions of hypergeometric type and their prod-
ucts can be expressed in terms of Meijer C-functions,
[1]. For example,
Ja- b(2VX) = x-(a+b)/2c&g(x I a, b),
Jb-a( VX)Yb-a( VX) = -vxx-aCig (x Ib,:~~/~ b) .
Meijer G-functions appear in the theory of Lie
group representations (cf. also Representation of a
compact group) as transition coefficients for different
bases of carrier spaces of representations [2].
References
[1] ERDELYI, A., MAGNUS, W., OBERHETTINGER, F., AND TRI-
COMI, F.: Higher transcendental functions, Vo!' 1, McGraw-
Hill, 1953.
[2] VILENKIN, N.J., AND KLIMYK, A.V.: Representation of Lie
groups and special functions, Vo!' 2, Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1993. (Translated from the Russsian.)
A.U. Klimyk
M8C 1991: 33C40
MIC-KEPLER PROBLEM in classical mechanics -
The Hamiltonian system (M, wJ.L' HJ.L)' where M =
T*R 3 , R3 = R3 \ {O},
3 3
WJ.L = L dPi 1\ dqi -
,=1
21~13 . L
,,),k=1
fijkqidqj 1\ dqk
and
0:, fl E R, 0: > 0,
which can be considered as a one-parameter deformation
family of the standard Kepler problem (M, wo, Ho) with
the remarkable property that it retains its high dynam-
ical symmetries. Physically, the deformation parameter
fl is interpreted as the magnetic charge of the particle
at rest and measures the pitch of the cone on which tra-
jectories lie. Its genuine mathematical interpretation is
as a cohomology class of the symplectic structure. The
global symmetry group of the problem is either 80(4),
E(3) or 80(3,1), depending on whether the energy is
negative, zero or positive. The motion satisfies Kepler's
three laws (cf. Kepler equation).
The Hilbert spaces associated with the quantized
problem carry almost all unitary irreducible representa-
tions of the respective covering groups, the only excep-
tion being the group 8L(2, C), for which only the prin-
cipal series representations arise. All this allows one
to derive the spectrum and multiplicities of the bound
states, as well differential cross sections of the scattering
process and quantizations of the magnetic charge.
References
[1] McINTOSH, H., AND CISNEROS, A.: 'Degeneracy in the pres-
ence of magnetic monopole', J. Math. Phys. 11 (1970),896-
916.
 MODEL THEORY OF THE REAL EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

[2] MLADENOV, 1.: 'Scattering of charged particles off dyons', J. large time interval. In that case the proportion E ':::: B
Physics A Math. and Gen. 21 (1988), LI-L4. equals (3 + 'Y ':::: a . S(t), which yields
[3] MLADENOV, 1., AND TSANOV, V.: 'Geometric quantization of
the MIC-Kepler problem', J. Physics A Math. and Gen. 20 B _ _ a_._S--=.(t....:..)_._E-,o-:-
(1987), 5865-5871. - 'Y + (3 + a· S(t)'
I.M. Mladenov
and
MSC 1991: 58F05, 58F07, 70H33, 81R05, 81SlO
dS (t) = (3 . B - a . S (t) . E =
dt
MICHAELIS-MENTEN EQUATION - The usual
a . 'Y . Eo . S (t )
equation to describe the conversion of a substrate in = -'Y' B = - 'Y + (3 + a· S(t)"
an enzymatic reaction. Let S(t) be the concentration
of some substrate which is converted by an enzyme E The values of K and ka can be inferred from the differ-
into a product P. The reaction rate is proportional to ential equation. This gives:
S(t) for small values of S(t), but there is a maximum K = 'Y+(3 , k a = 'Y' E 0,
rate, which is not surpassed even for large S(t). These a
observations can be expressed by the equation and so
dS(t) ka . S(t)
dS(t) ka . S(t)
dt K + S(t)'
dt K + S(t)'
The values can be fitted from observations of S(t),
In this case the first reaction parameter, ka, describes
but it is impossible to also find the parameters a, (3, 'Y,
the maximal conversion speed, and the second reaction
and Eo from the curve of S (t).
parameter, K, is equal to the substrate concentration
The equation was derived by L. Michaelis and M.L.
at which the reaction speed is exactly k a /2. For small
Menten [1].
values of S(t), the reaction rate is ka . K- 1 . S(t).
The equation can be derived from the chemical equi- References
[1] MICHAELIS, L., AND MENTEN, M.L.: 'Die Kinetik der Invert-
librium reactions between the substrate S and the en- inwirkung', Biochem. ZeitschriJt 2 (1913),333-369.
zyme E, which combine to a compound ES. This com- E. Wattel
pound is rearranged in an equilibrium reaction into a MSC 1991: 92C45
compound EP, which dissociates into the enzyme E and
product P. In a formula: MINIMUM SPANNING TREE, shortest spannmg
tree - See Tree.
II , >.
S+E ~SE ~EP ~E+P. MSC 1991: 05C05
(3 J.I. a

In this reaction, the step from S E to E P is usually

MIXED INTEGER PROGRAMMING PROBLEM -
far slower than the other reactions, and if the reaction A mathematical programming model (see Mathemat-
from EP to E + P is irreversible, or if the product P ical programming) in which the objective function
is removed by some transport mechanism, then the two and the constraints are linear (see also Linear pro-
reaction constants J.l and (J can be discarded, and the gramming) but for which some of the variables are
rearrangement coefficient 'Y determines a simplified re- constrained to be integers.
action equation: M. H azewinkel
MSC 1991: 90Cll
S+E ~SE.4 E+P.
(3
MODEL THEORY OF THE REAL EXPONENTIAL
Putting B = SE, the following system of differential FUNCTION - A branch of model theory studying the
equations emerges from the reactions: elementary theory Th(R, exp) of the ordered field R
dS(t) of real numbers with the real exponential function exp
---;It = (3. B - a· S(t) . E, (cf. Exponential function, real). It is motivated by
dE Tarski's question [3, p. 45] whether Th(R, exp) is decid-
dt = ((3 + 'Y) . B - a . S (t) . E,
able.
dB A. Wilkie showed in [8] that Th(R, exp) is model
dt = a . S(t) . E + ((3 + 'Y) . B.
complete. Combining this with Khovanski'l's finiteness
These equations imply that E + B = Eo is a constant, theorem [1], it follows that this theory is o-minimal.
representing the maximal amount of either E or B. Usu- In fact, Wilkie first studies expansions (cf. Structure)
ally, S(t) is large with respect to fluctuations in Eo and of R by a Pfaffian chain of functions (see also [5]): Fix
so the reaction enters a steady state, in which the con- m, lEN and an open set U c R m containing the closed
centrations of E and B remain almost constant over a unit box [0, l]m. A Pfaffian chain of functions on U is a

371
MODEL THEORY OF THE REAL EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

sequence G 1 , •.• , G1 : U -+ R of analytic functions (cf.
Analytic function) for which there exist polynomials
Pi,j E R[Z1, ... ,Zm+i] (for i = 1, ... ,I; j = 1, ... ,m)
such that
8G i
8x. (x) = Pi,j(X,G1 (x), ... ,Gi(x))
J
for all x E U. Wilkie shows that the expansion of R
by a Pfaffian chain of functions restricted to the closed
[6] DRIES, L. VAN DEN, MACINTYRE, A.J., AND MARKER, D.:
'The elementary theory of restricted analytic fields with ex-
ponentiation', Ann. of Math. 140 (1994), 183-205.
[7] DRIES, L. VAN DEN, MACINTYRE, A.J., AND MARKER, D.:
'Logarithmic-exponential power series', 1. London Math. Soc.
(forthcoming) .
[8] WILKIE, A.J.: 'Model completeness results for expansions of
the ordered field of real numbers by restricted Pfaffian func-
tions and the exponential function', 1. Amer. Math. Soc.
(forthcoming) .

unit box has a model-complete theory. In particular, S. Kuhlmann

MSC 1991: 03C60, 12.110, 12.115
the expansion (R, exp 1[0,1]) of R by the restricted ex-
ponential function has a model-complete theory. Wilkie
MODEL THEORY OF VALUED FIELDS- A branch
then deduces the model completeness of Th(R, exp)
of model theory concerned with the elementary the-
from this last result. An alternative proof of the model
ories of fields with valuations v (cf. Elementary the-
completeness, and an axiomatization of Th(R, exp) over
ory; Field; Valuation). The basic first-order language
Th(R, exp 1[0,1]), was found by J.P. Ressayre in 1991 (see
is that of rings (or fields) together with a unary rela-
[6] for a generalization of Ressayre's result).
tion symbol for being an element of the valuation ring,
In [2], A. Macintyre and Wilkie show that Th(R, exp)
or a binary relation symbol for valuation divisibility
is decidable provided that the real version of Schanuel's
v(x) ~ v(y) (cf. Structure).
conjecture (cf. Algebraic independence) is true.
Algebraically closed valued fields. A. Robinson [10]
The theory Th(R, exp) does not admit elimination
proved that the elementary theory of all algebraically
of quantifiers. In fact, an expansion of R by a family
closed valued fields is model complete. It can be deduced
of total real-analytic functions (see [4]) admits elimina-
from his work that this theory is decidable and admits
tion of quantifiers if and only if each function is semi-
elimination of quantifiers. If, in addition, the char-
algebraic, i.e., has a semi-algebraic graph (cf. Semi-
acteristic of the fields and of their residue fields is fixed ,
algebraic set). However, let An denote the family of re-
then the theory so obtained is complete. The proof uses
stricted real-analytic functions, i.e., functions f: R n -+
the fact that all extensions of a valuation of a field to its
R, for all n E N, which are given on [-1, l]n by a power
algebraic closure are conjugate, i.e., the algebraic clo-
series converging on a neighbourhood of [-1, l]n and are
sures of a valued field are isomorphic as valued fields.
set equal to 0 outside of [-1, l]n. It is shown in [6] that
Robinson's results have witnessed many applications.
the expansion (R, exp, log, f)!EAn admits elimination of
The model completeness was applied to valued function
quantifiers. The authors also give a complete axioma-
fields (d. Valued function field). The elimination of
tization of Th(R, exp, f)!EAn, and establish that it is
quantifiers was applied in the early 1990s by 1. Lipshitz
a-minimal. In [7] they construct a model of this theory
and H. Schou tens in different approaches towards a the-
which is not Archimedean and use it to solve a problem
ory of rigid subanalytic sets, that is, subanalytic sets (cf.
raised by G.H. Hardy: they show that the compositional
Semi-algebraic set) over an algebraically closed field
inverse of the function (log x) (log log x) is not asympto-
that is complete under a valuation with Archimedean
tic at +00 to a composition of semi-algebraic functions,
value group. The decidability is one ingredient in the
log and expo
proof that Hilbert's 10th problem has a positive solu-
References tion for the ring of all algebraic integers (see Algebraic
[1] HOVANSKII, A.: 'On a class of systems of transcendental equa-
tions', Soviet Math. Dokl. 22 (1980), 762-765. (Translated
Diophantine equations).
from the Russian.) Since the work of Robinson, model-theoretic results
[2] MACINTYRE, A.J., AND WILKIE, A.J.: 'On the decidability of about various elementary theories of valued fields have
the real exponential field', in P.G. ODIFREDDI (ed.): Kreisel been obtained. They can be understood as model-
70th Birthday Volume, CLSI, 1995.
theoretic translations of a good structure theory for the
[3] TARSKI, A., AND McKINSEY, J.C.C.: A decision method for
elementary algebra and geometry, Univ. California Press
fields in question, and in some cases they even chal-
1951. ' lenged the development of such a structure theory. (See
[4] DRIES, L. VAN DEN: 'Remarks on Tarski's problem concern- p-adically closed field; Real closed field.)
ing (R,+,',exp)', in G. LOLLI, G. LONGO, AND A. MARCJA Model theory relative to value groups and
(eds.): Logic Colloquium '82, North-Holland, 1984, pp. 97-
residue fields . .1. Ax and S. Kochen [1] used a model-
121.
[5] DRIES, L. VAN DEN: 'Tarski's problem and Pfaffian functions'
theoretic result on ultraproducts of valued fields to prove
in J.B. PARIS, A.J. WILKIE, AND G.M. WILMERS (eds.): Logi~ a correct variant of Artin's conjecture (see Ultrafil-
Colloquium '84, North-Holland, 1986, pp. 59-90. ter). The principle implicit in their result was stated

372

explicitly by Yu. Ershov in [5]: Assume that (K, v) and
(L, w) are members of the class of all Henselian fields
of residue characteristic 0 (that is, with residue field of
characteristic 0). Then (K,v) and (L,w) are elemen-
tarily equivalent (in the first-order language of valued
fields) if their value groups are elementarily equivalent
(in the first-order language of ordered groups) and their
residue fields are elementarily equivalent (in the first-
order language of fields). That is, Henselian fields of
residue characteristic 0 can be classified up to elemen-
tary equivalence depending on the elementary theory of
their residue fields and value groups.
This principle remains true if 'elementary equiva-
lence' is replaced by 'elementary extension' (see Model
theory) or by 'existentially closed in' (d. also Exis-
tentially closed). A short proof of the latter version
was given in [8], where it was applied to study the Rie-
mann spaces of algebraic function fields of characteristic
o (see Valued function field). Also, if the value group
and the residue field have decidable elementary theo-
ries, then so does (K, v). Such principles are called Ax-
Kochen-Ershov principles. They have also been proved
for other classes of valued fields.
For Henselian finitely ramified fields (which include
the Henselian p-valued fields; see p-adically closed
field), the 'elementary extension' version of the Ax-
Kochen-Ershov principle was proved by Ershov and,
independently, by M. Ziegler in 1972. The same au-
thors also settled the case of Kaplansky fields (d. Ka-
plansky field) which are algebraically maximal, that
is, do not admit non-trivial immediate algebraic exten-
sions (see Valuation); since the Henselization of a
valued field is an immediate algebraic extension, this
condition yields that the fields in question are Henselian.
The proofs of these principles implicitly use the fact that
maximal immediate extensions of fields with residue
fields of characteristic 0, of finitely ramified fields and of
Kaplansky fields are unique up to a valuation-preserving
isomorphism. In the first two cases, this follows from
the uniqueness of the Henselization, since the Henseliza-
tions of these fields are defect less fields (see Defect) and
hence algebraically maximal; for the last case, see Ka-
plansky field. However, the uniqueness of maximal im-
mediate extensions is not necessary for a class of valued
fields to satisfy an Ax-Kochen-Ershov principle. Using
a structure theory of the Henselizations of valued func-
tion fields (d. Valued function field), the principle
was extended to the class of tame fields (see Ramifi-
cation theory of valued fields), d. [7]. This class
contains all Henselian fields of residue characteristic 0
and all algebraically maximal Kaplansky fields. But it
also contains all algebraically maximal fields that are
MODEL THEORY OF VALUED FIELDS
perfect of positive characteristic, and there are perfect
valued fields for which the above uniqueness fails.
The corresponding 'elementary equivalence' and 'de-
cidability' versions of the Ax-Kochen-Ershov principles
hold for Henselian p-valued fields, for Henselian finitely
ramified fields with v(p) the smallest positive element of
the value group, and for tame fields of fixed characteris-
tic equal to that of the residue field. They do not carry
over in general. For details, see [7].
Relative elimination of quantifiers. A direct trans-
lation of the above Ax-Kochen-Ershov principles to
elimination of quantifiers yields an unsatisfactorily
weak principle. Therefore, other concepts have been de-
veloped. V. We is pfenning [11], extending work of P. Co-
hen (1969), A. Macintyre (1976) and many others, gave
primitive-recursive algorithms for the elimination of all
quantifiers up to those which refer to formulas about the
elements of the value group, the residue field and certain
other auxiliary structures like residue rings, using also
Macintyre's power predicates (see p-adically closed
field), which 'hide' an existential quantifier. Weispfen-
ning treated algebraically closed valued fields and sev-
eral classes of Henselian fields of characteristic 0, and
there are also results for Kaplansky fields. For a survey
on the known results using this approach, see [11].
One could also ask for criteria for an Ax-Kochen-
Ershov principle expressing a relative version of sub-
structure completeness (see Elimination of quan-
tifiers). However, this already fails for the class of
Henselian fields of residue characteristic O. Fortunatedly,
it works if 'value group' and 'residue field' are replaced
by a stronger structure which extends the information
contained in the value group and the residue field (S.
Basarab ( 1991), F.-V. Kuhlmann (1994)). This struc-
ture can be used to classify algebraic extensions up to
isomorphism. (Such classifications can help to create a
link between substructure completeness and model com-
pleteness.) Modifications of this principle also cover the
case of Henselian finitely ramified fields and of alge-
braically maximal Kaplansky fields. Macintyre's quanti-
fier elimination for p-adically closed fields can be derived
from the former. The general problem of relative elim-
ination of quantifiers for the class of all tame fields is
open.
Fields of Laurent series. In [2], Ax and Kochen con-
sidered the elementary theories of power series rings
K[[t]] and fields of formal Laurent series K((t)) over
fields K of characteristic O. Since they carry a canonical
Henselian valuation with residue field K, it follows from
the Ax-Kochen-Ershov principle for Henselian fields of
residue characteristic 0 that K((t)) and L((t)) are el-
ementarily equivalent if and only if K and L are. The
same holds for the rings K[[tlJ and L[[tlJ. Ax and Kochen
373
MODEL THEORY OF VALUED FIELDS
also showed that the elementary theories of K[[tlJ and of
K (( t)) are decidable if and only if the elementary theory
of K is decidable. In particular, the elementary theories
of R[[tlJ and of C[[tlJ are decidable. They also showed
that the ring of germs of analytic functions is elementar-
ily equivalent to C[[tlJ and hence its elementary theory is
decidable. This contrasts with the undecidability of the
ring of entire functions over C, proved by R. Robinson
in 1951.
It is not known (1996) whether the above results
hold if K has positive characteristic. In particular, it
is not known whether the elementary theory of Fp((t))
is .model complete, decidable or admits elimination of
quantifiers, where F p denotes the field with p elements.
However, it is known that natural enrichments of the
language of valued fields can lead to undecidability of
the elementary theory of F p (( t)) (results by J. Becker,
J. Denef, L. Lipshitz (1979), and G.L. Cherlin (1982)).
For more general results in this direction, see [4J.
There is a partial result which also holds for posi-
tive characteristic. If K admits a Henselian valuation,
then, in the language of fields, it is existentially closed
in K ( (t)) (cf. [7]). This shows that such a field K is a
large field in the sense of [9J, i.e., every smooth curve
over K has infinitely many K-rational points, provided
it has at least one.
References
[1] Ax, J., AND KOCHEN, S.: 'Diophantine problems over local
fields 1', Amer. J. Math. 87 (1965), 605-630.
[2] Ax, J., AND KOCHEN, S.: 'Diophantine problems over local
fields III', Ann. of Math. 83 (1966),437-456.
[3] BROWN, S.S.: Bounds on transfer principles for algebraically
closed and complete valued fields, Vol. 15 (204) of Memoirs,
Amer. Math. Soc., 1978.
[4] DELON, F., AND ROUANI, Y.: 'Indecidabilite de corps de series
formelles', J. Symb. Logic 53 (1988), 1227-1234.
[5] ERSHOV, Yu.L.: 'On the elementary theory of maximal
normed fields', Soviet Math. Dokl. 6 (1965), 1390--1393.
(Translated from the Russian.)
[6] HODGES, W.: Model theory, Vol. 42 of Encycl. Math. Appl.,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993.
[7] KUHLMANN, F.-V.: Valuation theory of fields, abelian
groups and modules, Algebra, Logic and Applications. Gor-
don&Breach, forthcoming.
[8] KUHLMANN, F.-V., AND PRESTEL, A.: 'On places of algebraic
function fields', J. Reine Angew. Math. 353 (1984), 181-195.
[9] POP, F.: 'Embedding problems over large fields', Ann. of
Math. 144 (1996), 1-33.
[10] ROBINSON, A.: Complete theories, Amsterdam, 1956.
[11] WEISPFENNING, V.: 'Quantifier elimination and decision pro-
cedures for valued fields': Logic Colloquium Aachen 1983,
Vol. 1103 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1984,
pp. 419-472.
F. - V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 12JlO, 12L12, 03C60
374
MODULAR GROUP ALGEBRA - Let F be a field
and G a group. The group algebra FG is called mod-
ular if the characteristic of F is prime, say p, and G
contains an element of order p; otherwise FG is said to
be non-modular.
Practically every result about group algebras over
a field of characteristic zero has an appropriate ana-
logue for any non-modular group algebra. Absence of fi-
nite skew-fields makes it possible to state certain prime-
characteristic analogues in a stronger form. For exam-
ple, if G is a finite group, then a non-modular group
algebra FG in characteristic p > 0 is a sum of ma-
trix algebras over fields (rather than over skew-fields, as
in the case of characteristic zero; cf. also Matrix al-
gebra). The theory of modular group algebras is of a
much higher level of complexity than that of the non-
modular group algebras. For finite G, the topic essen-
tially belongs to the theory of modular representations
of finite groups (cf. Finite group, representation of
a), and includes such rich pieces as the theory of blocks
(cf. Block), Brauer correspondences, the theory of pro-
jective and relatively projective modules (cf. Projec-
tive module), etc. The radical theory of modular group
algebras for G finite is not very well developed (1996).
E.g., there are only fragmentary results about the di-
mension and the nilpotency index of the radical.
However, if G is infinite, the most studied case is pre-
cisely the theory of radicals, mainly the Jacobson radi-
cal. The results obtained centre around two conjectures.
The first conjecture, proved for locally solvable groups
(cf. Solvable group), states that JFG, the Jacobson
radical of FG, coincides with the so-called N* -radical,
where N* FG is defined as the set of all x E FG such
that xF H is nilpotent (cf. Nilpotent group) for every
finitely generated subgroup H c G. Set
A+ = {g E G: IH: CH(g)1 < 00
for all finitely generated subgroups H c G}
and let AP(G) be the subgroup of A+ generated by the
p-elements. Then A+ is locally finite (i.e., every finite
set is contained in a finite subgroup) and N* FG is gen-
erated by the Jacobson radical of FAP(G). This reduces
the problem to locally finite groups.
The second conjecture concerns locally finite groups
and has recently been settled affirmatively by D.S. Pass-
man [2J. To state it, let Op(G) be the maximal normal
p-subgroup of the locally finite group G and let S(G)
be the subgroup generated by all finite subgroups A c G
such that A is generated by p-elements and A is a sub-
normal subgroup in every finite subgroup BeG with
A c B. Let T(G) be the pre-image of S(GjOp(G)) in
G. Then JFG is generated (as an ideal) by JFT(G),
and J FT( G) is easily described in terms of radicals of
 MONTE-CARLO METHODS FOR PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
the group rings of finite groups. Thus, the problem is in
fact reduced to the case of finite groups, which is usually
regarded as a satisfactory solution for a problem in the
theory of infinite groups.
For a locally finite G, the two-sided ideals I of FG
°
such that J(FG / 1) = can be described in terms of the
representations of finite subgroups of G, [3]. This also
provides an efficient machinery for studying the lattice
of two-sided ideals of FG.
References
[1] PASSMAN, D.S.: The algebraic structure of group rings, Wiley,
1977.
[2] PASSMAN, D.S.: 'The Jacobson radical of group rings of lo-
cally finite groups', Adv. in Math. (forthcoming).
[3] ZALESSSKII, A.E.: 'Group rings of simple locally finite groups':
Finite and Locally Finite Groups, Kluwer Acad. Publ., 1995,
pp. 219-246.
A.E. Zalesski?:
MSC 1991: 16S34
MONTE-CARLO METHODS FOR PARTIAL DIF-
FERENTIAL EQUATIONS - Deterministic partial dif-
ferential equations can be solved numerically by prob-
abilistic algorithms such as Monte-Carlo methods, sto-
chastic particle methods, ergodic algorithms, etc. (cf.
also Differential equation, partial).
The simplest example is the heat equation in
C 1,2((0, T] X Rd):
as t -+ 0,
for all x at which Uo is continuous ..
For a large class of functions uo, the unique solution is
u( t, x) = gt * Uo (x), where gt is the heat kernel. Thus,
u(t,x) = Euo(Wt(x)), where (Wt(x)) is any Brownian
motion such that Wo = x, almost surely. The strong
law of large numbers applies: if {(Wti(x))} are inde-
pendent copies of (Wt(x)), one has, almost surely,
u(t, x) = N-+oo
lim N"
1 N
~
.
uo(Wt'(x)).
i=l
A Monte-Carlo procedure to compute u(t,·) at a sin-
gle point x consists in the simulation of N independent
copies of Wt(x) and the computation of
1 N
N L uo(W;(x)).
.
i=l
This procedure requires the simulation of N x d inde-
pendent real-valued Gaussian random variables of mean
° and variance t (cf. Random variable; Gaussian
process). The convergence rate of the procedure is de-
scribed by fluctuation results, large-deviation estimates,
etc. (cf. also Probability of large deviations). The
most elementary estimate concerns the standard devia-
tion of the random error:
1 / 2 2
JNV E luo(Wt(x))1 -lu(t,x)1 .
More generally, let L be an integro-differential op-
erator (cf. also Integro-differential equation), and
consider the evolution problem
d
dtu(t,x) = Lu(t,x), u(O,x) = uo(x).
From now on, it is assumed that there is a Rd-valued
Markov process (Xt ) such that u(t,x) = Eu(O,Xt(x))
(for a discussion on the assumptions that L must sat-
isfy, see [3, Chap. XIII, Sect. 3]). Then, if it is possible
to simulate independent copies of the process (Xt(x)),
one can approximate u(t, x) by
1 N .
N L uo(X;(x)).
i=l
For example, in neutronics, the process (Xt ) is the pair
(position,velocity), and the velocity is a pure jump pro-
cess (in this case, L is a transport operator) whose sim-
ulation is simple: one simulates the times at which the
velocity changes and the new velocity after each change
time independently (the change times have an exponen-
tiallaw).
Most often, the law of Xt(x) cannot be simulated ex-
actly, but it may be possible to approximate it suitably.
For example, when (Xt(x)) is the solution of a stochas-
tic differential equation driven by a Brownian mo-
tion (in this case, L is a second-order differential opera-
tor), one can discretize the stochastic differential equa-
tion in time. The simplest discretization scheme (the
Euler scheme) defines an approximate process (Xf(x))
depending on the discretization step h, whose simulation
requires the simulation of independent Gaussian random
variables only. The approximation formula is
1 N
u(t, x) ~ N LuO(X;,i(x)).
i=l
The global error of this procedure can be decomposed
as the sum of
u(t,x) - Euo(xI'(x))
(the discretization error) and of
h 1 ~
Euo(Xt (x)) - N ~ uo(Xt "(x))
h'
i=l
(the statistical error). Under appropriate assumptions,
the discretization error can be expanded in terms of h.
The numerical procedure can be adapted to the
solution of problems in bounded domains. Dirichlet
boundary conditions lead to the simulation of processes
stopped at the boundary. The simulation of reflected
375
MONTE-CARLO METHODS FOR PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
diffusion processes (cf. Diffusion process) solves par-
abolic or elliptic partial differential equations with suit-
able Neumann boundary conditions.
Let L * be the formal adjoint of L. Note that the prob-
ability distribution IL~ of X t (x) is a solution to
d
dtIL~ = L* IL~
in the sense of distributions (cf. Generalized func-
tion). The solution IL~ can be approximated by the em-
pirical distribution
This procedure is used in neutronics.
To certain non-linear partial differential equations
one can associate processes (Xt ) which are not Markov-
ian, but are such that the pairs (Xt, ILt) are Markovian,
where ILt is the probability law of the random variable
Xt. Besides, in some cases, the law pX of the process
(X t ) can be described by means of the theory of prop-
agation of chaos (see [4] and the references therein).
That means that the law pX is the limit in probability,
when N goes to infinity, of the empirical distributions
of the paths of N particles in a mean field interaction.
The interaction between the particles is related to the
non-linear differential operator of the partial differen-
tial equation under consideration. If one can simulate
the stochastic particle system, then an algorithm can
be built from the formula
where {xl} are the locations at time t of the interacting
particles. For example, consider an interaction kernel K,
a family of N independent Brownian motions, and the
system
x:=x~+ 1~~K(X;-X~)ds+vW;.
o
t N
j=1
The time discretization of such systems permits one to
approximate equations such as Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-
Planck equations (cf. Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-
Planck system), the viscous Burgers equation (cf.
Diffusion equation; Turbulence, mathematical
problems in), the incompressible Navier-Stokes equa-
tion for the vorticity in R2 (cf. Navier-Stokes equa-
tions), etc. In the latter case, K is the Biot-Savart
kernel, and the algorithm is the Chorin random vortex
method (see [2] for numerical considerations). Simi-
larly, the simulation of interacting branching processes
(cf. Branching process) permits one to approximate
the solutions of convection-reaction-diffusion equations.
376
One difficulty of the mathematical study of these meth-
ods is to show that the statistical errors (on the dis-
tribution function of ILt, e.g.) have standard deviations
of order l/VN although the particles are dependent.
For theoretical aspects related to probabilistic algo-
rithms for partial differential equations, including the
Boltzmann equation, see, for instance, [1] and the
references therein.
References
[IJ GRAHAM, C., KURTZ, T., MELEARD, S., PROTTER, P., PUL-
VIRENTI, M., AND TALAY, D.: Probabilistic models for non-
linear partial differential equations, Vol. 1627 of Lecture
Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1996.
[2J GUSTAVSON, K.E., AND SETHIAN, J.A. (eds.): Vortex methods
and vortex motions, SIAM, 1991.
[3J J AeoD, J.: ealcul stochastique et problemes de martingales,
Vol. 714 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1979.
[4J SZNITMAN, A.S.: 'Topics in propagation of chaos', in P.L.
HENNEQUIN (ed.): Ecole d'Ete de Probabilites de Saint-Flour
XI (1989), Vol. 1464 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics,
Springer, 1991, pp. 165-251.
D. Talay
MSC 1991: 65C05, 60HlO, 60K35, 65U05
MORLEY RANK - An important notion and tool in
model theory, a branch of mathematical logic. The
Morley rank is an ordinal-valued dimension associated
to first-order formulas with parameters from a model M
of a complete first-order theory T. It is defined induc-
tively by: Morleyrank B( x) ~ 0: + 1 if there is an elemen-
tary extension N of M and infinitely many formulas
cPi (x) (i < w) with parameters from N such that the
cPi(X) are pairwise inconsistent, N F cPi(X) ---+ B(x) for
all i and MorleyrankcPi(x) ~ 0: for all i. For 8 a limit or-
dinal (cf. also Ordinal number), MorleyrankB(x) ~ 8
if MorleyrankB(x) ~ 0: for all 0: < 8. The Morley rank
of B( x) is said to be equal to 0: if it is greater than or
equal to 0: but not greater than or equal to 0: + 1. The
Morley rank of B(x) is said to be 00 (or undefined) if it
is not equal to any ordinal.
The Morley rank was introduced by M. Morley [2] in
his study of countable theories T such that for some un-
countable cardinal number Ii, T has a unique model
of cardinality Ii. Morley showed that a theory T satis-
fying the latter condition has a unique model of cardi-
nality A for any uncountable cardinal A. An important
part of his work was to show that every formula has
ordinal-valued Morley rank. Subsequently, J.T. Bald-
win [1] showed that under Morley's hypothesis, every
formula has finite Morley rank.
A classical example of Morley rank occurs in the
(complete) theory ACFo of algebraically closed fields
of characteristic O. The field C of complex numbers is a
model, and for a formula cP(X1,'" ,xn ) with parameters
in C defining a non-singular algebraic variety V, the

Morley rank of ¢ is precisely the dimension of V as a
complex manifold.
Following the example of Morley rank, S. Shelah [3]
defined a host of rank-functions associated to formulas
in first-order theories, which play an important role in
classification theory.
See also Group of finite Morley rank.
References
[1] BALDWIN, J.T.: 'aT is finite for wi-categorical T',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 181 (1973), 37-5l.
[2] MORLEY, M.D.: 'Categoricity in power', Trans. Amer. Math.
Soc. 114 (1965), 514-538.
[3] SHELAH, S.: Classification theory and the number of non-
isomorphic models, revised ed., North-Holland, 1990.
A. Pillay
MSC 1991: 03C45
MOSER-TRUDINGER INEQUALITY - An in-
equality arising as a limiting Sobolev inequality (cf. also
Sobolev space). Let M be a finite-volume manifold of
dimension n and denote by D the corresponding gradi-
ent defined on C 1 (M). Then for n 2: 2,
1M IDfi n
dx:::; 1,
and the normalization conditions
flaM = 0 for a manifold with boundary
or
1M f dx = 0 for a manifold without boundary,
there exist positive constants a and C, depending only
on nand M, such that
1M ealW dx :::; Cvol(M),
where q = nln - l.
This estimate and its consequences appear naturally
in two contexts:
1) as a limiting Sobolev inequality corresponding to
end-point phenomena for the Sobolev imbedding on Rn:
IlfIIU(Rn) :::; A IIV fIIV>(Rn) ,
where 11r = lip - lin, 1 < p < n;
2) as the determining estimate (linearized form) used
to study conformal deformation on manifolds and the
problem of prescribing Gaussian curvature.
This inequality was first demonstrated by N.
Trudinger [8] when M is a bounded domain in Rn, and
the sharp value
_ [27rnj2] lj(n-l)
an - n r(n/2)
was found by J. Moser [6]. The functional is finite for
all values of a, but for values greater than an the con-
stant C depends on the function f. Moser also found
MOSER- TRUDINGER INEQUALITY
the sharp value a = 47r for the two-dimensional sphere
S2. For the n-dimensional sphere sn, the sharp value of
a is the same as for a bounded domain in Rn (see [2]).
L. Carleson and S.-y'A. Chang [4] established the exis-
tence of an extremal function when the domain M is the
unit ball in Rn. D.R. Adams [1] extended this class of
inequalities on bounded domains in Rn to higher-order
gradients. Generalizations of the Carleson-Chang the-
orem have been given for general domains in Rn, and
a development of the Moser framework has also been
studied for Kahler manifolds (cf. also Kahler mani-
fold). For boundary values of analytic functions in the
unit disc with finite Dirichlet integral, a similar estimate
holds based on methods of A. Beurling [5].
Two essential techniques that have been applied to
understanding this variational inequality (cf. also Vari-
ational equations) are: symmetric rearrangement of
functions and conformal invariance. For geometric appli-
cations, the linearized Moser-Trudinger inequality has
been the critical result: in dimension two with normal-
ized surface measure on S2 [6]:
and for the unit disc in R2 [4]:
Here, the constant K was shown to be zero by E.
Onofri [7] and the functional inequality implies, using
the Polyakov action, that the determinant of the Lapla-
cian under conformal deformation with fixed area is
maximized by the standard metric. For dimension two
these linearized inequalities are equivalent. W. Beckner
[3] generalized this result on the sphere to higher dimen-
sions, where on sn the inequality has the form
Here, Pn is a conformally invariant pseudo-
differential operator which acts on spherical har-
monics of degree k in dimension n:
and Pn can be represented as an algebraic function of
the Laplacian:
n even,
nodd.
In dimension four this is the Paneitz operator -.6.( -.6.+
2). The one-dimensional result corresponds to Szego's
377
MOSER-TRUDINGER INEQUALITY
theorem on determinants of Toeplitz operators. Equal-
ity is attained above only for functions of the form
F(O=-nlnI1-(-~I+C, 1(1<1.
From the Orlicz duality between the classes e L and
LIn L, the exponential-class Moser-Trudinger inequal-
ity is equivalent to a logarithmic fractional-integral in-
equality written in terms of the fundamental solution or
Green's function for the operator Pn :
r
-n F(~) In I~ - 7712 G(n) d~ d77 :=:;
JSnxSn
where F and G are probability densities on the sphere.
Equality is attained only for functions of the form
F(~) = G(~) = All - (. ~I-n , 1(1 < 1.
Using conformal equivalence, this inequality can be re-
formulated on Rn for probability densities f and g:
-n r
JRnXRn
f(x)lnlx-yI2 g(y)dxdy:=:;
:=:;Cn + r
JRn
flnfdx+ r
JRn
glngdx,
where the relation with the sharp Hardy-Littlewood-
Sobolev inequality is evident. This inequality, defined
by the mapping
f E £p(Rn) --+
JRn
r Ix - yl-'\ f(y) dy E £P' (Rn)
for>. = 2n/p', 1 < p < 2 and l/p + l/p' = 1, implies
both the linearized Moser-Trudinger inequality and the
logarithmic fractional-integral inequality [3].
The logarithmic inequalities above can be interpreted
as variational problems for the free energy with fixed en-
tropy in a statistical mechanics setting. There are vari-
ous applications of the Moser-Trudinger inequalities to
extremal problems for determinants and zeta-functions
under conformal deformation of metric. For example, on
the four-dimensional sphere the determinant of the con-
formal Laplacian is extremized under conformal defor-
mation with fixed area by the standard metric (see [3]).
The most important aspect of the Moser-Trudinger in-
equality has been its connection to the Polyakov-Onofri
log determinant variation formula and its subsequent
development in terms of conformal geometry and geo-
metric analysis of conformally invariant operators on
higher-dimensional manifolds.
References
[IJ ADAMS, D.R.: 'A sharp inequality of J. Moser for higher order
derivatives', Ann. of Math. 128 (1988), 385-398.
[2J AUBIN, T.: Nonlinear analysis on manifolds. Monge-Ampere
equations, Springer, 1982.
378
[3J BECKNER, W.: 'Sharp Sobolev inequalities on the sphere and
the Moser-Trudinger inequality', Ann. of Math. 138 (1993),
213-242.
[4J CARLESON, L., AND CHANG, S.- Y.A.: 'On the existence of an
extremal function for an inequality of J. Moser', Bull. Se.
Math. 110 (1986), 113-127.
[5] CHANG, S.-Y.A., AND MARSHALL, D.E.: 'On a sharp inequal-
ity concerning the Dirichlet integral', Amer. J. Math. 107
(1985), 1015-1033.
[6J MOSER, J.: 'A sharp form of an inequality by N. Trudinger',
Indiana Math. J. 20 (1971), 1077-1092.
[7J ONOFRI, E.: 'On the positivity of the effective action in a
theory of random surfaces', Comm. Math. Phys. 86 (1982),
321-326.
[8J TRUDINGER, N.: 'On imbed dings into Orlicz spaces and some
applications', J. Math. Meeh. 17 (1967),473-483.
W. Beckner
MSC 1991: 58GXX, 46E35
MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION - In the real
world one often encounters optimization problems with
more than one (usually conflicting) objective function,
such as the cost and the performance index of an in-
dustrial product. Such optimization problems are called
multi-objective, or vector, optimization problems.
A multi-objective optimization problem with p objec-
tive functions can be formulated as follows:
(P) {min.imize f(x) = (h(x), ... ,fp(x))T,
subject to x E X,
where X is a constraint set in a certain space. One may
consider a more general infinite-dimensional objective
function. If the set X is specified by inequality (and/or
equality) constraints in a finite-dimensional Euclidean
space, i.e.,
X = {x ERn: gj(x):=:; 0, j = 1, ... ,m},
then the problem is called the multi-objective program-
ming problem.
Since the objective space RP is only partially ordered,
first of all one has to make clear the concept of a solution
of the problem (P).
1) A point x* E X is a completely optimal solution
of (P) if
fi(X*) :=:; J;(x), Vi = 1, ... ,p, "Ix E X.
Unfortunately, a completely optimal solution rarely ex-
ists.
2) A point x* E X is a Pareto optimal (or efficient)
solution of (P) if there exists no x E X such that
J;(x) :=:; fi(X*), Vi = 1, ... ,p,
fi(X) < J;(x*), :3i E {I, ... ,pl·
Slightly strengthened and weakened solution concepts
of Pareto optimality are called proper Pareto optimality

and weak Pareto optimality, respectively. By introduc-
ing a more general preference structure (preference or-
dering) in the objective space, one may obtain a more
general solution concept.
Several mathematical notions from ordinary scalar
optimization, such as optimality conditions, stability,
sensitivity, and duality, have been extended to multi-
objective optimization. The details can be found in [3],
[1], [2].
For the multi-objective programming problem the fol-
lowing extended Kuhn-Tucker condition has been ob-
tained: If x* is a Pareto optimal solution and the Kuhn-
Thcker constraint qualification is satisfied at x* , then
there exist non-negative vectors p,* =I- 0 E RP and
,x* E Rm such that
P m
Lp,TV'fi(X*) + L,xjV'gj(x*) = 0,
i=l j=l
,xjgj(x*) = 0, j = 1, ... ,m.
In order to consider stability and sensitivity, the fol-
lowing parametric multi-objective optimization problem
is considered:
(P u) {minimize f(x, u),
subject to x E X(u),
where u is a parameter vector. Let W(u) be the set of
all Pareto optimal values in the objective space to (P u ).
The set-valued mapping W is considered to be a gen-
eralization of the marginal (optimal-value) function in
ordinary scalar optimization. The behaviour of W has
been analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Several types of duality, such as Lagrange duality,
Wolfe duality, and conjugate duality, are investigated
in optimization. Each of these duality theories has been
extended to multi-objective optimization. For details see
[3], [1], [2].
In order to obtain a Pareto optimal solution of (P)
one usually solves a scalarized optimization problem.
Typical examples of the scalarization methods are as
follows.
1) The weighted sum minimization method:
{
minimize Ef=l Wdi (x),
subject to x E X,
MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION
where Wi denotes the relative importance of each Ii;
2) The f.-constraint method:
minimize fp(x),
{
subject to fi(X) ~ f.i, i = 1, ... ,p - 1, x E X,
where f.i denotes the admissible worst level of fi;
3) The norm minimization method:
{
minimize Ilf(x) - Y*II,
subject to x E X,
where y* is the ideal (or reference) point in RP. One
often uses the (augmented) Chebyshev norm.
From the viewpoint of decision making, one Pareto
optimal solution should be chosen as a final decision
according to the preference structure of the decision
maker. Roughly speaking, to this end there are three
approaches:
1) generate all or sufficiently many Pareto optimal
solutions and leave it to the decision maker to choose
the preferred solution;
2) find the value (utility) function which represents
the preference structure of the decision maker and maxi-
mize this scalar function (this approach is usually called
multi-attribute utility theory);
3) find a Pareto optimal solution and extract lo-
cal (partial) information about the preference structure
from the decision maker. Based on this information ,
compute another Pareto optimal solution. This process
is repeated until the decision maker is satisfied by the
current solution. This approach is called an interactive
method. Several interesting methods have been proposed
[4].
References
[1] JAHN, J.:Mathematical vector optimization in partially or-
dered linear spaces, Peter Lang, 1986.
[2] Luc, D.T.: Theory of vector optimization, Springer, 1989.
[3] SAWARAGI, Y., NAKAYAMA, H., AND TANINO, T.: Theory of
multiobjective optimization, Acad. Press, 1985.
[4] STEUER, R.: Multiple criteria optimization: theory, compu-
tation and application, Wiley, 1986.
T. Tanino
MSC 1991: 90C29
379
________ N ________

(q ~(I-W)-' m'
NEHARI EXTENSION PROBLEM Let column vectors:
'Po, 'P-l, 'P-2,··· be a given sequence of complex num-
bers. The Nehari extension problem is the problem to
find (if possible) all 1 E Loo (T) satisfying the following
conditions:

i) the nth Fourier coefficient cn(f) of 1 is equal to

'Pn for each n ~ 0;
ii) the norm constraint 11/1100 ~ 1 holds true. (~:)
C2

·
= <1>* (aa~l)
a_2 '
...
Here, 1111100 is the norm of 1 as an element of the ··

(~) ~ ~.~)-' m'

Lebesgue function space Loo(T) and T is the unit circle.
Instead of condition ii) one may require 11/1100 < 1, and
in the latter case one calls the problem suboptimal. (I -
The Nehari extension problem is not always solvable.
In fact (see [12]), the problem has a solution if and only

( b~l) (~:)
if the infinite Hankel matrix

L2 = <I> d2 •
'P-l 'P-l
·· ..
'P-2 'P-3 · .
'P-3 'P-4
J Now, consider the functions

a(A) = '
~
o
" Al,
aja~ 1/2·
induces a bounded linear operator <I> on £2, the j=-oo

Hilbert space of all square-summable sequences, such

that its operator norm is at most one, i.e., 11<1>11 ~ 1. The
suboptimal version of the problem is solvable if and only
00
if 11<1>11 < 1. If 11<1>11 = 1, either the solution of the Nehari
extension problem is unique or there are infinitely many
8(A) = L djd~I/2 Aj ,
j=O
solutions. If 11<1>11 < 1, then the problem and its subopti- o
mal version always have infinitely many solutions, which (3(A) = L bjb~I/2 Aj .
can be parametrized by a fractional-linear mapping. j=-oo

For the suboptimal case, the set of all solutions 1 in
the Wiener algebra W, i.e., when one requires addition-
ally that E:'=-oo icn(f)1 < 00, can be described as fol-
lows. In this case, it is assumed that the given sequence
'Po, 'P-l! 'P-2, ... is absolutely summable. Let 11<1>11 < 1.
Then the operators I - <1>* <I> and I - <1><1>* are boundedly
invertible on £2, and one can build the following infinite
Then, each solution 1 E W of the suboptimal Nehari
extension problem for the sequence 'Po, 'P-l, 'P-2, ... is
of the form
I(A) = (a(A)h(A) + (3(A))(-y(A)h(A) + 8(A))-I, (1)
where A E T and h is an arbitrary element of the Wiener
algebra W such that Ih(A)1 < 1 for A E T and the nth

Fourier coefficient of h is zero for each n ::; O. More-
over, (1) gives a one-to-one correspondence between all
such h and all solutions f. The central solution, i.e.,
the solution fcen(>\) = ,8()')J()')-l, which one obtains
when the free parameter h in (1) is identically zero, has
a maximum entropy characterization. In fact, it is the
unique solution fEW of the suboptimal Nehari exten-
sion problem that maximizes the entropy integral
The Nehari extension problem has natural gener-
alizations for matrix-valued and operator-valued func-
tions, and it has two-block and four-block analogues. In
the matrix-valued case, a superoptimal Nehari extension
problem is studied also. In the latter problem the con-
straint is made not only for the norm, but also for a
number of first singular values [13]. There exist many
different approaches to treat the Nehari problem and
its various generalizations. For instance, the method of
one-step extensions (see [lD, the commutant-lifting ap-
proach (see [6] and Commutant lifting theorem), the
band method (see [lOD, reproducing-kernel Hilbert
space techniques (see [5D, and Beurling-Lax methods
in KreIn spaces (see [4] and KreIn space). The results
are used in H oo control theory (see [8D, and when the
data are Fourier coefficients of a rational matrix func-
tion, the formulas for the coefficients in the linear frac-
tional representation (1) can be represented explicitly in
state-space form (see [9] and [3D.
The Nehari extension problem also has non-
stationary versions, in which the role of analytic func-
tions is taken over by lower-triangular matrices. An
example is the problem to complete a given lower-
triangular array of numbers,
:::
( ~20
~1l
~21 ~22
.) ,
to a full infinite matrix such that the resulting oper-
ator on £2 is bounded and has operator norm at most
one. The non-stationary variants of the N ehari extension
problem have been treated in terms of nest algebras [2].
The main results for the stationary case carryover to
the non-stationary case [11], [7].
References
[1] ADAMJAN, V.M., ARov, D.Z., AND KREIN, M.G.: 'Infi-
nite Hankel block matrices and related extension problems',
Transl. Amer. Math. Soc. 111 (1978), 133-156. (Izv. Akad
Nauk. SSSR Ser. Mat. 6 (1971),87-112.)
[2] ARVESON, W.B.: 'Interpolation in nest algebras', J. Funct.
Anal. 20 (1975), 208-233.
NEURAL NETWORK
[3] BALL, J., GOHBERG, I., AND RODMAN, L.: Interpolation of
rational matrix functions, Vol. 45 of Operator Theory: Ad-
vances and Applications, Birkhauser, 1990.
[4] BALL, J., AND HELTON, J.W.: 'A Beurling-Lax theorem for
Lie group U(m,n) which contains classical interpolation the-
ory', J. Operator Th. 9 (1983), 107-142.
[5] DYM, H.: J contractive matrix functions, reproducing kernel
Hilbert spaces and interpolation, Vol. 71 of CBMS, Amer.
Math. Soc., 1989.
[6] FOIAS, C., AND FRAZHO, A.E.: The commutant lifting ap-
proach to interpolation problems, Vol. 44 of Operator Theory:
Advances and Applications, Birkhauser, 1990.
[7] FOIAS, C., FRAZHO, A.E., GOHBERG, I., AND KAASHOEK,
M.A.: 'Discrete time-variant interpolation as classical inter-
polation with an operator argument', Integral Equations Op-
erator Th. 26 (1996),371-403.
[8] FRANCIS, B.A.: A course in Hoo control theory, Springer,
1987.
[9] GLOVER, K.: 'All optimal Hankel-norm approximations of lin-
ear multivariable systems and the Loo-error bounds', Int. J.
Control 39 (1984), 1115-1193.
[10] GOHBERG, I., GOLDBERG, S., AND KAASHOEK, M.A: Classes
of linear operators II, Vol. 63 of Operator Theory: Advances
and Applications, Birkhauser, 1993.
[11] GOHBERG, I., KAASHOEK, M.A., AND WOERDEMAN, H.J.:
'The band method for positive and contractive extension
problems: An alternative version and new applications', In-
tegral Equations Operator Th. 12 (1989), 343-382.
[12] NEHARI, Z.: 'On bounded bilinear forms', Ann. of Math. 65
(1957), 153-162.
[13] PELLER, V.V., AND YOUNG, N.J.: 'Superoptimal analytic
approximations of matrix functions', J. Funct. Anal. 120
(1994), 300-343.
I. Gohberg
M.A. Kaashoek
MSC1991: 30E05,47A57
NEUMANN BOUNDARY CONDITIONS, Neumann
conditions, Neumann data, boundary conditions of the
second kind - Consider a second-order partial differen-
tial equation Lu = f on a domain D in Rn with bound-
ary S (cf. also Differential equation, partial, of the
second order). Boundary conditions of the type
8~~) = ¢;(x), xES,
where n is the outward pointing normal at x, are called
Neumann boundary conditions.
A boundary value problem with Neumann conditions
is also called a boundary value problem of the second
kind (see Second boundary value problem).
See also First boundary value problem; Dirich-
let boundary conditions; Third boundary value
problem.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 35G15
NEURAL NETWORK - A network of many simple
processors, each possibly having a small amount of lo-
cal memory. The units are connected by communication
381
NEURAL NETWORK
channels which usually carry numeric (as opposed to
symbolic) data, encoded by any of various means (cf.
also Communication channelj Network). The units
operate only on their local data and on the inputs they
receive via the connections.
Some neural networks are models of biological neu-
ral networks and some are not, but historically, much
of the inspiration for the field of neural networks came
from the desire to produce artificial systems capable of
sophisticated, perhaps intelligent, computations similar
to those that the human brain routinely performs, and
thereby possibly to enhance our understanding of the
human brain.
Most neural networks have some sort of training rule
whereby the weights of connections are adjusted on the
basis of data. In other words, neural networks learn from
examples and exhibit some capability for generalization
beyond the training data. The restriction to local oper-
ations is often relaxed during training.
There are two main ways of training a neural net-
work. A network can be trained in a supervised or in
an unsupervised way. With supervision, the learning is
done on the basis of direct comparison of the output of
the network with known correct answers. In unsuper-
vised learning the only available information is in the
correlations of the input data.
Two of the most popular neural networks are the
feedforward network and the self-organizing feature map
(see below). For good general introductions to neural
networks, see [2], [1].
Feedforward network. The simple processors in a
feedforward network apply a transfer function to a
weighted sum. If one views the incoming signals and the
weights on the incoming connections as vectors, then
the weighted sum is just the inner product of these
two vectors. The transfer function is often a sigmoidal
function like I(x) = tanh(x) or a hard-limiting trans-
fer function like the sign-function. Transfer functions
are needed to introduce non-linearity into the network.
The resulting networks are universal function approxi-
mators. The parameters of the feedforward network are
the weights on the connections. As error criterion one
can take the squared sum of errors over all the examples
and all the outputs. An error is defined as the difference
between the output of the network and the correct out-
put as specified by the input/output pairs. The so-called
backpropagation learning rule is obtained by using the
gradient-descent method on this error criterion.
Self-organizing feature map. The self-organizing fea-
ture map [3] takes as inputs elements from a high-
dimensional vector space. The learning algorithm of
the self-organizing feature map finds a balance between
two goals:
382
1) for each processing element it finds a prototype
vector in the input space such that these vectors to-
gether model the input spacej
2) there is a distance function on the processing el-
ements, and if there is a small distance between two
processing elements, then there should also be a small
distance between their prototype vectors.
One of the main applications of the self-organizing
feature map is to visualize high-dimensional data.
The self-organizing feature map projects the high-
dimensional data by mapping it to the processing el-
ement with the prototype vector which is closest to the
input.
See also Hebb rule.
References
[1] HAYKIN, S.: Neuml networks, a comprehensive foundation,
Macmillan, 1994.
[2] HERTZ, J., KROGH, A., AND PALMER, R.: Introduction to the
theory of neuml computation, Addison-Wesley, 1991.
[3] KOHONEN, T.: Self-organization and associative memory,
Springer, 1989.
J.N. Kok
MSC 1991: 68T05, 68TlO, 62H30, 62Hxx, 62-07
NEVANLINNA-PICK INTERPOLATION,
Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation problem - The data
for the classical Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation prob-
lem [13], [15] consist of n distinct points Zl,'" ,Zn in
the open unit disc D and complex numbers Wl,'" ,Wn .
Given these data, the problem is to find (if possible)
a function 1 E H oo , the Hardy space of all bounded
analytic functions on D (cf. also Hardy classes), such
that:
a) I(zj) = Wj for j = 1, ... ,nj
b) 11/1100 = sup{l/(z)l: ZED} :::; 1.
Instead of condition b) one may require the HOO norm
of the interpolant 1 to be strictly less than one, and in
the latter case one calls the problem suboptimal. The
problem may also be considered for infinite collections
of points ([14]).
The Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation problem is solv-
able if and only if the associated Pick matrix
(
~
~)
l-~lZl l-ZlWn
A= .
l-WnWl 1-w n W n
1-%oZI l-znzn
is positive semi-definite, and its solution is unique if and
only if, in addition, A is singular. For the suboptimal
version of the problem to be solvable it is necessary and
sufficient that the Pick matrix A be positive definite,
and in this case there is a rational (2 x 2)-matrix func-
tion 8(z) = (8ij(Z))~,j=l such that the infinitely many

solutions I of the problem are described by
where the free parameter 9 is an arbitrary Hoo-function
with Ilglloo < 1. Moreover, for e one may take (see [2,
Sect. 18.1]) the matrix function
Matrix- and operator-valued versions of the
Nevanlinna-Pick problem, including one-sided and two-
sided tangential variants, have also been introduced,
and many different approaches have been developed to
treat the problem and its various generalizations. For
the history of the subject, see [2J, [7J, [8], [16J, [12J.
The Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation theorems and
their matrix generalizations have proved to be very use-
ful in solving engineering problems, in particular, in cir-
cuit theory [4J and for control theory problems involving
an Hoo-criterion (see [lOJ and [6, Chapt. 9]). This devel-
opment led to a new field of research, in which the em-
phasis is on interpolants that are rational matrix func-
tions and on the search for explicit formulas and effi-
cient algorithms for the construction of interpolants in
a form which is suitable for engineering applications (see
[2, Part VIJ and [18]).
The Nevanlinna-Pick problem also has a non-
stationary version, in which the role of analytic functions
is taken over by lower-triangular operators and points
in the open unit disc are replaced by weighted shifts
with spectral radius strictly less than one. To give an
example, let (Zj }f=-oo and (Wj }f=-oo be two bounded
sequences of complex numbers, and assume that
lin
lim ( sup IZkzk+l ... zk+n-ll
)
< 1.
n-+oo k [11] GOHBERG, I. (ed.): Time-variant systems and interpolation,
The non-stationary Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation
problem associated with these data is to find a lower-
triangular operator
1-1,-1
F= 10,-1 10,0
h,-1 h,o h,1
NEVANLINNA-PICK INTERPOLATION
with operator norm IIFII ~ 1 such that
00
Ik,k +L zkzk+l ... Zk+n-tlk+n,k = Wk (k E Z).
n=l
Several methods to treat such non-stationary interpo-
lation problems have been developed (see [11J, [5J and
[17]); the main results for the stationary case carryover
to the non-stationary case (cf. [9]).
Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation problems have also
been solved for analytic functions on a half-plane. A
non-stationary analogue of the latter may be found in
[lJ. Generalizations of the Nevanlinna-Pick interpola-
tion theory have also been developed for functions of
several variables (see [16, notes to Chapt. 2]) and in a
non-linear setting [3J.
References
[1] BALL, J.A., GOHBERG, I., AND KAASHOEK, M.A.:
'Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation for time-varying input-
output maps: The continuous time case', in I. GOHBERG
(ed.): Time- Variant Systems and Interpolation, Vol. 56 of
Operator Theory: Advances and Applications, Birkhauser,
1992, pp. 52-89.
[2] BALL, J.A., GOHBERG, I., AND RODMAN, L.: Interpolation of
rational matrix functions, Vol. 45 of Operator Theory: Ad-
vances and Applications, Birkhauser, 1990.
[3] BALL, J., AND HELTON, J.W.: 'Shift invariant manifolds and
nonlinear analytic function theory', Integral Equations and
Operator Th. 11 (1988), 615-725.
[4] DELSARTE, PH., GENIN, Y., AND KAMP, Y.: 'On the role of
the Nevanlinna-Pick problem in circuit and system theory',
Internat. J. Circuit Th. Appl. 9 (1981), 177-187.
[5] DEWILDE, P., KAASHOEK, M.A., AND VERHAEGEN, M. (EDS.):
'Challenges of a generalized system theory', KNWA Verhan-
delingen, Afd. Natuurkunde, Eerste reeks 40 (1993).
[6] DOYLE, J.C., FRANCIS, B.A., AND TANNENBAUM, A.R.: Feed-
back control theory, Macmillan, 1992.
[7] DYM, H.: J contractive matrix functions, reproducing kernel
Hilbert spaces and interpolation, Vol. 71 of CBMS, Amer.
Math. Soc., 1989.
[8] FOIAS, C., AND FRAZHO, A.E.: The commutant lifting ap-
proach to interpolation problems, Vol. 44 of Operator Theory:
Advances and Applications, Birkhauser, 1990.
[9] FOIAS, C., FRAZHO, A.E., GOHBERG, I., AND KAASHOEK,
M.A.: 'Discrete time-variant interpolation as classical inter-
polation with an operator argument', Integral Eq. Operator
Th. 26 (1996), 371-403.
[10] FRANCIS, B.A.: A course in Hoc control theory, Springer,
1987.
Vol. 56 of Operator Theory: Advances and Applications,
Birkhauser, 1992.
[12] GOHBERG, I., AND SAKHNOVICH, L.A. (eds.): Matrix and op-
erator valued functions: The Vladimir Petrovich Potapov
Memorial Volume, Vol. 72 of Operator Theory: Advances and
Applications, Birkhauser, 1994.
[13] NEVANLINNA, R.: 'Uber beschrankte analytische Funktionen
die in gegebene Punkten vorgeschriebene Werte annehmen',
Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn. Ser. A 13, no. 1 (1919), 1-71.
[14] NEVANLINNA, R.: 'Uber beschrankte analytische Funktionen',
Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn. Ser. A 32, no. 7 (1929), 1-75.
383
NEVANLINNA-PICK INTERPOLATION
[15J PICK, G.: 'Uber beschrankungen analytischer Funktionen,
welche durch vorgegebene Funktionswerte bewirkt werden',
Math. Ann. 77 (1916), 7-23.
[16J ROSENBLUM, M., AND ROVNYAK, J.: Hardy classes and opera-
tor theory, Oxford Mathematical Monographs. Oxford Univ.
Press, 1985.
[17J SAYED, A.H., CONSTANTINESCU, T., AND KAILATH, T.:
'Lattice structures of time-variant interpolation problems':
Proc. l-st IEEE Conf. Decision and Control, (Tuscon, AZ,
Dec.1992), 1992.
[18J SAYED, A.H., KAILATH, T., LEV-ARI, H., AND CONSTANTI-
NESCU, T.: 'Recursive solutions ofrational interpolation prob-
lems via fast matrix factorization', Integral Equations and
Operator Th. 20 (1994),84-118.
I. Gohberg
M.A. Kaashoek
MSC 1991: 30E05, 47 A57, 93B36
NOETHERIAN DOMAIN - An integral domain
that is also a Noetherian ring.
MSC 1991: 16P40
NON-IDEAL RELAY - The hysteresis non-linearity
denoted by R(a,(3), with thresholds a and (3, and de-
fined for a continuous input u(t), t 2: to, and an initial
state ro E {O, I} by the formulas (see Fig.)
ro if a < u(s) < (3, to :s s:s t,
o if either u(t) :s (3 or
R(ro;a,(3)u(t) = u(t) E ((3, a) andu(T) = (3,
1 if either u(t) 2: a or
u(t) E ((3, a) and U(T) = a,
where T = sup{s: S:S t,u(s) = (3oru(s) = a}, that
is, T denotes the last switching moment. The input-
output operators R( ro; a, (3) are discontinuous in the
usual function spaces. These operators are monotone
in a natural sense, which allows one to use the pow-
erful methods of the theory of semi-ordered spaces in
the analysis of systems with non-ideal relays.
1
+ equation (cf. also Linear differential operator). For
o (3 la u whereas for the linear equation the amplitude is inde-
Fig: Non-ideal relay
The Preisach-Giltay model of ferromagnetic hystere-
sis is described as the spectral decomposition in a con-
tinual system of non-ideal relays in the following way.
384
Let p,( a, (3) be a finite Borel measure in the half-plane
II = {(a,(3): a > (3}. The input-output operators of
the Preisach-Giltay hysteresis non-linearity at a given
continuous input u(t), t 2: to, and initial state S(to) is
defined by the formula
!
x(t) = R(ro(a, (3); a, (3)u(t) dp,(a, (3),
where the measurable function ro(a, (3) describes the in-
ternal state of the non-linearity at the initial moment
t = to. In contrast to the individual non-ideal relay, the
operators of a Preisach-Giltay non-linearity are contin-
uous in the space of continuous functions, provided that
the measure p,( a, (3) is absolutely continuous with re-
spect to the Lebesgue measure (cf. Absolute conti-
nuity). For detailed properties of Preisach-Giltay hys-
teresis and further generalizations see [1], [2] and the
references therein.
See also Hysteresis.
References
[1] KRASNOSEL'SKII, M.A., AND POKROVSKII, A.V.: Systems with
hysteresis, Springer, 1989. (Translated from the Russian.)
[2J MAYERGOYZ, I.D.: Mathematical models of hysteresis,
Springer, 1991.
A.M. Krasnosel'skit
M.A. Krasnosel'skit
A. V. Pokrovskit
MSC 1991: 47H30
NON-LINEAR DYNAMICS - Many dynamical sys-
tems (cf. Dynamical system) are described by dif-
ference equations (mappings) XtH = f(xt}, where t =
0,1, ... , or by autonomous systems of differential equa-
tions (cf. Autonomous system) du/dt = F(u), where
x = (Xl, ... ,Xn ) and u = (UI, ... ,un)' If f is a non-
linear function of x, the discrete dynamical system is
called non-linear. Piecewise-linear systems are also re-
garded as being non-linear. A simple example is the lo-
gistic mapping XtH = 4xt(1- Xt). If F is a non-linear
function of u, one calls the system of differential equa-
tions non-linear. A typical example is the pendulum de-
scribed by d()/dt = v, dv/dt = -(g/L)sin(), where () is
the displacement and w 2 = g / L. For small displacements
the differential equation reduces to a linear differential
the non-linear equation the amplitude depends on w,
pendent of w.
Linear superposition no longer holds for non-linear
dynamical systems. The behaviour of solutions of finite-
dimensional non-linear difference and differential equa-
tions is much more complicated than that of finite-
dimensional linear systems. For a linear system du/ dt =
Au, where A is an (n x n)-matrix with constant coef-
ficients, the solution of the initial-value problem u(t =

0) = Uo exists for t E [0,00). Among non-linear sys-
tems one finds the behaviour that the solution only
exists for finite times. An example is the differential
equation du/ dt = u 2. The solution of the initial-value
problem has a singularity at a finite time. Autonomous
non-linear dynamical systems in the plane, duI/dt =
F 1(Ul,U2), dU2/dt = F 2(Ul,U2) can show limit cycle
behaviour (cf. Limit cycle). An example is the van
der Pol equation <lJt = U2, d:ft2 = E(l - Ui)U2. For
n ~ 3, autonomous systems of first-order ordinary dif-
ferential equations can show so-called chaotic behaviour
(cf. Chaos; Strange attractor). Moreover, the attrac-
tor can have a non-integer fractal dimension (capac-
ity and Hausdorff dimension). One of the tasks in
non-linear dynamics is to classify the attractors (fixed
points, limit cycles, tori, strange attractors). In a non-
linear dynamical system, the domain of attraction can
have a fractal boundary. Furthermore, certain partic-
ular solutions need not be included in the general so-
lution. Most non-linear dynamical systems cannot be
solved explicitly. Thus, qualitative methods are applied
to study them (cf. Qualitative theory of differential
equations). One such method is the Poincare section.
NON-LINEAR DYNAMICS
Here, the non-linear differential equation is mapped to
a discrete non-linear system. The study of non-linear
discrete systems in the complex domain leads to Julia
and Mandelbrot sets (cf. Julia set). Non-linear finite-
dimensional autonomous systems du/dt = F(u), where
F is an analytic function, and non-linear discrete sys-
tems Xt+l = f(Xt), where f is an analytic function,
can be linearized via Carleman linearization to infinite-
dimensional linear dynamical systems.
References
[1] HIRSCH, M.W., AND SMALE, S.: Differential equations, dy-
namical systems, and linear algebra, Acad. Press, 1974.
[2] KOWALSKI, K., AND STEEB, W.-H.: Nonlinear dynamical sys-
tems and Carleman linearization, World Sci., 1991.
[3] LICHTENBERG, A.J., AND LIEBERMAN, M.A.: Regular and sto-
chastic motion, Springer, 1983.
[4] MEDVED', M.: Fundamentals of dynamical systems and bi-
furcation theory, Hilger, 1992.
[5] NEIMARK, Yu.I., AND LANDA, P.S.: Stochastic and chaotic
oscillations, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1992.
[6] SCHUSTER, H.G.: Deterministic chaos, second ed., VCH,
1988.
[7] STEEB, W.-H.: A handbook of terms used in chaos and quan-
tum chaos, B1- Wissenschaftsverlag, 1991.
W.-H. Steeb
MSC 1991: 58Fxx
385
 0 _ _ __
o-GROUP, totally ordered group - A po-group G
whose partial order is total (cf. also Totally or-
dered group). A po-group is an o-group if and only
if P(G) U p(G)-l = G, where P(G) is the positive
cone of G. Every Abelian torsion-free group, every lo-
cally nilpotent-torsion free group and every free group
can be turned into an o-group. Any o-group G is a quo-
tient group of a free o-group F with suitable order by
some convex normal subgroup. Direct, Cartesian, free,
and direct wreath products of o-groups can be turned in
o-groups by extending the orders of the factors. Any 0-
group is a topological group respect with to the inter-
val topology. Any o-group can be imbedded into simple
o-groups. There exist non-Hopfian o-groups.
If G is an o-group, then the group-theoretical struc-
ture of G is very nice. In particular, any o-group has a
subnormal solvable system of subgroups, it is a torsion-
free group and a group with unique roots. Thus, 0-
groups are suitable examples in the study of many
classes of groups. The system C(G) of convex subgroups
of an o-group is well studied (cf. Convex subgroup).
In particular, C(G) is the central series of isolated nor-
mal subgroups for any locally nilpotent o-group.
It is useful to apply methods from the theory of semi-
groups to questions about orderability of a group. Let
S(X) be the normal sub-semi-group of a group G gen-
erated by a set X c G. Then G is orderable (i.e.,
it is possible to turn G in an o-group) if and only if
e if. S(al, ... , an) for all all'" , an E G (ai of- e). Every
partial order Q can be extended to a total order on G if
and only if for all x E G, x of- e implies e if. S(x) and for
all x, y, z E G,
x, Y E S(z) * S(x) n S(y) of- 0.
Groups with this property are called fully orderable. If
a group is torsion-free and Abelian, or locally nilpotent
or orderable metabelian, then it is fully orderable. The
class of fully orderable groups is closed under formation
of direct products and is locally closed. It is not closed
under formation of subgroups, Cartesian products, free
products. It is non-axiomatizable.
This article complements the article Totally or-
dered group (Vol. 9).
References
[1] FUCHS, L.: Partially ordered algebraic systems, Pergamon,
1963.
[2] KOKORIN, A.I., AND KOPYTOV, V.M.: Fully ordered groups,
Halstad, 1974. (Translated from the Russian.)
[3] KOPYTOV, V.M., AND MEDVEDEV, N.YA.: The theory of
lattice-ordered groups, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1994. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[4] MURA, R.T.B., AND RHEMTULLA, A.H.: Orderable groups, M.
Dekker, 1977.
V. M. K opytov
MSC 1991: 06F15, 06F20
0- MINIMAL -- Let L be a first-order language con-
taining a binary relation symbol < and let M be an
L-structure (cf. Structure) in which < is interpreted
as a total order (cf. Order (on a set)). Then M is
called a-minimal if every parametrically definable sub-
set of M is a finite union of intervals of M. An interval
of M is a subset of the form {c EM: aD 1 cD 2 b} for some
a, b EMU { -oo,oo}, where 0 1 , O 2 stand for < or :S.
For n 2: 1, a subset A of the Cartesian product Mn is
called parametrically definable if there are an L-formula
cjJ(Xl 1 • • • , x n , Yl,··· , Yk) and b1, ... , bk E M such that
A={(al, ... ,an)EMn :
cjJ(al,'" ,an,b1 , ... ,bk)is true inM}.
An elementary theory is called o-minimal if every
model of it is a-minimal.
This notion was introduced by L. van den Dries in
[4], while studying the expansion (R, exp) of the or-
dered field R of the real numbers by the real expo-
nential function (cf. Exponential function, real). He
observed that the sets parametrically definable in Carte-
sian products Mn for an o-minimal expansion M of R
share many of the geometric properties of semi-algebraic

sets (cf. Semi-algebraic set). For example, a semi-
algebraic set has only finitely many connected compo-
nents, each of them semi-algebraic (cf. [1]), and van den
Dries showed that this result remains true if one re-
places 'semi-algebraic' by 'parametrically definable in an
o-minimal expansion of R'. This is a finiteness theorem,
and van den Dries aims to explain the other finiteness
phenomena in real algebraic and real analytic geometry
as consequences of o-minimality (cf. [5]).
In [3], J.F. Knight, A. Pillay and C. Steinhorn prove
the following results.
1) o-minimality is preserved under elementary equiv-
alence.
2) An ordered group is o-minimal if and only if it
is divisible Abelian.
3) An ordered ring is o-minimal if and only if it is
a real closed field.
4) Any parametrically definable unary function in an
o-minimal structure is piecewise strictly monotone or
constant, and continuous.
The real closed field R is 0- minimal. The expansion of
R by restricted analytic functions (cf. Model theory
of the real exponential function) is o-minimal (cf.
[6]), as a consequence of Gabrielov's theorem that the
complement of a subanalytic set is subanalytic (cf. [2]).
It follows from work of A. Wilkie [7] that (R, exp) is
o-minimal. A. Macintyre, van den Dries and D. Marker
establish in [6] the o-minimality of R expanded by the
restricted analytic functions and the exponential func-
tion. For a research account on o-minimal structures, see
[5].
References
[1] COLLINS, G.E.: 'Quantifier elimination for real closed fields
by cylindrical algebraic decomposition, automata theory
and formal language': 2nd G.I. Conference Kaiserslautern,
Springer, 1975, pp. 134-183.
[2] GABRIELOV, A.: 'Projections of semi-analytic sets', Punc-
tional Anal. Appl. 2 (1968), 282-291.
[3] KNIGHT, J.F., PILLAY, A., AND STEINHORN, C.: 'Definable
sets in ordered structures I, II', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc.
295 (1986), 565-605.
[4] DRIES, L. VAN DEN: 'Remarks on Tarski's problem concern-
ing (R,+,·,exp)', in G. LOLLI, G. LONGO, AND A. MARCJA
(eds.): Logic Colloquium '82, North-Holland, 1984, pp. 97-
121.
[5] DRIES, L. VAN DEN: 'o-minimal structures', in W. HODGES,
M. HYLAND, C. STEINHORN, AND J. TRUSS (eds.): Logic:
From Foundations to Applications, European Logic Collo-
quium, Oxford, 1996, pp. 137-185.
[6] DRIES, L. VAN DEN, MACINTYRE, A.J., AND MARKER, D.:
'The elementary theory of restricted analytic fields with ex-
ponentiation', Ann. of Math. 140 (1994), 183-205.
[7] WILKIE, A.J.: 'Model completeness results for expansions of
the ordered field of real numbers by restricted Pfaffian func-
tions and the exponential function', J. Amer. Math. Soc.
(forthcoming) .
OCKHAM ALGEBRA
s. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 03C45, 03C60, 06F25, 06F99, 12J15
OCKHAM ALGEBRA - A bounded distributive
lattice (L; 1\, V, 0, 1) together with a dual lattice endo-
morphism I, i.e., a mapping I: L -+ L such that the
de Morgan laws I(x V y) = I(x) 1\ I(y) and I(x V y) =
I(x) I\I(Y) hold for all x, Y E L. The class 0 of Ockham
algebras is equational (i.e., is a variety; cf. also Alge-
braic systems, variety of). The Berman class K p,q
is the subclass obtained by imposing on the dual endo-
morphism I the restriction pp+q = r
(p 2:: 1, q 2:: 0).
The Berman classes are related as follows:
Kp,q ~ Kpl,ql <=> pip', q::; q'.
The smallest Berman class is therefore the class KI,o de-
scribed by the equation p = id and is the class M of de
Morgan algebras. Perhaps the most important Berman
class is KI,I, described by P = I. This can be char-
acterized as the class of Ockham algebras L such that
(I(L); f) E M. It contains also the class MS of MS-
algebras (id ::; p), and, in particular, the class of S of
Stone algebras (add the relation x 1\ I(x) = 0).
An Ockham algebra congruence is an equivalence re-
lation that has the substitution property for both the
lattice operations and the unary operation I. A basic
congruence is cP n , defined by
(x,y) E cP n <=> r(x) = r(y)·
If (L; f) E Kp,q, then, for n ::; q, L/cP n rv r(L) E
Kp,q-n, where rv indicates an isomorphism when n is
even and a dual isomorphism when n is odd.
An Ockham algebra (L; f) is subdirectly irreducible if
it has a smallest non-trivial congruence. Every Berman
class contains only finitely many sub directly irreducible
algebras, each of which is finite.
The class Kw of 0 is given by
(L; f) E Kw ¢} (V'x)(3m =I 0, n) Im+n(x) = r(x)j
it is a locally finite generalized variety that contains all
of the Berman classes. If (Lj f) E K w , then L is subdi-
rectly irreducible if and only if the lattice of congruences
of L reduces to the chain
w = cPo -< cPI -< ... -< cP w -< L
where cP w = Ui~OcPi. If L E Kp,q, then cP w = cP q .
Ockham algebras can also be obtained by topological
duality. Recall that a set D in a partially ordered set
P is called a down-set if a ::; b, bED, implies a ED.
Dually, U C P is called an up-set if a ::; b, b E U, im-
plies b E U. An ordered topological space (Xj T,::;)
(cf. also Order (on a set») is said to be totally order-
disconnected if, whenever x 1:. y, there exists a closed-
and-open down-set U such that y E U and x U. A rt
387
OCKHAM ALGEBRA
Priestley space is a compact totally order-disconnected
space. An Ockham space is a Priestley space endowed
with a continuous order-reversing mapping g. The im-
portant connection with Ockham algebras was estab-
lished by A. Urquhart and is as follows. If (X; g) is an
Ockham space and if O(X) denotes the family of closed-
and-open down-sets of X, then (O(X); f) is an Ock-
ham algebra, where f is given by f(A) = X \ g-l(A).
Conversely, if (L; f) is an Ockham algebra and if Ip(L)
denotes the set of prime ideals of L, then, if Ip(L) is
equipped with the topology T which has as base the
sets {x E Ip(L): x 3 a} and {x E Ip(L): x ~ a} for
every a E L, (Ip(L);g) is an Ockham space, where
g(x) = {a E L: f(a) rf- x}. Moreover, these construc-
tions give a dual categorical equivalence. In the finite
case the topology 'evaporates'; the dual space of a finite
Ockham algebra L consists of the ordered set I of join-
irreducible elements together with the order-reversing
mapping g.
Duality produces further classes of Ockham algebras.
For m > n 2: 0, let P m,n be the subclass of 0 formed
by the algebras whose dual space satisfies gm = gn.
Then every Berman class is a Pm,n; more precisely,
Kp,q = P 2p+ q ,q' If (X; g) is the dual space of (L; f), let,
for every x E X, gW{x} = {gn(x): n EN}. If (L; f) E 0
is finite, then (L; f) is sub directly irreducible if and only
if there exists an x E X such that gW {x} = X. The dual
space of a sub directly irreducible Ockham algebra in
P m,n can therefore be represented as follows (here the
order is ignored and the arrows indicate the action of
.-.-.-
g):
o 1 2 n-1 n
... -.~.-----
m-1. .n+1
m-2.
! \.n+2
\
m-3.""-.......
I
....---.n+3
The subdirectly irreducible Ockham algebra that cor-
responds to this discretely ordered space is denoted by
Lm,n. In particular, (L 3 ,1; f) is the algebra whose dual
..
space 1S
.----.....
p q r
and is described as follows:
d~k
a b c d e
a~c 1 b e b e
k
o o
o [1] BONNECAZE, A., SOLE, P., AND CALDERBANK, A.R.: 'Qua-
The sub directly irreducible algebras in K 1 ,1 = P 3 ,1
are the nineteen subalgebras of (L 3 ,1; f). Using a stan-
dard theorem of B.A. Davey from universal algebra,
it is possible to describe completely the lattice of sub-
varieties of K 1 ,1.
388
References
[1] BERMAN, J.: 'Distributive lattices with an additional unary
operation', Aequationes Math. 16 (1977), 165-171.
[2] BLYTH, T.S., AND VARLET, J.C.: Ockham algebras, Ox-
ford Univ. Press, 1994.
[3] DAVEY, B.A.: 'On the lattice of subvarieties', Houston J.
Math. 5 (1979), 183-192.
[4] PRIESTLEY, H.A.: 'Ordered sets and duality for distributive
lattices', Ann. Discrete Math. 23 (1984),39--60.
[5] URQUHART, A.: 'Lattices with a dual homomorphic opera-
tion', Studia Logica 38 (1979),201-209.
T.S. Blyth
MSC 1991: 06D30
OCTACODE Led by modulation considerations,
G.D. Forney and M.D. Trott discovered in October 1992
that the Nordstrom-Robinson code was obtained by
Gray mapping (cf. also Gray code) a certain Z4 code
of length 8 and minimum Lee distance 6. Seeing the
parity-check matrix of that code,
3 2 3 1 o o
(;
o 3 2 3 1 o
o o 3 2 3 1
o o o 3 2 3
NJ.A. Sloane identified this code with the octacode [4],
which had turned up already in one of the 'holy con-
structions' of the Leech lattice [2, Chapt. 24], in partic-
ular in the construction based on A~. The Leech lattice,
the conjecturally densest sphere packing in 24 dimen-
sions, can be built up from a product of eight copies of
the face-centred cubic lattice A 3 , the conjecturally dens-
est sphere packing in three dimensions. The quotient of
A3 in its dual lattice A3 is a cyclic group of order 4,
and so to get the Leech lattice from A3 one needs a code
of length 8 over Z4.
The preceding matrix shows that the octacode is
an extended cyclic code with parity-check polynomial
1\1 (x) = x 3 + 2x2 + X - 1, which reduced modulo 2 yields
M(x) = x 3 + X + 1, which is the generator matrix of
the [7,4,3] binary Hamming code. It is indeed both the
first quaternary Kerdock code and the first quaternary
Preparata code [5] (d. also Kerdock and Preparata
codes), and as such it is self-dual [3]. It is indeed of type
II, i.e. the Euclidean weight of its words is multiple of 8;
the attached lattice is E 8 , the unique even unimodular
lattice in dimension 8 [1]. Its residue code modulo 2 is
the doubly even binary self-dual code [8,4,4].
1
References
ternary construction of unimodular lattices', IEEE Inform.
Th. 41 (1995), 366-376.
[2] CONWAY, J.H., AND SLOANE, N.J.A.: Sphere packings, lat-
tices and groups, Springer, 1992.
[3] CONWAY, J.H., AND SLOANE, N.J.A.: 'Self-dual codes over
the integers modulo 4', J. Gombin. Th. A 62 (1993), 31-45.

[4] FORNEY, G.D., SLOANE, N.J.A., AND TROTT, M.D.: 'The
Nordstrom Robinson code is the binary image of the octa-
code', in R. CALDERBANK, G.D. FORNEY JR, AND N. MOAY-
ERI (eds.): Coding and Quantization, Amer. Math. Soc., 1993,
pp. 19-26.
[5] HAMMONS, A.R., KUMAR, P.V., CALDERBANK, A.R.,
SLOANE, N.J.A., AND SOLE, P.: 'The Z4-linearity of Kerdock,
Preparata, Goethals, and related codes', IEEE Trans. Infor-
mation Th. 40 (1994), 301-319.
P. Sole
MSC 1991: 94B35, llH56
O'NAN-SCOTT THEOREM - A reduction theorem
for the class of finite primitive permutation groups, dis-
tributing them in subclasses called types whose number
and definition may vary slightly according to the criteria
used and the order in which these are applied. Below, six
types are described by characteristic properties, addi-
tional properties are given, a converse group-theoretical
construction is presented, and a few small examples are
given.
Let n be a finite set and let G be a primitive permu-
tation group on n. Then the stabilizer Go of a point
o belonging to n is a maximal subgroup of G containing
no non-trivial normal subgroup of G. Conversely, and
constructively, this amounts to the data of a group G
and of a maximal subgroup L containing no non-trivial
normal subgroup of G; the elements of n are the left
cosets gL with 9 in G, and the action of G on n is by
left translation.
The reduction is based on a minimal normal subgroup
N of G. Either N is unique or there are two such, each
being regular on n and centralizing the other (cf. also
Centralizer). The socle, soc( G), of G is the direct prod-
uct of those two subgroups. The subgroup N is a direct
product of isomorphic copies of a simple group 8, hence
N ~ 8 1 X ... X 8 k with 8 i ~ 8 for i = 1, ... ,k and
k ~ 1. One puts 8i = 8 1 X .•. X 8 i - 1 X 8 i +1 X ••. X 8k,
i = 1, ... ,k. Fixing a point 0 of n, let hi be the orbit
of 0 under 8i and let nv be the intersection of the hi,
i = 1, ... ,j.
One of the criteria of the reduction is whether 8 is
Abelian or not (cf. Abelian group), and another is to
distinguish the case k = 1 from k > 1. Still another
criterion is to distinguish the case where N is regular
or not. If N is non-Abelian, then G acts transitively
on the set E = {81 , ... ,8d and it induces a permu-
tation group P on it with soc( G) in the kernel of the
action. The nature of P provides another property. A
final property is whether nv is reduced to 0 or equal to
n. The affine type is characterized by the fact that N
is unique and Abelian. Then n is endowed with a struc-
ture of an affine geometry AG(d,p) whose points are
the elements of n, p is a prime number and d is the di-
mension, with d ~ 1. Thus Inl = pd and G is a subgroup
O'NAN-SCOTT THEOREM
of the affine group AG L( d, p) containing the group N of
all translations. Also, the stabilizer Go of 0 is an irre-
ducible subgroup (cf. also Irreducible matrix group)
of GL(d,p).
Conversely, for a finite vector space of dimension d
over the prime field of order p and an irreducible sub-
group H of GL(d,p), the extension of H by the trans-
lations provides a primitive permutation group of affine
type.
Examples are the symmetric and alternating groups
of degree less than or equal to four (cf. Symmet-
ric group; Alternating group), and the groups
AGL(d, q) where q is a prime power.
The almost-simple type is characterized by k = 1,
soc(G) = N, and N non-Abelian. It follows that N is
not regular and that 8 :::; G :::; Aut(8); namely, G is
isomorphic to an almost-simple group.
Conversely, the data of an almost-simple group and
one of its maximal subgroups not containing its non-
Abelian simple socle determines a primitive group of
almost-simple type.
Examples are the symmetric and alternating groups
of degree ~ 5 (cf. Symmetric group; Alternating
group), the group PG L( n, q) acting on the projective
subspaces of a fixed dimension, etc.
The holomorphic simple type is characterized by k =
1 and the fact that there are two non-Abelian regular
minimal normal subgroups. Moreover, Inl = 181, and G
is described as the set of mappings from 8 onto 8 of the
form 9 -+ agSb, where a, bE 8 and s varies in some sub-
group of Aut(8). Conversely, for any non-Abelian simple
group 8 the action on the set of elements of 8 provided
by the mappings 9 -+ agSb, where a, bE 8 and s varies
in some subgroup of Aut(8), gives a primitive group of
holomorphic simple type.
Examples occur for the degree 60 with 8 = Alt(5),
for the degree 168 with 8 = P8L(3, 2), etc.
The twisted wreath product type is characterized by
the fact of 8 being non-Abelian, N being regular and
unique. Then Inl = 18k l, k ~ 6. The stabilizer Go is
isomorphic to some transitive group of degree k whose
point stabilizer has a composition factor isomorphic to
8. The smallest example has degree 606 with 8 ~ Alt(t).
A converse construction is not attempted here.
For the next descriptions of types some preliminary
notation and terminology is needed.
Let A be a set of cardinality a ~ 2 and let n ~ 2
be some integer. Consider the Cartesian product, or,
better, the Cartesian geometry, which is the set n = An
equipped with the obvious Cartesian subspaces obtained
by the requirement that some coordinates take constant
values, and with the obvious Cartesian parallelism. Each
class of parallels is a partition of n. If 0 is a point of
389
O'NAN-SCOTT THEOREM
n, then there are n Cartesian hyperplanes containing
o and each of the 2n Cartesian subspaces containing
o corresponds to a unique subset of that set of hyper-
planes. Aut(An) denotes the automorphism group. For
a fixed coordinate i (1 S; i S; n) there is a subgroup
8 i of Aut(An) fixing each coordinate except i, and 8 i
is isomorphic to the symmetric group of degree a. The
direct product 8 1 X ••• X 8 n is the automorphism group
mapping each Cartesian subspace to one of its parallels.
Also, Aut(An) induces the symmetric group of degree n
on the set {8I, ... ,8n }.
The product action of a wreath product type is charac-
terized by k > 1, 8 non-Abelian and nv = {O}. Then P
is primitive. Also, 8 i is intransitive, the set n bears the
structure of a Cartesian geometry invariant under G and
whose Cartesian hyperplanes are the hi and their trans-
forms under G, and hi is parallel to its transforms under
8f. Each 8i leaves each Cartesian line in some parallel
class invariant. The group stabilizing a Cartesian line
induces on it some primitive group with 8 i as minimal
normal subgroup, which is a group of almost-simple type
or of holomorphic simple type. The distinction between
these two cases is characterized by N being not regular
or being regular, respectively.
Conversely, given a primitive group X of almost-
simple type or holomorphic simple type with minimal
normal subgroup 8 on the set A and a primitive group
P of degree k > 1, these data provide a wreath prod-
uct group G = (Xl X ••• x Xk) wr P with a product
action on the Cartesian geometry A k = n, in which
N = 8 1 X ... X 8k is a minimal normal subgroup of G
and the hi are the Cartesian hyperplanes of n containing
a given point.
Examples occur for k = 2, A of cardinality five and
G equal to Alt(5) or Sym(5); also, for A of cardinality
six and G one of Alt(6) or Sym(6), etc.
The diagonal type is characterized by the fact k > 1,
8 is non-Abelian, N is not regular, and nv = n. Then
P is primitive. Also, each nr is transitive on nand 8 i is
semi-regular. Moreover, Inl = 18I k - l , No = 8 i and 8f
is regular for all i = 1, ... ,n. Let a 'line' be any orbit
of some 8i . Call two lines 'parallel' if they are orbits of
the same 8 i . For each i, the lines that are not orbits of
8i constitute the Cartesian lines of a Cartesian space of
dimension k -Ion n. This geometric structure is called
a diagonal space.
A converse construction is not given here. The small-
est examples occur for 8 = Alt(5) and k = 3, hence for
Inl = 3,600.
See also: Permutation group; Primitive group of
permutations; Symmetric group; Simple group;
Wreath product.
References
390
[1] ASCHBACHER, M.: 'The subgroup structure of the finite
classical groups by Peter Kleidman and Martin Liebeck',
Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 25 (1991), 200-204.
[2] BUEKENHOUT, F.: 'On a theorem of O'Nan and Scott', Bull.
Soc. Math. Belg. B 40 (1988), 1-9.
[3] DIXON, J.D., AND MORTIMER, B.: Permutation groups, GTM.
Springer, 1996.
F. Buekenhout
MSC 1991: 20B15
ONE-FACTOR of a graph - Suppose G is a (simple)
graph. A matching in G is a set of pairwise-disjoint
edges in G. A one-factor or spanning matching is a set
of edges such that every vertex of G occurs in exactly
one edge.
Not every graph G has a one-factor. One obvious nec-
essary condition is that G has no connected component
with an odd number of vertices. However this is not a
sufficient condition. The smallest graph connected with
an even number of vertices but no one-factor is:
One-factors were first studied by W.T. Tutte, who
proved the following characterization. If W is any sub-
set of the vertex set V (G) of G, let G - W denote the
graph constructed from G by deleting Wand all edges
touching members of W. The components of G - W
are odd or even according as they have an odd or even
number of vertices. Write 4>(W) for the number of odd
components of G - W.
Tutte's theorem [6]: G contains a one-factor if and
only if 4>(W) S; IWI whenever W S; V(G).
A consequence is that for n even, any regular graph
of degree n - 1 on 2n vertices has a one-factor.
A bridge in a graph G is an edge whose deletion dis-
connects G.
Petersen's theorem [4]: A bridgeless cubic graph con-
tains a one-factor.
This has been generalized by T. Schonberger [5], who
proved that every edge of a bridgeless cubic graph lies
in a one-factor. C. Berge [1] and A.B. Cruse [3] proved
another generalization. If W is any set of vertices of G,
let za(W) be the number of edges of G with exactly one
end-point in W.
The Berge-Cruse theorem: If G is a regular graph
of degree d with an even number of vertices, and if
za(W) ~ d - 1 for all odd-order subsets W of V(G),
then each edge of G belongs to some one-factor.
Consequences are [3]:

1) if G is a regular graph of degree d with 2m vertices
and d 2: m (m odd) or d 2: m - 1 (m even), then every
edge of G belongs to some one-factor;
2) if G is a regular graph of valency d with m vertices
and d 2: m 2: 2, then G contains at least
d-m 5 (m+5)J
+ 2l 112
disjoint one-factors.
A number of results have been proved concerning
whether a graph of a certain description (usually a quite
sparse graph) contains a one-factor.
Important references include [2], and [7).
References
[1] BERGE, C.: Graphs and hyperyraphs, North-Holland, 1973.
(Translated from the French.)
[2] BOSAK, J.: Decomposition of graphs, Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1990.
[3] CRUSE, A.B.: 'A note on one-factors in certain regular multi-
graphs', Discrete Math. 18 (1977), 213-216.
[4] PETERSEN, J.: 'Die Theorie der regularen Graphes', Acta
Math. 15 (1981), 193-220.
[5] SCHONBERGER, T.: 'Ein Beweis des Peterschen Graphen-
satzes', Acta Sci. Math. Szeged 1 (1934), 51-57.
[6] TUTTE, W.T.: 'The factorizations of linear graphs', J. Lon-
don Math. Soc. 22 (1947), 459-474.
[7] WALLIS, W.D.: One-factorizations, Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1997.
W.D. Wallis
MSC 1991: 05C70
ONE-FACTORIZATION of a graph - If G is a graph,
then a factorization of G is a set of spanning subgraphs
of G that are pairwise edge-disjoint (i.e., no two have
a common edge) and whose union is all of G. A one-
factorization of G is a decomposition of the edge-set of
G into edge-disjoint one-factors (cf. One-factor).
In order to have a one-factorization, a graph must
have an even number of vertices and must be regular: if
G decomposes into d disjoint one-factors, then every ver-
tex of G must lie on precisely d edges. These conditions
are not sufficient, since there is the following theorem:
A regular graph with a bridge (cf. One-factor) can-
not have a one-factorization (except for the trivial case
where the graph is itself a one-factor).
If the degree increases with the number of vertices,
the situation is different. It has been conjectured that a
regular graph with 2n vertices and degree greater than n
will always have a one-factorization; this has only been
proved in a very few cases, such as degree 2n - 4, degree
2n - 5, and degree at least 12n/7, [7], [23). On the other
hand, there are regular graphs with degree near to half
the number of vertices and without one-factorizations.
One can prove the existence of one-factorizations in
many classes of graphs. Of basic importance are the
ONE-FACTORIZATION
complete graphs. The complete graph K 2n has a one-
factorization for all n. The n-vertex cycle en has a one-
factorization if and only if n is even. The regular com-
plete bipartite graph Kn,n (cf. Graph, bipartite) al-
ways has a one-factorization. One-factorizations of com-
plete bipartite graphs are equivalent to Latin squares (cf.
Latin square).
Some other factorizations of complete graphs are im-
portant. A near-one-factor in K 2n - 1 is a set of n - 1
edges which cover all but one vertex. A set of near-
one-factors which covers every edge precisely once is
called a near-one-factorization. K 2n - 1 has a near-one-
factorization for every n. It is in fact obvious that any
near-one-factorization of K 2n - 1 can be converted to a
one-factorization of K2n by adding a vertex 00 and join-
ing 00 to the isolated vertex in each factor. It follows
that each vertex appears precisely once as an isolate in
a near-one-factorization. (This also follows immediately
by adding degrees.)
Theoretical considerations aside, it is often impor-
tant to be able to construct a one-factorization (or a set
of one-factorizations) of K 2n , for a particular value 2n.
A hill-climbing algorithm was described by J.H. Dinitz
and D.R. Stinson [13). In order to use the hill-climbing
approach, it is necessary to formulate the search for a
one-factorization as an optimization problem. One first
defines a matching to be a set T of pairs of the form
{Ii, (x, y)}, where each edge (x, y) of K2n occurs as the
latter entry in at most one of the pairs, and where T con-
tains no two pairs {Ii, (x, y)} and {fi, (x, z)} with y # z.
The cost c(T) of a matching T is n(2n-1) -ITI. Then T
is a one-factorization if and only if c(T) = o. There is no
guarantee that repeated applications of these heuristics
will produce a one-factorization; however, Dinitz and
Stinson [13) report no failures in over a million trials.
A starter in an Abelian group G of order 2n - 1 is
an ordered partition of the non-zero members of G into
2-sets {Xl, Yl}, . .. ,{ Xn-l, Yn-l} with the property that
the 2n - 2 differences ±(Xl - yd,··· ,±(Xn-l - Yn-l)
are all different and therefore contain every non-zero
element of G precisely once. From a starter F one con-
structs a set of 2n-1 factors by systematically adding el-
ements of G to F. This process is called developing F in
G. Many useful small examples of one-factorizations are
constructed using starters. The starter consisting of all
the pairs {x, -x}, where x ranges through the non-zero
elements of some group, is called a patterned starter.
There is only one one-factor in K 2 , and it (trivially)
constitutes the unique one-factorization. Similarly, K4
has just three one-factors, and together they form a
factorization. There are six different one-factorizations
of K 6 , 6240 of Kg, 1.255.566.720 of KlO [14], and
391
ONE-FACTORIZATION
252.282.619.805.368.320 of K12 [12]; no larger numbers
are known.
Two one-factorizations F and 11. of G, say
are called isomorphic if there exists a mapping </> from
the vertex-set of G onto itself such that
where Fd) is the set of all edges {x</>,y</>}, where {x,y}
is an edge in F. There is a unique one-factorization of
K 2n , up to isomorphism, for 2n = 2,4,6. There are ex-
actly six for Kg [11], 396 of KlO; they are listed in [14]
(see also [15]) and 526.915.620 isomorphism classes of
one-factorizations of K12 [12]. To discuss isomorphism
of factorizations, various invariants have been used. The
number of isomorphism classes of one-factorizations of
K 2n tends to infinity as n does [4], [19].
An object whose only automorphism is the identity
is called rigid or asymmetric. There are no rigid one-
factorizations on 2, 4, 6, or 8 points. However, there is
a rigid one-factorization of K 2n whenever 2n 2: 10. In
fact, the number of isomorphism classes of rigid one-
factorizations of K 2n goes to infinity with n.
A one-factorization is called perfect if the union of
any two factors is a Hamilton cycle (cf. Hamiltonian
tour). Perfect one-factorizations exist for many orders,
and no order n (greater than I) is known for which no
perfect one-factorization of K2n exists, but the existence
question is not yet (1996) settled.
The following theorem holds [2], [3]: If p is an odd
prime, then Kp+1 and K 2p have perfect factorizations.
Apart from these two constructions, all other known
perfect one-factorizations have been found by ad-hoc
methods, using starters.
Various techniques have been studied which produce
a new graph from two given graphs. There is some in-
terest in the following problems: Given a form of graph
product, what conditions on graphs G and H imply that
the product of G and H has a one-factorization? This
has been studied for Cartesian products, wreath prod-
ucts and tensor products. References include [1], [17],
[16], [18], [22], [26], [30].
One-factorizations are frequently used to schedule
sporting tournaments. One considers a graph whose ver-
tices are competing teams; an edge indicates that the
two teams must play against each other. The set of
games held simultaneously is called a round. Suppose
each team must compete in every round. Clearly, the
games that form a round form a one-factor in the un-
derlying graph. If a round robin tournament for 2n
teams is to be played in the minimum number of ses-
sions, one requires a one-factorization of K 2n . If there
392
are 2n - 1 teams, the relevant structure is a near-one-
factorization of K 2n - 1 . In each case the factorization is
called the schedule of the tournament.
Papers on this application include [5], [24], [25], [27],
[8], [9], [10].
Some general surveys on one-factorizations are [21],
[28] and [29]. Books on related topics include [6] and
[20].
References
[1] ALSPACH, B., AND GEORGE, J.C.: 'One-factorization of ten-
sor products of graphs': Topics in Gombinatorics and Gmph
Theory, Physica-Verlag, 1990, pp. 41-46.
[2] ANDERSON, B.A.: 'Finite topologies and Hamiltonian paths',
J. Gombin. Th. 14B (1973), 87-93.
[3] ANDERSON, B.A.: 'Symmetry groups of some perfect one-
factorization of complete graphs', Discrete Math. 18 (1977),
227-234.
[4] ANDERSON, B.A., BARGE, M.M., AND MORSE, D.: 'A re-
cursive construction of asymmetric 1-factorizations', Aequa-
tiones Math. 15 (1977),201-211.
[5] BEECHAM, A.F., AND HURLEY, A.C.: 'A scheduling problem
with a simple graphical solution', J. Austmlian Math. Soc.
21B (1980),486-495.
[6] BOSAK, J.: Decomposition of gmphs, Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1990.
[7] CHETWYND, A.G., AND HILTON, A.J.W.: 'Regular graphs of
high degree are 1-factorizable', Proc. London Math. Soc. (3)
50 (1985), 193-206.
[8] WERRA, D. DE: 'Scheduling in sports': Studies on Gmphs and
Discrete Progmmming, North-Holland, 1981, pp. 381-395.
[9] WERRA, D. DE: 'On the multiplication of divisions: the use of
graphs for sports scheduling', Networks 15 (1985), 125-136.
[10] WERRA, D. DE, JACOT-DESCOMBES, L., AND MASSON, P.:
'A constrained sports scheduling problem', Discrete Applied
Math. 26 (1990),41-49.
[11] DICKSON, L.E., AND SAFFORD, F.H.: 'Solution to problem 8
(group theory)', Amer. Math. Monthly 13 (1906), 150-15I.
[12] DINITZ, J.H., GARNICK, D.K., AND MCKAY, B.D.: 'There
are 526,915,620 non-isomorphic one-factorizations of K 12',
J. Gombin. Designs 2 (1994), 273-285.
[13] DINITZ, J.H., AND STINSON, D.R.: 'A hill-climbing algorithm
for the construction of one-factorizations and room squares',
SIAM J. Algebmic and Discrete Methods 8 (1987),430-438.
[14] GELLING, E.N.: 'On one-factorizations of a complete graph
and the relationship to round-robin schedules', Ph.D. The-
sis, Univ. Victoria, Ganada (1973).
[15] GELLING, E.N., AND ODEH, R.E.: 'On 1-factorizations of the
complete graph and the relationship to round-robin sched-
ules', Gongressus Numemntium 9 (1974), 213-22I.
[16] HIMELWRIGHT, P., WALLIS, W.D., AND WILLIAMSON, J.E.:
'On one-factorizations of compositions of graphs', J. Gmph
Th. 6 (1982), 75-80, Erratum: J. Graph Theory 8 (1984),
185-186.
[17] HIMELWRIGHT, P.E., AND WILLIAMSON, J.E.: 'On 1-
factorability and edge-colorability of cartesian products of
graphs', Elemente der Math. 29 (1974), 66-67.
[18] KOTziG, A.: 'l-factorizations of cartesian products of regular
graphs', J. Gmph Th. 3 (1979), 23-34.
[19] LINDNER, C.C., MENDELSOHN, E., AND ROSA, A.: 'On the
number of 1-factorizations of the complete graph', J. Gom-
bin. Th. 20A (1976), 265-282.

[20] LOVASZ, L., AND PLUMMER, M.D.: Matching theory, North-
Holland, 1986.
[21] MENDELSOHN, E., AND ROSA, A.: 'One-factorizations of the
complete graph ~ a survey', J. Gmph Th.9 (1985), 43~65.
[22] PARKER, E.T.: 'Edge-coloring numbers of some regular
graphs', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 37 (1973), 423~424.
[23] ROSA, A., AND WALLIS, W.D.: 'Premature sets of I-factors,
or, how not to schedule round-robin tournaments', Discrete
Applied Math. 4 (1982), 291~297.
[24] RUSSELL, K.G.: 'Balancing carry-over effects in round robin
tournaments', Biometrika 67 (198), 127~131.
[25] STRALEY, T.H.: 'Scheduling designs for a league tournament',
Ars Combin. 15 (1983), 193~200.
[26] WALLIS, W.D.: 'One-factorizations of wreath products':
Combinatorial Mathematics VIII, Vo!' 884 of Lecture
Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1981, pp. 337~345.
[27] WALLIS, W.D.: 'A tournament problem', J. Austmlian Math.
Soc. 24B (1983), 289~291.
[28] WALLIS, W.D.: 'One-factorizations of complete graphs': Con-
tempomry Design Theory, Wiley, 1992, pp. 593~631.
[29] WALLIS, W.D.: One-factorizations, Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1997.
[30] WALLIS, W.D., AND WANG, Z.: 'On one-factorizations of
cartesian products', Congressus Numemntium 49 (1985),
237~ 245.
W.D. Wallis
MSC 1991: 05C70
OUTLIER (in statistics) - Any observation in a set
of data that is inconsistent with the remainder of the
observations in that data set. The outlier is inconsistent
in the sense that it is not indicative of possible future
behaviour of data sets coming from the same source.
Outliers sometimes go by the name of contaminants,
spurious or rogue observations, or discordant values.
Valid inferences concerning a particular data set can
only be made once one first determines which observa-
tions, if any, are potential outliers, and how these ob-
servations should be treated in the subsequent analysis.
These considerations lead to three main issues associ-
ated with outliers: outlier testing, efficient or accom-
modative estimation, and robust estimation.
Before these issues can be discussed, however, one
needs to formulate a mathematical model that describes
outliers. One of the most commonly used models, which
was originally introduced in its most general form in [4],
is called the slippage model. In this model it is assumed
that, out of n observations, n - p arise from some prob-
ability distribution with probability density function
f(x) (cf. also Density ofa probability distribution),
while the remaining observations (the outliers) come
from some modified form of the original distribution,
usually denoted by g(x). For example, f(x) could be the
normal N(p" a 2 ) probability density function (cf. Nor-
mal distribution), while g(x) could be N(p,+aa,a 2 ).
Another model, called the mixture model, assumes that,
for each observation, there is a certain probability A that
OUTLIER
the observation comes from the probability density func-
tion f(x) and a probability (1 - A) that it comes from
the probability density function g(x). There are many
other outlier models; they can all be found in [1] or [6],
which are both general reference books on outliers.
The first step in effectively dealing with outliers is to
perform a statistical test to determine which observa-
tions are potential outliers. In this regard, many test sta-
tistics are available for a variety of distributions, many of
which have been derived using the maximum-likelihood
ratio principle with one of the above-mentioned outlier
models as the alternative model. For example, the test
statistic T = (Yn:n - Y n )/8 (where Yn:n is the largest
observation, Y n is the average of the observations, and
8 2 is the sample variance) is the maximum-likelihood
ratio test (cf. also Likelihood-ratio test) for the nor-
mal model when the alternative model is the slippage
outlier model given in the example above with p = 1
and a > O. Unusually large values of T (given in [1])
will lead to declaring the largest observation to be an
outlier.
Once one has determined that there are potential out-
liers in the sample, there are two ways to proceed. The
first way involves the use of robust methods, that is,
methods of analysis that will be minimally affected by
the presence of outliers. For example, to estimate the
population mean p, based on a sample of observations,
one might use a trimmed mean,
1
Tr,n = --2-(Yr+1:n + ... + Yn- r:n )
n- r
for r 2: 1, where Y1:n :S ... :S Yn :n are the ordered
observations, rather than the full sample mean (which
is the trimmed mean with r = 0). The trimmed mean
excludes entirely the r largest and r smallest observa-
tions (which are most likely to be the outliers under the
slippage model) from the analysis, and can therefore be
expected to perform better than the full sample mean
when outliers are indeed present. The performance of an
estimator can be assessed based on its bias and mean-
square error (cf. also Biased estimator; Error). Such
comparisons can be found in [4] and [5] for the single
outlier (p = 1) normal model. For example, using the
slippage model described above when n = 10, the full
sample mean TO,lO has mean-square error 0.10 a 2 when
no outliers are present and 0.26a 2 when there is a single
outlier in the sample with a = 4.0. On the other hand,
the mean-square error of T1,lO is 0.105 a 2 when no out-
liers are present, and only increases to 0.149 a 2 when
there is a single outlier with a = 4.0. Thus, the robust
estimator T1,1O provides protection (considerably lower
mean-square error) against the presence of outliers, for a
premium (slightly higher mean-square error when there
are no outliers).
393
OUTLIER
Recent advances in this area, which deal with the
multiple outlier situation (p ~ 1) for several different
parametric models, can be found in [2] and [3].
The second method for dealing with outliers, known
as efficient estimation, involves looking for a specific es-
timator that is optimal for the given data set. In this
method, the estimator to be used will vary for different
data sets, depending on the size of the sample, the num-
ber of potential outliers and how pronounced the out-
liers are. In fact, when outliers are present, the trimmed
mean is not always the best estimator. The reason for
this is the fact that the trimmed mean entirely excludes
observations that may still contain some useful informa-
tion about the parameter. A less drastic alternative to
the trimmed mean involves the use of an estimator that
includes the possible outliers, but gives them less weight.
One such estimator is the linearly weighted mean,
1 in R.L. LAUNER AND G.N. WILKINSON (eds.): Robustness in
L =
c
-(Yl:n + 3Y2:n + 5Y3 :n + ... + 3Yn - 1:n + Y n :n ),
which can be used as a robust estimator of the mean
f.L for the normal model. An example of efficient esti-
mation would be to choose between the trimmed mean
and linearly weighted mean, depending on which esti-
mator performs the best (lowest mean-square error) for
the given data set. Tables to facilitate such a decision for
the exponential model, f(x) = (l/(J)e- x / o, can be found
in [2]. There it is shown that when the outliers are not
394
very pronounced, a weighted type of estimator of (J is
actually more efficient than a trimmed mean, while the
reverse is true when the outliers are far removed from
the remainder of the data.
References
[1] BARNETT, V., AND LEWIS, T.: Outliers in statistical data,
third ed., Wiley, 1994.
[2] CHILDS, A., AND BALAKRISHNAN, N.: 'Relations for single mo-
ments of order statistics from non-identical logistic random
variables and robust estimation of the location and scale pa-
rameters in the presence of multiple outliers', in C.R. RAO
AND G.S. MADDALA (eds.): Handbook of Statistics, Elsevier
Sci., 1997.
[3] CHILDS, A., AND BALAKRISHNAN, N.: 'Some extensions in the
robust estimation of parameters of exponential and double
exponential distributions in the presence of multiple outliers',
in C.R. RAO AND G.S. MADDALA (eds.): Handbook of Statis-
tics, Elsevier Sci., 1997.
[4] DAVID, H.A.: 'Robust estimation in the presence of outliers',
Statistics, Acad. Press, 1979, pp. 61-74.
[5] DAVID, H.A., AND SHU, V.S.: 'Robustness of location estima-
tors in the presence of an outlier', in H.A. DAVID (ed.): Con-
tributions to Survey Sampling and Applied Statistics: Papers
in Honour of H. O. Hartley, Acad. Press, 1978, pp. 235-250.
[6] HAWKINS, D.M.: Identification of outliers, Chapman and
Hall, 1980.
N. Balakrishnan
A. Childs
MSC 1991: 62F35
--------p--------
p-ADICALLY CLOSED FIELD - A notion introduced
by J. Ax and S. Kochen in [1] and generalized by A.
Prestel and P. Roquette in [8]. A field K of characteris-
tic 0 with a valuation v is called finitely ramified if K
contains a prime element 7f whose value v(7f) is a small-
est positive element of the value group vK, and there
are a prime number p E Z c K and a natural number e
such that v(p) = e· v(7f). In this case, the residue field
has characteristic p. If, in addition, the residue field is
finite, say, of cardinality pt, then (K,v) is called a p-
valued field, and the natural number e . f is called the
p-rank of (K, v). It is equal to the dimension of 0/ pO
as a vector space over the field with p elements, where
o denotes the valuation ring of v. The p-rank is 1 if and
only if p is a prime element and the residue field is the
field with p elements; this is the case considered by Ax
and Kochen.
A p-valued field is called p-adically closed if it does
not admit any non-trivial p-valued algebraic extension
of the same p-rank (cf. also Extension of a field).
This holds if and only if v is Henselian and vK is a
Z-group, that is, the quotient of vK modulo the sub-
group generated by the smallest positive element is a
divisible group. The field Qp of p-adic numbers is p-
adically closed of p-rank 1, and the same holds for the
relative algebraic closure of the field Q of rational num-
bers in Qp. There are also p-adically closed fields whose
value group is not an Archimedean group; they can
be constructed by general valuation theory using the
above criterion, but their existence can also be shown by
a model-theoretic argument. Every extension of degree
d of Qp is p-adically closed of p-rank d. In the literature,
p-valuations and p-adically closed fields are often tacitly
assumed to have p-rank 1.
In many respects, the theory of p-adically closed fields
is similar to that of real closed fields (cf. [7] or Real
closed field).
Model theory. Let p be a fixed prime number. Ax and
Kochen [1] and Yu. Ershov [4] showed that the elemen-
tary theory of all p-adically closed fields of p-rank 1 is
model complete and complete; hence, it is the same as
the elementary theory of Qp. Since a recursive set of ax-
ioms can be derived from the above characterization, it
follows that their elementary theory is decidable. It does
not admit elimination of quantifiers in the language
of valued fields (cf. Model theory of valued fields).
However, in 1976 A. Macintyre showed that elimination
of quantifiers can be obtained if one adjoins to the lan-
guage, for every n 2: 2, a power predicate P n interpreted
by Pn(x) {:} 3y(yn = x).
Prestel and Roquette [8] generalized model complete-
ness, elimination of quantifiers and decidability to the p-
adically closed fields of fixed p-rank. For the p-adically
closed fields of fixed p-rank with prime element p, com-
pleteness has been shown .
Macintyre applied elimination of quantifiers to
show that every infinite definable subset of a finite-
dimensional Qp-vector space has a non-empty interior.
J. Denef gave another application in [3] (see also [7];
Elimination of quantifiers).
p-adic versions of Hilbert's 17th problem and
Hilbert's Nullstellensatz. An answer to Hilbert's
17th problem (see Real closed field) was given by
E. Artin in 1927. A. Robinson reproved (in 1955)
the result using the model completeness of real closed
fields. Using the model completeness of p-adically closed
fields, Kochen (1967) and Roquette (1971) proved a p-
adic analogue which characterizes the rational functions
f E K(X l , ... , Xn) over a p-adically closed field K
which are integral definite, that is, for every choice of
al, ... ,an E K, f(al, ... ,an) lies in the valuation ring
OK of K whenever it is defined. For K of p-rank 1 this
characterization uses the K ochen operator
I x
()
1
= -p(x x - x
p
p -x)2-1
= -p1 (
p(x) - -
1
p(x)
)-1
p-ADICALLY CLOSED FIELD
where p(x) = xP-x is the Artin-Schreier operator. Now
I is integral definite if and only if it is of the form
r.p
1=I+p'lj;
with
The Kochen operator is the p-adic analogue of the
square operator in the real case, and the above form
is the analogue of the sum of squares.
The p-adic version of Hilbert's Nullstellensatz (cf.
Hilbert theorem) reads as follows. Suppose that
h, ... ,1m, 9 E K[Xl"" ,Xn]. If 9 vanishes at all com-
mon roots of h, ... ,1m in Kn, then some power gN
admits a representation gN = Adl + ... + Amlm with
Ai E R·K[X1 , ... ,Xn ], where R consists of all quotients
r.p
l+p'lj;
with
The ring R is called the Kochen ring of K(Xl, ... ,Xn ).
The Kochen operator and Kochen ring can also be
used to characterize the lormally p-adic fields, i.e., the
fields admitting at least one p-valuation. For this and
general versions of the above, see [8].
Galois group of Qp. The (absolute) Galois group of
Qp (that is, the Galois group of the algebraic closure
of Qp over Qp) was determined by U. J annsen and K.
Wingberg in [5]. Like real closed fields, p-adically closed
fields of p-rank 1 are also characterized by their Galois
group: any field with the same Galois group as Qp is
p-adically closed of p-rank 1. This was proved for fields
of algebraic numbers by J. Neukirch in 1969, and by F.
Pop in 1988 for Henselian fields with residue fields of
positive characteristic. In 1995, I. Efrat proved the re-
sult for p =I- 2. The full result was proved by J. Koenigs-
mann [6], who gave a criterion for a field K to admit
a p-Henselian valuation, that is, a valuation having a
unique extension to the maximal Galois-p-extension of
K, where p is a prime number different from the charac-
teristic of K. For p = 2, this criterion was already given
by R. Ware in 1981.
References
[IJ Ax, J., AND KOCHEN, S.: 'Diophantine problems over local
fields II', Amer. J. Math. 87 (1965), 631-648.
[2J COHEN, P.: 'Decision procedures for real and p-adic fields',
Comm. Pure and Appl. Math. 22 (1969), 131-151.
[3J DENEF, J.: 'The rationality of the Poincare series associated
to the p-adic points on a variety', Invent. Math. 77 (1984),
1-23.
[4J ERSHOV, Yu.L.: 'On the elementary theory of maximal
normed fields', Soviet Math. Dokl. 6 (1965), 1390-1393.
(Translated from the Russian.)
396
[5J JANNSEN, V., AND WINGBERG, K.: 'Die Struktur der abso-
luten Galoisgruppe p-adischer Zahlkiirper', Invent. Math. 70
(1982), 71-98.
[6J KOENIGSMANN, J.: 'From p-rigid elements to valuations (with
a Galois-characterization of p-adic fields)', J. Reine Angew.
Math. 465 (1995), 165-182.
[7J MACINTYRE, A.: 'Twenty years ofp-adic model theory': Logic
Colloquium '84, Amsterdam, 1986, pp. 121-153.
[8J PRESTEL, A., AND ROQUETTE, P.: Formally p-adic fields,
Vol. 1050 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1984.
F. - V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 12JlO, 12L12, 03C60
p-RANK (in group theory) - Let p > 0 be a prime
number. The p-rank of a finite group G is the largest
integer n such that G has an elementary Abelian sub-
group of order pn (cf. Abelian group). A p-group is el-
ementary Abelian if it is a direct product of cyclic groups
of order p (cf. Cyclic group). A finite group G has p-
rank 1 if and only if either the Sylow p-subgroup (cf.
Sylow subgroup) of G is cyclic or p = 2 and the Sy-
low p-subgroup of G is generalized quarternion. There
are several variations on the definition. For example, the
normal p-rank of G is the maximum of the p-ranks of
the Abelian normal subgroups of G (cf. Normal sub-
group). The sectional p-rank of G is the maximum of
the p-ranks of the Abelian sections B / A for subgroups
A <I B of G.
The notion of p-rank was used extensively to sort
out cases in the classification of finite simple groups (cf.
Simple finite group). Some details can be found in
[2] and [3]. In particular, see [3, Sect. 1.5]. In [2], the
word 'depth' is used and 'rank' is reserved for a different
concept. In the cohomology of groups, a celebrated
theorem of D. Quillen [4] states that the p-rank of G is
the same as the Krull dimension (cf. Dimension) of the
modulo p cohomology ring of G. The connection can be
described as follows. Suppose k is a field of characteristic
p. Let E be an elementary Abelian subgroup of order pn.
By direct calculation it can be shown that the cohomol-
ogy ring of E modulo its radical is a polynomial ring in n
variables. Hence its maximal ideal spectrum VE(k) is an
affine space of dimension n. Quillen's theorem says that
the restriction mapping reSa,E: H*(G, k) ---+ H*(E, k)
induces a finite-to-one mapping of varieties
resC,E: VE(k) ---+ Va(k)
and, moreover, Va(k) is the union of the images for all
E. Therefore, the dimension of Va(k), which is the Krull
dimension of H*(G, k), is the maximum of the p-ranks
of the subgroups E. The theorem has found many ap-
plications in modular representation theory (see [1]).
References
[IJ BENSON, D. J.: Representations and cohomology II: cohomol-
ogy of groups and modules, Cambridge Vniv. Press, 1991.
[2J GORENSTEIN, D.: Finite groups, Harper and Row, 1968.
 PAINLEVE-TYPE EQUATIONS

[3] GORENSTEIN, D.: Finite groups, Plenum, 1982. as a means to predict whether an equation is likely to
[4] QUILLEN, D.G.: 'The spectrum of an equivalent cohomology be integrable. There are numerous examples of the suc-
ring', Ann. of Math. 94 (1971), 549-602.
J. Carlson
cess of the method. See [1], [2] for other examples and
MSC 1991: 20Dxx, 20C20 references.
A drawback to applying the above test to a given
PAINLEVE TEST, Painleve analysis- Suppose one partial differential equation is the need to reduce the
reduces a partial differential equation to an ordinary dif- equation by (similarity) reduction to an ordinary differ-
ferential equation by (similarity) reduction. The ques- ential equation. Sometimes there no reductions possible
tion arises as to whether the ordinary differential equa- or the reductions are trivial. In [5] (some other examples
tion possesses movable critical points (cf. Movable sin- are discussed in [2]) an extension of the above Painleve
gular point). If the equation happens to be of second test to partial differential equations was developed. It
order, one can consult [4]. If one can transform the equa- is very similar in spirit to the tests developed for ordi-
tion into one of the 50 canonical types, then the equation nary differential equations in the sense that one looks
has the Painleve property (cf. Painleve-type equa- for Laurent-type series (as a function of several com-
tions). If the equation cannot be transformed to one plex variables). The method has been used successfully
of those on the list, then it is not of Painleve type. in many examples.
If the equation is of third or higher order, a proce- There has been considerable research in Painleve-
dure described in [1], [2] determines if the neighbour- type equations from the 1980s onwards. Despite the fact
hood of an algebraic singularity will be single valued that the analysis and studies are not fully comprehensive
(i.e. if it possesses a Laurent series). The method is sim- (i.e. they do not cover all possible singular points) and
ilar to that proposed by S. Kovalevskaya (cf. Cauchy- although at times it is purely formal (tests for partial
Kovalevskaya theorem). A typical calculation runs differential equations), nevertheless it is undeniable that
as follows. 'in practice' the Painleve tests have been remarkable in
Generalized cylindrical Korteweg-de Vries equations their ability to be able to predict whether an equation
(KdV, cf. Korteweg-de Vries equation) are of the is integrable. The main issue is this. If a partial or or-
form dinary differential equation has a sufficiently 'simple'
au au 03 u ex complex structure, i.e. if all its solutions are single val-
at + 6u ax + ox3 + i U = 0, ued or transformable to such, then it is integrable in the
where ex is an arbitrary constant. This equation admits sense of complex variables. Its solutions can be eventu-
a similarity solution: ally continued and connected throughout the complex
w(z) x plane. It is remarkable that many fundamentally impor-
u(x, t) = (3t)2/3' z=--- tant equations that arise in physical applications have
(3t)l/3 '
such a simple complex structure.
where w(z) satisfies
References
d 3w dw dw
- 3 + 6w- = z - + (2 - 3ex)w. [1] ABLOWITZ, M.J., AND CLARKSON, P.A.: Solitons, nonlinear
dz dz dz evolution equations and inverse scattering, Cambridge Univ.
It is easy to verify that the equation has a movable al- Press, 1991.
gebraic singularity with the following expansion: [2] ABLOWITZ, M.J., AND SEGUR, H.: Solitons and the inverse
scattering transform, SIAM, 1981.
-2 Zo ex
w(z) = - - + -(z - zo) + [3] GOLUBOV, V.V.: Lectures on the integration of the equations
(z - ZO)2 6 2 of motion of a rigid body about a fixed point, State Publishing
2 (3ex - 2)zo 3 House, Moscow, 1953. (In Russian.)
+Cl (z - zo) + 36 (z - zo) + [4] INCE, E.L.: Ordinary differential equations, Dover, 1956.
[5] WEISS, J., TABOR, M., AND CARNEVALE, G.: 'The Painleve
+ [C2 + 3ex(12; 2ex) log(z - zo)] (z - zO)4 + ... , property for partial differential equations', J. Math. Phys. 24
(1983), 522-526.
where zo, Cl, C2 are the three arbitrary constants neces- M. Ablowiiz
sary for a 'full-dimensional family' of solutions of the MSC 1991: 58F07
above third-order ordinary differential equation. It is
clear that the solution possesses a movable (logarith- PAINLEVE-TYPE EQUATIONS - Consider an nth
mic) branch point (cf. Branch point) unless ex = 0, order homogeneous linear ordinary differential equation,
ex = 1/2. In the latter cases the expansion can be con- either scalar:
tinued to arbitrarily high order and, in fact, both cases
ex = 0 (KdV) ex = 1/2 (the cylindrical KdV equation)
are known to be integrable. The Painleve test is used

397
PAINLEVE-TYPE EQUATIONS

or an (n x n )-system: S. Kovalevskya was awarded the Bordin Prize in 1888

dw. n-l
dzJ +L Pk(Z)Wk = 0, j = 1, ... ,n,
k=O
normalized such that the coefficient of the highest deriv-
ative is one. If the coefficients {Pj(Z)}j=l are all analytic
at a point z = Zo in the complex plane, then Zo is said to
be a regular point of the ordinary differential equation
and the equation has n linearly independent solutions in
a neighbourhood of Z = Zo0 Any singularities in the so-
lutions to the ordinary differential equation must be lo-
cated at the singularities of the coefficients {Pj (z )}j=l of
the equation. These singularities are called fixed because
they are determined by the coefficients in the equation.
Their location is independent of the constants of inte-
gration. A prototypical situation is:
dw w
-
dz- -z2- -0 ,
whose general solution is w(z) = Ae- 1jz , A being an
arbitrary constant. The singularity in the solution is at
z = 0, corresponding to the singularity in the coefficient:
-1
P(z) =2
z
'
Non-linear ordinary differential equations can have 'in-
ternal' or 'movable' singularities. The location of a mov-
able singularity (cf. Movable singular point) depends
on the constants of integration. A simple example is
dw 2 first two of which are, in normalized form,
-=w
dz
whose general solution is
1 d2 w
w(z) = - - .
Zo - z
A problem studied in the late 19th century and early
20th century involved classifying ordinary differential
equations on the basis of the singularities they admit.
A review of this work can be found in [4]. Any singu-
larity of a solution of an ordinary differential equation
that is not a pole is called a critical point. This in-
cludes branch points and essential singular points (cf.
Branch point: Essential singular point). In 1884
W.H.J. Fuchs showed that amongst the first-order equa-
tions of the form
dw
dz = F(w, z),
where F is rational in wand locally analytic in z, the
only equations without movable critical points are Ric-
cati equations (cf. Riccati equation):
dw 2
dz = Po(z) + Pl(Z)W + P2(Z)W , The prototypical example is
for her remarkable discovery regarding the motion of a
rigid body about a fixed point under the influence of
gravity. Motivated by the work of Fuchs she looked for
and found the choices of parameters for which the gov-
erning equations admit no movable critical points. She
then showed that the equations can be explicitly inte-
grated in these cases (an extensive discussion of Ko-
valevskya's work is contained in [3]).
Beginning near the turn of the century, P. Painleve
and his coworkers (notably B. Gambier) examined
second-order equations of the form
d2w (dW )
dz2 = F dz' w, z ,
where F is rational in dw / dz and wand locally analytic
in Z. They classified all such equations with the property
that their solutions have no movable critical points. To-
day (1996) such equations are said to be of Painleve type
(or P type) or their solutions (or the equation) are said
to possess the Painleve property. It was shown by the
Painleve school that there are only some (depending on
how one counts) 50 canonical equations whose solutions
have no movable critical points. They showed that all of
these equations may be reduced to an equation which is
either linear or already solved (e.g. by an elliptic func-
tion) or to one of six 'new' non-linear non-autonomous
equations -the so-called six Painleve transcendents, the
d2 w
dz 2 = 6w 2 + z,
dz 2 = ZW + 2w 3 + Ct,
with Ct an arbitrary constant.
The question of which ordinary differential equations
have solutions with the Painleve property is natural to
ask. This is particularly relevant given the connection
between integrable non-linear evolution equations and
Painleve-type equations (see below). Unfortunately, a
complete classification does not exist at higher order.
However, an important discovery was made by J. Chazy
(a discussion of Chazy's work can be found in [1]). He
showed that third-order non-linear ordinary differential
equations of the form
where F is rational in w, dw/dz, d2w/dz 2 and locally
analytic in z, could possess movable natural boundaries.

which are linearizable to a second-order ordinary differ- d3w _ d2w _ (dw)2

ential equation. dz3 - 2w dz 2 3 dz

398

Painleve property and integrable systems. In their
study of the long-time asymptotic structure of non-
linear evolution equations solvable by the inverse scat-
tering transform (1ST; d. Evolution equation), M.J.
Ablowitz and A. Newell and Ablowitz and H. Segur
(d. [2]) discovered that similarity solutions of the evo-
lution equation played a significant role. The situation
is best explained by an example. Consider the modified
Korteweg-de Vries equation (mKdV)
au 2 au a3u
-+6u - + - = 0
at ox ax 3
which arises in many physical problems (e.g. plasma
physics, fluid dynamics, non-linear optics). As t -t 00,
the solution decomposes into finite amplitude waves,
called solitons (d. Soliton), and a dispersive tail. The
tail is dominated by the similarity solution of the mod-
ified Kortweg-de Vries equation:
1 x
u=- ( w(z),
)1/3 z=---
3t (3t)1/3 '
where w(z) satisfies:
d3 w +6w2dw _ (dW
z dz + W) = O.
dz 3 dz
The latter equation integrates to the second Painleve
transcendent PI I discussed above.
In fact, Ablowitz and Segur showed that many of the
well-known integrable non-linear wave equations solv-
able by the inverse scattering transform have similar-
ity reductions which reduce to equations of Painleve
type. For example, a similarity solution of the Boussi-
nesq equation reduces to the first Painleve transcendent,
and a similarity solution of the sine-Gordon equation
can be transformed to the third Painleve equation. Sub-
sequently, researchers have shown that all of the classi-
cal second-order Painleve equations (d. also Painleve
equation) can be obtained as reductions of integrable
partial differential equations (a large number of refer-
ences may be found in [1]).
The connections are much deeper than to the clas-
sical Painleve equations. In fact, the integrable partial
differential equations solvable by the inverse scattering
transform have two general features that result. Firstly,
their ordinary differential equation reductions have the
Painleve property, i.e. they do not have movable criti-
cal points. Although there is not a general proof of this
statement available, nevertheless it can be proven that:
1) a subclass of solutions obtained via the linear integral
equations of the inverse scattering transform satisfy this
property (see [2]); 2) once an ordinary differential equa-
tion is obtained there is a test, called the Painleve test
or, more generally, Painleve analysis, which can be ap-
plied to establish that there is a full-dimensional family
of solutions which have Laurent series representations
PAIRED COMPARISON MODEL
in a neighbourhood of pole-type singularities (or some-
times more general singularities). This analysis can be
generalized to apply, formally speaking, to partial dif-
ferential equations (cf. Painleve test). [5], [1].
References
[1] ABLOWITZ, M.J., AND CLARKSON, P.A.: Solitons, nonlinear
evolution equations and inverse scattering, Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1991.
[2] ABLOWITZ, M.J., AND SEGUR, H.: Solitons and the inverse
scattering transform, SIAM, 1981.
[3] GOLUBOV, V.V.: Lectures on the integration of the equations
of motion of a rigid body about a fixed point, State Publishing
House, Moscow, 1953. (In Russian.)
[4] INCE, E.L.: Ordinary differential equations, Dover, 1956.
[5] WEISS, J., TABOR, M., AND CARNEVALE, G.: 'The Painleve
property for partial differential equations', J. Math. Phys. 24
(1983), 522~526.
M. Ablowitz
MSC 1991: 34C20, 34A20, 34A25, 58F07
P AIRED COMPARISON MODEL - The basic paired
comparison model was presented by R.A. Bradley and
M.E. Terry in [4] (d. also Bradley-Terry model). The
paired comparison experiment has t objects T 1 , ... , Tt
with nij comparisons of Ti and Tj , nij 2: 0, nii = 0,
nji = nij, i, j = 1, ... , t. The model postulates the
existence of treatment parameters 7r i for Ti (7r i 2: 0),
Li 7ri = 1, such that the probability 7ri.ij of selecting
T i , when compared with T j , is equal to 7r;/(7ri + 7rj).
A model for incorporating ties has been introduced by
P.V. Rao and L.L. Kupper in [8] and by R.R. Davidson
in [6].
Rao and Kupper introduced a threshold parameter,
1]0 2: 0, which is interpreted as the threshold of sensory
perception for the judge. They model the probabilities
of preference 7ri.ij and of no preference 7rO.ij as
7ri
7r i. i j = -;-(7r-,-+-------'-{}=-7r-j-:-)
and
7rO.ij = (7ri + {}7rj)(7rj + (}7r;)'
where {} = e1JO. For 1]0 = 0, the Rao-Kupper model coin-
cides with the Bradley-Terry model. In [1], R.J. Beaver
and D.V. Gokhale have generalized the model to incor-
porate within-pair order effects. They assume the exis-
tence of parameters bij, i,j = 1, ... ,t, bij = bji, as-
sociated with the pair (i, j), such that the preference
probabilities for the ordered pair (i, j) are
7ri + bij
7ri,ij = + '
7ri 7rj
7ri - bij
7rj.ij =
7ri + 7rj
Thurstone's model (see [11]) assumes that a person re-
ceives in response to Ti a sensation Xi which is normally
399
PAIRED COMPARISON MODEL
distributed with location J-li on a subjective continuum
(cf. also Normal distribution). A special case gives
that the probability that Ti is preferred to T j is equal
1
to
_ 1 00
_y2j2
P(Ti > Tj ) = P(Xi > Xj) - rrc e dy.
v27r -(/-'i-/-'j)
If the normal density function is replaced by the logis-
tic density function, the model is equal to the Bradley-
Terry model with J-li = In 7ri. H. Stern has considered,
[10], models for paired comparison experiments based
on comparison of gamma random variables. Different
values of the shape parameter yield different models,
including the Bradley-Terry model and the Thurstone
model. Likelihood methods can be used to estimate the
parameters of the models. The likelihood equations must
be solved with iterative methods.
It is also possible to fit response surfaces in paired
comparison experiments (see, e.g., [9], [2]). Mostly it
is assumed that the parameters 7ri, i = 1, ... ,t, are
functions of continuous variables Xl, ... ,Xs such that
the formulated model is linear in the unknown pa-
rameters {3j. If such a model is formulated, then it is
possible to discuss the question of optimal design in
paired comparison experiments. Many criteria for op-
timal design depend on the variance-covariance matrix
of the estimators for the unknown parameters {3j. How-
ever, the asymptotic variance-covariance matrix itself
depends on the unknown parameters (see, e.g., [9], [2]).
A. Springall has defined, [9], so-called analogue designs.
These are designs in which the elements of the paired
comparison variance-covariance matrix are proportional
to the elements of the classical response surface variance-
covariance matrix with the same design points.
In order to find designs, E.E.M. van Berkum has as-
sumed, [2], that the parameters {3j are all equal. In that
case the variance-covariance matrix is proportional to
the variance-covariance matrix for the estimators in an
ordinary linear model and general optimal design theory
can be applied (D-optimality, G-optimality, equivalence
theorem). He also gives optimal designs for various fac-
torial models.
There is much literature on paired comparison ex-
periments and related topics such as generalized linear
models, log-linear models, weighted least squares and
non-parametric methods. A bibliography up to 1976 is
given in [7]. The state of the art as of 1976 is given in
[3], and as of 1992 in [5].
References
[1J BEAVER, R.J., AND GOKHALE, D.V.: 'A model to incorporate
within-pair order effects in paired comparisons', Commun. in
Statist. 4 (1975), 923-929.
[2J BERKUM, E.E.M. VAN: Optimal paired comparison designs
for factorial experiments, Vol. 31 of CWI Tract, CWI, Ams-
terdam, 1987.
400
[3J BRADLEY, R.A.: 'Science, statistics and paired comparisons',
Biometrics 32 (1976), 213-232.
[4J BRADLEY, R.A., AND TERRY, M.E.: 'The rank analysis of
incomplete block designs. I. The method of paired compar-
isons', Biometrika 39 (1952), 324·-345.
[5J DAVID, H.A.: 'Ranking and selection from paired-comparison
data. With discussion': The Frontiers of Modern Statisti-
cal Inference Procedures II (Sydney, 1981), Vol. 28 of Math.
Management Sci., Amer. Sci. Press, 1992, pp. 3-24.
[6J DAVIDSON, RR.: 'On extending the Bradley-Terry model
to accommodate ties in paired comparison experiments', J.
Amer·. Statist. Assoc. 65 (1970), 317-328.
[7J DAVIDSON, R.Il., AND FARQUHAR, P.H.: 'A bibliography on
the method of paired comparisons', Biometrika 32 (1976),
241-252.
[8J RAO, P.V., AND KUPPER, L.L.: 'Ties in paired-comparison
experiments: A generalization of the Bradley-Terry model',
J. Amer. Statist. Assoc. 62 (1967), 194-204.
[9J SPRINGALL, A.: 'Response surface fitting using a generaliza-
tion of the Bradley-Terry paired comparison model', Appl.
Statist. 22 (1973), 59- 68.
[lOJ STERN, H.: 'A continuum of paired comparison models',
Biometr'ika 77 (1990), 265-273.
[11] THURSTONE, L.L.: 'Psychophysical analysis', Amer. J. Psy-
chol. 38 (1927), 368-389.
E.E.M. van Berkum
MSC 1991: 62J15, 62K05
P ARACONSISTENT LOGIC -- A relation of logical
consequence, f-, on a set of sentences, S, is explosive if
and only if for all a, {3 E S,
a, -,a f- {3,
where '-,' is negation. A relation, and the logic that pos-
sesses it, is paraconsistent if and only if it is not explo-
sive. Whether or not a correct consequence relation is
explosive has been a contentious issue historically, but
the standard formal logics of the 20th century, such as
classical logic (d. Logical calculus) and intuition-
istic logic are explosive. Formal paraconsistent logics
were developed by a number of different people, often
working in isolation from each other, starting around
the 1960s.
There are many different paraconsistent logics, with
their own proof theories and model theories. Their dis-
tinctive features occur at the propositional level, though
they all have full first- (and second-) order versions. In
most of them validity can be defined in terms of preser-
vation of truth in an interpretation.
In one approach, due to S. Jaskowski, an interpreta-
tion is a Kripke model (d. Kripke models) for some
modal logic, and a sentence is true in it if it holds
at some world of the interpretation. A major feature
of this approach is that the inference of adjunction
(a, (3 f- a /\ (3) fails. In another, an interpretation v, is
a mapping from S to {I, O}, satisfying the usual classi-
cal conditions for /\, V, and --+. v(-,a) is independent of
v( a). The addition of further constraints on v, such as:
 PARTIALLY SPECIFIED MATRICES, COMPLETION OF
v(a) = 0 ::::} v(-,a) = 1, give logics in N. da Costa's C
family. A feature of this approach is that it preserves all
of positive logic. In a third approach, an interpretation v
is a mapping from S to the closed sets of a topological
space T satisfying the conditions v(al\(3) = v(a)nv((3),
v(a V (3) = v(a) U v((3), v(-,a) = v(a)c (where c is the
closure operator of T). a is true under v if and only
if v( a) is the whole space. This gives a logic dual to
intuitionistic logic.
In a fourth approach, an interpretation is a relation
p ~ S x {I, O}, satisfying the natural conditions
-,apl {:} apO,
-,apO {:} apl;
a 1\ (3pl {:} apl and (3pl,
a 1\ (3pO {:} apO or (3pO;
and dually for V. a is true under p if and only if apl.
This gives the logic of first degree entailment (FDE) of
A. Anderson and N. Belnap. If one restricts interpre-
tations to those satisfying the condition Va:3xapx, one
gets G. Priest's LP. A feature of this logic is that its log-
ical truths coincide with those of classical logic. Thus,
the law of non-contradiction holds: f- -,(a 1\ -,a). A De
Morgan lattice is a distributive lattice with an ad-
ditional operator -, satisfying: -,-,a = a and a :::; b ::::}
-,b :::; -,a. An FDE-interpretation can be thought of as
a homomorphism into the De Morgan lattice with val-
ues {{I}, {I, A}, 0, {O}}. More generally, a f- (3 in FDE
if and only if for every homomorphism h into a De Mor-
gan lattice, h( a) :::; h((3). Augmenting such lattices with
an operator --t satisfying certain conditions, and defin-
ing validity in the same way, gives a family of relevant
logics.
A paraconsistent logic localizes contradictions, and so
is appropriate for reasoning from information that may
be inconsistent, e.g., information stored in a computer
database. It also permits the existence of theories (sets
of sentences closed under deducibility) that are incon-
sistent but not trivial (i.e., containing everything) and
of their models, inconsistent structures.
One important example of an inconsistent theory is
set theory based on the general comprehension schema
(:3xVy(y E x f-t a), where a is any formula not contain-
ing x), together with extensionality (Vx(x E y f-t x E
z) f- y = z). Another is a theory of truth (or of other
semantic notions), based on the T-schema (T(a) f-t a,
where a is any closed formula, and (.) indicates a name-
forming device), together with some mechanism for self-
reference, such as arithmetization. Such theories are in-
consistent due to the paradoxes of self-reference (cf. An-
tinomy).
Not all paraconsistent logics are suitable as the under-
lying logics of these theories. In particular, if the under-
lying logic contains contraction (a --t (a --t (3) f- a --t (3)
and modus ponens (a, a --t (3 f- (3), these theories are
trivial. However, the theories are non-trivial if --t is in-
terpreted as the material conditional and the logic LP
is used, or if it is interpreted as the conditional of some
relevant logics. In the truth theories, the inconsistencies
do not spread into the arithmetical machinery.
Given a topos, logical operators can be defined as
functors within it, and a notion of internal validity can
be defined, giving intuitionistic logic. If these operators,
and in particular, negation, are defined in the dual way,
the internal logic of the top os is the dual intuitionistic
logic. Topoi can therefore be seen as inconsistent struc-
tures.
For another example of inconsistent structures, let
A be the set of sentences true in the standard model of
arithmetic. If B is a set of sentences in the same language
properly containing A, then B is inconsistent, and so has
no classical models; but B has models, including finite
models, in the paraconsistent logic LP. Inconsistent (sets
of) equations may have solutions in such models. The
LP-models of A include the classical non-standard mod-
els of arithmetic (cf. Peano axioms) as a special case,
and, like them, have a notable common structure.
In inconsistent theories of arithmetic, the incomplete-
ness theorems of K. Gi:idel (cf. Godel incompleteness
theorem) fail: such a theory may be axiomatizable and
contain its own 'undecidable' sentence (and its nega-
tion).
Inconsistent theories may be interesting or useful
even if they are not true. The view that some incon-
sistent theories are true is called dialetheism (or di-
alethism).
For a general overview of the area, see [2]. [3] is a col-
lection of articles, with much background material. On
inconsistent mathematical structures, see [1].
References
[1] MORTENSEN, C.: Inconsistent mathematics, Kluwer Acad.
Pub!., 1995.
[2] PRIEST, G.: 'Paraconsistent logic', in D. GABBAY AND
F. GUENTHNER (eds.): Handbook of Philosophical Logic,
Vo!' VII, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., forthcoming.
[3] PRIEST, G., ROUTLEY, R., AND NORMAN, G. (eds.): Paracon-
sistent logic: essays on the inconsistent, Philosophia Verlag,
1989.
G. Priest
MSC 1991: 03B53
PARTIALLY SPECIFIED MATRICES, COMPLE-
TION OF - A partially specified (p x q)-matrix is a
(p x q )-array of complex numbers (or, more generally,
of elements over an arbitrary field) in which certain
401
PARTIALLY SPECIFIED MATRICES, COMPLETION OF
entries are given and the other entries are not specified.
The latter are often denoted by question marks and may
be viewed as free variables. The set of pairs (i,j) for
which the (i,j)th entry is given is called the pattern.
For example,
IS a partially specified (3 x 3)-matrix with pattern
P = {(1,1),(1,3),(2,2),(2,3),(3,1)}. Important pat-
terns are band patterns, when P = {( i, j): Ii - jl :s; m}
for some m, triangular patterns, when the set of given
entries is upper or lower triangular, and rectangular pat-
terns, when P has the form
P = {(i,j): i E {i I , ... ,id, j E {jl,'" ,jm}}
and the given entries form a positioned submatrix. The
block versions of band and triangular patterns are also
of interest.
A (p x q)-matrix A is said to be a completion of
a partially specified matrix Ap with pattern P if for
each (i, j) E P the (i, j)th entry of A coincides with
the (i,j)th entry of Ap. The analysis of completions
satisfying additional metric or spectral constraints is a
relatively new direction in linear algebra, with many
different aspects depending on the given pattern and
the type of constraint imposed. In general, one looks
for a description of all possible completions of a de-
sired type, and for algorithms for the construction of
particular ones. Completion problems arise in a variety
of applications, such as statistics (e.g., entropy meth-
ods for missing data), chemistry (the molecular confor-
mation problem), systems theory, discrete optimization
(relaxation methods), data compression, etc., as well as
in operator theory and within matrix theory (e.g., de-
terminantal inequalities). Of particular interest are the
following problems.
Positive-definite completion problem. This prob-
lem asks one to find completions of a partially speci-
fied matrix that are positive definite. For band patterns
the problem is also known as the covariance extension
problem and may be viewed as a non-stationary version
of the Caratheodory-Toeplitz extension problem.
Furthermore, in this case the solution of the problem
may be described entirely in terms of the fully spec-
ified principal submatrices, the set of all solutions can
be parametrized by a fractional-linear mapping of which
the coefficients can be constructed explicitly in terms of
the given entries, and there exists a unique solution of
maximal determinant which has the additional property
that the entries of its inverse are zero outside the band.
These results, which also extend to block-banded oper-
ator matrices and integral operators, can be proved by
402
different methods, among others the Schur parametriza-
tion approach (see [6]) and the band method (see [12,
comments to Part IX] and [23, Part A]). For non-band
patterns similar results (except for the description of all
solutions) hold if the graph associated with the pattern
is chordal (see [16]). For non-chordal patterns the situa-
tion is much more complex and only partial results are
known (see [21] and [4]). The positive-definite comple-
tion problem is closely related to the contractive comple-
tion problem. The latter problem, which may be seen as
the non-stationary matrix version of the N ehari exten-
sion problem, asks one to complete a given triangular
array to a full matrix of which the operator norm does
not exceed a given bound. The (2 x 2) operator matrix
case is of special interest (see [8, notes and comments
to Chapt. IV]). More recent developments include lin-
early constrained contractive completion problems (also
known as the strong Parrott problem; see [9], [2]) and
completions satisfying bounds for different norms simul-
taneously (see [20]).
Eigenvalue completion problem. This problem con-
cerns the following question: To what extent does a par-
tially specified matrix Ap determine the eigenvalues and
their multiplicities of its completions? In other words,
this problem asks one to describe all possible eigenval-
ues and their multiplicities of the matrices which one
obtains by filling in the unspecified entries of A p. It con-
tains as a special case the pole assignment problem
from mathematical system theory. Associated with the
eigenvalue completion problem is a classification prob-
lem which aims at a simplification of the specified part
with the help of admissible similarities (which do not re-
late specified entries to unspecified ones) and has as its
final goal the construction of related canonical forms.
For rectangular patterns this classification problem is
completely solved, and its solution has been used to
solve the eigenvalue completion problem for a number of
rectangular patterns, namely for the case when the set of
given entries forms a principal submatrix, a full-width
submatrix, a full-length submatrix, or an off-diagonal
submatrix (see [13]). These and related results for tri-
angular patterns (such as the solution of the minimal
spectral radius problem from [3]) and further references
may be found in [14]. The latter also includes infinite-
dimensional operator versions of these spectral comple-
tion problems. The classification problem referred to
above is also closely related to the problem of classifying
quadruples of subspaces under isomorphism of subspace
quadruples, [10], [15].
Minimal rank completion problem. This problem
asks one to determine the completions of a partially
specified matrix Ap that are of minimal rank. In par-
ticular, one is interested in finding the lowest possible

rank of a completion of A1' in terms of the given en-
tries, and in conditions that guarantee the uniqueness
of this minimal rank completion. For triangular patterns
the minimal rank completion problem is solved in [23,
Part B]; for this case the problem is closely related to
the Kalman partial realization problem in mathemati-
cal system theory. For band patterns a formula for the
minimal rank of a completion may be found in [24]. For
more general patterns only partial solutions exist [5].
The problem extends naturally to semi-infinite matrices
and to integral operators, [18], [19], [22], and in these
infinite-dimensional settings the problem is related to
minimal realizations of boundary value systems.
There are many other important completion prob-
lems, such as the minimal inertia completion prob-
lems (see, e.g., [11]), completion problems for particu-
lar classes of matrices such as distance matrices [1] and
M-matrices [17], and problems which require the com-
pletion to be an invertible matrix of which the inverse
(rather than the completion itself) has to satisfy addi-
tional constraints (see, e.g., [7]).
References
[1] BAKONYI, M., AND JOHNSON, C.R.: 'The Euclidean distance
matrix completion problem', SIAM J. Matrix Anal. Appl. 16
(1995), 646-654.
[2] BAKONYI, M., AND WOERDEMAN, H.J.: The centml method
for positive semi-definite, contmctive and strong Parrott type
completion problems, Vol. 59 of Opemtor Theory: Advances
and Applications, Birkhiiuser, 1992.
[3] BALL, J.A., GOHBERG, I., RODMAN, L., AND SHALOM, T.:
'On the eigenvalues of matrices with given upper triangular
part', Integml Equations Opemtor Th. 13 (1990),488-497.
[4] BARRETT, W.W., JOHNSON, C.R., AND LOEWY, R.: The real
positive definite completion problem for nonchordal gmphs,
Vol. 122 of Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1996.
[5] COHEN, N., JOHNSON, C.R., AND WOERDEMAN, L. ROD-
MAN H.J.: 'Ranks of completions of partial matrices', in
H. DYM, S. GOLDBERG, M.A. KAASHOEK, AND P. LANCASTER
(eds.): The Gohberg Anniversary Collection, Vol. II, Vol. 41
of Opemtor Theory: Advances and Applications, Birkhiiuser,
1989.
[6] CONSTANTINESCU, T.: Schur pammeters, factorization and
dilation problems, Vol. 82 of Opemtor Theory: Advances and
Applications, Birkhiiuser, 1996.
[7] ELSNER, L., HE, C., AND MEHRMANN, V.: 'Minimization of
the norm, the norm of the inverse and the condition number
of a matrix by completion', Numerical Linear Algebm Appl.
2, no. 2 (1995), 155-171.
[8] FOIAS, C., AND FRAZHO, A.E.: The commutant lifting ap-
proach to interpolation problems, Vol. 44 of Opemtor Theory:
Advances and Applications, Birkhiiuser, 1990.
[9] FOIAS, C., AND TANNENBAUM, A.: 'A strong Parrott theo-
rem', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 106 (1989), 777-784.
[10] GEL'FAND, I.M., AND PONOMAREV, V.A.: 'Problems of linear
algebra and classification of subspaces in a finite-dimensional
vector space': Colloq. Math. Soc. J. Bolyai (Hilbert Space Op-
emtors, Tihany) , Vol. 5, North-Holland, 1970, pp. 163-237.
PASSIVE CONSTRAINT
[11] GHEONDEA, A.: 'One-step completions of Hermitian partial
matrices with minimal negative signature', Linear Alg. & Its
Appl. 173 (1992), 99-114.
[12] GOHBERG, I., GOLDBERG, S., AND KAASHOEK, M.A.: Classes
of linear opemtors II, Vol. 63 of Opemtor Theory: Advances
and Applications, Birkhiiuser, 1993.
[13] GOHBERG, I., KAASHOEK, M.A., AND SCHAGEN, F. VAN:
'Eigenvalues of completions of submatrices', Linear Multi-
linear Algebm 25 (1989), 55-70.
[14] GOHBERG, I., KAASHOEK, M.A., AND SCHAGEN, F. VAN: Par-
tially specified matrices: similarity, completions and appli-
cations, Vol. 79 of Opemtor Theory: Advances and Applica-
tions, Birkhiiuser, 1995.
[15] GOHBERG, I., KAASHOEK, M.A., AND SCHAGEN, F. VAN: 'Op-
erator blocks and quadruples of subspaces: classification and
the eigenvalue completion problem', Vrije Universiteit, Am-
sterdam, Rapportnr. WS-455 (1996), Also: Lin. Algebra and
Its Appl. (to appear).
[16] GRONE, J., JOHNSON, C.R., SA, E.M. DE, AND WOLKOWITZ,
H.: 'Positive definite completions of partial hermitian matri-
ces', Linear Alg. & Its Appl. 58 (1984), 109-124.
[17] JOHNSON, C.R., AND SMITH, R.: 'The completion problem for
M-matrices and inverse M-matrices', Linear Alg. & Its Appl.
241/3 (1996), 655-667.
[18] KAASHOEK, M.A., AND WOERDEMAN, H.J.: 'Unique minimal
rank extensions of triangular operators', J. Math. Anal. Appl.
131 (1988), 501-516.
[19] KAASHOEK, M.A., AND WOERDEMAN, H.J.: 'Minimal lower
separable representations: construction and characterization',
in H. DYM, S. GOLDBERG, M.A. KAASHOEK, AND P. LAN-
CASTER (eds.): The Gohberg Anniversary Collection, Vol II,
Vol. 41 of Opemtor Theory: Advances and Applications,
Birkhiiuser, 1989.
[20] KAFTAL, V.G., LARSON, D.R., AND WEISS, G.: 'Quasitrian-
gular subalgebras of semifinite von Neumann algebras are
closed', J. Funct. Anal. 107 (1992), 387-401.
[21] PAULSEN, V.I., POWER, S.C., AND SMITH, R.R.: 'Schur prod-
ucts and matrix completions', J. Funct. Anal. 85 (1989), 151-
178.
[22] PEETERS, G.: 'Construction and classification of minimal rep-
resentations of semi- separable kernels', J. Math. Anal. Appl.
137 (1989), 264-287.
[23] WOERDEMAN, H.J.: Matrix and opemtor extensions, Vol. 68
of CWI Tracts, CWI, Amsterdam, 1989.
[24] WOERDEMAN, H.J.: 'Minimal rank completions of partial
banded matrices', Linear Multilinear Algebm 36 (1993), 59-
68.
I. Gohberg
M.A. Kaashoek
H.J. Woerdeman
MSC1991: 15-XX, 30E05, 47A57
PASSIVE CONSTRAINT, inactive constraint - Let
be given a constrained optimization problem
maximize f(x), x E Rn
subject to gi(X) ::; 0, i = 1, ... ,m.
The ith constraint is said to be passive (at a solution
Y) if gi(Y) < O.
See also Active constraint. For a selection of refer-
ences, see Mathematical programming.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 90C30
403
PEARL-VERHULST LOGISTIC PROCESS

PEARL-VERHULST LOGISTIC PROCESS, for N 2, ... ,[aI/b I ]. Stochastic simulation is

Verhulst-Pearl logistic process - In many biological situ- straightforward, since for independent uniformly (0,1)-
ations the finiteness of available resource means that an distributed random variables U I , U2 , ••. , the next event
isolated population cannot grow without limit, so one is a birth if B(N)/[B(N)+D(N)] ::; Ui and is a death if
may suppose that the net individual growth rate, f(N), not, whilst the inter-event time is -[loge Ui+Il/[B(N) +
is a decreasing function of the population size N (t). The D(N)]. Studies show that unless K is small, extinction
simplest assumption to make is that f(N) = r - sN, is only likely to occur in the medium term if bI < 0, i.e.
whence the deterministic rate of increase if the individual birth rate increases with N.
dN
dt = N(r - sN). (1) References
[11 LOTKA, A.J.: Elements of physical biology, Williams and
This defines the Verhulst-Pearl logistic equation, where
Wilkins, 1925.
r denotes the intrinsic rate of natural increase for growth [2] PEARL, R.: Introduction of medical biometry and statistics,
with unlimited resources and K = r / s is the carrying Saunders, 1930.
capacity. Integrating (1) with N(O) = no yields the so- [3] PEARL, R., AND REED, L.J.: 'On the rate of growth of the
population of the United States since 1790 and its mathemat-
lution
ical representation', Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 6 (1920), 275-88.
N(t) _ K [4] RENSHAW, E.: Modelling biological populations in space and
(2)
- 1+ K ~onQ exp( -rt) , time, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991.
[5] VERHULST, P.F.: 'Notice sur la loi que la population suit
though a neater representation is dans son accroissement', Corr. Math. et Phys. puIJl. par A.
Quetelet X (1838), 113-21.
K
(3)
N(t) = 1 + exp[-r(t - to)]'

since to = (l/r) loge [( K /no) - 1] is the time taken for

the population to reach half its maximum size K /2. E. Renshaw
The population therefore initially rises exponentially,
followed by a roughly linear phase, before growth tails
off towards the asymptote N(oo) = K.
Though P.F. Verhulst [5] introduced the logistic curve MSC 1991: 92D25
in 1838, its use was virtually ignored until R. Pearl and
L.J. Reed [3] rediscovered it empirically in 1920, closely
PENROSE TILING - Around 1975, R. Penrose dis-
followed by a rational explanation by A.J. Lotka [1]; fur-
covered a pair of figures (tiles) in the plane with the
ther early references are contained in [2]. A full review is
following properties: i) the plane can be tiled (no gaps,
provided in [4], including a discussion of several logistic-
no overlappings) by infinitely many copies of these two,
type data sets. Although for many populations the sim-
in infinitely many (even continuously many) ways; ii)
ple linear argument cannot hold, population growth of-
none of these tilings is periodic; iii) any finite part of
ten closely follows the logistic curve (e.g., the population
such a tiling occurs infinitely often in each one of the
of the USA from 1790 to 1920) even when the underly-
others. See [4], [5].
ing assumptions are violated. This has wrongly given it
the credence of a universal law.
In contrast, some data sets show an initial logistic
rise towards the asymptote K, but then fluctuate about
it thereafter. Such behaviour can be described by the
associated stochastic process with birth and death rates
B(N) = N(al -bIN) and D(N) = N(a2+b2N), respec- Fig. 1
tively (cf. also Birth-and-death process), for non-
negative constants aI, bI , a2, b2. The corresponding de- The simplest case of a pair of such tiles is the set
terministic equation dN/dt = B(N) - D(N) reduces to of arrowed rhombs (see Fig. 1; all edges have the same
(1), provided r = al -a2 and s = bI +b2. Conditional on length, and all angles are multiples of 36°), where shape
extinction not having occurred, the equilibrium proba- fitting is replaced by arrow fitting: there are two kinds
bilities (see [4]) are given by 7rI = 1/(a2 + b2) and of arrows, single and double, and the fitting condition is
that adjacent tiles should have the same kind of arrows
7rN = [al - bI]··· [al - (N - l)b I ] (4) in the same direction along their common edge. Fig. 2
[a2 + b2]· .. [a2 + Nb 2]N shows a part of a tiling with these arrowed rhombs.

404

Fig. 2
A key to Penrose's discovery is the idea of deflation,
where parts of a tiling are subdivided so as to give a new
tiling with tiles similar to the old ones, but just a con-
stant times smaller (the constant is the golden number
(-1 + V5)/2). It is not proper subdivision with these
rhomb tiles, and therefore it is better to work with half
rhombs, see [3], [6].
Three essentially different ways for generating Pen-
rose tilings are as follows.
i) Start with a single tile and apply deflation re-
peatedly, each time followed by multiplication with
(1 + V5)/2. This gives tilings of bigger and bigger parts
of the plane, and by Konig's principle one can select
(non-constructively) convergent subsequences.
ii) Start with a single half rhomb and apply the in-
verse of deflation infinitely often. At each step there are
various ways to proceed, and these options can be con-
trolled in a simple finite oriented graph. The set of all
infinite paths in that graph corresponds to the set of all
Penrose tilings. See [3]' [6].
iii) It can be proved that all Penrose tilings can be ob-
tained as the topological duals of pentagrids: superposi-
tions of five grids of parallel equidistant lines, obtained
from one of these five by rotation over multiples of 72°
followed by translations. See [1].
This grid presentation (or in other form, the projec-
tion method, where the tilings are obtained by projec-
tion of slices from an ordinary cubic lattice in a space of
higher dimension) can be generalized at once to many
kinds of grids in n-space. Their duals became adequate
models for the quasi-crystals discovered in 1984 by D.
Schechtman and others (see [7]). The X-ray spectra of
these quasicrystals correspond to the Fourier transforms
of the generalized Penrose tilings (see [2]).
References
[1] BRUUN, N. G. DE: 'Algebraic theory of Penrose's non-periodic
tilings of the plane', Indagationes Mathematicae 43 (1981),
38-66. (Kon. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch. Proc. Ser. A 84
(1981).)
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
[2] BRUIJN, N.G. DE: 'Quasierystals and their Fourier transform',
Indagationes Mathematicae 48 (1986), 123-152. (Kon. Ned-
erl. Akad. Wetensch. Proc. Ser. A 89 (1986).)
[3] BRUUN, N.G. DE: 'Updown generation of Penrose tilings',
Indagationes Mathematicae N.S. 1 (1990), 201-219.
[4] GARDNER, M.: 'Mathematical games. Extraordinary nonperi-
odie tiling that enriches the theory of tiles', Scientific Amer-
ican 236 (1977), 110-121.
[5] PENROSE, R.: 'Pentaplexity', Math. Intelligencer 2 (1979),
32-37.
[6] SENECHAL, M.: Quasicrystals and geometry, Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1995.
[7] STEINHARDT, P.J., AND OSTLUND, S.: The physics of qua-
sicrystals, World Sei., 1987.
N. G. de Bruijn
MSC 1991: 05B45
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS - The design, develop-
ment, tuning, and operation of computer and communi-
cation systems heavily rely on mathematical techniques
which are usually indicated as performance analysis
methods. The complexity of present-day data-handling
facilities is such that brute-force simulation and hard-
ware measurements are no longer effective for evaluating
and predicting system performance. Accordingly, more
sophisticated techniques for performance analysis have
been developed, mostly starting from the formalism of a
queueing network (stochastic process algebras and sto-
chastic Petri nets are other formalisms that are being
used for performance analysis).
A data-handling network can be seen as a collec-
tion of interconnected hardware and software resources
that provide services to a community of users. The con-
tention for resources leads to queues. The object of
study can now be formulated as a network of service
units with customers (jobs or messages) requiring ser-
vices at those units. The nature of the arrival processes
and of the service requests is usually such that they
have to be represented as stochastic processes. Hence the
main performance measures, like waiting times, work-
loads and queue lengths, are stochastic variables. Ac-
cordingly, the main techniques of performance analy-
sis stem from probability theory. The performance
analysis of the daily operation and capacity planning
of computer- and communication systems also requires
techniques from such areas as combinatorial optimiza-
tion (scheduling) and stochastic control.
Until the 1960s, queueing theory had been al-
most exclusively concerned with single service facil-
ities. But nowadays (1990s) the advent of packet-
and message-switched communication networks, and of
multi-programmed computer systems, require the study
of networks of queues. Spurred by these applications, the
theory of product-form networks was developed (cf. [1]).
For a small, but practically important, class of queue-
ing networks, the joint steady-state distribution of the
405
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
queue lengths XI, ... ,XK at the queues Qi,'" ,QK
was shown to have a product form:
K hyperbolic dynamical systems.
Pr{Xi = ni,'" ,XK = nK} = II h(ni), (1)
i=i
ni, ... ,nK =0,1, ....
In the case of an open network (in which customers ar-
rive and eventually disappear again), h(ni) is the mar-
ginal queue length probability at Qi: the queue lengths
are independent. In the case of a closed network with
N customers (ni + ... + nK = N in (1)), the queue
lengths are dependent. See. [3J for a discussion of these
results and of efficient algorithms for evaluating perfor-
mance measures in the case of a closed network; a key
problem here is that the right-hand side of (1) involves
a normalizing constant which is determined by the con-
dition that the sum of all (N+:-i) probabilities at the
left-hand side should equal one.
The deep understanding that has been acquired for
product-form networks and for other basic queueing
models like the M/G/l-queue and Erlang's loss model
(cf. Queue; Queue with refusals), has made queue-
ing theory into a very effective tool for analyzing and
predicting the performance of new services and systems.
Successful examples are provided by virtual memory sys-
tems, local area networks, wireless communication sys-
tems, and, in recent years, by distributed systems, ISDN
(Integrated Services Digital Networks), and mobile com-
munications. For details concerning mathematical per-
formance models and techniques, see the surveys [2], [4],
[5J.
References
[1] KELLY, F.P.: Reversibility and stochastic networks, Wiley,
1979.
[2] KLEINROCK, L.: 'Performance evaluation of distributed
computer-communication systems', in O.J. BOXMA AND
R. 8YSKI (eds.): Queueing Theory and its Applications,
North-Holland, 1988, pp. 1-57.
[3] LAVENBERG, 8.8. (ed.): Computer performance modeling
handbook, Acad. Press, 1983.
[4] LAVENBERG, 8.8.: 'A perspective on queueing models of com-
puter performance', in O.J. BOXMA AND R. 8YSKI (eds.):
Queueing Theory and its Applications, North-Holland, 1988,
pp.59-94.
[5] TAKAGI, H. (ed.): Stochastic analysis of computer and com-
munication systems, North-Holland, 1990.
0.1. Boxma
MSC 1991: 60K25, 68M20
PESIN THEORY - An important branch of the the-
ory of dynamical systems (cf. Dynamical system) and
of smooth ergodic theory, with many applications to
non-linear dynamics. The name is due to the landmark
work of Ya.B. Pesin in the mid-1970s [20], [21], [22J.
Sometimes Pesin theory is also referred to as the theory
406
of smooth dynamical systems with non-uniformly hyper-
bolic behaviour, or simply the theory of non-uniformly
Introduction. One of the paradigms of dynamical sys-
tems is that the local instability of trajectories influences
the global behaviour of the system, and paves the way to
the existence of stochastic behaviour. Mathematically,
instability of trajectories corresponds to some degree
of hyperbolicity (cf. Hyperbolic set). The 'strongest
possible' kind of hyperbolicity occurs in the important
class of Anosov systems (also called Y -systems, cf. Y-
system) [IJ. These are only known to occur in certain
manifolds. Moreover, there are several results of to polog-
ical nature showing that certain manifolds cannot carry
Anosov systems.
Pesin theory deals with a 'weaker' kind of hyperbol-
icity, a much more common property that is believed
to be 'typical': non-uniform hyperbolicity. Among the
most important features due to hyperbolicity is the ex-
istence of invariant families of stable and unstable man-
ifolds and their 'absolute continuity'. The combination
of hyperbolicity with non-trivial recurrence produces a
rich and complicated orbit structure. The theory also
describes the ergodic properties of smooth dynamical
systems possessing an absolutely continuous invariant
measure in terms of the Lyapunov exponents. One of
the most striking consequences is the Pesin entropy for-
mula, which expresses the metric entropy of the dynam-
ical system in terms of its Lyapunov exponents.
Non-uniform hyperbolicity. Let f: M -+ M be a
diffeomorphism of a compact manifold. It induces
the discrete dynamical system (or cascade) composed
of the powers {r: n E Z}. Fix a Riemannian met-
ric on M. The trajectory {rx: n E Z} of a point
x E M is called non-uniformly hyperbolic if there are
positive numbers A < 1 < JL and splittings TfnxM =
EU(rx) E9 ES(rx) for each nEZ, and if for all suffi-
ciently small f > 0 there is a positive function C, on the
trajectory such that for every k E Z:
1) C,(fkx) ~ e'lkIC,(x);
2) Dfk EU(x) = EU(fk x ), Dfk ES(x) = ES(fkx);
3) if v E EU(fk x ) and m < 0, then
IIDfmv11 ~ C,(fm+kx)JL m Ilvll;
4) if v E ES(fk x ) and m > 0, then
IIDfmv11 ~ C,(fm+kX)A m I vII ;
5) angle(Eu(fkx),Es(fkx )) ~ C,(fkx)-i.
(The indices's' and 'u' refer, respectively, to 'stable'
and 'unstable'.) The definition of non-uniformly par-
tially hyperbolic trajectory is obtained by replacing the
inequality A < 1 < JL by the weaker requirement that
A < JL and min{ A, p,-i} < 1.

If >. < 1 < I-" (respectively, >. < I-" and min{>., 1-"-1} <
1) and the conditions 1)-5) hold for E = 0 (i.e., if one can
choose C. = const), the trajectory is called uniformly
hyperbolic (respectively, uniformly partially hyperbolic).
The term 'non-uniformly' means that the estimates in
3) and 4) may differ from the 'uniform' estimates I-"m and
>.m by at most slowly increasing terms along the trajec-
tory, as in 1) (in the sense that the exponential rate E in
1) is small in comparison to the number log 1-", -log >.);
the term 'partially' means that the hyperbolicity may
hold only for a part of the tangent space.
One can similarly define the corresponding notions
for a flow (continuous-time dynamical system)
with k E Z replaced by k E R, and the splitting of
the tangent spaces replaced by TxM = EU (x) EEl ES (x) EEl
X(x), where X(x) is the one-dimensional subspace gen-
erated by the flow direction.
Stable and unstable manifolds. Let {rx: n E Z}
be a non-uniformly partially hyperbolic trajectory of
a CHa-diffeomorphism (a > 0). Assume that>. < 1.
Then there is a local stable manifold VS(x) such that
x E VS(x), Tx VS(x) = ES(x), and for every y E VS(x),
k E Z, and m > 0,
where d is the distance induced by the Riemannian met-
ric and K is a positive constant. The size r(x) of VS(x)
can be chosen in such a way that r(fkx) 2: K'e-·1k1r(x)
for every k E Z, where K' is a positive constant. If
f E cr+a (a> 0), then VS(x) is of class cr.
The global stable manifold of f at x is defined by
WS(x) = UkEzf-k(vs(fk x )); it is an immersed mani-
fold with the same smoothness class as VS(x). One has
rt
WS(x) n WS(y) = 0 if y WS(x), WS(x) = WS(y) if
y E WS(x), and rWS(x) = WS(rx) for every n E Z.
The manifold WS(x) is independent of the particular
size of the local stable manifolds VS(y).
Similarly, when I-" > 1 one can define a local (respec-
tively, global) unstable manifold as a local (respectively,
global) stable manifold of f- 1 .
Non-uniformly hyperbolic dynamical systems
and dynamical systems with non-zero Lyapunov
exponents. Let f: M -+ M be a diffeomorphism
and let v be a (finite) Borel f-invariant measure (cf.
also Invariant measure). One calls f non-uniformly
hyperbolic (respectively, non-uniformly partially hyper-
bolic) with respect to the measure v if the set A c M
of points whose trajectories are non-uniformly hyper-
bolic (respectively, non-uniformly partially hyperbolic)
is such that v(A) > o. In this case >., 1-", E, and C. are
replaced by measurable functions >.(x), I-"(x), E(X), and
C.(x), respectively.
PESIN THEORY
The set A is f-invariant, i.e., it satisfies fA = A.
Therefore, one can always assume that v(A) = 1 when
v(A) > 0; this means that if v(A) > 0, then the measure
von A defined by v(B) = v(B)/v(A) is f-invariant and
v(A) = 1.
For (x, v) EM X TxM, one defines the forward upper
Lyapunov exponent of (x, v) (with respect to f) by
X(x, v) = lim sup ~ log IIDfmv11 (1)
m-t+CXl m
for each v =F 0, and X(x,O) = -00. For every x E M,
there exist a positive integer s( x) ~ dim M (the dimen-
sion of M) and collections of numbers Xl(X) < ... <
Xs(x)(x) and linear subspaces El(X) C ... C Es(x)(x) =
TxM such that for every i = 1, ... , s(x),
Ei(X) = {v E TxM: X(x, v) ~ Xi (x)} ,
and if v E Ei(X) \ E i - 1 (X), then X(x, v) = Xi(X).
The numbers Xi(X) are called the values of the for-
ward upper Lyapunov exponent at x, and the collection
of linear subspaces Ei(X) is called the forward filtration
at x associated to f. The number k i (x) = dim Ei (x) -
dimEi - 1 (x) is the forward multiplicity of the exponent
Xi(X). One defines the forward spectrum of f at x as
the collection of pairs (Xi(X), ki(x)) for i = 1, ... , s(x).
Let xi (x) ~ ... ~ X~im M (x) be the values of the for-
ward upper Lyapunov exponent at x counted with mul-
tiplicities, i.e., in such a way that the exponent Xi(X)
appears exactly a number ki(x) of times. The functions
s(x) and X~(x), for i = 1, ... ,dimM, are measurable
and f-invariant with respect to any f-invariant mea-
sure.
One defines the backward upper Lyapunov exponent
of (x, v) (with respect to f) by an expression similar to
(1), with m -+ +00 replaced by m -+ -00, and considers
the corresponding backward spectrum.
A Lyapunov-regular trajectory {rx: n E Z} (see,
for example, [3, Sect. 2]) is non-uniformly hyperbolic
(respectively, non-uniformly partially hyperbolic) if and
only if X(x, v) =F 0 for all v E TxM (respectively,
X(x, v) =F 0 for some v E TxM). For flows, a Lyapunov-
regular trajectory is non-uniformly hyperbolic if and
rt
only if X(x,v) =F 0 for all v X(x).
The multiplicative ergodic theorem of V. Os-
eledets [19] implies that v-almost all points of M belong
to a Lyapunov-regular trajectory. Therefore, for a given
diffeomorphism, one has X(x, v) =F 0 for all v E TxM
(respectively X(x,v) =F 0 for some v E TxM) on a set
of positive v-measure if and only if the diffeomorphism
is non-uniformly hyperbolic (respectively, non-uniformly
partially hyperbolic). Hence, the non-uniformly hyper-
bolic diffeomorphisms (with respect to the measure v)
are precisely the diffeomorphisms with non-zero Lya-
punovexponents (on a set of positive v-measure).
407
PESIN THEORY
Furthermore, for v-almost every x E A there exist
subspaces Hj(x), for j = 1, ... ,s(x), such that for ev-
ery i = 1, ... ,s(x) one has Ei(X) = EEl;=IHj(x),
for every v E Hi (x) \ {O}, and if i =I- j, then
Pesin sets. To a non-uniformly partially hyperbolic dif-
feomorphism one associates a filtration of measurable
sets (not necessarily invariant) on which the estimates
3)-5) are uniform.
Let f be a non-uniformly hyperbolic diffeomorphism
and let C(x) = C«x) (x). Given l > 0, one defines the
measurable set Al by
l-1 l+1 } The function A(x) is bounded on each AI. The set
{ x E A: C(x) ~ l, A(X) ~ -l- < -l- ~ J-L(x) .
One has Al C AL when l ~ L, and UI>oA I = A
(mod 0). Each set Al is closed but need not be f-
invariant; for every m E Z and l > 0 there exists an
L = L(m, l) such that fm Al cAL' The distribution
E8(X) is, in general, only measurable on A but it is con-
tinuous on AI. The local stable manifolds V 8 (x) depend
continuously on x E Al and their sizes are uniformly
bounded below on AI' Each set Al is called a Pesin set.
One similarly defines Pesin sets for arbitrary non-
uniformly partially hyperbolic diffeomorphisms.
Lyapunov metrics and regular neighbourhoods.
Let (" .) be the Riemannian metric on T M. For each
fixed E > 0 and every x E A, one defines a Lyapunov
metric on Hi (x) by
(u,v)~ = L (Dfmu,Dfmv)xe-2mXi(X)-2€lml,
mEZ
for each u, v E Hi (x). One extends this metric to
TxM by declaring orthogonal the subspaces Hi(X) for
i = 1, ... ,s(x). The metric (', .)' is continuous on AI.
The sequence of weights {e-2mXi(X)-2€lml }mEZ is called
a Pesin tempering kernel. Any linear operator L€(x) on
TxM such that
(u, v)~ = (L€(x)u, L€(x)v)x
is called a Lyapunov change of coordinates.
There exist a measurable function q: A -t (0,1] sat-
isfying e-€ ~ q(fx)jq(x) ~ e€, and for each x E A a
collection of imbeddings Wx: B(O, q(x)) -t M, defined
on the ball B(O, q(x)) C TxM by Wx = expx oL€(X)-I,
such that if fx = Wj; 0 f 0 Wx , then:
408
1) the derivative Dofx of fx at the point 0 has the
Lyapunov block form
where each Ai(X) is an invertible linear operator be-
tween the k;(x)-dimensional spaces L€(x)H;(x) and
L€(fx)Hi(fX), for i = 1, ... ,s(x);
2) for each i = 1, ... ,s(x),
eXi(x)-€ ~ IIA;(x)-lr l ~ IIAi(X)11 ~ eXi(x)+€;
3) the CI-distance between fx and dofx on the ball
B(O, q(x)) is at most E;
4) there exist a constant K and a measurable func-
tion A: A -t R satisfying e-€ ~ A(fx)jA(x) ~ e€ such
that for every y,z E B(O,q(x)),
Kd(WxY, Wxz) ~ Ily - zll ~ A(x)d(Wxy, Wxz).
Wx(B(O, q(x))) C M is called a regular neighbourhood
of the point x.
Absolute continuity. A property playing a crucial role
in the study of the ergodic properties of (uniformly and
non-uniformly) hyperbolic dynamical systems is the ab-
solute continuity of the families of stable and unstable
manifolds. It allows one to pass from the local properties
of the system to the study of its global behaviour.
Let v be an absolutely continuous f-invariant mea-
sure, i.e., an f-invariant measure that is absolutely con-
tinuous with respect to Lebesgue measure (cf. Ab-
solute continuity). For each x E A and l > 0 there
exists a neighbourhood U(x) of x with size depending
only on l and with the following properties (see [21]).
Choose y E Al n U(x). Given two smooth manifolds
WI, W 2 C U(x) transversal to the local stable manifolds
in U (x), one defines
Ai = {w E Wi n V 8 (z): zEAl n U(x)}
for i = 1,2. Let p: Al -t A2 be the correspondence
that takes W E WI to the point p( w) E W 2 such that
w,p(w) E VS(z) for some z. If Vi is the measure induced
on Wi by the Riemannian metric, for i = 1,2, then P*VI
is absolutely continuous with respect to V2 (if l is suffi-
ciently large, then vi(A i ) > 0 for i = 1,2).
This result has the following consequences (see [21]).
For each measurable set B C WI n AI, let B be the
union of all the sets V8(Z) n U(x) such that zEAl
and VS(z) n B =I- 0. The partition of B into the sub-
manifolds VS(z) is a measurable partition (also called
measurable decomposition), and the corresponding
conditional measure of von V 8 (z) is absolutely contin-
uous with respect to the measure V z induced on V 8 (z)
by the Riemannian metric, for each zEAl such that

VS(z) n B =I- 0. In addition, vAVS(z)) > 0 for v-almost
all z E B n AI, and the measure i/ on WI defined for
each measurable set B by i/(B) = v(B), is absolutely
continuous with respect to VI.
Smooth ergodic theory. Let I: M -t M be a non-
uniformly hyperbolic CHa-diffeomorphism (0 > 0)
with respect to a Sinaz-Ruelle-Bowen measure v, i.e., an
I-invariant measure v that has a non-zero Lyapunov ex-
ponent v-almost everywhere and has absolutely contin-
uous conditional measures on stable (or unstable) man-
ifolds with respect to Lebesgue measure (in particular,
this holds if v is absolutely continuous with respect to
Lebesgue measure and has no zero Lyapunov exponents
[21]; see also above: 'Absolute continuity'). Then there
is at most a countable number of disjoint I-invariant
sets Ao,A I , ... (the ergodic components) such that [21],
[11]:
1) Ui~oAi = A, v(Ao) = 0, and V(Ai) > 0 and IIA; is
ergodic (see Ergodicity) with respect to ViA; for every
i > 0;
2) each set Ai is a disjoint union of sets Ail, ... ,Ain;
such that I(Aij) = Ai,j+I for each j < ni, and I(AinJ =
Ail;
3) for every i and j, there is a metric isomorphism
between In; IA;j and a Bernoulli automorphism (in
particular, the mapping In; IAij is a K -system).
If v is an absolutely continuous I-invariant measure
and the foliation WS (or WU) of A is CI-continuous
(i.e., for each x E A there is a neighbourhood of x in
WS(x) that is the image of an injective CI-mapping 'Px,
defined on the ball with centre at 0 and of radius 1,
and the mapping x H 'Px from A into the family of C I _
mappings is continuous), then any ergodic component
of positive v-measure is an open set (mod 0); if, in ad-
dition, IIA is topologically transitive (cf. Topological
transitivity; Chaos), then IIA is ergodic [21].
If IIA is ergodic, then for Lebesgue-almost-every
point x E M and every continuous function g, one has
There is a measurable partition 'TJ of M with the fol-
lowing properties:
1) for v-almost every x E M, the element 'TJ(x) E 'TJ
containing x is an open subset (mod 0) of WS(x);
2) I'TJ is a refinement of'TJ, and V':=o Ik'TJ is the par-
tition of M into points;
3) "':=ol-k'TJ coincides with the measurable hull of
W S , as well as with the maximal partition with zero
entropy (the 7r-partition for I; see Entropy of a mea-
surable decomposition);
PESIN THEORY
4) hv (f) = hv (f, 'TJ) (cf. Entropy theory of a dy-
namical system).
Pes in entropy formula. For a CHa-diffeomorphism
(0 > 0) I: M -t M of a compact manifold and an abso-
lutely continuous I-invariant probability measure v, the
metric entropy hv(f) of I with respect to v is given
by the Pesin entropy lormula [21]
six)
hv(f) = 1M ~xt(x)ki(X) dv(x), (2)
where xt(x) = max{Xi(x),O} and (Xi(X), ki(x)) form
the forward spectrum of I at x.
For a CI-diffeomorphism I: M -t M of a compact
manifold and an I-invariant probability measure v, the
Ruelle inequality holds [25]:
six)
hv(f) ::::; 1M ~ xt(x)ki(x) dv(x). (3)
An important consequence of (3) is that any C I _
diffeomorphism with positive topological entropy has an
I-invariant measure with at least one positive and one
negative Lyapunov exponent; in particular, for surface
diffeomorphisms there is an I-invariant measure with
every exponent non-zero. For arbitrary invariant mea-
sures the inequality (3) may be strict [7].
The formula (2) was first established by Pesin in [21].
A proof which does not use the theory of invariant mani-
folds and absolute continuity was given by R. Mane [17].
For C 2-diffeomorphisms, (2) holds if and only if v has
absolutely continuous conditional measures on unstable
manifolds [13], [12].
The formula (2) has been extended to mappings with
singularities [12]. For C2-diffeomorphisms and arbitrary
invariant measures, results of F. Ledrappier and L.-S.
Young [14] show that the possible defect between the
left- and right-hand sides of (3) is due to the defects
between dim Ei (x) and the Hausdorff dimension of v
'in the direction of Ei(X)' for each i.
Hyperbolic measures. Let I be a C Ha _
diffeomorphism (0 > 0) and let v be an I-invariant
measure. One says that v is hyperbolic (with respect
to f) if Xi(X) =I- 0 for v-almost every x E M and all
i = 1, ... ,s(x). The measure v is hyperbolic (with re-
spect to f) if and only if I is non-uniformly hyperbolic
with respect to v (and the set A has full v-measure).
The fundamental work of A. Katok has revealed a rich
and complicated orbit structure for diffeomorphisms
possessing a hyperbolic measure.
Let v be a hyperbolic measure. The support of v is
contained in the closure of the set of periodic points. If
v is ergodic and not concentrated on a periodic orbit,
then [7], [9]:
409
PESIN THEORY
1) the support of v is contained in the closure of the
set of hyperbolic periodic points possessing a transversal
homo clinic point;
2) for every € > a there exists a closed I-invariant
hyperbolic set r such that the restriction of I to r is
topologically conjugate to a topological Markov chain
with topological entropy h(Jlr) 2: hv(J) - €, i.e., the
entropy of a hyperbolic measure can be approximated
by the topological entropies of invariant hyperbolic sets.
If I possesses a hyperbolic measure, then I satisfies a
closing lemma: given € > 0, there exists a 8 = 8(l, €) > a
such that for each x E Al and each integer m sat-
isfying Im x E Al and d(x, fm x ) < 8, there exists a
point y such that fm y = y, d(Jkx, fk y ) < € for ev-
ery k = 0, ... ,m, and y is a hyperbolic periodic point
[7]. The diffeomorphism I also satisfies a shadowing
lemma (see [9]) and a Lifschitz-type theorem [9]: if'P is
a Holder-continuous function (cf. Holder condition)
such that I:;;'~ol 'P(Jkp) = a for each periodic point p
with fmp = p, then there is a measurable function h
such that 'P(x) = h(Jx) - h(x) for v-almost every x.
Let Pn(J) be the number of periodic points of f with
period n. If f possesses a hyperbolic measure or is a
surface diffeomorphism, then
lim sup !:.log+ Pn(J) 2: h(J),
n-++oo n
where h(J) is the topological entropy of f [7].
Let v be a hyperbolic ergodic measure. L.M. Barreira,
Pesin and J. Schmeling [2] have shown that there is a
constant d such that for v-almost every x EM,
lim 10gv(B(x,r)) - d
r-+O logr -,
where B (x, r) is the ball in M with centre at x and of
radius r (this claim was known as the Eckmann-Ruelle
conjecture); this implies that the Hausdorff dimen-
sion of v and the lower and upper box dimensions of
v coincide and are equal to d (see [2]). Ledrappier and
Young [14] have shown that if v~ (respectively, v;:) are
the conditional measures of v with respect to the stable
(respectively, unstable) manifolds, then there are con-
stants dB and dU such that for v-almost every x EM,
· 10gv~(BB(x,r))
11m -
dB
r-+O logr -,
· 10gv;:(BU(x,r)) dU
11m -
r-+O logr -,
where BB (x, r) (respectively, B U(x, r)) is the ball in
VB(X) (respectively, VU(x)) with centre at x and of ra-
dius r. Moreover, d = dB + dU [2] and v has an 'almost
product structure' (see [2]).
Criteria for having non-zero Lyapunov expo-
nents. Above it has been shown that non-uniformly
hyperbolic dynamical systems possess strong ergodic
410
properties, as well as many other important properties.
Therefore, it is of primary interest to have verifiable
methods for checking the non-vanishing of Lyapunov ex-
ponents.
The following Katok-Burns criterion holds: A real-
valued measurable function Q on the tangent bundle
T M is called an eventually strict Lyapunov function if
for v-almost every x EM:
1) the function Qx(v) = Q(x,v) is continuous, ho-
mogeneous of degree one and takes both positive and
negative values;
2) the maximal dimensions of the linear subspaces
contained, respectively, in the sets {a} u Q;l (0, +00)
and {a} U Q;l( -00, 0) are constants r+(Q) and r-(Q),
and r+(Q) + r-(Q) is the dimension of M;
3) Qfx(D Iv) 2: Qx( v) for all v E TxM;
4) there exists a positive integer m = m(x) such that
for all v E TxM \ {a},
> Qx(v),
Qf~x(Dlmv)
Qf-~x(Drmv) < Qx(v).
If f possesses an eventually strict Lyapunov function,
then there exist exactly r+ (Q) positive Lyapunov expo-
nents and r- (Q) negative ones [8] (see also [28]).
Another method to estimate the Lyapunov exponents
was presented in [6].
Generalizations. There are several natural and im-
portant generalizations of Pesin theory. Examples of
these are: generalizations to non-invertible mappings;
extensions of the main results of Pesin's work to map-
pings with singularities [10], including billiard systems
and other physical models; infinite-dimensional versions
of results on stable and unstable manifolds in Hilbert
spaces [27] and Banach spaces [18], given certain com-
pactness assumptions; some results have been extended
to random mappings [15].
Related results have been obtained for products of
random matrices (see [5] and the references therein).
References
[1] ANOSOV, D.: 'Geodesic flows on closed Riemann manifolds
with negative curvature', Proc. Steklov [nst. Math. 90 (1969).
(Translated from the Russian.)
[2] BARREIRA, L., PESIN, YA., AND SCHMELING, J.: 'On the
pointwise dimension of hyperbolic measures: A proof of
the Eckmann-Ruelle conjecture', Electronic Research An-
nounc. Amer. Math. Soc. 2 (1996).
[3] CORNFELD, I., AND SINAI, YA.: 'Basic notions of ergodic the-
ory and examples of dynamical systems', in YA. SINAI (ed.):
Dynamical Systems II, Vol. 2 of Encycl. Math. Sci., Springer,
1989, pp. 2-27. (Translated from the Russian.)
[4] FAT HI , A., HERMAN, M., AND Yoccoz, J.: 'A proofofPesin's
stable manifold theorem', in J. PALlS (ed.): Geometric Dy-
namics, Vol. 1007 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1983, pp. 177-215.

[5] GOLDSHElD, I., AND MARGULIS, G.: 'Lyapunov exponents of
a product of random matrices', Russian Math. Surveys 44
(1989), 11-71. (Translated from the Russian.)
[6] HERMAN, M.: 'Une methode pour minorer les exposants de
Lyapunov et quelques examples montrant Ie caractere local
d'un theorem d'Arnold et de Moser sur Ie tore de dimension
2', Comment. Math. Helv. 58 (1983), 453-502.
[7] KATOK, A.: 'Lyapunov exponents, entropy and periodic or-
bits for diffeomorphisms', IHES Publ. Math. 51 (1980),137-
173.
[8] KATOK, A., AND BURNS, K.: 'Infinitesimal Lyapunov func-
tions, invariant cone families and stochastic properties of
smooth dynamical systems', Ergodic Th. Dynamical Systems
14 (1994), 757-785.
[9] KATOK, A., AND MENDOZA, L.: 'Dynamical systems with
nonuniformly hyperbolic behavior', in A. KATOK AND
B. HASSELBLATT (eds.): Introduction to the Modern Theory
of Dynamical Systems, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995.
[10] KATOK, A., AND STRELCYN, J.-M.: Invariant manifolds, en-
tropy and billiards; smooth maps with singularities, Vol. 1222
of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1986.
[11] LEDRAPPIER, F.: 'Proprietes ergodiques des mesures de Sinal',
IHES Publ. Math. 59 (1984), 163-188.
[12] LEDRAPPIER, F., AND STRELCYN, J.-M.: 'A proof of the es-
timate from below in Pesin's entropy formula', Ergodic Th.
Dynamical Systems 2 (1982), 203-219.
[13] LEDRAPPIER, F., AND YOUNG, L.-S.: 'The metric entropy of
diffeomorphisms I. Characterization of measures satisfying
Pesin's entropy formula', Ann. of Math. (2) 122 (1985),509-
539.
[14] LEDRAPPIER, F., AND YOUNG, L.-S.: 'The metric entropy of
diffeomorphisms. II. Relations between entropy, exponents
and dimension', Ann. of Math. (2) 122 (1985),540-574.
[15] Lm, P.-D., AND QIAN, M.: Smooth ergodic theory of random
dynamical systems, Vol. 1606 of Lecture Notes in Mathemat-
ics, Springer, 1995.
[16] LIVERANI, C., AND WOJTKOWSKI, M.: 'Ergodicity in Hamil-
tonian systems': Dynamics Reported Expositions in Dynam-
ical Systems (N.S.), Vol. 4, Springer, 1995, pp. 130-202.
[17] MANE, R.: 'A proof of Pesin's formula', Ergodic Th. Dynam-
ical Systems 1 (1981),95-102, Errata: 3 (1983), 159-160.
[18] MANE, R.: 'Lyapunov exponents and stable manifolds for
compact transformations', in J. PALlS (ed.): Geometric Dy-
namics, Vol. 1007 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1983, pp. 522-577.
[19] OSELEDETS, V.: 'A multiplicative ergodic theorem. Lia-
punov characteristic numbers for dynamical systems', Trans.
Moscow Math. Soc. 19 (1968), 197-221. (Translated from the
Russian.)
[20] PESIN, YA.: 'Families of invariant manifolds corresponding
to nonzero characteristic exponents', Math. USSR-Izv. 10
(1976), 1261-1305. (Translated from the Russian.)
[21] PESIN, YA.: 'Characteristic exponents and smooth ergodic
theory', Russian Math. Surveys 32 (1977), 55-114. (Trans-
lated from the Russian.)
[22] PESIN, YA.: 'Geodesic flows on closed Riemannian manifolds
without focal points', Math. USSR-Izv. 11 (1977), 1195-1228.
(Translated from the Russian.)
[23] PESIN, YA.: 'General theory of smooth hyperbolic dynamical
systems', in YA. SINAI (ed.): Dynamical Systems II, Vol. 2 of
Encycl. Math. Sci., Springer, 1989, pp. 108-151. (Translated
from the Russian.)
PICTURES
[24] PUGH, C., AND SHUB, M.: 'Ergodic attractors', Trans. Amer.
Math. Soc. 312 (1989), 1-54.
[25] RUELLE, D.: 'An inequality for the entropy of differentiable
maps', Bol. Soc. Brasil. Mat. 9 (1978),83-87.
[26] RUELLE, D.: 'Ergodic theory of differentiable dynamical sys-
tems', IHES Publ. Math. 50 (1979), 27-58.
[27] RUELLE, D.: 'Characteristic exponents and invariant mani-
folds in Hilbert space', Ann. of Math. (2) 115 (1982),243-
290.
[28] WOJTKOWSKI, M.: 'Invariant families of cones and Lyapunov
exponents', Ergodic Th. Dynamical Systems 5 (1985), 145-
161.
L.M. Barreiro
MSC 1991: 58F15, 28Dxx
PICTURES - A class of bijections (cf. Bijection) be-
tween subsets of Z x Z, namely skew diagrams. A skew
diagram is a finite subset S c Z x Z such that x ~ y ~ z
with x, z E S implies YES, where '~' is the coordinate-
wise partial ordering of Z x Zj a typical skew diagram is
the difference A \ J.l of two Young diagrams (cf. Young
diagram) A, J.l with J.l C A. The definition of pictures
also uses another partial ordering '~..(' on Z x Z, given
by
(i,j) ~..( (i',i') ¢:::::} i ~ i' Aj ~ i'
(sometimes the opposite ordering is used instead)j a
bijection I between two skew diagrams is a picture
if x ~ y implies I(x) ~..( I(y) and u ~ v implies
l-l(U) ~..( 1- 1 (v). The set of all pictures has various
symmetries, among which 1+-+ 1-1.
When domain and image are fixed to certain shapes,
pictures become equivalent to many other combinato-
rial concepts, such as permutations, (semi-) standard
Young tableaux, skew tableaux, Littlewood-Richardson
fillings, and matrices over N or {a, 1} with prescribed
row and column sums. On the other hand, any picture
gives rise to a semi-standard skew tableau by projecting
its images onto their first coordinate. For any skew di-
agrams X, 'I/J, the number of pictures X -+ 'I/J is equal to
the intertwining number of representations Vx and
V", of Sn, or of GL m , see [5). In particular, the number
of pictures from A \ J.l to 1/, for Young diagrams A, J.l, 1/,
is the multiplicity of the irreducible representation
VA of GL m in V~ 0 Vvj this is essentially the Littlewood-
Richardson rule.
There is a natural bijection between pictures I: X -+
'I/J, for arbitrary skew shapes X, 'I/J, and pairs of pictures
p: A -+ 'I/J and q: X -+ A, for some Young diagram A.
This is a generalization of the Robinson-Schensted
correspondence, and it agrees with the intertwining
number interpretation. It also gives a decomposition of
skew Schur polynomials into ordinary Schur polynomi-
als, generalizing the decomposition of the character of
411
PICTURES
v®n mentioned in Robinson-Schensted correspon-
dence, and thereby provides a proof of the Littlewood-
Richardson rulej this is closely related to the reason that
correspondence was originally introduced in [2]. Like the
P-symbol in the ordinary Robinson-Schensted corre-
spondence, the picture p can not only be computed from
I by an insertion procedure, but also by using the jeu
de taquin (see [3]), to gradually transform the domain
X into a Young diagram >.. By the symmetry I ++ 1-1,
the picture q can also be computed by the jeu de taquin
at the image side, to transform the image 'ljJ into >.. The
steps of these two forms of the jeu de taquin commute
with each other, and this provides a key to many prop-
erties of the Ro binson-Schensted correspondence [4].
References
[1] FOMIN, S., AND GREENE, C.: 'A Littlewood-Richardson mis-
cellany', European J. Combinatorics 14 (1993), 191-212.
[2] ROBINSON, G. DE B.: 'On the representations of the symmet-
ric group', Amer. J. Math. 60 (1938), 745-760.
[3] SCHUTZENBERGER, M.P.: 'La correspondance de Robinson',
in D. FOATA (ed.): Combinatoire et Representation du
Groupe Symetrique, Vol. 579 of Lecture Notes in Mathemat-
ics, Springer, 1976, pp. 59-113.
[4] LEEUWEN, M.A.A. VAN: 'Tableau algorithms defined natu-
rally for pictures', Discrete Math. 157 (1996), 321-362.
[5] ZELEVINSKY, A.V.: 'A generalisation of the Littlewood-
Richardson rule and the Robinson--Schensted-Knuth corre-
spondence', J. Algebm 69 (1981), 82-94.
M.A.A. van Leeuwen
MSC 1991: 05E1O, 05E15, 20G05, 05E05
PL US-CONSTRUCTION, Quillen plus-construction
- A mapping qN: X ---+ xtbetween spaces of the
homotopy type of connected CW-complexes (cf. also
CW-complex), which has Ker7f1(qN) = N (necessar-
ily a perfect normal subgroup of 7f1(X)) and is an
acyclic mapping. This means that qN satisfies the fol-
lowing, equivalent, conditions:
• the homotopy fibre AN X of qN is acyclicj
• qN induces an isomorphism of integral homology
and a trivial action of 7f1(Xt) on H.(ANXj Z)j
• qN induces an isomorphism of homology with any
local coefficient system of Abelian groupSj
• if I: X ---+ Y has N :S Ker 7f1 (I), then there is
a mapping g: xt ---+ Y, unique up to homotopy, such
that I ~ g 0 qN.
When N is always chosen to be the maximum per-
fect subgroup P7f1 (X) of the fundamental group of
the domain, and the mapping is taken to be a cofibra-
tion (in fact, it can be taken to be an inclusion in a
space formed by the adjunction of 2- and 3-cells), this
determines a functor q: X ---+ X+. General references
are [6], [1]. A fibre sequence F ---+ E ---+ B induces a fibre
sequence F+ ---+ E+ ---+ B+ if and only if P7f1 (B) acts
on F+ by mappings freely homotopic to the identitYj
412
when the space F+ is nilpotent, this condition reduces
to P7f1(B) acting trivially on H.(Fj Z) [2].
The construction, first used in [10], was developed by
D. Quillen [15] in order to define the higher algebraic
K-theory of a ring R as Ki(R) = 7fi(B GL(R+)), where
the infinite general linear group GL(R) is the direct limit
of the finite-dimensional groups GLn(R), and the plus-
construction is applied to its classifying space B GL(R)
to obtain an infinite loop space (hence spectrum) [16].
General references are [12], [1]. Reconciliation with other
approaches to higher K-theory is found in [5], [13]. Sub-
sequently, similar procedures have been employed for
C· -algebras [8] and Aoo ring spaces [4].
Every connected space can be obtained by the plus-
construction on the classifying space of a discrete
group [9]. Thus, the construction has also been studied
for its effect on the classifying spaces of other groups,
for example in connection with knot theory [14] and fi-
nite group theory [11]. Relations with surgery theory
can be found in [7]. For links to localization theory in
algebraic topology, see [3].
References
[1] BERRICK, A.J.: An approach to algebmic K -theory, Pitman,
1982.
[2] BERRICK, A.J.: 'Characterization of plus-constructive fibra-
tions', Adv. in Math. 48 (1983), 172-176.
[3] DROR FARJOUN, E.: Cellular spaces, null spaces and homo-
topy localization, Vol. 1622 of Lecture Notes, Springer, 1996.
[4] FIEDOROWICZ, Z., SCHWANZL, R., STEINER, R., AND VOGT,
R.M.: 'Non-connective delooping of K-theory of an Aoo ring
space', Math. Z. 203 (1990), 43-57.
[5] GRAYSON, D.R.: 'Higher algebraic K-theory. II (after Daniel
Quillen)': Algebmic K-theory (Proc. Conf. Northwestern
Univ., Evanston, Ill., 1976), Vol. 551 of Lecture Notes in
Mathematics, Springer, 1976, pp. 217-240.
[6] HAUSMANN, J.-C., AND HUSEMOLLER, D.: 'Acyclic maps', En-
seign. Math. 25 (1979), 53-75.
[7] HAUSMANN, J.-C., AND VOGEL, P.: 'The plus-construction
and lifting maps from manifolds': Proc. Symp. Pure Math.,
Vol. 32, Amer. Math. Soc., 1978, pp. 67-76.
[8] HIGSON, N.: 'Algebraic K-theory of stable C'-algebras', Adv.
in Math. 67 (1988), 1-140.
[9] KAN, D.M., AND THURSTON, W.P.: 'Every connected space
has the homology of a K(7l", 1)', Topology 15 (1976),253-258.
[10] KERVAIRE, M.: 'Smooth homology spheres and their funda-
mental groups', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 144 (1969), 67-72.
[11] LEVI, R.: On finite groups and homotopy theory, Vol. 118 of
Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1995.
[12] LODAY, J.-L.: 'K-theorie algebrique et representations de
groupes', Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm. Sup. 9 (1976),309-377.
[13] McDUFF, D., AND SEGAL, G.B.: 'Homotopy fibrations and
the 'group completion' theorem', Invent. Math. 31 (1976),
279-284.
[14] MEIER, W.: 'Acyclic maps and knot complements', Math.
Ann. 243 (1979), 247-259.
[15] QUILLEN, D.: 'Cohomology of groups': Actes Congre.s Inter-
nat. Math., Vol. 2, Gauthier-Villars, 1973, pp. 47-51.
[16] WAGONER, J.B.: 'Developping classifying spaces in algebraic
K-theory', Topology 11 (1972),349-370.

A.J. BeT·rick
MSC 1991: 19D06
po-GROUP, partially ordered group - A group
{G; .,::5} endowed with a partial order -< such that
for all x, y, z, t E G,
x ::5 y ::::} zxt ::5 xyt.
(Cf. also Partially ordered group.) If e is the identity
of a po-group G and P = P(G) = {x E G: x ~ e} is
the positive cone of G (cf. l-group), then the following
relations hold:
1) p.p~p;
2) PnP={e};
3) X-I Px ~ P for all x.
If, in a group G, one can find a set P with the prop-
erties 1)-3), then G can be made into a po-group by
setting x ::5 y if and only if yx- 1 E P. It is correct to
identify the order of a po-group with its positive cone.
One often writes a po-group G with positive cone P as
(G,P).
A mapping r.p: G -+ H from a po-group G into a
po-group H is an order homomorphism if r.p is a homo-
morphism of the group G and for all x, y E G,
x ~ y ::::} r.p(x) ::5 r.p(y).
A homomorphism r.p from a po-group (G, P) into a po-
group (H, Q) is an order homomorphism if and only if
r.p(P) ~ Q.
A subgroup H of a po-group G is called convex (cf.
Convex subgroup) if for all x,y,z with x,z E H,
x ::5 y ::5 z ::::} Y E H.
If H is a convex subgroup of a po-group G, then the
set G I H of right cosets of G by H is a partially or-
dered set with the induced order Hx ::5 Hy if there
exists an h E H such that x ::5 hy. The quotient group
G I H of a po-group G by a convex normal subgroup
H is a po-group respect with the induced partial or-
der, and the natural homomorphism T: G -+ G I H is
an order homomorphism. The homomorphism theorem
holds for po-groups: if r.p is an order homomorphism
from a po-group G into a po-group H, then the ker-
nel N = {x E G: r.p(x) = e} of r.p is a convex normal
subgroup of G and there exists an order isomorphism
'ljJ from the po-group GIN into H such that r.p = T'l/;.
The most important classes of po-groups are the class
of lattice-ordered groups (cf. l-group) and the class of
totally ordered groups (cf. o-group).
This article extends and updates the article Par-
tially ordered group (Volume 7).
References
[1] FUCHS, L.: Partially ordered algebraic systems, Pergamon,
1963.
POISSON ALGEBRA
V.M. Kopytov
MSC 1991: 06F15
POINCARE-HoPF THEOREM - Let M be a
smooth compact manifold with boundary W = 8M, and
let X be a vector field on M with isolated zeros such
that X points outwards at all points in the boundary
W.
Then the sum of the indices of the zeros of V (see
Singular point, index of a) is equal to the Euler char-
acteristic of M.
This is the generalization proved by H. Hopf, in 1926,
of the two-dimensional version owed to H. Poincare
(1881, 1885) (see Poincare theorem).
References
[1] LLOYD, N.G.: Degree theory, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1978.
[2] MILNOR, J.W.: Topology from the differentiable viewpoint,
Univ. Virginia Press, 1965.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 58F99, 58G 10
POISSON ALGEBRA - An algebra, usually over the
field of real or complex numbers, equipped with a bi-
linear mapping satisfying the properties of the usual
Poisson brackets of functions. Let A be an associa-
tive commutative algebra over a commutative ring R (cf.
Commutative algebra; Commutative ring; Asso-
ciative rings and algebras). A Poisson algebra struc-
ture on A is defined by an R-bilinear skew-symmetric
mapping {., .}: A x A -+ A such that
i) (A, {-, .}) is a Lie algebra over R;
ii) the Leibniz rule is satisfied, namely,
{ a, bc} = {a, b}c + b{ a, c}
for all a, b, c E A.
The element {a, b} is called the Poisson bracket of a and
b. The main example is that of the algebra of smooth
functions on a Poisson manifold [13] (cf. also Symplec-
tic structure).
On a Poisson algebra, one can define [7] a skew-
symmetric A-bilinear mapping, P, which generalizes the
Poisson bivector on Poisson manifolds, mapping a pair
of Kahler (or formal) differentials on A to the algebra
A itself. There exists a unique R-bilinear bracket, [., .]p
on the A-module n 1 (A) of Kahler differentials satisfying
[da, db]p = d{ a, b} and lending it the structure of a Lie-
Rinehart algebra, [da,jdb]p = j[da,db]p+P~(da)(f)db,
for all a, b, j E A. (Here, P~ is the adjoint of P, map-
ping the Kahler differentials into the derivations of A;
cf. Adjoint operator.) The Poisson cohomology (cf.
Cohomology) of A is then defined and, when nl(A)
is projective as an A-module, is equal to the cohomol-
ogy of the complex of alternating A-linear mappings on
413
POISSON ALGEBRA
01(A) with values in A, with the differential [14] de-
fined by the Lie-Rinehart algebra structure. In the case
of the algebra of functions on a differentiable mani-
fold, the Poisson cohomology coincides with the coho-
mology of the complex of multivectors, with differential
dp = [P,·], where P is the Poisson bivector and [.,.] is
the Schouten bracket.
In a canonical ring [16], the Poisson bracket is de-
fined by a given mapping ptt. Dirac structures [3] on
complexes over Lie algebras are a generalization of the
Poisson algebras, adapted to the theory of infinite-
dimensional Hamiltonian systems, where the ring of
functions is replaced by the vector space of functionals.
In the category of Z-graded algebras, there are even
and odd Poisson algebras, called graded Poisson algebras
and Gerstenhaber algebras, respectively. Let A = EBAi
be an associative, graded commutative algebra. A graded
Poisson (respectively, Gerstenhaber) algebra structure
on A is a graded Lie algebra structure (cf. Lie alge-
bra, graded) {.,.} (respectively, where the grading is
shifted by 1), such that a graded version of the Leib-
niz rule holds: for each a E Ai, {a,·} is a derivation
of degree i (respectively, i + 1) of the graded commuta-
tive algebra A = EBA i. Examples of Gerstenhaber alge-
bras are: the Hochschild cohomology of an associative
algebra [6], in particular, the Schouten algebra of multi-
vectors on a smooth manifold [15], the exterior algebra
of a Lie algebra, the algebra of differential forms on a
Poisson manifold [11], the space of sections of the exte-
rior algebra of a Lie algebroid, the algebra of functions
on an odd Poisson supermanifold of type (n I n) [10].
Batalin- Vil 'koviskiz algebras, also called B V-algebras,
are exact Gerstenhaber algebras, i.e., their Lie bracket
is a coboundary in the graded Hochschild cohomology
of the algebra. Such structures arise on the BRST coho-
mology of topological field theories [12].
References
[1J BHASKARA, K.H., AND VISWANATH, K.: 'Calculus on Poisson
manifolds', Bull. London Math. Soc. 20 (1988), 68-72.
[2J BRACONNIER, J.: 'Algebres de Poisson', C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris
A284 (1977), 1345-1348.
[3J DORFMAN, I.: Dirac structures and integrability of nonlinear
evolution equations, Wiley, 1993.
[4J FLATO, M., GERSTENHABER, M., AND VORONOV, A.A.: 'Co-
homology and deformation of Leibniz pairs', Letters Math.
Phys. 34 (1995), 77-90.
[5J GELFAND, 1.M., AND DORFMAN, 1.YA.: 'Hamiltonian opera-
tors and algebraic structures related to them', Funct. Anal.
Appl. 13 (1979), 248-262. (Translated from the Russian.)
[6J GERSTENHABER, M.: 'The cohomology structure of an asso-
ciative ring', Ann. of Math. 78 (1963), 267-288.
[7J HUEBSCHMANN, J.: 'Poisson cohomology and quantization',
J. Reine Angew. Math. 408 (1990),57-113.
[8J KOSMANN-SCHWARZBACH, Y.: 'From Poisson to Gerstenhaber
algebras', Ann. [nst. Fourier 46, no. 5 (1996), 1243-1274.
414
[9J KOSMANN-SCHWARZBACH, Y., AND MAGRI, F.: 'Poisson-
Nijenhuis structures', Ann. [nst. H. Poincare, Phys. Th. 53
(1990), 35-8l.
[10J KOSTANT, B.: 'Graded manifolds, graded Lie theory and pre-
quantization', in K. BLEULER AND A. REETZ (eds.): Differ-
ential Geometric Methods in Mathematical Physics (Bonn,
1975), Vol. 570 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer,
1977, pp. 177-306.
[l1J KOSZUL, J.-L.: 'Crochet de Schouten-Nijenhuis et cohomolo-
gie', Asterisque, hors serie, Soc. Math. France (1985), 257-
27l.
[12J LIAN, B.H., AND ZUCKERMAN, G.J.: 'New perspectives on
the BRST-algebraic structure of string theory', Comm. Math.
Phys. 154 (1993), 613-646.
[13J LICHNEROWICZ, A.: 'Les varietes de Poisson et leurs algebres
de Lie associees', J. Diff. Geom. 12 (1977), 253-300.
[14J PALAIS, R.S.: 'The cohomology of Lie rings': Pmc. Symp.
Pure Math., Vol. 3, Amer. Math. Soc., 1961, pp. 130-137.
[15J TULCZYJEW, W.M.: 'The graded Lie algebra of multivector
fields and the generalized Lie derivative of forms', Bull. Acad.
Pol. Sci., ser. Sci. Math. Astr. Phys. 22 (1974),937-942.
[16J VINOGRADOV, A. M., AND KRASIL'SHCHIK, 1.S.: 'What is the
Hamiltonian formalism?', Russian Math. Surveys 30, no. 1
(1975),177-202. (Translated from the Russian.)
y. K osmann-Schwarzbach
MSC 1991: 17B60, 17B70, 16W55, 17B56, 17B81,
58AlO
POISSON LIE GROUP - A Lie group G with a
Poisson structure P which is compatible with the group
multiplication, i.e., the multiplication G x G --+ G is a
Poisson mapping, where G x G is the product Poisson
manifold (cf. Poisson algebra).
The corresponding infinitesimal object is a Lie bial-
gebra (see Quantum groups) (g,,), called the tangent
Lie bialgebra of (G, P). Here, 9 is the Lie algebra of the
Lie group G and the linear mapping ,: 9 --+ A2 9 is de-
fined to be the linearization of P at the identity of the
group; it is a Lie-algebra l-cocycle with respect to the
adjoint action (because of the compatibility condition)
and a Lie cobracket, i.e., its transpose is a Lie bracket
on the dual g* of g. Conversely, any Lie bialgebra can be
integrated to a unique (up to isomorphism) connected
and simply connected Poisson Lie group.
To each Lie bialgebra structure on 9 there corre-
sponds a Lie bialgebra structure (g*, ,*) on g*, called
the dual of (g, ,), and a Lie bialgebra structure on gEBg*,
called the double of (g, ,). Therefore, each Poisson Lie
group (G,P) has a dual (G*,P*), and a double, with
underlying manifold G x G*. There are Poisson actions
of G on G* , and of G* on G, called the dressing actions.
The symplectic leaves of the Poisson manifold (G, P)
are the orbits of the dressing action of G* .
An element r E A2g is called a solution of the clas-
sical (respectively, generalized) Yang-Baxter equa-
tion if the algebraic Schouten bracket [r, r] of r with

itself vanishes (respectively, is ad-invariant). A solu-
tion rEA 2g of the classical Yang-Baxter equation is
also called a triangular r-matrix. A solution of the gen-
eralized Yang-Baxter equation defines a Lie bialgebra
structure on g, and a Poisson Lie structure on any Lie
group G with Lie algebra g. In particular, a triangu-
lar r-matrix defines both a left-invariant and a right-
invariant Poisson structure on G whose difference is a
Poisson Lie structure. An element rEg ® 9 with an
invariant symmetric part s is called a quasi-triangular
r-matrix if it satisfies [a, a] = -[s, s], where a is its
skew-symmetric part and [s, s] is the ad-invariant ele-
ment in A3g, defined by [s,s](C1],() = ((,[s~,s1]]), for
~,1], ( E g. Thus, the skew-symmetric part of a quasi-
°
triangular r-matrix defines a Poisson Lie structure on G.
The equation [a, a] = -[s, s], which reduces to [r, r] =
when r = a E A2g, is variously called the classical Yang-
Baxter equation, for r = a + s, or the modified Yang-
Baxter equation, for a. It is usually written in the form
[rI2,rd + [rI2,r23] + [r13,r23] = 0.
Examples are: trivial Poisson Lie groups, where P =
0, with as dual Poisson Lie group the dual of the Lie
algebra with its linear Poisson structure (also called
the Kirillov-Kostant-Souriau Poisson structure), and
with as double the cotangent bundle of G; the simple
Lie groups with the standard quasi-triangular r-matrix;
and the compact Lie groups with their Bruhat-Poisson
structure.
It should be noted that the algebraic concept of a
Lie bialgebra and the differential-geometric notion of a
Poisson Lie group were first encountered as the classical
limits of quantum objects participating in the quantum
inverse scattering theory for integrable systems. (Thus,
the classical Yang-Baxter equation is the classical limit
of the quantum Yang-Baxter equation.) Conversely, the
quantization problem is the problem of associating a
quantum group to a given Poisson Lie group, i.e., of find-
ing non-commutative deformations of its commutative
algebra of functions, which is a Poisson-Hopf algebra
(a Poisson algebra with a Hopf algebra structure such
that the comultiplication is a morphism of Poisson alge-
bras). Dually, quantum groups are also obtained as non-
co-commutative deformations of the universal envelop-
ing algebras of Lie bialgebras, which are co-commutative
co-Poisson-Hopf algebras.
References
[1] CHARI, V., AND PRESSLEY, A.: A guide to quantum groups,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994.
[2] DRINFELD, V.G.: 'Hamiltonian structures on Lie groups, Lie
bialgebras and the geometric meaning of the classical Yang-
Baxter equation', Soviet Math. Dokl. 27 (1983), 68-7l.
[3] DRINFELD, V.G.: 'Quantum groups': Proc. Intern. Congress
Mathematicians, Berkeley 1966, Vol. 1, Amer. Math. Soc.,
1987, pp. 798-820.
POLE ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM
[4] KOSMANN-SCHWARZBACH, Y., AND MAGRI, F.: 'Poisson-
Lie groups and complete integrability', Ann. Inst. Henri
Poincare, Phys. Th. A 49 (1988), 433-460.
[5] Lu, J.-H., AND WEINSTEIN, A.: 'Poisson Lie groups, dressing
transformations, and Bruhat decompositions', J. Differential
Geometry 31 (1990),501-526.
[6] MAJID, S.: 'Matched pairs of Lie groups associated to so-
lutions of the Yang-Baxter equation', Pacific J. Math. 141
(1990),311-332.
[7] REYMAN, A.G.: 'Poisson structures related to quantum
groups', in L. CASTELLANI AND J. WESS (eds.): Quan-
tum Groups and their Applications in Physics, Internat.
School Enrico Fermi (Varenna 1994), lOS, Amsterdam,
1996, pp. 407-443.
[8] REYMAN, A.G., AND SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKY, M.A.: 'Inte-
grable systems II', in V.I. ARNOLD AND S.P. NOVIKOV (eds.):
Dynamical Systems VII, Springer, 1994, pp. 116-259.
[9] SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKY, M.A.: 'Dressing transformations
and Poisson group actions', Publ. RIMS Kyoto Univ. 21
(1985), 1237-1260.
[10] VAISMAN, I.: Lectures on the geometry of Poisson manifolds,
Vol. 118 of Progress in Math., Birkhiiuser, 1994.
Y. Kosmann-Schwarzbach
MSC 1991: 22E60, 53C15, 58H15, 81R50, 16W30,
17B37
POLE ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM - Let R be a com-
mutative ring (cf. Commutative ring) and let (A, B)
be a pair of matrices of sizes n x nand n x m, respec-
tively, with coefficients in R. The pole assignment prob-
lem asks the following. Given rl,'" ,rn, does there ex-
ist an (m x n)-matrix F, called a feedback matrix, such
that the characteristic polynomial of A + BF is pre-
cisely (X - rd' .. (X - rn)? The pair (A, B) is then
called a pole assignable pair of matrices. The terminol-
ogy derives from the 'interpretation' of (A, B) as (the
essential data of) a discrete-time time-invariant linear
control system:
x(t + 1) = Ax(t) + Bu(t), (1)
where x(t) ERn, u(t) E R m , or also, when R = R or C,
a continuous-time time-invariant linear control system:
x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t), (2)
where x(t) ERn, u(t) E Rm.
In both cases, state feedback (see Automatic con-
trol theory), u H u + Fx, changes the pair (A, B) to
(A+ BF,B).
The transfer function of a system (1) or (2) with
output y(t) = Cx(t) is equal to
T(s) = C(sl - A)-I B, (3)
and therefore the terminology 'pole assignment' is used.
The pair (A, B) is a coefficient assignable pair of ma-
trices if for all all'" ,an E R there is an (m x n)-
matrix F such that A + BF has characteristic polyno-
mial xn + alXn-1 + ... + an-IX + an.
415
POLE ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM
The pair (A, B) is completely reachable, reachable,
completely controllable, or controllable if the columns of
the (n x nm) -reachability matrix
(B, AB, ... ,A n - l B) (4)
span all of Rn. All four mentioned choices of terminology
are used in the literature. The reach ability matrix (4) is
also called the controllability matrix. This terminology
also derives from the 'interpretations' (1) and (2) of a
pair (A, B), see again Automatic control theory.
A cyclic vector for an (n x n)-matrix M is a vector
vERn such that {v, M v, ... ,Mn-1v} is a basis for
Rn, i.e., such that (M, v) is completely reachable. Now
consider the following properties for a pair of matrices
(A,B):
a) there exist a matrix F and a vector w E RN such
that Bw is cyclic for A + BF;
b) (A, B) is coefficient assignable;
c) (A, B) is pole assignable;
d) (A, B) is completely reachable.
Over a field these conditions are equivalent and, in gen-
eral, a) :::} b) :::} c) :::} d). In control theory, the implica-
tion d) :::} a) for a field R is called the Heyman lemma,
and the implication d) :::} c) for a field R is termed the
pole shifting theorem.
A ring R is said to have the FC-property (respec-
tively, the CA-property or the PA-property) if for that
ring d) implies a) (respectively, d) implies b), or d) im-
plies c)). Such a ring is also called, respectively, an FC-
ring, a CA-ring or a PA-ring. As noted, each field is
an FC-ring (and hence a CA-ring and a PA-ring). Each
Dedekind domain (cf. also Dedekind ring) is a PA-
ring. The ring of polynomials in one indeterminate over
an algebraically closed field is a CA-ring, but the
ring of polynomials in two or more indeterminates over
any field is not a PA-ring (and hence not a CA-ring) [5].
For a variety of related results, see [1], [3], [4], [2].
References
[1] BREWER, J.W., BUNCE, J.W., AND VLECK, F.S. VAN: Linear
systems over commutative rings, M. Dekker, 1986.
[2] BREWER, J., FORD, T., KINGLER, L., AND SCHMALE, W.:
'When does the ring K[g] have the coefficient assignment
property?', J. Pure Appl. Algebra 112 (1996), 239-246.
[3] BREWER, J., KATZ, D., AND ULLERY, W.: 'Pole assignability
in polynomial rings, power series rings, and Priifer domains',
J. Algebra 106 (1987), 265-286.
[4] BUMBY, R., SOUTREY, E.D., SUSSMANN, H.J., AND VASCON-
CELOS, W.: 'Remarks on the pole-shifting theorem over rings',
J. Pure Appl. Algebra 20 (1981), 113-127.
[5] TANNENBAUM, A.: 'Polynomial rings over arbitrary fields in
two or more variables are not pole assignable', Syst. Control
Lett. 2 (1982), 222-224.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 93C05, 93D15, 93B55
416
PREDATOR-PREY SYSTEM - A system of two
species, one feeding on the other (cf. [10], [7], [4], [5], [9],
[8]). A variety of mathematical approaches is used when
modelling a predator-prey system, since there are many
factors that can influence its evolution, e.g. predation-
mediated coexistence, the size of habitat, hierarchical
ranking, voracity and fertility of species, competition,
inhomogeneity with respect to the age structure, latent,
infection and incubation lags, seasonal changes, space
diffusion, pollution, spatial environment heterogeneity,
finite acceptance time for external signals, carrying ca-
pacity, permanence (persistence), etc. Isolating those
factors which have to be taken into consideration and
neglecting the others, one obtains different mathemat-
ical predator-prey models, described by different types
of equations: ordinary, partial or functional differential
equations, deterministic or stochastic, discrete or con-
tinuous etc.
Lotka-Volterra model. This model, which takes into
account only intrinsic phenomena (voracity and fertil-
ity), has the form
x(t) = [al - a2y(t)]x(t),}
(1)
iJ(t) = [a3x(t) - a4]y(t).
Here, x(t) is the number of preys, y(t) is the number of
predators, and the ai are positive constants (al is the
rate of birth of preys, a4 is the rate of death of predators,
a2 is a measure of susceptibility of preys to predation,
and a3 is the predatory ability). The system (1) has a
unique non-zero equilibrium position, which is a sta-
ble centre. At the same time, the solutions of (1) are not
structurally stable with respect to disturbance of initial
conditions (cf. Rough system).
Models with intraspecific strife. Within the restric-
tive domain of quadratic differential equations, those
which include competition as well as predation should
be somewhat more realistic. An example of a model with
competition inside preys is given by:
where a5 > 0 characterizes competition inside preys.
Under biologically reasonable assumptions, ala3 >
a5a4, and (2) has a unique positive equilibrium which
is an asymptotically-stable focus or node (cf. Focus;
Node; Asymptotically-stable solution).
Kolmogorov predator-prey model. This model can
be written in the form
x(t) = a(x, y)x(t),}
(3)
iJ(t) = b(x, y)y(t),
under appropriate conditions on the functions a(x, V),
b( x, y) and their derivatives, reflecting a number of real

phenomena, such as satiation. Node, focus and limit cy-
cles (cf. Limit cycle) are among the possible behaviours
of (3).
Delay effects. To achieve some degree of realism, de-
lay effects have to be taken into account. Moreover,
many phenomena, like instability, oscillation and peri-
odic change, cannot be explained without implementing
delays into the model. To account for delay of feeding
on reproduction, V. Volterra introduced the equations
where Kl and K2 are finite positive continuous func-
tions. The system (4) leads to a stable aperiodic oscil-
lation. Other types of integro-differential [1] and, more
general, functional-differential equations [3], [6], [2] are
widely used to develop predator-prey models of moder-
ate mathematical complexity while not sacrificing bio-
logical realism.
Discrete-time models. The discrete version of (3) is:
Xt+l = Xta(xt, Yd,} (5)
Yt+l = Yta(Xt, Yt),
where the functions a and b relate the predator-
influenced reproductive efficiency of the prey and the
searching of the predator, respectively. Even a simple
version of (5) can exhibit rich dynamics, from stability
to chaos. For example, the equation (with a a constant
parameter)
XtYt
Yt+l = 0.31
has an asymptotically-stable fixed point for a E [0,2.6],
an invariant circle for a E (2.6,3.44]' and an attracting
set for a > 3.44.
Predator-prey system with spatial inhomogene-
ity. Such a system can be modelled by partial differen-
tial equations. Let x( t, r), y( t, r) denote the prey and
predator densities at time t at the space point r. Then,
under the assumption that all dispersal occurs solely by
simple diffusion processes, the predator-prey model has
the form of reaction-diffusion equations (cf. Reaction-
diffusion equation):
~~ = O"l~X + a(x, Y)X,} (6)
~ = 0"2~Y + b(x, y)y,
where O"i are the diffusion rates and ~ is the Laplace
operator. If the diffusion rates O"i are increasing, then
x, Y become spatially homogeneous for large t, i.e. the
behaviour of this predator-prey system can be described
by (3). Diffusion in (6) can generate instability, just op-
posite to its usual interpretation as a smoothing mech-
anism. In order to incorporate different realistic effects,
it is often necessary to introduce time delays into the
governing equations (6) as well.
PRIMITIVE ELEMENT IN A CO-ALGEBRA
Predator-prey models with uncertainties of vari-
ous origins. These can be described by stochastic equa-
tions, e.g. of the form (3), (5) or (6), where a and bare
stochastic processes (cf. also Stochastic differential
equation).
References
[1] CUSHING, C.M.: Integra-differential equations and delay mod-
els in population dynamics, Vo!' 20 of Lecture Notes in
Biomathematics, Springer, 1977.
[2] GOPALSAMY, K.: Equations of mathematical ecology, Kluwer
Acad. Pub!., 1992.
[3] KOLMANOVSKII, V.B., AND MYSHKIS, A.D.: Applied theory of
functional differential equations, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1992.
(Translated from the Russian.)
[4] KOLMOGOROFF, A.N.: 'Sulla theoria di Volterra della lotta
per l'esistenza', CiOffi. Inst. Ital. Attuari 1 (1936), 74-80.
[5] KOSTITZIN, V.A.: Mathematical biology, Harrap, 1939.
[6] KUANG, Y.: Delay differential equations with applications in
population dynamics, Acad. Press, 1993.
[7] LOTKA, A.J.: Elements of physical biology, Williams and
Witkins, 1925.
[8] MURRAY, J.: Mathematical biology, Springer, 1989.
[9] SMITH, M.: Models in ecology, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1974.
[10] VOLTERRA, V.: Theorie mathematique de la lutte pour la vie,
Gauthier-Villars, 1931.
v. K olmanovski{
MSC 1991: 92D25, 92D40
PRIME MODEL - A model of an elementary the-
ory T that can be embedded in every model of T. If
T is model complete (cf. Model theory) and admits a
prime model, then T is complete. This fact is called the
prime model test.
The prime model of the elementary theory of all fields
with fixed characteristic is the prime field of that char-
acteristic.
F.- v. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 03C50, 03C95
PRIMITIVE ELEMENT IN A CO-ALGEBRA - Let
(0, f-L, E) be a co-algebra over k. An element x E 0 is
called group like if f-L(x) = 9 ® g. An element x E 0 is
called primitive over the group-like element 9 if f-L(x) =
g®x+x®g, [2, p. 199]. Let (B, m, e, f-L, E) be a bi-algebra
(see Hopf algebra) and let P(B) be the set of prim-
itive elements over the group-like element 1 E B of B,
considered as a co-algebra. Then P(B) becomes a Lie
algebra under the commutator bracket
[x,y] = xy = yx,
(using the multiplication of B). This is the Lie algebra
of primitive elements.
For k a field of characteristic zero, the functors L H
U(L), the universal enveloping algebra of the Lie
algebra L, and H H P(H), where H is a Hopf algebra
(or bi-algebra) over k, establish an equivalence between
417
PRIMITIVE ELEMENT IN A CO-ALGEBRA
the category of Lie algebras and the category of co-
commutative irreducible bi-algebras (such bi-algebras
are automatically Hopf algebras).
In particular, P(U(L)) C:::' L, U(P(H)) C:::' H for such
a bi-algebra (Hopf algebra) [2], [1]; for the graded ver-
sion of this correspondence, see Hopf algebra and the
references quoted there. See also Lie polynomial for
the concrete case that L is a free Lie algebra (cf. Lie
algebra, free) on a set X and U(L) = Ass(X) is the
free associative algebra over X.
References
[1J ABE, E.: Hop! algebras, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977.
[2J SWEEDLER, M.E.: Hop! algebras, Benjamin, 1963.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 16W30, 17B35, 16S30
PROBABILISTIC METRIC SPACE ~ Generalizations
of metric spaces (cf. Metric space), in which the dis-
tances between points are specified by probability dis-
tributions (cf. Probability distribution) rather than
numbers. The general notion was introduced by K.
Menger in 1942 and has since been developed by a num-
ber of authors. A treatment, comprehensive up to 1983,
may be found in [2].
Let ~ + be the set of all functions F from the real line
R into the unit interval I =[0, 1] that are non-decreasing
and left-continuous on [0,00), and such that F(O) = 0
and F(oo) = 1, i.e., the set of all probability distribu-
tion functions whose support lies in the extended half-
line R+ = [0,00]. For any a E [0,00), let Ea E ~+
be defined by Ea(X) = 0 for x :::: a and Ea(X) = 1 for
x > a; and let Eoo E ~ + be defined by Eoo (x) = 0 for all
x < 00 and Eoo ( 00) = 1. Then, under the usual point-
wise ordering of functions, given by F :::: G if and only
if F(x) :::: G(x) for all x E R, the set ~+ is a com-
plete lattice with maximal element EO and minimal
element Eoo. There is a natural topological structure
(topology) on ~ +, namely, the topology of weak con-
vergence (cf. also Weak topology), where Fn --+ F if
and only if Fn(x) --+ F(x) at every point of continuity of
F. Under this topology ~ + is compact and connected
(cf. Compact space; Connected space); moreover,
this topology can be metrized (cf. Metrizable space),
e.g., by a variant of the Levy metric.
A triangle function is a binary operation T on ~ +
satisfying the following conditions:
a) T(F, EO) = F for all F E ~+;
b) T(E, F) :::: T(G, H) whenever E :::: G, F:::: H;
c) T(E, F) = T(F, E);
d) T(E,T(F,G)) = T(T(E,F),G).
It is also often required that T be continuous with
respect to the topology of weak convergence, or that T
satisfies the condition:
418
e) T(Ea, Eb) 2 EaH for all a, bE R+.
Examples of triangle functions are convolution and
the functions TT given by
TT(F,G)(x) = sup T(F(u),G(v)).
u+v=x
Here T is a t-norm, i.e., a binary operation on I that,
like T, has an identity element (the number 1 in this
case) and is non-decreasing, commutative, and associa-
tive. Particular t-norms are the functions W, II, and
M given, respectively, by W(a, b) = max(a + b - 1,0),
lI(a, b) = ab, and M(a, b) = min(a, b). The correspond-
ing triangle functions TW, Tn, and TM are continuous
and satisfy e).
A probabilistic metric space is a triple (5, F, T), where
5 is a set, F is a function from 5 x 5 into ~ +, T is a
triangle function, such that for any p, q, r E 5,
I) F(p,p) = EO;
II) F(p, q) i- EO if Pi- q;
III) F(p, q) = F(q,p);
IV) F(p, r) 2 T(F(p, q), F(q, r)).
If F satisfies only I), III) and IV), then (5, F, T) is a
probabilistic pseudo-metric space.
For any x E R+ and any p, q E 5, the value of F(p, q)
at x, usually denoted by Fpq (x), is often interpreted as
'the probability that the distance between p and q is less
than x'.
Thus, the generalization from ordinary to probabilis-
tic metric spaces consists of:
1) replacing the range R + of the ordinary metric by
the space of probability distributions ~ +;
2) replacing the operation of addition on R+, which
plays the pivotal role in the ordinary triangle inequality,
by a triangle function.
Note that for a function d from 5 x 5 into R+, if F is
defined via Fpq = Ed(p,q) and if T is a triangle function
satisfying e), then (5, d) is an ordinary metric space;
and conversely. If T = TT for some t-norm T, then the
probabilistic metric space is a Menger space.
There is a natural topology on a probabilistic met-
ric space, determined by the system of neighbourhoods
Np(E,rS) = {q E 5: Fpq(E) > 1 - rS}. However, a more
interesting class of topological structures is obtained by
designating a particular ¢ E ~ + as a profile function,
interpreting ¢(x) as the maximum confidence associated
with distances less than x, and considering the system
of neighbourhoods
These determine a generalized topology (specifically, a
closure space in the sense of E. Cech). There is also
an associated indistinguishability relation, defined by

p(ind ¢)q if and only if Fpq ;::: ¢. This relation is a tol-
erance relation, i.e., is reflexive and symmetric, but not
necessarily transitive.
Let (0, A, P) be a probability space, (M, d) a metric
space, and 8 the set of all functions from 0 into M. For
any p, q E 8, define F(P, q) via
Fpq(t) = P {w EO: d(p(w),q(w)) < t}.
Then IV) holds with T = rw. The resultant probabilis-
tic pseudo-metric space is called an E-space. For any
w E 0, the function dw from 8 x 8 into R+ given by
dw(P,q) = d(P(w),q(w)) is a pseudo-metric on 8, and
the E-space is pseudo-metrically generated in the sense
that
Fpq(t) = P{w E 0: dw(p,q) < t}.
Conversely, any such pseudo-metrically generated space
is an E-space. An important class of E-spaces is ob-
tained when (M, d) is the Euclidean n-dimensional space
and 8 is the set of all non-degenerate n-dimensional
spherically symmetric Gaussian vectors.
The idea behind the construction of an E-space has
been generalized. For example, if ~ is a set with some
structure, e.g., a normed, inner product or topological
space, then the set of all functions from (0, A, P) into
~ yields a space in which that structure is probabilistic.
This idea has recently been applied in cluster analysis,
where the numerical dissimilarity coefficient has been
replaced by an element of ~ +. The result is a theory of
percentile clustering [1). The principal advantage of per-
centile clustering methods is that, when working with
distributed data, they permit one to classify first and
then summarize, instead of summarizing first and then
classifying.
Let / be a function from a metric space (8, d) into
itself, and, for any non-negative integer m, let /m de-
note the mth iterate of /. For any p, q E 8, define the
sequence 8pq by
8pq (m) = d(fm(p), /m(q)),
and for any positive integer n define FJ;) E ~ + via
F~;)(t) = procedure should be correct with high probability, inde-
1
=-#{m:O~m~n-l, 8m (p,q)<t},
n
where # denotes the cardinality of the set in question.
The number FJ;)(t) may be interpreted as the proba-
bility that the distance between the initial segments, of
length n, of the trajectories of p and q is less than t. Let
Fpq(t) = liminf F~;)(t),
n--HX>
F;q(t) = lim sup FJ;) (t),
n--+oo
and let Fpq and F;q be normalized to be left-continuous,
hence in ~+. If F is defined via F(p,q) = Fpq, then,
PROBABILISTIC PRIMALITY TEST
again, IV) holds with T = rw. The resultant probabilis-
tic pseudo-metric space is a trans/ormation generated
space. Note that Fpq = Ff(p)f(q), so that / is (proba-
bilistic) distance-preserving.
If / is measure-preserving (cf. Measure-preserving
transformation) with respect to a probability mea-
sure P on 8, then Fpq = F;q for almost all pairs (p, q)
in 8 x 8; and if, in addition, / is mixing, then there is
aGE ~ + such that Fpq = F;q = G for almost all pairs
(p,q).
The above ideas play an important role in chaos the-
ory. For example, if 8 is a closed interval [a, b), if / is con-
tinuous, and if there is a single pair of points p, q E [a, b)
for which Fpq "I- F;q, then / is chaotic in a very strong
sense. This fact leads to a theory of distributional chaos.
Specifically, if (8, d) is compact, then / is distribution-
ally chaotic if and only if there is a pair of points p, q E 8
for which Fpq "I- F;q. Furthermore, the number
J.l(f) = sup -d
p,qES
1
S
1
0
00
(F;q(t) - Fpq(t)) dt,
where ds is the diameter of 8, provides a useful measure
of the degree of distributional chaos. For details see [4),
[3).
References
[1] JANOWITZ, M.F., AND SCHWEIZER, B.: 'Ordinal and per-
centile clustering', Math. Social Sci. 18 (1989), 135--186.
[2] SCHWEIZER, B., AND SKLAR, A.: Probabilistic metric spaces,
Elsevier & North-Holland, 1983.
[3] SCHWEIZER, B., SKLAR, A., AND SMITAL, J.: 'Distributional
(and other) chaos and its measurement'.
[4] SCHWEIZER, B., AND SMITAL, J.: 'Measures of chaos and a
spectral decomposition of dynamical systems on the inter-
val', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 344 (1994), 737--754.
B. Schweizer
A. Sklar
MSC 1991: 54E70
PROBABILISTIC PRIMALITY TEST -- A random-
ized procedure that takes a natural number as input and
attempts to determine whether that number is prime
or composite (cf. Prime number). The output of the
pendently of the number being tested.
It is desirable that such a test run in polynomial time;
that is, the number of bit operations used to test n for
primality should be no more than a power of log n. One
distinguishes between Las Vegas primality tests, which
prove primality, and Monte-Carlo primality tests, which
only provide statistical evidence.
Aside from number theory, these tests are of inter-
est in computer science because it is not known whether
there is a deterministic polynomial-time algorithm for
primality (cf. Complexity theory). In addition, they
419
PROBABILISTIC PRIMALITY TEST
can be used to select keys for public-key cryptographic
systems (cf. Cryptography; Cryptology).
One popular Monte-Carlo test is the strong prime
test, studied by several authors. To test an odd n > 1
for primality, one first partially factors n - 1 as 2 V m,
where m is odd. Then, one chooses a random integer b
with 1 ~ b ~ n - 1, and computes bm , b2m , ... ,bn - 1
modulo n. If the sequence is either all 1's, or contains
-1, the algorithm says 'prime'. In all other cases, the
algorithm says 'composite'. In the first case, the state-
ment is correct with probability;:::: 3/4, independently
of n; in the second case, the assertion is always correct.
The computation can be done using ~ 210g 2 n multipli-
cations modulo n. For the history and more examples of
Monte-Carlo tests, see [3), [4).
L.M. Adleman and M.-D. Huang have shown, using
the Jacobian group of an Abelian variety, that there
is a polynomial-time Las Vegas algorithm for primal-
ity. They do not consider their algorithm practical. A
related heuristic method, based on elliptic curves (cf.
Elliptic curve), was designed by A.O.L. Atkin and F.
Morain (building on work of S. Goldwasser and Kilian),
and has been used to find primality proofs for num-
bers of 1000 decimal digits. For these algorithms, see
the overview in [4) and the original references [1), [2).
See also Pseudo-prime; Carmichael number.
References
[1] ADLEMAN, L.M., AND HUANG, M.-D.: Primality testing and
Abelian varieties over finite fields, Vol. 1512 of Lecture
Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1992.
[2] ATKIN, A.O.L., AND MORAIN, F.: 'Elliptic curves and primal-
ity proving', Math. Comp 61 (1993),29-68.
[3] BACH, E., AND SHALLIT, J.: Algorithmic number theory,
Vol. 1: Efficient Algorithms, MIT, 1996.
[4] LENSTRA, A.K., AND LENSTRA, JR., H.W.: 'Algorithms in
number theory', in J. VAN LEEUWEN (ed.): Handbook of The-
ore tical Computer Science, Vol. A, MIT, 1990.
E. Bach
MSC1991: llYll, llA51, 68Q25
PROXIMAL POINT METHODS IN MATHEMAT-
ICAL PROGRAMMING - The proximal point method
for finding a zero of a maximal monotone operator
T: Rn -+ p(Rn) generates a sequence {xk}, starting
with any xO ERn, whose iteration formula is given by
(1)
where Tk(X) = T(X)+Ak(X-X k ) and {>.k} is a bounded
sequence of positive real numbers. The origin of the
method can be traced back to the study of regular-
ization of ill-posed problems (see [7); Regularization
method; Ill-posed problems) and is closely related
to Moreau-Yoshida convolution (see [9)). A survey on
the method can be found in [8). The basic properties of
the method, as established in [11), are as follows.
420
i) The sequence {xk} is well defined (in the sense
that Tk has a unique zero), converges to a zero of T if
such a zero exists, and is unbounded otherwise.
ii) If T is strongly monotone, then the conver-
gence rate of {xk} is linear, and super-linear when
limk-too Ak = O. When T is the sub differential of a
convex polyhedral function f (i.e. the epigraph of f is a
polyhedron), then convergence is finite.
iii) Convergence properties are preserved under inex-
act computation of the zero of Tk, in the following sense:
(1) is replaced by Ilxk+l - xkll ~ 10k, where 0 E Tk(X k )
and 2:%"=0 10k < 00.
When T = 8 f (the subdifferential of a convex func-
tion f), then (1) is equivalent to
xk+1 = argmin {f(X) + ~k Ilx - xk112} (2)
and the zeros of T are the minimizers of f, so that {xk}
converges to a minimizer of f. If T is the subdifferential
of the dual objective of a convex optimization problem,
then the sequence {xk} coincides with the dual sequence
generated by the augmented Lagrangian method (see
[10)).
All these properties hold also for maximal monotone
operators in a Hilbert space, in which case conver-
gence is understood in the sense of the weak topology.
The proximal point method can be applied to prob-
lems with convex constraints, e.g. the variational in-
equality problem VI(T, C), for a closed and convex set
CeRn, which consists of finding a z E C such that
there exists an u E T(z) satisfying (u, x - z) ;:::: 0 for all
x E C. When T = 8f with convex f, VI(T, C) reduces
to minimizing f(x) subject to x E C. For applying the
proximal point method to VI(T, C) it suffices to replace
T by T + Nc, where Nc is the normal cone operator
of C. In such a case, (1) becomes equivalent to stating
that xk+l solves VI(T, C) and (2) becomes
xk+1 = argmin {f(X) + ~k Ilx - xkl12 : x E C}.
There is another way to deal with constrained prob-
lems in the context of the proximal point method, with-
out introducing the normal cone of C, for the case
when C has non-empty interior and when a boundary-
coercive Bregman function g with zone C is available.
In this case the method starts with XO E Co (the inte-
rior of C) and the iterative formula is still (1) but now
Tk(X) = T(X)+Ak(V g(x) - V g(x k )). In the optimization
case, i.e. T = 8 f, this formula is equivalent to
xk+1 = argmin{J(x) + AkDg(x,xk)}
where Dg is the Bregman distance associated with g.
This generalization of the proximal point method is an
interior point algorithm, in the sense that the sequence

{Xk} lies in the interior of C (cf. also Interior-point
methods in mathematical programming). Under
certain technical hypotheses on T, satisfied, e.g., when
T = 8/, property i) above still holds, i.e. the sequence
{xk} converges to a solution of VI(T, C) when a solution
exists and is unbounded otherwise, [2]. A property of
this generalization, not shared by the original proximal
point method (1), is that for certain problems, includ-
ing linear programming and quadratic program-
ming, the limit of the sequence {xk} is the solution of
the problem which minimizes the Bregman distance to
the initial iterate X O (see [4], [5]). This procedure also
generates augmented Lagrangian-type methods when T
is the subdifferential of the dual objective of a convex
optimization problem. For instance, when C is the non-
negative orthant of Rn and g(x) = 2:/:=1 Xj logxj, the
sequence {xk} coincides with the dual sequence of the
Bertsekas exponential multipliers method (see [1], [6]).
Finally, some results are available for the proximal
point method with Bregman distances under inexact
solutions of the subproblems, in the spirit of prop-
erty iii) above, [3]. Convergence is guaranteed for the
sequence generated by 0 E 'h (xk+1 ), with 'h (x) =
TOk (X)+Ak(Vg(X) - Vg(xk)), where 2:%"=0 Ck < 00 and,
for any monotone operator T and any C 2: 0, To is de-
fined as
TO(x) = {u ERn:
(u - v,X - y) 2: -dor ally E Rn,v E T(y)}.
References
[1] BERTSEKAS, D.: Constrained optimization and Lagrange mul-
tipliers, Acad. Press, 1982.
[2] BURACHIK, R.S., AND IUSEM, A.N.: 'A generalized proximal
point algorithm for the variational inequality in a Hilbert
space'.
[3] BURACHIK, R.S., IusEM, A.N., AND SVAITER, B.F.: 'Enlarge-
ment of monotone operators with applications to variational
inequalities'.
[4] IusEM, A.N.: 'On some properties of generalized proximal
point methods for quadratic and linear programming', J. Op-
timization Th. and Applications 85 (1995), 593-612.
[5] IusEM, A.N.: 'On some properties of generalized proximal
point methods for variational inequalities'.
[6] IusEM, A.N., SVAITER, B.F., AND TEBOULLE, M.: 'Entropy-
like proximal methods in convex programming', Math. of
Oper. Res. 19 (1994), 790-814.
[7] KRASNOSELSKII, M.A.: 'Two observations about the method
of successive approximations', Uspekhi Mat. Nauk 10 (1955),
123-127. (In Russian.)
[8] LEMAIRE, B.: 'The proximal algorithm', in J.P. PENOT (ed.):
Internat. Series of Numerical Math., Vol. 87, Birkhiiuser,
1989, pp. 73-87.
[9] MOREAU, J.: 'Proximite et dualite dans un espace hilbertien',
Bull. Soc. Math. France 93 (1965), 273-299.
[10] ROCKAFELLAR, R.T.: 'Augmented Lagrangians and applica-
tions of the proximal point algorithm in convex program-
ming', Math. of Operations Research 1 (1976),97-116.
PSEUDO-PRIME
[11] ROCKAFELLAR, R.T.: 'Monotone operators and the proxi-
mal point algorithm', SIAM J. Control and Optimization 14
(1976), 877-898.
A.N.lusem
MSC 1991: 90C30
PRUFER DOMAIN A commutative semi-
hereditary integral domain (cf. also Semi-
hereditary ring; Injective module). The Priifer
domains are the commutative integral domains A that
satisfy the following two conditions:
i) the localization AM (cf. also Localization in a
commutative algebra) is a valuation ring (see Valu-
ation) for every maximal ideal M of A;
ii) an A-module M is flat (cf. Flat module) if and
only if it is torsion-free (cf. also Group without tor-
sion).
A Noetherian Priifer domain is a Dedekind domain
(see Dedekind ring). Each Bezout domain (also called
Bezout ring) is a Priifer domain.
There are Priifer domains that are not Bezout and
there are Priifer domains having finitely generated ideals
requiring more than two generators [2] (hence, these are
not Dedekind rings).
References
[1] GILMER, R.: Multiplicative ideal theory, M. Dekker, 1972.
[2] HElDMAN, R., AND LEVY, L.: '11/2 and 2-generator ideals in
Priifer domains', Rocky Mount. Math. J. 5 (1975),361-373.
[3] HUTCHINS, H.C.: Examples of commutative rings, Polygonal,
1981.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 13F05
PSEUDO-PRIME - Traditionally, a composite natu-
ral number n is called a pseudo-prime if 2n - 1 == 1 mod-
ulo n, for it has long been known that primes have this
property. (The term is apparently due to D.H. Lehmer.)
There are infinitely many such n, the first five being
341, 561, 645, 1105, 1387.
More recently, the concept has been extended to include
any composite number that acts like a prime in some
realization of a probabilistic primality test. That is,
it satisfies some easily computable necessary, but not
sufficient, condition for primality. Pseudo-primes in this
larger sense include:
1) ordinary base-b pseudo-primes, satisfying bn - 1 ==
1 modulo n;
2) Euler base-b pseudo-primes, whose Jacobi sym-
bol with b satisfies
(!!..) == b(n-l)/2 -j. 0;
n
3) strong base-b pseudo-primes, for which the se-
quence bm2i modulo n, i = 0, ... ,v, is either always
1, or contains -l. (Here n - 1 = 2 V m with m odd.)
421
PSEUDO-PRIME
For each b, the implications 3)=>2)=>1) hold. A num-
ber n that is an ordinary base-b pseudo-prime for all b
prime to n is called a Carmichael number. Analogous
numbers for the other two categories do not exist.
For a thorough empirical study of pseudo-primes, see
[4]. Lists of pseudo-primes to various small bases can be
found in [6].
The concept of a pseudo-prime has been generalized
to include primality tests based on finite fields and el-
liptic curves (cf. also Finite field; Elliptic curve). For
reviews of this work, see [3], [5].
The complementary concept is also of interest. The
base b is called a (Fermat) witness for n if n is com-
posite but not a base-b pseudo-prime. Euler and strong
witnesses are similarly defined. If Wen), the smallest
strong witness for n, grows sufficiently slowly, there is
a polynomial-time algorithm for primality. It is known
that Wen) is not bounded [1], but if an extended version
of the Riemann hypothesis (cf. Riemann hypotheses)
holds, then Wen) :::; 2(logn)2 [2].
References
[1] ALFORD, W.R, GRANVILLE, A., AND POMERANCE, C.: 'On the
difficulty of finding reliable witnesses': Algorithmic Number
Theory, First Internat. Symp., ANTS-I, Vol. 877 of Lecture
Notes in Computer Science, Springer, 1994, pp. 1-16.
[2] BACH, E.: Analytic methods in the analysis and design of
number-theoretic algorithms, MIT, 1985.
[3] MORAIN, F.: 'Pseudoprimes: a survey of recent results': Proc.
Eurocode '92, Springer, 1993, pp. 207-215.
422
[4] POMERANCE, C., SELFRIDGE, J.L., AND WAGSTAFF, JR., S.S.:
'The pseudoprimes to 25.20 9 " Math. Compo 35 (1980), 1003-
1026.
[5] RIBENBOIM, P.: The book of prime number records, sec-
ond ed., Springer, 1989.
[6] SLOANE, N.J.A., AND PLOUFFE, S.: The encyclopedia of in-
teger sequences, Acad. Press, 1995.
E. Bach
MSC1991: lIYlI, lIA51, lIN25
PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM, MULTI-DIMEN-
SIONAL - Consider the n-dimensional space Rn (with
the usual metric and measure). Let Ai be a point on
the ith coordinate axis and let 0 be the origin. Let
s be the (n - 1)-dimensional volume of the (n - 1)-
dimensional simplex Al ... An and let Si be the (n - 1)-
dimensional volume of the (n - I)-dimensional simplex
OAI ··· Ai-IAi+l··· An. Then s2 = E~=l sr
For other and further generalizations of the classi-
cal Pythagoras theorem, see [1] and the references
therein.
References
[1] CONANT, D.R., AND BEYER, W.A.: 'Generalized Pythagorean
theorem', Amer. Math. Monthly 81 (1974), 262-265.
[2] ETSUA YOSHINAGA, AND SHIGEO AKIBA: 'Very simple proofs
of the generalized Pythagorean theorem', Sci. Reports Yoko-
hama National Univ. Sect. I 42 (1995), 45-46.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 51M25

QUASI-ISOMETRIC SPACES - Metric spaces (cf.
Metric space) (X, dx ) and (Y, d y ), for which there
exist two mappings I: X --* Y and g: Y --* X and two
constants k ~ 0 and A > 0 such that for all x and x' in X
and for all y and y' in Y, the following four inequalities
hold:
dy(f(x), I(x ' )) :::; A dx(x, x') + k,
dx(g(y), g(y')) :::; A dy(y, y') + k,
dx(go/(x),x):::; k
dy(fog(y),y):::; k.
This definition appears in [1], where it is attributed
to G.A. Margulis. The relation 'X is quasi-isometric to
Y' is an equivalence relation between metric spaces.
See also Quasi-isometry.
References
[1] GHYS, E.: 'Les groupes hyperboliques', Asterisque 189-190
(1990), 203-238, Sem. Bourbaki Exp. 722.
A. Papadopoulos
MSC 1991: 53C23
QUASI-ISOMETRY - A mapping I: X --* Y, where
(X, dx) and (Y, dy ) are metric spaces (cf. Metric
space), for which there exist two constants A > 0 and
k ~ 0 such that for all x and x' in X:
A-1 dx(x, x') - k :::; dy(f(x), I(x' )) :::; A dx(x, x')
This property expresses the fact that 1 is 'Lipschitz in
the large' (cf. also Lipschitz constant). Such a map-
ping 1 is also called a (A, k)-quasi-isometry.
Note that this definition, which is commonly used
now (see [1, §7.2.G]), does not imply that 1 is contin-
uous. In [4, §5.9]' W. Thurston considers mappings 1
satisfying the property above but with right-hand side
replaced by A dX(X,X'). Such a mapping is continuous
(cf. Continuous mapping) and Thurston calls it a
pseudo-isometry. Some authors (see, e.g., [3]) use the
word quasi-isometry to denote a mapping having the
Q---
property above, with the further condition that the im-
age I(X) is 8-dense in Y, for some real number 8.
The importance of quasi-isometries has been fully re-
alized in the proof of Mostow's rigidity theorem [2).
Thurston's lectures [4) contain an excellent exposition
of this theorem for manifolds of constant curvature -l.
References
[1] GROMOV, M.: 'Hyperbolic groups', in S.M. GERSTEN (ed.):
Essays in Group Theory, Vol. 8 of MSRI Publ., Springer,
1987, pp. 75-263.
[2] MOSTOW, G.D.: 'Quasi-conformal mappings in n-space and
the strong rigidity of space-form', IHES Publ. Math. 34
(1968),53-104.
[3] PANSU, P.: 'Metriques de Carnot-Caratheodory et quasi-
isometries des espaces symetriques de rang un', Ann. of Math.
129, no. 1 (1989), 1-6l.
[4] THURSTON, W.: The geometry and topology of 3-manifolds,
Lecture Notes. Princeton Univ. Press, 1976.
A. Papadopoulos
MSC 1991: 53C23
QUENCHING, parabolic quenching, critical size and
blow-up 01 the time-derivative - Let a be a positive con-
stant, T:::; 00, n = (0, a) x (0, T),
an = ([0, a) x {O}) U ({O,a} x (O,T)),
and Hu = U xx - Ut. The concept of quenching was in-
+ k. troduced in 1975 through the study of a polarization
phenomenon in ionic conductors. Consider the singu-
lar first initial-boundary value problem (cf. also First
boundary value problem)
Hu=-/(u) inn,
u= 0 on an,
where limu-tc- I(u) = 00 for some positive constant c.
The solution u is said to quench if there exists a finite
time T such that
sup{lut(x,t)l: 0:::; x:::; a} --* 00 ast --* T-. (1)
QUENCHING
Here, T is called the quenching time. When Ut is posi-
tive, a necessary condition for (1) to hold is:
max{u(x,t): 0 ~ x ~ a} --* c- ast --* T-. (2)
Under certain conditions on f, it was shown in [17] that
(2) implies (1). Its multi-dimensional version was proved
in [21] for a bounded convex domain with a smooth
boundary, and extended in [10] to a more general forc-
ing term in a piecewise-smooth bounded convex domain.
Thus, in studying quenching, the necessary condition
(such as in [1]) is also used.
Another direction in quenching is the study of the
critical length a*, which is the length such that the solu-
tion exists globally for a < a*, and quenching (according
to the necessary condition) occurs for a > a*. Existence
of a unique critical length and a method for computing
it were studied in [4], [18]; its multi-dimensional versions
were studied in [1], [2], [10]. Results on whether quench-
ing in infinite time is possible were recently extended to
more general forcing terms in [19]. This also answers the
question what happens at the critical length (or size for
the multi-dimensional version).
In a thermal explosion model using the Arrhenius
law, it is shown in [14] that a quenching model gives
a better approximation than the blow-up model.
What happens after quenching? It is described by
Hu=-f(u)x({u<c}) inn,
u= 0 on8n,
where X(s) = 1 if u E S, and X(S) = 0 if u rt. S. This was
studied in [9]. A multi-dimensional version was given in
[22].
The impulsive effect on quenching was first studied
in [11].
The above results were extended to degenerate para-
bolic equations in [12], [13], [16], [15]. For a coupled sys-
tem, the blow-up of Ut and existence of a unique critical
length were studied in [3], [6], [20]. Problems involving
more general parabolic equations or different boundary
conditions are given in [5], [7]. The concept of quenching
has been extended to time-periodic solutions of weakly
coupled parabolic systems in [8].
References
[1] ACKER, A., AND KAWOHL, B.: 'Remarks on quenching', Non-
linear Anal. 13 (1989), 53-61.
[2] CHAN, C.Y.: 'Computation of the critical domain for quench-
ing in an elliptic plate', Neural Parallel Sci. Comput. 1
(1993), 153-162.
[3] CHAN, C.Y., AND CHEN, C.S.: 'Critical lengths for global ex-
istence of solutions for coupled semilinear singular parabolic
problems', Quart. Appl. Math. 47 (1989), 661-671.
424
[4] CHAN, C.Y., AND CHEN, C.S.: 'A numerical method for semi-
linear singular parabolic quenching problems', Quart. A ppl.
Math. 47 (1989), 45-57.
[5] CHAN, C.Y., AND COBB, S.S.: 'Critical lengths for semilinear
singular parabolic mixed boundary-value problems', Quart.
Appl. Math. 49 (1991), 497-506.
[6] CHAN, C.Y., AND FUNG, D.T.: 'Quenching for coupled
semilinear reaction-diffusion problems', Nonlinear Anal. 21
(1993), 143-152.
[7] CHAN, C.Y., AND KAPER, H.G.: 'Quenching for semi lin-
ear singular parabolic problems', SIAM J. Math. Anal. 20
(1989), 558-566.
[8] CHAN, C.Y., AND KE, L.: 'Critical lengths for periodic solu-
tions of semi linear parabolic systems', Dynam. Systems Appl.
1 (1992), 3-11.
[9] CHAN, C.Y., AND KE, L.: 'Beyond quenching for singular
reaction-diffusion problems', Math. Methods Appl. Sci. 17
(1994), 1-9.
[10] CHAN, C.Y., AND KE, 1.: 'Parabolic quenching for non-
smooth convex domains', J. Math. Anal. Appl. 186 (1994),
52-65.
[11] CHAN, C.Y., KE, L., AND VATSALA, A.S.: 'Impulsive quench-
ing for reaction-diffusion equations', Nonlinear Anal. 22
(1994), 1323-1328.
[12] CHAN, C.Y., AND KONG, P.C.: 'Quenching for degenerate
semilinear parabolic equations', Applicable Anal. 54 (1994),
17-25.
[13] CHAN, C.Y., AND KONG, P.C.: 'Solution profiles beyond
quenching for degenerate reaction-diffusion problems', Non-
linear Anal. 24 (1995), 1755-1763.
[14] CHAN, C.Y., AND KONG, P.C.: 'A thermal explosion model',
Appl. Math. Comput. 71 (1995), 201-210.
[15] CHAN, C.Y., AND KONG, P.C.: 'Impulsive quenching for de-
generate parabolic equations', J. Math. Anal. Appl. 202
(1996), 450-464.
[16] CHAN, C.Y., AND KONG, P.C.: 'Channel flow of a viscous
fluid in the boundary layer', Quart. Appl. Math. 55 (1997),
51-56.
[17] CHAN, C.Y., AND KWONG, M.K.: 'Quenching phenomena for
singular nonlinear parabolic equations', Nonlinear Anal. 12
(1988), 1377·-1383.
[18] CHAN, C.Y., AND KWONG, M.K.: 'Existence results of steady-
states of semilinear reaction-diffusion equations and their ap-
plications', J. Differential Equations 77 (1989), 304-321.
[19] CHAN, C.Y., AND Lm, H.T.: 'Quenching in infinite time on
the N-dimensional ball', Dynamics of Continuous, Discrete
and Impulsive Systems (An Internat. J. for Theory and Ap-
plications) (to appear).
[20] CHAN, C.Y., AND NIP, K.K.: 'Quenching for coupled degen-
erate parabolic equations': Nonlinear Problems in Applied
Mathematics, SIAM, 1996, pp. 76-85.
[21] DENG, K., AND LEVINE, H.A.: 'On the blowup of Ut at
quenching', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 106 (1989), 1049-1056.
[22] FILA, M., LEVINE, H.A., AND VAZQUEZ, J.L.: 'Stabiliza-
tion of solutions of weakly singular quenching problems',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 119 (1993), 555-559.
C.Y. Chan
MSC 1991: 35K57, 35K60, 35K65
________ R________
RACAH, WIGNER, 3- j, 6- j, AND 9- j COEF- 1, and it is 1 if and only if the so-called triangle condi-
FICIENTS - The mathematical entities known as 3n - j tions are satisfied:
coefficients enter mathematics and physics in describ-
(4)
ing the reduction of the (n + I)-fold Kronecker product
of the unitary irreducible representations of the unitary for ja = jb + je,jb + je - 1, ... ,Ija - jbl·
unimodular group SU(2), the group of (2 x 2) unitary 4) C denotes a real orthogonal matrix of dimension
unimodular matrices, into unitary irreducible represen- dimC = rr~:11(2ji + 1), with elements called Wigner-
tations of SU(2). This reduction has the form: Clebsch-Gordan coefficients ( WCG coefficients) for n =
1 and generalized Wigner-Clebsch-Gordan coefficients
CT[Dit (U) x ... x Djn+l(U)]C = (1)
(generalized WCG coefficients) for n ;::: 2.
= L fBeit .. ·jDj(U), 5) The summation is over all j given by:
j
. _ ·(n+1) ·(n+l) _ 1 ·(n+l) _ 2 .(n+1)
J - J max ,J max ,J max , ... ,Jmin , (5)
where the symbols and quantities entering this relation
have the following definitions: h .(k). . b
were Jmax IS gIven y:
1) Dj (U) denotes the (2j + 1)-dimensional unitary ir- j~2x = j1 + ... + jk, k = 2,3, ... , (6)
reducible representation of SU(2) given explicitly below,
where j E {1, 1/2,3/2, ... }, and this label is called an ir- and the minimum value of j is determined recursively
reducible representation label or an angular momentum from
quantum number. .(k+1) - (7)
Jmin -
2) x denotes the matrix direct product (Kronecker
product), and n + 1 such products enter the left- -_ mIn
. {I a -'Jk+1'
I' a -- ·(k) ·(k) _ 1, ... ,Jmin
Jmax' J max
.(k) } .
hand side with arbitrary irreducible representation la-
bels j1,'" ,jn+l' The content of (1) is completed by giving the explicit
3) fB denotes the matrix direct sum, and the direct form of the unitary irreducible representations entering
sum on the right-hand side contains each irreducible rep- the direct product. These may be described as follows:
resentation Dj (U) a number of times equal to Let k denote an arbitrary non-negative integer and let
the pairs (a1, (2) and ((31, (32) consist of non-negative
ejl ... jn+ti = (2) integers such that a1 + a2 = (31 + (32 = k (such pairs are

L eithk 1 ekti3 k2ek2j4 k3 ...

called weights, or contents, of k). Introduce the homoge-
neous polynomials of degree k in the elements of an arbi-
k1,k n , ... ,k n - 1

trary (2 x 2)-matrix of indeterminates Z = (zijh~i,j9

defined by:
in which j is any irreducible representation label given
II ~'
aij

Zij (8)
by k
Pa,j3(Z) = '"'"
~
(a;A;j3) i,j oJ'
.- . .. . 1 ·n+1
J - J1 + ... + In+l,]l + ... + In+l - , ... ,]min (3)
where the summation is to be carried out over all (2 x 2)-
(see below). For an arbitrary triple (ja,jb,je) of irre- matrices A = (aijh~i,j~2 of non-negative integers with
ducible representation labels, the quantity ejajbjc is 0 or row and column sums given by the weights a and (3 of
RACAH, WIGNER, 3 - j, 6 - j, AND 9 - j COEFFICIENTS

k: parametrized. A general way of doing this is to use the

::: :::: : :::

property that the (2 x 2) unitary modular matrices are

1
in one-to-one correspondence with the points on the 3-
(9) dimensional unit sphere 53:
an + a21 = {31,
al2 + a22 = {32.
Significant properties of the functions (S) are:
• transposition:
(10) One can then parametrize the points (0:0, 0: 1, 0:2, 0:3) E
53 in any manner one chooses to obtain corresponding
where T denotes matrix transposition;
parametrizations of the representation functions.
• multiplication:
The definitions and results given above are the basis
(11) relations underlying the origin of all 3n - j coefficients
• generation: for all n = 1,2, .... The general problem leads to beau-
tiful results and unsolved problems involving labelled
( 2:i,j XiZijYh) k binary trees, Cayley trivalent trees, and cubic graphs.
k!
= "'"
~ 1
XO<l X0<2 pk (Z)yf31 yf32.
2 0<,f3 1 2' (12)
This subject cannot be developed here, but its flavour
0<,f3
can be indicated by the special results for n = 1,2,3,
which are presented in summary form below, focussing
(13) on these combinatorial aspects. The formulation of the
3n - j problem can also be given in a purely Lie al-
• inner product: gebra setting, where the general procedure is known as
, -(8) ,
(P,P) = p 8Z p (Z)lz=o, (14)
addition of n + 1 angular momenta.
There is an extensive literature on this subject. Clas-
where the bar denotes complex conjugation, P and P' sical references include [25], [17], [IS], [22], [4], [3], [10],
are arbitrary polynomials in the Zij, and [12], [1], [9], [21], [11], [19], [20], [23], [14], [2], [26]' [24],

8 (8 8 8 8)
8Z = 8z n ' 8Z 12 ' 8Z 21 '8Z 22
In the first two of these properties, pk (Z) denotes the k-
dimensional matrix with rows and columns enumerated,
respectively, by the weights 0: and (3 as they assume all
possible values for the given k.
The unitary irreducible representation functions in
(1) are given in terms of the polynomials P!f3(Z) by
.
[13], with more recent work in [6]' [7], [15], [5], [S], [16].
The notations in [6], [7] are followed.
Vector space constructions. On assumes as given
a vector space H j with an inner product, denoted
by (I), where j is an arbitrary integer or half integer,
0,1/2,1,3/2, .... This vector space H j also has an or-
thonormal basis given by the abstract ket vectors
Bj = {Um) : m = j,j - 1, ... ,-j}, (17)

D;',m'(U) = (15) with an inner product

= [(j + m)!(j - m)!(j + m')!(j - m')!]1/2 x
xp(j+m,j-m)(j+m',j-m')
2 j+l (U)·,
Um lim') = 6mm,· (18)

that is, by choosing k = 2j + 1, 0:1 = j + m, 0:2 = j - m, Spaces corresponding to distinct j are also to be per-
{31 = j + m', (32 = j - m', so that j is any integer or half pendicular. Finally, there is an action T u, for each
odd integer, and for each such j the so-called projection U E SU(2), of the unitary group SU(2), defined on H j
quantum numbers m and m', which are U(I) C SU(2) such that the action on the orthonormal basis B j is given
subgroup irreducible representation labels, assume the by:
values j,j - 1, ... ,-j. By convention, these values of
m and m' label the rows and columns of the (2j + 1)- Tu lim') = L D;'m'(U) lim). (19)
m
dimensional unitary matrix Dj (U). (Conventionally, the
rows are labelled from top to bottom by the greatest to It is the tensor product space Hjl ... jn+l with or-
the least value of m, and the columns are similarly la- thonormal basis
belled from left to right by m').
Often, the irreducible representation functions (15)
.
B }l"'}n+l -- (20)
are presented in a form in which U E SU(2) is

426
 RACAH, WIGNER, 3 - j, 6 - j, AND 9 - j COEFFICIENTS

that underlies the (n + I)-fold Kronecker product in the Vector space properties. Relation (25) is valid when U
left-hand side of (1). The action of SU(2) on the space is replaced by Z. Using the inner product (14) gives:
H il "' jn + 1 is defined by its action on the basis (17):
( Djmm" Dil
mImi'
Dh
m2m~
) = (2J' + I)Cjlhj Cjlhi .
ffilffi2m mim2rn'
Tu: H il ... jn+1 -+ Hjl ... jn+l' (29)
Tu(lj1m~) ® ... ® Ijn+lm~+l») = (21) This relation (with a sign convention) may be used to
=Tu Ij1m~) ® ... ® Tu Ijn+lm~+l) = calculate the WCG coefficients explicitly. One of the
principal uses of the WCG coefficients in physical ap-
plications is the construction of a basis of the tensor
product space H itj2 that transforms irreducibly under
the action of SU(2):
Concrete realizations of these spaces are provided by
the vectors defined by (8) and (15) with inner product
(14):

\ZI1m' ) = (2j+1)-1/2D!nml(Z), (22)

(30)
which under left and right translations transform, in
consequence of properties (10) and (11), as:
Tu
j1V12
) ~D:;'m'(U) ;, 0 • 0;' ).
jm' jm
(23)
(31)

t,
A binary tree type of notation has been used to indicate
the angular momentum coupling scheme.
= D!nllm(U) \ Z I m"m'
j )
, Generating function. J. Schwinger [22] and T. Regge [19]
discovered the generating function for the WCG coeffi-

\ ZIRU I1m' )= (24) cients to be the power of a (3 x 3)-determinant:

= (2j + 1)-1/2D!nml(ZU) = Zll

det ( Z21 (32)

= t,(ZU)D!nllm(U) \ Z I m~" ).
Z31
3

3 - j coefficients. = Ck(A) II (Zijt ij ,

(k,k,k;A;k,k,k) i,i=l
Relation to Kronecker product.
where the summation is carried out over all (3 x 3) magic
Djl (U)Dh
I (U) =
I (25)
mImI m2ffi2 square arrays A having row and column sums k. The co-
- "Cjt32jm rn C ilhj Dj (U) efficient Ck(A) is the restricted multinomial coefficient,
- L....- m1! 2, l+m2 m~,m;,mi+m~ ml+m2,m~+m~ ,
j given by
where the C-coefficient is a WCG coefficient, which is Ck(A) = L (_I)k(132)+k(213)+k(321) x (33)
an element of the real orthogonal matrix C of dimension k(11"):K=A
(2j1 + 1)(212 + 1). The coefficient has the properties
(26) X (k(123), k(132), k(231)~k(213), k(312), k(321)) ,
unless j = j1 +hj1 +j2- 1, ... ,lj1 - j21; m = m1 +m2· where the summation is to be carried out over all k(1I"),
These WCG coefficients satisfy the orthogonality rela- 11" E 8 3 , such that the restriction K = A is met:
tions
k(123)+k(132) k(213)+k(231) k(312)+k(321))
• rows:
K = ( k(213)+k(312) k(321)+k(123) k(132)+k(231)
(27) k(321)+k(231) k(132)+k(312) k(123)+k(213)
(34)
• columns:
"L...J Cjlhj
ffilffi2m
Cjlhj - 8ffil,ffi2 8mi,m2 •
mim~m -
I (28)
j,m

427
RACAH, WIGNER, 3 - j, 6 - j, AND 9 - j COEFFICIENTS
Because of the restriction in the summation in (33), the
summation can be reduced (asymmetrically) to a sum
with only one index.
The WCG coefficient is given by:
cjd2j = An important topic, but one that is only partially de-
mlm2 m
-8 (_I)j1-12+ m .
- ml+m 2,m
(2j + 1) Ilij(aij)! x Cj1+j2+j(A)
(j1+j2+j+I)! (j1+j2+j)!'
j2 +m2
j-m )
j2 -m2 j+m . Let (za, Zb, zc) denote three distinct indeterminates and
j + j1 - j2 j1 + 12 - j
Symmetries. It follows directly from the generating func-
tion that the 3 - j coefficient, which is defined by
(~1 ::2 :J = (36)
= (2J'3 + I)-1/2(_I)j1+ m 1-(12- m 2)cj11213
ml,m2,-m3'
has the 72 determinantal symmetries associated with
row interchange, column interchange, and transposition
of the (3 x 3)-determinant of Z between the parentheses,
which transfer directly to the array A. The 3 - j coef-
ficient is either invariant or changes its sign under the
transformations of the (jt,m1,j2,m2,j,m) induced by
the following transformations of the array A: invariance
under even permutations of the rows or columns of A,
and under transposition: multiplication by ( -1 )j1 +12+13
under odd permutations of the rows or columns.
Binary coupling theory. In the physics literature, the
phrase 'binary coupling theory' addresses the problem
of reducing the multiple Kronecker product (1) by re-
peatedly using the reduction result (25) for two angular
momenta. One encounters immediately the problem of
how to associate pairs in multiple Kronecker products.
For example, for n = 2, there are two such associations:
For n = 3, there are five such associations:
((Dj1 x D12) x (D13 x Dj4)),
(D3t x ((Dh x D13) x Dj4)),
(D3t x (Dh x (D13 x Dj4))),
((Dj1 x (Dh x Dh)) x Dj4),
(((D3t x Dh) x Dj3) x Dj4).
In addition, all permutations of the irreducible repre-
sentation labels (j1, 12, ... , jn+1) must be considered.
Entire textbooks ([14], [24], [5]) have been devoted to
this subject, which leads to the representation of 3n - j
428
coefficients by pairs of labelled binary trees and cubic
graphs ([7, p. 435]). Some limited aspects of this sub-
ject are presented here in the context of the 6 - j and
9 - j coefficients.
(35)
veloped, is that of generating functions for the 3n - j
coefficients. The property of a 3n - j coefficient that
characterizes its presentation in terms of a pair of la-
belled binary trees or in terms of a cubic graph is the
set of angular momentum triangles associated with it.
This number is always 2n, the number of vertices in the
associated cubic graph. A key concept for the generat-
ing function of a 3n - j coefficient is that of a trian-
gle monomial. These monomials are defined as follows:
(ja,jb,jc) three angular momentum quantum numbers
constituting a triangle. The triangle monomial associ-
ated with these symbols is defined by
Let ~ denote the set of triangles associated with a given
3n - j coefficient. The triangle monomial for this 3n - j
coefficient is defined as
Ztl. = II (40)
all trianglesEtl.
The indeterminates (za, Zb, zc) are coordinates associ-
ated with each of the 2n points of the cubic graph cor-
responding to the 3n - j coefficient. This is illustrated
concretely below for the 6 - j and 9 - j coefficients.
It must be pointed out that 3n - j coefficients for
n 2: 2 are qualitatively different objects than 3 - j co-
efficients. The vector space H3t ".jn+1 with basis (20) is
the carrier space of the reducible representation of SU(2)
given by the (n+ I)-fold Kronecker product in (1). This
space, which is of dimension
n+1
dimHh "'1n+1 = II (2ji + 1) = L eh"'jn+1 (2j + 1),
i=l j
(37) (41)
may be written as a direct sum of eh "'1n+d perpendic-
(38) ular vector subspaces:
eh ··jn+l
H jj ,,·jn+1 = L H j1 ,,·jn+d(Ii)· (42)
1<=1
Each subspace H j1 "'jn+d is of dimension 2j + 1 and has
a basis of the form 0 that transforms under the action
of SU(2) in the standard way given by (19). The 3n - j
coefficients (n 2: 2) are elements of real orthogonal ma-
trices that transform between certain pairs of these sub-
spaces that arise in binary coupling theory, and these
 RACAH, WIGNER, 3 - j, 6 - j, AND 9 - j COEFFICIENTS

coefficients, taken collectively, provide the transforma- Vector space interpretation.

tion between all such pairs of subspaces. The 3 - j coef-
ficients provide a single such space, as a first step in the
construction of the pairs in the binary coupling method.
One of the consequences of this qualitative difference
is that no generating function for a 3n - j coefficient (47)
(n::::: 2) is a power of a determinant. It is known for the
jm
6 - j and 9 - j coefficients ([22], [2], [26], [15]) that these
coefficients have generating functions that can be pre-
sented in the following uniform manner [5]: There exists
a polynomial C2n (x, y) with integer coefficients associ-
ated with the cubic graph corresponding to a 3n - j
coefficient such that

(48)
[1 + C 2n (x, y)J2 = ~ C2n(~)Z ~ ,
1 '" (43)
j J
(3n - j) coefficient = (44)

C2n(~)'
_ ' " CiIj,k1 C k1hj .
[ II
all trianglesE ~
{ja,jb,jc}] X
- ~
ml, ffi 2
ffil,rn2,ml+m2 ml+m2,m~ml-m2,m

where the symbol {jajbjc} denotes the so-called triangle where the W coefficient is called a Racah coefficient. In
coefficient, defined by fact, one could take (48) as the definition of the Racah
coefficient. It is independent of the m quantum number;
that is, it is a U(I) C SU(2) invariant. All other non-
trivial binary couplings of three angular momenta lead
(45) again to Racah coefficients, up to sign. For n = 2 there
is only one invariant, the Racah coefficient.
.
[( Ja + Jb. - Jc. )'('
. Jb + Jc.-.Ja )'(. Jc. + Ja. - Jb. )']
. 1/2
It was a great feat of G. Racah [17], [18] (see also [21,
(ja+jb+jc+ 1)!
p. 162]) to reduce the summation over four WCG coef-
ficients in (48), each of which is itself a summation over
multinomial coefficients, to an expression involving but
a single summation index. In the Wigner 6 - j notation,
6 - j coefficients. Racah's result is given by:
Relation to the Kronecker product. The coefficients de-
fined by
{~ ~ ;}(-I t +b+ C +d W (abcd;e f )= (49)

= {abe Hcde HacfHbdf} x

CiIj,k1hj _ CiIhk1 C kd3j

x L( _1)k(k + 1) .
ml,m2,rnl+m2,rn3,m - ml,ffi2,ffil+m2 ml+ m 2,m3,m k
(46)
. (k - v1,k - v2,k - v3,k ~ V4,e1 - k,e2 - k,e3 - k)'

The triangles in the 6 - j (Racah) coefficient are (abe),

are elements of the orthogonal matrix C for n = 2 in (1) (cde), (acf), (bdf), as inherited from the WCG coeffi-
that completely reduces the Kronecker product in the cients in (48), and {abe}, {cde}, {ac f}, {bdf} denote
first coupling scheme given in (37). the triangle coefficients defined in (45). The quantities

429
RACAH, WIGNER, 3 - j, 6 - j, AND 9 - j COEFFICIENTS

Viand ej are the discrete vertex and edge functions as- The array of triangles ~ in (53) is obtained from the
sociated with the tetrahedron: (x, y) by setting Xi = Yi = ji'
The generating function of the 6 - j coefficients is
VI = a + b + e, V2 = C + d + e, (50)
now obtained from the labelled tetrahedron in (55) by
V3 = a + c + f, V4 = b + d + f, the following rules. The function C 4 (x, y) on the left-
el = (b + c) + (e + I), e2 = (a + d) + (e + I), hand side of (43) is given as follows. Interchange the x
e3 = (a + d) + (b + c). and Y symbols. Then form

See (55), in which the following identifications are to be • the vertex function:
made:

Xl = Yl = jl = a, X2 = Y2 = 12 = b, (51)
X3 = Y3 = J3 = e, • the edge function:

X4 = Y4 = j4 = d, (56)
X5 = Y5 = j5 = c, X6 = Y6 = j6 = f.
• the tetrahedral function:
The 6 - j coefficient (now using ji labels throughout)
labelled as

G: ;: ;:} (52) Using the tetrahedral function C4 (x, y) = V3 (x, y) +

E4(X, y) in the general form (43) for n = 2 gives the 6- j
has four triangles, which are conveniently presented as with the labels (52), where the variables in a given trian-
the columns of a (3 x 4)-array: gle monomial (40) with exponents given by the columns
of ~ in (53) are those in the corresponding columns of
J2] (53) the array Z on the left hand side of (55).
~4 .
J6 Symmetries. The symmetries of the 6 - j coefficients
may be verified directly from the explicit form (49), or
Generating function. For the description of the generat-
from the generating function. For the coefficient written
ing function, the real coordinates
in the form
x = (Xl,X2,X3,X4,X5,X6),
Y = (Yl,Y2,Y3,Y4,Y5,Y6)
(54)
{a
d
b
c
e}
f '
(57)

are introduced, and these are displayed, analogously to

the symmetries are best expressed m terms of the
(53) in a (3 x 4)-array, the columns of which are inter-
Bargmann (3 x 4)-array
preted as the vertices, in Cartesian 3-dimensional space
R 3 , of a tetrahedron:
[d+f-b
c+f-a
a+f-c
b+f-d
d+e-c
b+e-a
a+'-b] ,
c+e-d (58)
(55) c+d-e a+b-e b+d-f a+c-f

as follows: The coefficient (57) is invariant under all

transformations of (a, b, c, d, e, I) induced by row or col-
umn permutations of the Bargmann array. This gives
144 symmetry relations, some simple substitutions, and
other simple linear transformations.
9 - j coefficients.
Relation to the Krone(;ker product. The coefficients de-
fined by

Chhkd3k2j4j - (59)
ml ,m2,E~ mi,m3,2:~ mi,m4,m -
_ Cj,h k , k ,h k 2 C k2 j4j
- mllm2,E~ milE~ mi,m2,E~ mi E~ mi,m4,m

are the elements of the orthogonal matrix C for n = 3

in (1) that completely reduces the Kronecker product in
the bottom binary coupling scheme given in (38).

430
 RACAH, WIGNER, 3 - j, 6 - j, AND 9 - j COEFFICIENTS

Vector space interpretation. Generating function. For the description of the generat-
ing function, the real coordinates

are introduced, and these are displayed, analogously to

)= (60) (63), in a (3 x 6)-array, the columns of which are inter-

preted as the vertices, in Cartesian 3-dimensional space,
R 3 , of a cubic graph on six vertices:
jm
Y3 Y5 Y6 Ys
Z = [X'
X2 X4 X6 Y2 Y4 Y']
Y1 -+ (65)
X3 X5 X7 Xs X9 X7

(Y3, X4, X5)

X5Y5
j4

( ;,~
h
)=
k1
(Y5, X6, X7)
k2 j4 J1

J Jm X1Y1 X6Y6

(61)
= (_1)k 2 -k;+jrj1.
The array of triangles ~ in (63) is obtained from the
. [(2k1 + 1)(2k2 + 1)(2k~ + 1)(2k~ + 1)]1/2 .
(x, y) in Z by setting Xi = Yi = ji' The generating func-
tion of the 9 - j coefficients is now obtained from the
labelled cubic graph by the following rules. The func-
tion C 6 (x, y) in the left hand side of (43) is obtained as
follows. Interchange the x and Y symbols. Then form
The bracket object is Wigner's notation for the 9 - j
coefficient, and this relation (61) may be taken as its • the vertex function:
definition. The summation over six WCG coefficients V4(X, y) = X1X4X7XS + X1X5X9Y6 + X2X4X6Y9 + (66)
coming from the inner product in (61), using (60), may
+X2 X5XSY7 + X3 XSY5Y9 + X6 XSY1Y3 +
be reduced to the following summation over 6 - j coef-
ficients (a switch to a ji notation has been made): +X7 X9Y2Y3 + X3Y4Y6Y7 + Y1Y2Y4Y5;

• the edge function:

(62) X1Y1 X2Y2 X3Y3)

E 6(x, y) = det ( X4Y4 X5Y5 X6Y6 ; (67)

X {~1
J6
~9
J5
i7} {~2
k J9
js
k
{6} {j3
J4, k
~4 ~5}.
J1 J2
x7Y7
• the six point cubic graph function:
xsYs x9Y9

The six triangles in a 9 - j coefficient are inherited from

C 6(X, y) = - V4(x, y) + E6(X, y). (68)
its expression in terms of WCG coefficients, or, equiva- Using the function C6(x, y) = - V4(x, y)+E6(X, y) in the
lently, from the triangles in the 6 - j coefficients in (62) general form (43) for n = 3 gives the 9 - j coefficient
not involving the summation index. It is convenient to with the labels (62), where the variables in a given trian-
display these six triangles as the columns in a (3 x 6)- gle monomial (40) with exponents given by the columns
array: of ~ in (63) are those in the corresponding columns of
the array Z on the left hand side of (65).
j3 j5 j6 js
j9] Symmetries. The 9 - j coefficient has 72 (known) sym-
j4 J6 h j4 (63) metries, and these are just those originating from the 72
j5 J7 js j9 ~~ .
symmetries of the six 3 - j coefficients implicit on the

431
RACAH, WIGNER, 3 - j, 6 - j, AND 9 - j COEFFICIENTS
left hand side of (61). In terms of the coefficient writ-
ten in the form (62), these symmetries are expressed by:
The 9 - j coefficient (62) is invariant under even per-
mutations of its rows or columns, under transposition
of the array, and is multiplied by the factor (-1)~~ ji
under odd permutations of its rows or columns.
Concluding remarks. A great deal of work has been
done on the relationship between cubic graphs and 3n- j
coefficients, and the results can not even be surveyed
here. It is important to point out, however, that for
n = 3 there is a second non-isomorphic cubic graph
on six vertices, the prism, or wedge, which leads to a
simple product (with dimensional factors) of two 6 - j
coefficients. While this is important for transforming be-
tween the relevant coupling schemes, it does not lead to
a new 9 - j coefficient. Indeed, it can be proved that
every 3n - j coefficient is a sum over products of 6 - j
coefficients, and sometimes this sum may degenerate to
a product of 3n' - j coefficients (n' < n), in which case
it is not counted as new. For n ~ 4 there are always
fewer 'new' 3n - j coefficients than non-isomorphic cu-
bic graphs. The general problem of the relation between
3n - j coefficients and non-isomorphic cubic graphs of
2n vertices is unsolved.
Relevant to the classification of 3n - j coefficients, in-
deed, for the definition of what the term 'classification'
means, are three basic relations:
• triangle transformation:
1 ~ W(abcd; ef)
{acf}{bdf} = (2f + 1) L...J {abe}{cde} . (69)
e [12] JAHN, H.A., AND HOPE, J.: 'Symmetry properties of the
• Racah sum rule:
L( _1)b+d- f W(abcd; ef)W(adcb; gf) = (70)
f
= (-1)e+ g -a- cW(bacd; eg).
• Biedenham-Elliot identity, [3], [10]:
W(a'ab'b; c'e)W(a'ed'd; b'c) = (71)
= L(2f + 1)·
f ating functions', J. Discrete Math.
·W(abcd; ef)W(c'bd'd; b' f)W(a'ad' f; c'c).
Each of these relations has an interpretation in terms
of fundamental operations in mathematics: The triangle
transformation rule is a consequence of the associativity
of three symplecton polynomials, which are polynomials
of the form Pjm over the four non-commuting variables
x, y, a/ax, a/ ay (or, equivalently, over two bosons and
their conjugates) which transform irreducibly under a
well-defined commutation action of SU(2). Racah's sum
rule has an interpretation in terms of the commutativ-
ity of a diagram associated with the coupling of three
angular momenta. The Biedenharn-Elliot identity is a
432
consequence of the associative law for three unit tensor
operators. For a discussion of each of these results, see
[7, pp. 243; 453; 30].
References
[1] ARIMA, A., HORIE, H., AND TANABE, Y.: 'Generalized Racah
coefficient and its application', Prog. Theor. Phys. (Kyoto)
11 (1954), 143-154.
[2] BARGMANN, V.: 'On the representations of the rotation
group', Rev. Mod. Phys. 345 (1962), 829-845.
[3] BIEDENHARN, L.C.: 'An identity satisfied by Racah coeffi-
cients', J. Math. Phys. 31 (1953),287-293.
[4] BIEDENHARN, L.C., BLATT, J.M., AND ROSE, M.E.: 'Some
properties of the Racah and associated coefficients', Rev.
Mod. Phys. 24 (1952), 249-257.
[5] BIEDENHARN, L.C., CHEN, W.Y.C., LOHE, M.A., AND
LOUCK, J.D.: 'The role of 3n - j coefficients in SU(3)', in
T. LULEK, W. FLOREK, AND S. WALCERZ (eds.): Proc. 3rd
SSCPM, World Scientific, 1995, pp. 150-182.
[6] BIEDENHARN, L.C., AND LOUCK, J.D.: Angular momentum
in quantum physics, Vol. 8 of Encyclopaedia of Math. Sci.,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1981.
[7] BIEDENHARN, L.C., AND LOUCK, J.D.: The Racah-Wigner
algebm in quantum theory, Vol. 9 of Encyclopaedia of Math.
Sci., Cambridge Univ. Press, 1981.
[8] DANOS, M.
[9] EDMONDS, A.R.: Angular momentum in quantum mechanics,
Princeton Univ. Press, 1957.
[10] ELLIOT, J.P.: 'Theoretical studies in nuclear spectroscopy. V:
The matrix elements of non-central forces with an application
to the 2p-shell', Proc. Roy. Soc. A 218 (1953), 345-370.
[11] FANO, U., AND RACAH, G.: Irreducible tensorial sets, Acad.
Press, 1959.
Wigner 9j symbol', Phys. Rev. 93 (1954), 318-321.
[13] YUTSIS, A.P. AND BANDZAITIS, A.A.: Angular momentum
theory in quantum mechanics, Molslas: Vilnius, 1977.
(In Russian.)
[14] YUTSIS, A.P. LEVINSON, LB., AND VANAGAS, V.V.: Mathe-
matical appamtus of the theory of angular momentum, Gordon
and Breach, 1964. (Translated from the Russian.)
[15] JUDD, B.R., AND LISTER, G.M.S.: 'A class of generalized 9j
coefficients for Sp(2n)', J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 20 (1986),
3159-3169.
[16] LOUCK, J.D.: 'Unitary symmetry, combinatorics and gener-
[17] RACAH, G.: 'Theory of complex spectra. II', Phys. Rev. 62
(1942), 438-462.
[18] RACAH, G.: 'Theory of complex spectra. III', Phys. Rev. 63
(1943), 367-382.
[19] REGGE, T.: 'Symmetry properties of Clebsch-Gordan coeffi-
cients', Nuovo Cim. 10 (1958), 544-545.
[20] REGGE, T.: 'Symmetry properties of Racah's coefficients',
Nuovo Cim. 11 (1959), 116-117.
[21] ROSE, M.E.: Elementary theory of angular momentum, Wi-
ley, 1957.
[22] SCHWINGER, J.: 'On angular momentum', in L.C. BIDENHARN
AND H. VAN DAM (eds.): Quantum Theory of Angular Mo-
mentum, Acad. Press, 1965, pp. 229-279.
[23] SHARP, W.T.: Racah algebm and the contmction of groups,
Thesis Princeton Univ. Press, 1960.

[24] VARSHALOVICH, D.A., MOSKALEV, A.N., AND KHERSONSKII,
V.K.: Quantum theory of angular momentum, Nauka, 1975.
(In Russian.)
[25] WIGNER, E.P.: 'On the matrices which reduce the Kronecker
products of representation of S.R. groups', in L.C. BIEDEN-
HARN AND H. VAN DAM (eds.): Quantum Theory of Angular
Momentum, Acad. Press, 1965, pp. 87-133.
[26] Wu, A.C.T.: 'Structure of the Wigner 9j coefficients in the
Bargmann approach', J. Math. Phys. 13 (1972), 84-90.
J.D. Louck
MSC 1991: 20Cxx, 22E70, 22A25, 20G05
RAMIFICATION THEORY OF VALUED FIELDS-
A branch of commutative algebra and number the-
ory in which certain distinguished intermediate fields of
algebraic extensions of fields equipped with a valuation
are considered. Let L I K be a (not necessarily finite)
algebraic extension of fields, and let w be a valuation
of L with valuation ring Ow and extending a valuation
v of K. Assume that the extension L I K is normal (cf.
Extension of a field) and that G = G(L I K) is its
Galois group. The subgroup
Gz = {a E G: w(aa) = w(a) for all a E L}
of G is called the decomposition group of w I v, and its
fixed field Z the decomposition field. The subgroup
GT = {a E G: w(aa - a) > ofor alIa E Ow}
of G z is called the inertia group, and its fixed field T
the inertia field. The subgroup
Gv = termediate fields Z, T, V are called the absolute decom-
= {a E G: w(aa - a) > w(a) for all a E L, a#- O}
of G T is called the ramification group, and its fixed field
V the ramification field. If Mw denotes the (unique)
maximal ideal of Ow, then the condition w(aa - a) > 0
is equivalent to aa - a E M w , and w(aa - a) > w(a) is
equivalent to
aa
- -1 E Mw.
a tension of v from K to every algebraic extension field is
In number theory, also the higher ramification groups
(cf. Ramified prime ideal) playa role; see [2]. If the
value group wL is a subgroup of the real numbers and
s 2: -1 is a real number, then the sth ramification group
is defined to be
{a E G: w(aa - a) 2: s + 1 for alIa E Ow}.
Basic properties. Let p denote the characteristic of the
residue field Lw if it is a positive prime number; other-
wise, set p = 1. For simplicity, denote the restriction of
w to the intermediate fields again by w. Then Gv is a
pro-p-group; in particular, L = V if the characteristic
of Lw is O. The quotient group wL/wV of the respective
value groups is a p-group, and the extension Lw I V w
of the respective residue fields is purely inseparable (cf.
RAMIFICATION THEORY OF VALUED FIELDS
Separable extension). G v and G T are normal sub-
groups of G z, and G v is a normal subgroup of G T (cf.
also Normal subgroup).
The Galois group GT/G V of the normal separable
extension V I T is isomorphic to the character group
Hom( wL/vK, LwX), which is (non-canonically) isomor-
phic to wV/wT ifthis group is finite. One has Vw = Tw,
and the group w V / wT is p-prime, i.e., no element has an
order divisible by p. Every finite quotient of the profi-
nite group GT/G V is p-prime.
The Galois group GZ/G T of the normal separable ex-
tension T I Z is isomorphic to the Galois group of the
normal extensions Lw I K v and Tw I Z w. Furthermore,
Tw I Z w is separable, and wT = w Z. The extension
of w from Z to L is unique. The extension Zw I K v is
purely inseparable, and wZ/vK is a p-group.
For many applications, it is more convenient to define
the decomposition, inertia and ramification field to be
the fixed field of the corresponding group in the maximal
separable subextension of L I K. Then one obtains the
following additional properties: wZ = vK; Zw = Kv;
Z is the minimal subextension which admits a unique
extension of w to L; Tw I K v is the maximal separable
sub extension of Lw I K v ; and w V is the maximal of all
subgroups r of wL for which r /vK is p-prime.
Absolute ramification theory. Let K be any field
with a valuation v, and let V S be some extension of v to
the separable-algebraic closure K S of K. Then the in-
position field, the absolute inertia field and the absolute
ramification field, respectively. Since all extensions of
v to KS are conjugate, that is, of the form v 0 a for
a E G(KS I K), it follows that these fields are indepen-
dent of the choice of the extension v S , up to isomorphism
over K. The absolute ramification field is the Henseliza-
tion of (K,v) inside (KS,v S) (see Henselization of a
valued field); it coincides with K if and only if the ex-
unique.
Tame extensions and defect less fields. An exten-
sion (L, w) of (K, v) is called tamely ramified if wL/vK
is p-prime and Lw I K v is separable. Let (K, v) be
Henselian. Then an extension of (K, v) is called a tame
extension if it is tamely ramified and the defect of ev-
ery finite sub extension is trivial, that is, equal to 1.
The absolute ramification field is the unique maximal
tame extension of (K, v). If it is algebraically closed,
or equivalently, if all algebraic extensions of (K, v) are
tame extensions, then (K, v) is called a tame field; see
also Model theory of valued fields. From the fact
that every finite subextension in the absolute ramifica-
tion field is defectless it follows that a non-trivial defect
can only appear between the absolute ramification field
433
RAMIFICATION THEORY OF VALUED FIELDS
and the algebraic closure of K. Since every finite sub ex-
tension of this extension has as degree a power of p,
the defect must be a power of p. This is the content of
the Ostrowski lemma. In particular, the defect is always
trivial if p = 1, that is, if the characteristic of K v is O.
References
[lJ ENDLER, 0.: Valuation theory, Springer, 1972.
[2J SERRE, J.P.: Corps locaux, Hermann, 1962.
F. - V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 12J20, 13B15
RAMSEY NUMBER - Ramsey theory has been de-
scribed as a branch of mathematics which 'implies that
complete disorder is an impossibility' [3], [1]. In Ram-
sey theory one wishes to know how large a collection
of objects must be in order to guarantee the existence
of a particular substructure [3]. Thus, Ramsey theory
can be viewed as a vast generalization of the Dirichlet
pigeon-hole principle (or Dirichlet box principle).
Let G be a graph, i.e., a set of vertices, V, together
with a set of edges, E, where each member of E is a sub-
set of V consisting of exactly two elements. The complete
graph kr is the graph for which all pairs of its r vertices
are connected by an edge. A hypergraph is a set of
vertices V together with a family of subsets of V called
faces. If a face contains k vertices, it is a k-face. If every
face of a hypergraph has the same cardinality, k, then
the hypergraph is called a k-graph.
Intuitively, a t-colouring is obtained by simply paint-
ing each edge of G with anyone of t colours. The ana-
logue of a t-colouring for k-graphs is obtained by paint-
ing each k-face with anyone of t colours. In a 2-colouring
the colours are usually taken to be red and blue. A
monochromatic graph is a graph whose edges have all
been painted the same colour.
Consider the minimum integer r = R(p, q) such that
no matter how the edges of kr are coloured with two
colours, red and blue, there is always a monochromatic
subgraph kp that is red, or a monochromatic subgraph
kq that is blue. The integer r = R(p, q) is called a Ram-
sey number. It is easy to show that R(3,3) = 6, [8].
The following two popular problems (which are really
the same) simply assert that R(3,3) = 6:
1) Take six points in general position in space (no
three in a line, nor four in a plane). Draw the fifteen
line segments joining them in pairs, and then paint them
all, some segments red, some blue. Prove that some tri-
angle has all its sides the same colour. (William Lowell
Putnam Mathematical Competition, 1953.)
2) Prove that at a gathering of any six people some
three of them are either mutual acquaintances or com-
plete strangers to one another. (The A merican Monthly,
June-July 1958.)
434
The definition of a Ramsey number can be general-
ized to t-colourings of k-graphs. Stated more generally,
the Ramsey number Rk(Pl, ... ,Pt) is the smallest r such
that for any t-colouring of the k-faces of Y, with colours
Cl, ... ,Ct, there is either a cl-kp1 , ... , Ct-kp,' Thus, with
respect to 2-colourings, a Ramsey number Rk(p, q) is the
smallest r such that no matter how the k-faces of kr are
coloured red or blue, there is either a kp subgraph of kr
with all its k-faces red, or a kq sub graph of kr with all
its k-faces blue.
Very few Ramsey numbers are known. The known
Ramsey numbers are [7]:
R(3,3) = 6, R(3,4) = 9, R(3,5) = 14,
R(3,6) = 18, R(3,7) = 23, R(3,8) = 28,
R(3,9) = 36, R(4,4) = 18, R(4,5) = 25.
The only Ramsey number for hypergraphs that has
been computed is R3(4, 4) = 13 [4].
F.P. Ramsey's combinatorial contribution, which is
now known as Ramsey's theorem, was originally needed
in [8], a paper that focused on mathematical logic. In the
mid 1930s, P. Erdos rediscovered Ramsey's theorem [5]
and in the mid 1950s research in Ramsey theory started
to take hold. By the 1970s, Ramsey theory was firmly
established [6].
References on Ramsey theory are [2] and [6].
References
[lJ ALBERS, D.J.: 'A nice genius', Math Horizons November
(1996), 18-23.
[2J GRAHAM, R.L., ROTHSCHILD, B.L., AND SPENCER, J.H.:
Ramsey theory, Wiley, 1990.
[3J GRAHAM, R.L., AND SPENCER, J.H.: 'Ramsey theory', Scien-
tific Amer. July (1990), 112-117.
[4J McKAY, B.D., AND RADZISZOWSKI, S.P.: 'The first classi-
cal Ramsey number for hypergraphs is computed': Proc.
2nd ACM-SIAM Symp. on Discrete Algebra (San Francisco,
1991), SIAM, 1991, pp. 304-308.
[5J SPENCER, J.: Paul Erdos: The art of counting, MIT, 1973.
[6J SPENCER, J.: 'Ramsey theory and Ramsey theoreticians', J.
Graph Th. 7 (1983), 15-23.
[7J WEST, D.B.: Introduction to graph theory, Prentice-Hall,
1996.
[8] WINN, J.A.: Asymptotic bounds for classical Ramsey num-
bers, Polygonal, 1988.
l.A. Winn
MSC 1991: 05-XX
RAYLEIGH-TAYLOR INSTABILITY of superposed
fluids - The instability of the interface between two flu-
ids having different densities and accelerated towards
each other [7], [11].
A static state in which an incompressible fluid of vari-
able density subject to a vertical acceleration is arranged
in horizontal strata and the pressure p and the density p
are functions of the vertical coordinate z only, is clearly
a kinematically realizable one. However, whether this

state is also dynamically realizable is related to the is-
sue of the stability under small disturbances.
If viscosity is neglected, the flow can be assumed to
be irrotational and the velocity potential of each fluid
satisfies the Laplace equation. The difficulty in solv-
ing this type of problem, however, arises from the non-
linear boundary conditions at an unknown interface. On
the other hand, if one assumes the disturbance ampli-
tude to be infinitesimal, then the boundary conditions
can be linearized and a solution of the linear problem
can be readily obtained.
For the linear problem of two different inviscid and
incompressible fluids separated by a plane interface and
subject to an acceleration directed from the heavier fluid
towards the lighter one, Lord Rayleigh [7] showed that
the amplitude of a disturbance periodic in the horizontal
interfacial plane will vary in time like e ut , where
(J2 = P2 - PI k,
P2 + PI
where PI and P2 are the respective densities of the lower
and the upper fluids, k is the horizontal wave-number of
the disturbance, and g is the gravitational acceleration.
Thus, if PI > P2, then the interface is unstable.
R. Bellman and R. Pennington [1] showed that the
effect of the surface tension T at the interface in the
linear problem is to produce a critical wave-number kc,
given by
1/2
kc = [ g(P2;' pJ) ]
so the interface is unstable or stable according to
whether the wave-number k is less than or greater than
kc. The surface tension, therefore, has a stabilizing effect
on the interface at sufficiently short wave-lengths.
The predictions of the linear theory are well con-
firmed by laboratory experiments [6]' [3]' [4], [8], [2].
When the interface is unstable, according to the lin-
ear theory the evolution of the interface quickly gets out
of the linear regime because the predicted growth is ex-
ponential. The non-linear problem in the neighbourhood
of the linear stability threshold for the interface turns
out to be a singular perturbation problem. One may,
therefore, use the method of strained parameters to de-
velop a uniformly valid solution for the above problem
for wave-numbers near the linear cut-off value [10]. If
the growth rate (J and the wave-number k of the inter-
facial disturbance are expanded in powers of the initial
interfacial disturbance amplitude 10 as
(J = + f(J2 + 0(10 2),
(JI
k2 = k~ + f 2k + 0(10 3),
where,
k = kc : (JI = 0,
RAYLEIGH-TAYLOR INSTABILITY
the non-linear problem leads to [10]
which is graphically represented in Fig. 1 (>'0 being the
wave-length of the initial interfacial disturbance).
E
Linear cut - off
Unstable Stable
o ko k
Fig. 1: Linear and non-linear cut-offs for
Rayleigh-Taylor instability
Observe that the interfacial disturbance grows even
at k = kc, despite the cut-off predicted by the linear the-
ory. On the other hand, the onset of instability even be-
low the linear stability threshold when the disturbance
has finite amplitude implies that this instability is a sub-
critical instability.
For other aspects of Rayleigh-Taylor instability, as
well as some recent developments, see [9], [5].
References
[1] BELLMAN, R., AND PENNINGTON, R.: 'Effects of surface ten-
sion and viscosity on Taylor instability', Quart. Appl. Math.
12 (1954), 151-162.
[2] COLE, R.L., AND TANKIN, R.S.: 'Experimental study of Tay-
lor instability', Phys. Fluids 16 (1973), 1810-1815.
[3] DUFF, R.E., HARLOW, F.H., AND HIRT, C.W.: 'Effect of dif-
fusion on interface instability between gases', Phys. Fluids 5
(1962), 417-425.
[4] EMMONS, H.W., CHANG, C.T., AND WATSON, B.C.: 'Taylor
instability of finite surface waves', J. Fluid Mech. 7 (1960),
177-193.
[5] KULL, H.: 'Theory of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability', Phys.
Rep. 206 (1991), 197-325.
[6] LEWIS, D.J.: 'The instability of liquid surfaces when acceler-
ated in a direction perpendicular to their planes', Pmc. Roy.
Soc. A. 202 (1950),81-96.
[7] LORD RAYLEIGH: 'Investigation of the character of the equilib-
rium of an incompressible heavy fluid of variable density': Sci-
entific Papers, Vol. II, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1900, pp. 200-
207.
[8] RATAFIA, M.: 'Experimental investigation of Rayleigh-Taylor
instability', Phys. Fluids 16 (1973), 1207-1210.
[9] SHARP, D.H.: 'An overview of Rayleigh-Taylor instability',
Physica 12D (1984),3-18.
[10] SHIVAMOGGI, B.K.: 'Nonlinear theory of Rayleigh-Taylor in-
stability of superposed fluids', Acta Mech. 31 (1979), 301-
305.
435
RAYLEIGH-TAYLOR INSTABILITY
[11] TAYLOR, G.!.: 'The stability of liquid surfaces when acceler-
ated in a direction perpendicular to their planes', Pmc. Roy.
Soc. A 201 (1950), 192-196.
B.K. Shivamoggi
MSC 1991: 76Exx
REAL CLOSED FIELD - An ordered field K for
which no non-trivial algebraic extension (cf. Extension
of a field) can be ordered. E. Artin and o. Schreier ([1])
characterized real closed fields to be the fields K for
which the algebraic closure (cf. Algebraically closed
field) is a non-trivial finite extension; in this case, it is
of degree 2 and obtained by adjoining the square root
of -1. Every ordered field K has an algebraic exten-
sion which is real closed, unique up to order-preserving
isomorphism over K. It is called the real closure of K.
Model theory. In 1940, A. Tarski proved that the el-
ementary theory of all real closed fields is complete;
this is known as the Tarski principle. It implies that,
roughly speaking, Euclidean geometry remains the
same if the field R of real numbers is replaced by any
other real closed field, at least for those theorems which
can be formulated in a first-order language of ordered
fields (and these are many geometrical theorems). This
is the real analogue of the elementary version of the Lef-
schetz principle (cf. Transfer principle).
Tarski also proved that the elementary theory of real
closed fields admits elimination of quantifiers (cf.
[12]). In 1956, A. Robinson deduced model completeness
by simple model-theoretic techniques from the unique-
ness of the real closure and the fact that the order of an
extension K(x) of a real closed field K with x (j. K is
uniquely determined by the cut ({ c E K: c < x}, {d E
K: x < d}) that x induces in K. This can be adapted
to prove elimination of quantifiers.
The theory of real closed fields can be recursively ax-
iomatized (cf. Axiomatized class) in a first-order lan-
guage of ordered rings or fields (cf. Structure). To the
axioms for ordered fields, one only has to add an infi-
nite axiom scheme expressing the sign change property,
which says that every polynomial must have a root in a
given interval where it changes sign; for R this is the con-
tent of the intermediate value theorem (cf. Cauchy the-
orem). Since the theory is complete, the recursive ax-
iomatization yields decidability. The completeness also
shows that all first-order theorems and axioms of Eu-
clidean geometry are consequences of the axioms given
in this axiomatization.
Further, it follows from work of G. Cherlin and M.
Dickmann (1983) that the theory of real closed fields
with a convex valuation ring admits elimination of quan-
tifiers in the language of ordered fields enriched by a
unary relation symbol for being an element of the valu-
ation ring (cf. Model theory of valued fields).
436
Hilbert's 17th problem and a real Nullstellensatz.
Artin gave a positive answer to Hilbert's 17th problem
in [1], using a generalization of the Sturm theorem.
He proved that if K is real closed, 1 E K[X I , ... ,Xnl
and 1(al, ... ,an) 20 for all al, ... ,an E K, then 1
is a sum of squares in K(X I , ... , Xn). (Note that the
squares have to be taken over elements of the rational
function field.) Hilbert's original 17th problem asks for
an analogous result with K replaced by Q; the above
also holds for this case since K can be replaced by any
ordered field which is dense in its real closure and admits
a unique order.
The theorem was reproved by A. Robinson in 1955 us-
ing model completeness, which can also be used to prove
a real version of Hilbert's Nullstellensatz (cf. Hilbert
theorem). There are many such versions, due to several
authors. The following is known as the Dubois Nullstel-
lensatz (D.W. Dubois, 1969): If K is an ordered field,
I C K[X I , ... ,Xnl an ideal and 1 E K[X I , ... ,Xnl
such that every root of I in the real closure of K is also
a root of 1, then 1 lies in the real radical of I. The
real radical is defined to be the set of all 1 for which
12m + 8 E I for some mEN, where s = L cig; is a sum
of squares of elements gi E K[X I , ... , Xnl with positive
coefficients Ci E K.
See also Elimination of quantifiers and p-adically
closed field.
References
[1] ARTIN, E., AND SCHREIER, 0.: 'Algebraische Konstruktion
reeller Korper; Uber die Zerlegung definiter Funktionen in
Quadrate; Eine Kennzeichnung der reell abgeschlossenen
Korper', Abh. Math. Sem. Univ. Hamburg 5 (1927), 85-99;
100-115; 225-23l.
[2] BECKER, E.: Theory of real field and sums of powers,
Springer.
[3] BECKER, E., BERR, R., DELON, F., AND GONDARD, D.:
'Hilbert's 17th problem for sums of 2n-th powers', J. Reine
Angew. Math. 450 (1994), 139-157.
[4] BOCHNAK, J., COSTE, M., AND ROY, M.-F.: Geometrie
algebrique reelle, Springer, 1987.
[5] DELZELL, C.: 'Continuous piecewise-polynomial functions
which solve Hilbert's 17th problem', J. Reine Angew. Math.
440 (1993), 157173.
[6] KNEBUSCH, M.: 'An invitation to real spectra': Quadratic and
Hermiteanforms, Conf. Hamilton/Ont. 1983, Vol. 4 of CMS
Conf. Pmc., Amer. Math. Soc., 1984, pp. 51-105.
[71 KNEBUSCH, M., AND SCHEIDERER, C.: Einfiihrung in die
reelle Algebra, Vieweg, 1989.
[8] KNEBUSCH, M., AND SCHEIDERER, C.: 'Semi-algebraic topol-
ogy in the last 10 years; Real algebra and its applications
to geometry in the last 10 years: some major developments
and results', in M. COSTE AND M.F. ROY (eds.): Real alge-
braic geometry, Pmc. Conf. Rennes 1991, Vol. 1524 of Lec-
ture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1992, pp. 1-36; 75-96.
[91 LAM, T. Y.: 'The theory of ordered fields', in B. McDON-
ALD (ed.): Ring Theory and Algebra III, Vol. 55 of Lecture
Notes in Pure and Applied math., New York, 1980, pp. 1-
152.

[10] PRESTEL, A.: Lectures on formally real fields, Vol. 1093 of
Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1984.
[11] PRIESS-CRAMPE, S.: Angeordnete Strukturen. Gruppen,
Korper, projektive Ebenen, Vol. 98 of Ergebnisse der Mathe-
matik und ihrer Grenzgebiete, Springer, 1983.
[12] TARSKI, A., AND McKINSEY, J.C.C.: A decision method for
elementary algebm and geometry, Univ. California Press,
1951.
F. - V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 12J15, 12L12, 03C60
REGULATED REWRITING - An important branch
of formal language theory, starting from the observa-
tion that most natural and artificial languages of in-
terest are non-context-free (cf. Grammar, context-
free). By imposing certain restrictions on the deriva-
tion in context-free grammars, the generative power is
increased, still preserving some of the attractive features
of context-free grammars.
There are some dozens of regulating mechanisms of
this type: matrix, programmed, random context, reg-
ularly controlled, periodically time variant, indexed,
state, valence, parallel grammars, grammars controlled
by bicoloured digraphs, etc. See [1 J for details; recent
information can be found in [2J.
Example. A programmed grammar (introduced in [3])
is a construct
G = (N,T,S,P),
where N, T are disjoint alphabets (the non-terminal
and the terminal alphabet), SEN (axiom), and P
is a finite set of quadruples (r: A -+ x,a(r),<p(r));
A -+ x is a context-free rule over NUT, r is the
label of the rule, a(r) and <p(r) are sets of labels of
rules in P (a (r) is the success field and <p (r) is the
failure field). Let Lab be the set of all labels of rules
in P. For (r,w),(r',w') E Labx(NUT)* one writes
(r, w) => (r', w') if one of the following two cases holds:
1) w uAv and w' uxv, for (r: A -+
x,a(r),<p(r)) E P, u,v E (NUT)*, and r' E a(r);
2) w does not contain the symbol A, for (r: A -+
x,a(r),<p(r)) E P and w = w', r' E <p(r).
(Note the way of controlling the sequencing of rules ap-
plication by means of the mappings a and <p from Lab
to the power set of Lab.) The language generated by G
is
L(G) =
= {w E T*: (r, S) =>* (r', w) for some r, r' E Lab},
where => * is the reflexive and transitive closure of the
relation =>. Let PR~c be the family of languages of this
form; when A-rules are not allowed, one writes PRac .
When <p(r) = 0 for all rules in P, one says that the gram-
mar is without appearance checking; the corresponding
families of languages are denoted by PR A, PRo Denote
RELIABLE COMPUTATION
by CF, CS, and RE the families of context-free, context-
sensitive, and recursively enumerable languages, respec-
tively. Then:
1) CF c PR c PR A eRE, PR c PRac c CS c
PR~c = RE;
2) PRac is an abstract family of languages (cf.
also Trio).
References
[1] DASSOW, J., AND PAUN, GR.: Regulated rewriting in formal
language theory, Springer, 1989.
[2] DASSOW, J., PAUN, GR., AND SALOMAA, A.: 'Regulated
rewriting', in G. ROZENBERG AND A. SALOMAA (eds.): Hand-
book of Formal Languages, Springer, 1997.
[3] ROSENKRANTZ, D.: 'Programmed grammars and classes of
formal languages', J. ACM 16 (1969), 107 -131.
Gh. Paun
MSC 1991: 68S05, 68Q42
RELIABLE COMPUTATION - A method of compu-
tation that guarantees correctness of the result obtained.
Any algorithm calculating a real number (or numbers)
cannot be absolutely correctly implemented on a com-
puter, due to the finite representation of real numbers
in computers. Instead of obtaining a single value for the
result, one obtains a set containing the desired value.
In the simplest case one may consider the set to be an
interval.
In this connection, a special role in reliable computa-
tion is played by interval analysis (or, more generally,
interval mathematics). The interval approach allows one
to obtain guaranteed estimates for unknown real values.
Within the framework of reliable computation theory
one considers not only applied aspects (i.e., methods for
obtaining guaranteed estimates), but also abstract prob-
lems emerging from internal requirements of the theory.
Interval analysis is not the only field that is subsumed
under the term 'reliable computation'. The following
branches of mathematics also belong here: symbolic
computations that permit reformulation of the problem
conditions and modification of its solution algorithm
while preserving the set of results; the theory of con-
vincing programming and program optimization; and
problems of representing mathematical objects, above
all arbitrary numbers and functions, by (mapping them
onto) a finite set of representable objects. Other fields
participating in the implementation of reliable computa-
tion belong to computer science, e.g., issues of computer
architecture and the system of basic operators for cal-
culations with guaranteed result. To carry out a reliable
computation one has to use specialized software. To en-
code algorithms on a computer, special language means
are required. These are also considered in the theory of
reliable computation.
V. Nesterov
437
RELIABLE COMPUTATION
MSC 1991: 65Gxx
RENORMALIZATION GROUP ANALYSIS - The
theoretical physicist aims to elaborate theories at the
microscopic scale, from which observed phenomena can
be explained. Renormalization group analysis allows one
to determine effective theories at each length scale, from
microscopic to macroscopic, by averaging over 'degrees
of freedom' of the previous scale. For instance, given a
system defined on a lattice L of spacing a (e.g., Zd is
a lattice of spacing a = 1 in R d ) and a Lagrangian, or
a Hamiltonian, involving an interaction between sites, a
new Lagrangian is obtained on a lattice of spacing 2a
by summing over possible values of the initial variables
at each site of L, for given values of variables on the
new lattice, etc. In some theories, e.g. few-body New-
tonian mechanics, 'degrees of freedom' at very different
scales 'decouple'; as a consequence, particles (or planets
in the solar system) can be approximated by point-like
objects in large-scale analysis. This is no longer true
in quantum field theory in particle physics, nor in
the related study of phase transitions and critical phe-
nomena in classical statistical physics, domains in which
renormalization group analysis has been mainly devel-
oped. The renormalization group, which is actually a
semi-group, is the set of transformations, in an infinite-
dimensional space of Lagrangians, that give the effective
Lagrangian of each scale from those of shorter scales. In
cases studied, effective Lagrangians tend to fixed points;
moreover, there will exist 'universality classes' such that
the effective Lagrangians will all tend to a common fixed
point or to a set of fixed points of finite dimension. The
dominant long-distance physics will then depend only
on a finite number of parameters.
ip4-models. In field theory, a model is defined by a prob-
ability measure dp, on the space of fields ip. Fields are
functions or distributions defined on R d , or on a lat-
tice L in Rd. They have N real-valued components,
N 2: 1. Correlation functions are the moments of dp"
e.g., J ip(Xl)'" ip(xn) dp,(ip) for N = 1. In applications,
Rd is either the usual space or Euclidean space-time.
(In the latter case, real-time physics follows by analytic
continuation in time variables: t --+ it.)
Given a Lagrangian £: ip --+ £( ip), dp, has the
heuristic ill-defined form Z-l[exp -£(ip)] I1"ERd dip",
or Z-l[exp-£(ip)] I1iEL dipi' In the ip4-model on R d ,
for N = 1,
! G) ! ip2(x) dx +
£(ip) = A ip4(x) dx + be made using e-expansions. One considers a space di-
+ (~) ! (Vip)2(x) dx,
438
with integrals replaced by discrete sums (and derivatives
by differences) on a lattice. At A = 0, C = m 2 2: 0, it
describes a free theory of mass m. To define the model
on a lattice L one may first restrict L to a finite volume
A of R d and then consider the limit as A --+ Rd. On R d
one may initially consider in A lattices L j with spacings
2- j a and parameters Aj, Cj, bj , and consider the con-
tinuous limit as j --+ 00. As explained below, this will
allow one, for d = 2 and 3, to define the ip4-model and
will yield an effective Lagrangian on a lattice of spacing
a in A. The limit as A --+ 00 is treated in turn.
ip4-models in a finite volume A of Rd. For any given
j, renormalization group analysis yields Lagrangians
£j,k, k = 1,2, ... , on lattices with spacings 2- j +k a, in-
cluding terms in ip\ ip2, (Vip)2 with coefficients Aj,k,
Cj,k, bj,k, plus (already at k = 1) infinitely many other
terms in ip6, ips, .... However, the latter will be 'irrele-
vant'. Given Ao 2: 0, co, bo, it is then expected at d = 2
or d = 3 that dp,j will be well defined in the limit as
j --+ 00, with Ao = lim Aj,j, Co = limcj,j, bo = limbj,j if
Aj, Cj, bj are suitably chosen; Aj and bj remain close to
Ao and bo, while Cj --+ -00. The results are confirmed
by a rigorous analysis in which a truncated version of
effective Lagrangians (involving first terms only) is used.
The theory is asymptotically free at short distances
(the weight of the interaction, in Ajb~2j(d-4), tends to 0
as j --+ 00).
There is no result at d = 4, the physical dimension in
particle physics; a conjecture is that only more refined
'gauge' theories can then exist.
ip4-models on a lattice. (The limit as A --+ 00.) Ef-
fective theories are obtained on lattices with spacings
2 k a, k = 1,2, .... Two-point correlations decrease expo-
nentially as IXI - x21 --+ 00 in 'massive' cases (lim Ck =
m 2 > 0) and as inverse powers of IXI - x21 in 'critical'
mass-less cases (limck = m 2 = 0).
i) There exists a C(A, b) such that the theory is crit-
ical. For d = 4, Ak = [,82k + ,83 In k + A(A)tl --+ 0 as
k --+ 00: asymptotic freedom at large distances follows
with a trivial (Gaussian) fixed point and a dominant
long-distance behaviour in IXI - x21-(d-2) as in the free
A = C = 0 theory.
For d < 4 and N large, a non-trivial fixed point is
obtained as k --+ 00, by means of (liN) expansions:
dominant behaviour, at A > 0, in 1/1xI - x2Id-2+'1(N,d) ,
with a critical exponent ." > 0 independent of A (the
'anomalous dimension'). These results can be proved un-
der suitable conditions.
On the other hand, a heuristic analysis for any N can
mension 4 - e. For e > 0 small, a non-trivial fixed point
close to the Gaussian fixed point for d = 4 is obtained.
Results are then extended to f = 1 (d = 3) and f = 2

(d = 2). The critical indices obtained at d = 3 or d = 2
are close to the experimental ones in related situations,
or to those obtained from numerical calculations, or also,
at d = 2, to exact results on the related Ising model.
ii) For c > C(A) one obtains a massive Gaussian fixed
point.
iii) For c < c( A) there is a discrete symmetry breaking
at N = 1: in dependence on, e.g., boundary conditions
on A, different non-trivial fixed points, which are mix-
tures of two pure 'phases' are obtained in the limit as
A -+ 00 (symmetry then relates different solutions).
For N 2: 2, there is for d > 2 a continuous symmetry
breaking: an infinite number of non-trivial fixed points
linked by a 'Goldstone boson'.
Physical theories. Applications in statistical physics
(cf. also Statistical physics, mathematical prob-
lems in) related to the previous models include phase
transitions: liquid-vapour (N = 1), superfluid helium
(N = 2), ferromagnetic systems (N = 3), and statistical
properties of long polymers ('N = 0'). Among other ap-
plications of renormalization group analysis is the BCS
theory of superconductivity. In particle physics, the the-
ory of strong interactions (QCD) makes sense as an
asymptotically free theory at short distances; the sit-
uation is different for theories of strong and electroweak
interactions, which might be viewed as effective theories
arising from a more fundamental theory at 'ultrashort'
distances.
Applications of renormalization group ideas have
been made in many other domains; of particular math-
ematical interest are the recent studies of partial differ-
ential equations using this method.
For general references on renormalization group anal-
ysis, see [2], [3]; see [1] for rigorous results.
References
[1] MAGNEN, J., in D. IAGOLNITZER (ed.): XI-th Internat. Con-
gress Math. Physics, Internat. Press, Boston, 1995, pp. 121-
141.
[2] WILSON, K.C., AND KOGUT, J.: 'The renormalization group
and the £-expansion', Phys. Rep. 12 (1974), 75-200.
[3] ZINN-JUSTIN, J.: Quantum field theory and critical phenom-
ena, third ed., Oxford Univ. Press, 1996.
D. Jagolnitzer
J. Magnen
MSC 1991: 81 T17, 81R40, 82B28
RIEMANN BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEM, Rie-
mann problem - A name sometimes given to the
Riemann-Hilbert problem.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 30E25, 45Exx, 45F15
RISK THEORY - Collective risk theory deals with
stochastic models of the risk business of an insurance
company. In such a model the occurrence of the claims is
RISK THEORY
described by a point process and the amounts of money
to be paid by the company at each claim by a sequence
of random variables Xl, X 2 , .... The company receives
a certain amount of premium to cover its liability. The
company is furthermore assumed to have a certain ini-
tial capital u at its disposal. One important problem in
risk theory is to investigate the ruin probability W(u),
i.e., the probability that the risk business ever becomes
negative.
The classical risk model is defined as follows:
i) the stochastic point process is a Poisson pro-
cess with intensity A;
ii) the costs of the claims are described by indepen-
dent and identically distributed random variables (cf.
Random variable) Xl, X 2 , ... , having the common
distribution function F, with F(O) = 0, and mean
10
value /1; it is assumed that h(r) = 00 (e TZ -l)dF(z) <
00 for some r > 0;
iii) the point process and the random variables are
independent;
iv) The premiums are described by a constant (and
deterministic) rate c of income.
Let the relative safety loading p be defined by
c - A/1
p=--
A/1
and let the Lundberg exponent R be the positive solution
of
cr
h(r) = "I'
The following basic results for the classical risk model
go back to the pioneering works [7] and [2]; here,
1
W(O) = 1 + p;
• when the claim costs are exponentially distributed:
w(u) = _l_ e-(pu)/J.L(l+P).
l+p ,
• the Cramer-Lundberg approximation:
1· RU'T,() P/1
u:'~ e 'J' u = h'(R) _ ciA;
• the Lundberg inequality:
w(u) ::; e- Ru .
The classical risk model can be generalized in many
ways.
A) The premiums may depend on the result of the
risk business. It is natural to let the safety loading at
a time t be 'small' if the risk business, at that time,
attains a large value and vice versa.
B) Inflation and interest may be included in the
model.
C) The occurrence of the claims may be described by
a more general point process than the Poisson process.
439
RISK THEORY
[3] and [4] focus mainly on A) and B). In [8] and [9]
generalizations of i) to renewal processes (cf. also Re-
newal theory) are discussed. The monographs [1] and
[6] treat, among others, the case where the claims occur
according to a Cox process. Large claims, where the as-
sumption h( r) < 00 for some r > 0 does not hold, are
treated in [5].
References
[1] ASMUSSEN, S.: Ruin probability, World Sci., to appear.
[2] CRAMER, H.: 'On the mathematical theory of risk', Skandia
Jubilee Volume (1930).
[3] DASSIOS, A., AND EMBRECHTS, P.: 'Martingales and insur-
ance risk', Commun. Statist. - Stochastic models 5 (1989),
181-217.
[4] DELBAEN, F., AND HAEZENDONCK, J.: 'Classical risk theory
in an economic environment', Insurance: Mathematics and
Economics 6 (1987), 85-116.
[5] EMBRECHTS, P., AND VERAVERBEKE, N.: 'Estimates for the
probability of ruin with special emphasis on the possibility
of large claims', Insurance: Mathematics and Economics 1
(1982),55-72.
[6] GRANDELL, J.: Aspects of risk theory, Springer, 1991.
[7] LUNDBERG, F.: Forsiikringsteknisk Riskutjiimning, F. Eng-
lunds, 1926. (In Swedish.)
[8] SPARRE ANDERSEN, E.: 'On the collective theory of risk in the
case of contagion between the claims': Trans. XVth Internat.
Congress of Actuaries, Vo!' II, New York, 1957, pp. 219-229.
[9] THORIN, 0.: 'Probabilities of ruin', Scand. Actuarial J.
(1982),65-102.
J. Crandell
MSC 1991: 60Gxx, 60G35
ro-GROUP, right-ordered group - A group G en-
dowed with a total order ~ such that for all x, y, z E G,
x ~ y =} xz ~ yz.
If P = P(G) = {x E G: x ~ e} is the positive cone of
the ro-group G (cf. also i-group), then:
1) p.pc;;.p;
2) P n p- l = {e};
3) P U p- l = G.
If, in a group G, there is a subset P satisfying 1) .
3), then G can given the structure of a ro-group with
positive cone P by a setting x ~ y if and only if
yx- l E P. The positive cone of a ro-group is isolated,
i.e., xn E P =} x E P.
The group of order automorphisms Aut(X) of a to-
tally ordered set {X; ~} can be turned into a ro-group
by defining the following relation ~ on it. Let --< be
any well ordering on X: Xl --< ... --< x'" --< .... Let
cp E Aut(X) and let x'" be the first (with respect to --<)
element in {x EX: xcp =I x}. Then A(X) is a ro-group
with respect to the order with positive cone
Pc A(X) = {cp E Aut(X): X",cp ~ x",}.
440
Any ro-group is isomorphic to a subgroup of the ro-
group Aut(X) for some totally ordered set X. There ex-
ist simple ro-groups whose finitely generated subgroups
coincide with the commutator subgroup. The class of all
groups that can be turned into a ro-group is a quasi-
variety, i.e., it is defined by a system of formulas of the
form:
where w, Wi are the group-theoretical words. This class
is closed under formation of subgroups, Cartesian and
free products, and extension, and is locally closed.
The system C(G) of convex subgroups of a ro-group
G is a complete chain. It can be non-solvable, non-infra-
invariant and non-normal. There exist non-Abelian ro-
groups without proper convex subgroups.
A ro-group G is Archimedean if for any positive ele-
ments x, y E G there exists a positive integer n such that
xn > y. An Archimedean ro-group is order-isomorphic
to some subgroup of the additive group R of real num-
bers with the natural order. The class of Conradian ro-
groups, i.e., ro-groups for which the system C(G) is sub-
normal and the quotient groups of the jumps of C(G)
arc Archimedean, is well investigated.
References
[1] KOPYTOV, V.M., AND MEDVEDEV, N.YA.: The theory of
lattice-ordered groups, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1994. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[2] MURA, R.T.B., AND RHEMTULLA, A.H.: Orderable groups, M.
Dekker, 1977.
V. M. K opytov
MSC 1991: 06F15
ROBINSON-SCHENSTED CORRESPONDENCE -
A bijection between certain sequences of numbers
and pairs of Young tableaux (cf. Young tableau),
defined by means of a combinatorial algorithm. In
its basic form, the Robinson-Schensted correspondence
gives a bijection between the symmetric group Sn,
whose elements 7r are represented by the sequences
7r(1), ... ,7r(n), and pairs of standard Young tableaux
of order n with equal shapes. The two tableaux are usu-
ally referred to as P and Q, or as the P -symbol and
Q-symbol of the permutation.
The P-symbol can be obtained by repeatedly apply-
ing the following so-called Schensted insertion procedure
to the terms of the sequence, from left to right, to en-
ter them into an initially empty tableau T. To insert a
number m, it is placed in the first row of T, either by
replacing the first entry greater than m in that row, or if
there is no such entry, by adding it to the end of the row.
If a number m' was replaced, m' is placed in the next

row using the same rule, and so on, until at some step no
number is replaced. The Q-symbol of 7r records the suc-
cessive shapes of T by having entry i in the square added
to the shape of T by insertion of 7r(i); the final value of
T is the P-symbol of 7r. E.g., for 7r = (2,6,3,5,1,7,4)
one has
~'
P=tfr Q=~
~.
Given standard Young tableaux P, Q of the same shape,
this algorithm can be reversed to determine the permu-
tation 7r with these P- and Q-symbols.
The correspondence has a fundamental but non-
trivial symmetry: replacing 7r by 7r- 1 interchanges P
and Q. There are more symmetries, which require an-
other algorithmically defined correspondence, namely a
shape-preserving involution of the set of standard Young
tableaux that is due to M.-P. Schiitzenberger [8]. For in-
stance, reversing the sequence corresponding to 7r trans-
poses both P and Q, while also applying this involution
to Q. Details can be found in [3] and [11].
A generalization of this correspondence is obtained
by allowing arbitrary sequences of n numbers taken from
some fixed set {I, ... ,m}; the same algorithm then de-
fines a bijection between the set of such sequences and
pairs P, Q of equal shape, where Q is still a standard
Young tableau of order n, but P is now a semi-standard
Young tableau (see Young tableau) with entries in
{l, ... ,m}. This form gives the decomposition of the
character of the representation V0 n of the general lin-
ear group GL(V) with dim(V) = m, into irreducible
characters (which are Schur polynomials S{>,} , see Sym-
metric polynomial): each standard Young tableau Q
of shape oX corresponds to a factor Sp,} , and each semi-
standard Young tableau P of shape oX and type (or
weight) /.L corresponds to a term xiL of S{,X}. A further
generalization, which restores the symmetry between P
and Q, is defined in [2], and an even further generaliza-
tion, in which 7r, P, and Q are all pictures, is defined
in [12]; it probably provides the most natural setting for
the Robinson-Schensted correspondence.
Having the same P-symbol defines an equivalence re-
lation on sequences of numbers called plactic equiva-
lence. It is generated by relations acb == cab for a :S b < c
and bac == bca for a < b :S c (cf. [2]); therefore, the
set of equivalence classes forms a monoid under con-
catenation, called the plactic monoid, which has many
interesting properties, see [4].
There exist other algorithmic descriptions of the cor-
respondence than the one given above. In fact, the de-
scription originally given by A. Robinson in an (in-
complete) attempt to prove the Littlewood-Richardson
ROOM SQUARE
rule [6] is rather different. Also, a very simple game,
called the jeu de taquin, defined by Schiitzenberger [9]
gives a non-deterministic procedure for computing the
P-symbol. Besides providing useful enumerative identi-
ties, the correspondence itself has various useful inter-
pretations, e.g., it defines the Kazhdan-Lusztig cells in
the symmetric groups [1], and it has interpretations in
terms of the geometry of the flag manifold of general
linear groups [10], and of straightening [5].
References
[lJ KAZHDAN, D., AND LUSZTIG, G.: 'Representations of Coxeter
groups and Hecke algebras', Invent. Math. 53 (1979), 165-
184.
[2J KNUTH, D.E.: 'Permutations, matrices and generalized
Young tableaux', Pacific J. Math. 34 (1970), 709-727.
[3J KNUTH, D.E.: The art of computer programming Ill. Sorting
and searching, Addison-Wesley, 1975.
[4J LASCOUX, A., AND SCHUTZENBERGER, M.P.: 'Le monOIde
plaxique', Quad. Ricerca Scient. C.N.R. 109 (1981), 129-
156.
[5J LECLERC, B., AND THIBON, J.-Y.: 'The Robinson-Schensted
correspondence, crystal bases, and the quantum straightening
at q = 0', Electronic J. Combinatorics 3, no. 2 (1996).
[6J ROBINSON, G. DE B.: 'On the representations of the symmet-
ric group', Amer. J. Math. 60 (1938), 745-760.
[7J SCHENSTED, C.: 'Longest increasing and decreasing subse-
quences', Canadian J. Math. 13 (1961), 179-191.
[8J SCHUTZENBERGER, M.P.: 'Quelques remarques sur une con-
struction de Schensted', Math. Scandinavica 12 (1963),117-
128.
[9J SCHUTZENBERGER, M.P.: 'La correspondance de Robinson',
in D. FOATA (ed.): Combinatoire et Representation du
Groupe Symetrique, Vol. 579 of Lecture Notes in Mathemat-
ics, Springer, 1976, pp. 59-113.
[IOJ STEINBERG, R.: 'An occurrence of the Robinson-Schensted
correspondence', J. Algebra 113 (1988), 523-528.
[l1J LEEUWEN, M.A.A. VAN: 'The Robinson-Schensted correspon-
dence and Schiitzenberger algorithms, an elementary ap-
proach', Electronic J. Combinatorics 3, no. 2 (1996).
[12J ZELEVINSKY, A.V.: 'A generalisation of the Littlewood-
Richardson rule and the Robinson-Schensted-Knuth corre-
spondence', J. Algebra 69 (1981), 82-94.
M.A.A. van Leeuwen
MSC 1991: 05EIO, 05E15, 20G05, 05E05
ROBINSON TEST - The following necessary and
sufficient criterion for an elementary theory T to
be model complete (d. Model theory): for every two
models A and B of T such that A is a substructure of
B (cf. Structure), it follows that A is existentially
closed in B.
F.- V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 03C95
ROOM SQUARE - A Room square of side n, RS(n),
is an (n x n)-array R defined on an (n + I)-set V with
the following properties:
1) each cell of R is either empty or contains an un-
ordered pair of distinct elements from V;
441
ROOM SQUARE
2) each element of V occurs precisely once in each
row and column of R;
3) every unordered pair of elements from V is in pre-
cisely one cell of R.
A necessary condition for a Room square of side n to
exist is that n be odd. An example of a Room square of
side 7 is listed below.
000 15 46 23
34 001 26 50
61 45 002 30
02 56 003 41
52 13 60 004
63 24 01 005
04 35 12 006
Room squares were named after T.G. Room, who
published a paper in 1955 in which he constructed a
Room square of side 7 and proved that Room squares of
side 3 and 5 do not exist. However, Room squares were
actually constructed much earlier. In 1850, T.M. Kirk-
man used a Room square of side 7 to solve the Kirk-
man schoolgirl problem for 15 girls, and the first infi-
nite classes of Room squares were constructed by R.R.
Anstice in 1852-1853 [1]. Several small Room squares
were also constructed by E.C. Howell for use as sched-
ules for duplicate bridge tournaments at the end of the
nineteenth century. The existence of Room squares was
finally completed in the early 1970s by R.C. Mullin and
W.D. Wallis [4]: A Room square of side n exists if and
only if n is odd and n "I 3 or 5. The proof uses a num-
ber of direct and recursive constructions. An extensive
literature on Room squares is available, see [3].
One application of Room squares is in the construc-
tion of round robin tournaments. A Room square of side
n can be used to construct a round robin tournament
with n + 1 teams which has the following properties:
every team plays every other team exactly once during
the tournament; every team plays in exactly one game
in each round; and every team plays at every location
exactly once.
A Room square of side n is standardized with respect
to the element 00 if cell (i,i) contains the pair {oo,i}.
A standardized Room square of side n is skew if for
every pair of cells (i,j) and (j,i) (with i "I j) exactly
one is filled. The existence of skew Room squares has
been established [5]: There exists a skew Room square
of side n if and only if n is odd and n "I 3 or 5. Skew
Room squares have been quite useful in constructions
for several other types of combinatorial designs, see [3].
Room squares with additional properties have also
been studied; these include Room squares with sub-
Room squares (incomplete Room squares), maximum
empty subarray Room squares, perfect Room squares,
442
and balanced Room squares (complete balanced Howell
rotations), see [3] for references. For generalizations of
Room squares to larger block size and higher dimension,
see Design with mutually orthogonal resolutions.
Room squares are equivalent to several other combi-
natorial configurations, [2]. In particular, the existence
of the following designs are equivalent:
a) a Room square of side n;
b) a Room frame of type 1n;
c) two pairwise orthogonal symmetric Latin squares
of order n (see Latin square);
d) a Howell design, H(n, n + 1);
e) two pairwise orthogonal one-factorizations of
Kn+l (cf. also One-factorization);
f) two orthogonal resolutions of an (n + 1,2,1)-
BIBD (see Design with mutually orthogonal reso-
lutions).
In some of the earlier literature, Room squares are
also called Room designs.
References
[1] ANDERSON, 1.: 'Cyclic designs in the 1850s; the work of Rev.
R.R. Anstice', Bull. ICA 15 (1995), 41-46.
[2] DINITZ, J.H.: 'Room squares', in C.J. COLBOURN AND J.H.
DINITZ (eds.): CRC Handbook of Combinatorial Designs,
CRC Press, 1996, pp. 437-442.
[3] DINITZ, J.H., AND STINSON, D.R.: 'Room squares and related
designs', in J.H. DINITZ AND D.R. STINSON (eds.): Contem-
porary Design Theory: A Collection of Surveys, Wiley, 1992,
pp. 137-204.
[4] MULLIN, R.C., AND WALLIS, W.D.: 'The existence of Room
squares', Aequat. Math. 13 (1975), 1-7.
[5] STINSON, D.R.: 'The spectrum of skew Room squares', J.
Austral. Math. Soc. A 31 (1981),475-480.
E.R. Lamken
MSC 1991: 05B15
ROSENBROCK METHODS - A numerical integra-
tion method of the Runge-Kutta type for stiff systems of
ordinary differential equations (cf. also Runge-Kutta
method; Stiff differential system). For Rosenbrock
methods these systems are usually put in the au-
tonomous form
iJ = f(y), t> to, y(to) = Yo. (1)
The property of stiffness, which means that the solution
y is composed of components possessing widely differ-
ing time constants, impedes some form of implicitness
for reasons of numerical stability [1], [2]. The most well-
known implicit method for stiff initial-value problems is
the backward Euler method
(2)
where T = tn+l - tn is the step size and Yn the ap-
proximation to y(t) at time t = tn. Since Yn+1 is defined
implicitly, this numerical solution itself must also be ap-
proximated. Mostly the iterative Newton method or

a modification thereof is used, again for reasons of nu-
merical stability. However, as the Euler method has only
order of consistency p = 1, it makes no sense to carry
out the iteration to high accuracy. In practice it often
is sufficient to apply just one iteration per time step. If
one then assumes that Yn is used as initial iterate, the
following numerical result is found:
Yn+! = Yn + k,
where I is the unit matrix and J = !'(Yn) denotes the
Jacobian matrix of the vector function f at Yn.
Of interest is that now the numerical solution is
computed by solving a system of linear algebraic equa-
tions, rather than a system of non-linear equations. H.H.
Rosenbrock, in his landmark paper (3] of 1963, has pro-
posed to generalize this linearly implicit approach to
methods using more stages so as to achieve a higher or-
der of consistency p. The crucial consideration hereby
is that no longer the iterative Newton method is used,
but instead stable formulas are derived by working the
Jacobian matrix directly into the integration formula.
His idea has found widespread use. A generally accepted
form in the literature for a so-called s-stage Rosenbrock
method is (cf. (1], (2]):
s
+L
Yn+1 = Yn biki ,
i=1
(yn + ~ t
ki = Tf Q;i jkj ) + TJ "fijkj .
j=1 j=1
Assuming that "fii = "f, hence equal for all stages, then
one time step costs one Jacobian evaluation, one LU-
decomposition of the matrix 1 - T"fJ and s backsolves
ROSENBROCK METHODS
accompanied by s function evaluations. Per step, Rosen-
brock methods are therefore computationally expensive.
Yet they are attractive since they are of one-step type,
can be made A-stable or L-stable (cf. also Stability)
and are easy to use since no iteration procedure as for
genuinely implicit methods is required.
Rosenbrock methods are also called Runge-Kutta-
(3) Rosenbrock methods. If one puts J = 0, a classical
explicit Runge-Kutta method results. Rosenbrock
methods have been shown very valuable in practice. A
good example is provided by the FORTRAN solver RO-
DAS from (2]. The underlying method of this solver uses
6 stages, is L-stable and stiffly accurate and of order
p = 4. This solver is also applicable to linearly implicit
systems of the form My = f(y). In the literature, vari-
ants of the Rosenbrock method are discussed in which
the Jacobian matrix J is frozen for a number of time
steps or even replaced by an approximation which ren-
ders the linear system solution cheaper (see (1], (2]). For
very large-scale problems this is obviously of practical
importance as it can reduce CPU time considerably.
References
[1) DEKKER, K., AND VERWER, J.G.: Stability of Runge-Kutta
methods for stiff nonlinear differential equations, North-
Holland, 1984.
(4) [2) HAIRER, E., AND WANNER, G.: Solving ordinary differential
equations, Vol. II: stiff and differential-algebraic problems,
Springer, 1991.
[3) ROSENBROCK, H.H.: 'Some general implicit processes for the
numerical solution of differential equations', Comput. J. 5
(1963), 329-330.
J. Verwer
MSC 1991: 65L06
443
____8

SADDLE-NODE BIFURCATION - Consider an au- restriction of (1) to which has the form (2). Moreover,
tonomous system of ordinary differential equations [2], under the non-degeneracy conditions 1) and 2), the
depending on a parameter system (1) is locally topologically equivalent (cf. Equiv-
alence of dynamical systems) near the origin to the
x= f(x, 0:), (1)
suspension of the normal form (3) by the standard sad-
where f is a smooth function. Suppose that at 0: = 0 dle:
the system (1) has an equilibrium (cf. also Equilibrium
y = (3 + O'y2, Y E R 1 , (3 E R 1 ,
position) x = 0 with a simple eigenvalue >'1 = 0 (cf.
{ Ys = -Ys, Ys ERn", (4)
also Eigen value) of its Jacobian matrix A = fx(O, 0).
Then, generically, two equilibria collide, form a sad- Yu = +Yu, Yu E Rnu.
dle node singular point, and disappear when 0: passes Fig. 1 shows the phase portraits of the system (4) in the
through 0: = O. This phenomenon is called the saddle- planar case, when n = 2, ns = 1, nu = 0, and 0'= 1.
node (or fold) bifurcation [1], [2], [4]. It is characterized
by one bifurcation condition Al = 0 (has codimension
one) and appears generically in one-parameter families.
To formulate relevant facts more precisely, first con-
sider a smooth differential equation rld)

x = f(x, 0:), (2) Fig. 1: Saddle-node (fold) bifurcation on the plane

The coefficient a can be computed (to within a scalar
that has at 0: = 0 the equilibrium x = 0 with Al =
multiple) in terms of the right-hand sides of (1), given
fx(O,O) = O. If the following non-degeneracy (generic-
two eigenvectors v, w E Rn corresponding to the zero
ity) conditions hold:
eigenvalue of A and of its transpose AT, respectively:
1) a = (1/2)fxx(0, 0) i= 0;
2) fa(O,O) i= 0, Av = ATw = 0, (w, v) = 1,
then (2) is locally topologically equivalent (cf. Equiva- where (w, v) = L~=1 WiVi is the inner product in Rn.
lence of dynamical systems) near the origin to the Namely [6],
normal form
d22 (w,
a = -1 -d f (TV, 0)) I .
(3) 2 T 1'=0

where a = signa = ±1, [2], [6]. The system (3) has two
equilibria (one stable and one unstable) Yl,2 = ±J-af3
for 0'(3 < 0 and no equilibria for 0'(3 > O.
In the n-dimensional case, the Jacobian matrix A
evaluated at the equilibrium x = 0 has a simple eigen-
value Al = 0, as well as ns eigenvalues with Re Aj < 0,
and nu eigenvalues with ReAj > 0 (n s + nu + 1 = n).
According to the centre manifold theorem (cf. Cen-
tre manifold; [5], [3]' [7]), there is an invariant one-
dimensional centre manifold Ma near the origin, the
For discrete-time dynamical systems, similar results
are valid concerning bifurcations of fixed points with a
simple eigenvalue IL] = 1 of the Jacobian matrix [2], [8],
[6].
References
[1] ANDRONOV, A.A., LEONTOVICH, E.A., GORDON, 1.1., AND
MAIER, A.G.: Theory of bifurcations of dynamical systems
on a plane, Israel Program of Scientific Translations, 1971.
(Translated from the Russian.)
[2] ARNOL'D, V.I.: Geometrical methods in the theory of or-
dinary differential equations, Vol. 250 of Grundlehren der

mathematischen Wissenschaften, Springer, 1983. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[3J CARR, J.: Applications of center manifold theory, Springer,
1981.
[4J GUCKENHEIMER, J., AND HOLMES, PH.: Nonlinear oscilla-
tions, dynamical systems and bifurcations of vector fields,
Springer, 1983.
[5J KELLEY, A.: 'The stable, center stable, center, center unstable
and unstable manifolds', J. Differential Equations 3 (1967),
546-570.
[6J KUZNETSOV, Yu.A.: Elements of applied bifurcation theory,
Springer, 1995.
[7J VANDERBAUWHEDE, A.: 'Centre manifolds, normal forms and
elementary bifurcations', Dynamics Reported 2 (1989), 89-
169.
[8J WHITLEY, D.C.: 'Discrete dynamical systems in dimensions
one and two', Bull. London Math. Soc. 15 (1983), 177-217.
Yu.A. Kuznetsov
MSC 1991: 58F14, 35A47
SAHLQVIST IDENTITIES - The counterpart in the
theory of Boolean algebras with operators of Sahlqvist
formulas (cf. Sahlqvist theorem). Sahlqvist identities
may be obtained from (modal) Sahlqvist formulas by
viewing the latter as equations to be interpreted on
Boolean algebras with operators (cf. Algebra of logic).
For example, viewed algebraically, the (modal) Sahlqvist
formula ODp -+ P becomes ODx :S x.
An explicit definition of Sahlqvist identities can be
given as follows. Let A = {Ii: i E I} be a set of finitary
(normal) additive operations. Let an untied term over A
be a term that is either:
i) negative (in the sense that every variable occurs in
the scope of an odd number of complementation signs
- only);
ii) of the form g1(g2··· (gn(x))·· .), where the gi's
are duals of unary operators in A (i.e., gi is defined by
gi(X) = - fi( -x) for some unary fi in A);
iii) closed (i.e., without occurrences of variables); or
iv) obtained from terms of type i), ii) or iii) byapply-
ing +, . and elements of A only.
Then an identity is called a Sahlqvist identity if it is
of the form s = 1, where s is obtained from comple-
mented untied terms -u by applying duals of elements
of A to terms that have no variables in common, and .
only. For example, the above inequality ODx :S x can
be rewritten as -(ODx . -x) = 1, which is of the re-
quired form. As a further example, all standard axioms
for both relation and cylindric algebras can be brought
to Sahlqvist form.
The canonical extension of a Boolean algebm with op-
erators is the complete and atomic extension obtained
from the Stone representation of the algebra. The im-
portant feature of Sahlqvist identities is that they are
preserved in passing from a Boolean algebra with opera-
tors to its canonical extension; the corresponding result
SAHLQVIST THEOREM
for modal logic is known as the Sahlqvist theorem,
cf. [5]. Identities with the latter property were first in-
vestigated in [4].
References
[IJ RIJKE, M. DE, AND VENEMA, Y.: 'Sahlqvist's theorem for
Boolean algebras with operators, with an application to cylin-
dric algebras', Studia Logica 54 (1995), 61-78.
[2J GOLDBLATT, R.: 'Varieties of complex algebras', Ann. Pure
and Applied Logic 44 (1989), 173-242.
[3J JONSSON, B.: 'On the canonicity of Sahlqvist identities', Stu-
dia Logica 53 (1994), 473-491.
[4J JONSSON, B., AND TARSKI, A.: 'Boolean algebras with oper-
ators 1', Amer. J. Math. 73 (1951),891-939.
[5J SAHLQVIST, H.: 'Completeness and correspondence in the first
and second order semantics for modal logic', in S. KANGER
(ed.): Proc. Third Scandinavian Logic Symp. Uppsala (1973),
North-Holland, 1975, pp. 110-143.
W. van der Hoek
M. de Rijke
MSC 1991: 06E15, 06E25, 03G 15, 03G05, 03B45
SAHLQVIST THEOREM - A theorem about the
relational properties expressed by formulas of modal
logic, and about canonicity of modal formulas.
To be precise, let a positive (negative) formula of
modal logic be one where all proposition letters occur
in the scope of an even (odd) number of negation signs
only. Let a Sahlqvist antecedent be a formula that is
built up from proposition letters prefixed by any finite
number of necessity operators 0 and negative formulas,
using only V, 1\ and the possibility operator O. Then, a
Sahlqvist formula is any formula that may be obtained
by applying conjunctions and necessity operators 0 to
implications of the form ¢ -+ 1/J, where ¢ is a Sahlqvist
antecedent and 1/J is a positive formula. For example,
a = ODp -+ Dp is a Sahlqvist formula.
Sahlqvist's theorem states two things. First, although,
in general, every modal formula is equivalent to a
second-order formula, Sahlqvist formulas have a first-
order equivalent (cf. Modal logic); moreover, this first-
order equivalent FO( r.p) of r.p may be obtained in an effec-
tive way. For instance, for a as above, FO( a) expresses
Euclidicity: \fx\fy\fz ((Rxy 1\ Rxz) -+ Ryz). Secondly,
every Sahlqvist formula is canonical. Here, canonicity
of a modal formula means that it is valid on the canon-
ical frame. Algebraically, the latter may be viewed as
the Stone representation of the free Boolean algebra
with operators over w many generators. Canonicity of a
modal formula r.p implies that the modal logic obtained
from the minimal logic K by adding r.p as an axiom,
is axiomatically complete with respect to the class of
models satisfying FO(r.p). Thus, the modal logic K + a
is complete with respect to Euclidean Kripke frames (cf.
also Kripke models).
References
445
SAHLQVIST THEOREM
[1] KRACHT, M.: 'How completeness and correspondence got
married', in M. DE RIJKE (ed.): Diamonds and Defaults,
Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1993, pp. 175-214.
[2] SAHLQVIST, H.: 'Completeness and correspondence in the first
and second order semantics for modal logic', in S. KANGER
(ed.): Proc. Third Scandinavian Logic Symp. Uppsala (1973),
North-Holland, 1975, pp. 110-143.
[3] SAMBIN, G., AND VACCARO, V.: 'A new proof of Sahlqvist's
theorem on modal definability and completeness', J. Symbolic
Logic 54 (1989), 992-999.
[4] BENTHEM, J. VAN: 'Correspondence theory', in D. GABBAY
AND F. GUENTHNER (eds.): Handbook of Philos. Logic, Vo!' 2,
Reidel, 1984, pp. 167-242.
W. van der Hoek
M. de Rijke
Msa 1991: 03B45, 06Exx, 06E25, 03G05
SASAKIAN MANIFOLD - Let M be a (2m + 1)-
dimensional differentiable manifold of class Coo and
let ¢, ~, "., be a tensor field of type (1, 1) (cf. also Tensor
on a vector space), a vector field and a I-form on
M (cf. Differential form), respectively, such that
where I is the identity on the tangent bundle T M of
M. Then (¢, ~, ".,) is said to be an almost contact struc-
ture on M, and M is called an almost contact manifold.
If follows that
".,O¢= 0,
and therefore ¢ has the constant rank 2m on M. More-
over, there exists a Riemannian metric 9 on M such
that
g(¢x, ¢Y) = g(X, Y) - ".,(X)".,(Y),
".,(X) = g(X,O,
for any vector fields X, Y on M [2). Then (¢,~,,,.,,g) is
said to be an almost contact metric structure and M an
almost contact metric manifold. On M one defines the
fundamental 2-form cP by
cp(X, Y) = g(X, ¢Y).
Then (¢,~,,,.,,g) is said to be a contact metric structure
on M if cp = d".,.
The Nijenhuis tensor field of ¢ is the tensor field [¢, ¢]
of type (1,2) given by
[¢, ¢](X, Y) = ¢2[X, Y] - [¢X, ¢Y] + [3] SASAKI, S.: Almost contact manifolds, Vol. 1-3 of Lecture
-¢[¢X, Y]- ¢[X, ¢Y].
The almost contact structure (¢, ~, ".,) is said to be nor-
mal if
[¢, ¢] + 2d"., ® ~ = O.
A manifold M endowed with a normal contact met-
ric structure is called a Sasakian manifold. To study
446
Sasakian manifolds one often uses the following charac-
terization (cf. [4]): An almost contact metric manifold
M is Sasakian if and only if
(V'x¢)Y = g(X, Y)~ - T/(Y)X,
for any vector fields X, Y on M, where V' is the Levi-
Civita connection on M with respect to g.
A plane section 7r in TxM is called a ¢-section ifthere
exists a unit vector X in TxM orthogonal to ~ such that
{X, ¢X} is an orthonormal basis of 7r. The ¢-sectional
curvature of M with respect to a ¢-section 7r is defined
by H(7r) = g(R(X,¢X)¢X,X), where R is the curva-
ture tensor field of V'. When the ¢-sectional curvature
does not depend on both the point x E M and the ¢-
section 7r, one says that M has constant ¢-sectional cur-
vature and calls it a Sasakian space form.
General references for Sasakian manifolds are [2], [3],
[6].
Submanifolds of Sasakian manifolds. Three classes
of submanifolds of a Sasakian manifold M have been
studied intensively.
First, let N be a (2n+ I)-dimensional submanifold of
M such that ~ is tangent to Nand ¢(TxN) c TxN, for
all x E N. Then N is said to be an invariant submani-
fold of M. It follows that N is a Sasakian manifold too,
and, in general, N inherits the properties of the ambient
Sasakian manifold M.
Next, an n-dimensional submanifold N of M is an
anti-invariant submanifold if ¢(TxN) c TxNJ.. for all
x E N, where TxNJ.. is the normal space of Nat x. The
most important results on anti-invariant submanifolds
have been collected in [5].
Finally, an n-dimensional submanifold N of M is
said to be a semi-invariant submanifold (a contact CR-
submanifoldj cf. also CR-submanifold) if ~ is tan-
gent to N and there exist two distributions D and
DJ.. on N such that TN has the orthogonal decompo-
sition TN = DEB DJ.. EB {O, with ¢(Dx) = Dx and
¢( D;-) C Tx N J.. for all x EN, where {O denotes the
distribution spanned by ~ on N. For the geometry of
semi-invariant submanifolds, see [1].
References
[1] BEJANCU, A.: Geometry of CR submanifolds, Reidel, 1986.
[2] BLAIR, D.E.: Contact manifolds in Riemannian geometry,
Vol. 509 of Lecture NAes in Mathematics, Springer, 1976.
Notes, Math. Inst. T6hoku Univ., 1965-1968.
[4] SASAKI, S., AND HATAKEYAMA, Y.: 'On differentiable mani-
folds with contact metric strctures', J. Math. Soc. Japan 14
(1962), 249-271.
[5] YANO, K., AND KON, M.: Anti-invariant submanifolds, M.
Dekker, 1976.
[6] YANO, K., AND KON, M.: Structures on manifolds, World
Sci., 1984.
A. Bejancu

MSC 1991: 53C25
SAXON-BuTNER THEOREM ~ A theorem con-
cerning energy gaps in one-dimensional random alloy
models described by the Schrodinger equation or the
Dirac equation. It states that forbidden energies that
are common to a pure crystal A and a pure crystal B
(with the same lattice constant) will always be forbid-
den energies in any arrangement of the atoms of A and
B in a substitutional solid solution.
Making use ofthe one-to-one correspondence between
the real localized atomic potentials and (2 x 2)-transfer
matrices belonging to any of the isomorphic three-
dimensional Lie groups SU(l, 1), SL(2, R) or Sp(2, R),
this can be described in mathematical terms as fol-
lows. If Ar, B S' ... Ark BSk is an arbitrary linear chain
consisting of two types of atoms A and B, each hav-
ing representatives ri, Si E Z+ in the ith period. Then
the group nature of the individual transfer matrices
MA and ME makes it possible to express the total
transfer matrix M of the elementary cell as the prod-
uct M~k M~k ... M~' M~' , and the forbidden energies for
electrons propagating there are given by the condition
Itr(M)1 > 2.
In the transfer-matrix approach, the theorem takes
the form of the following question: Given that
is it true that for any arrangement Ar, BS, ... Ark BSk
of atoms of type A and B one has
Itr(M~k M~k ... M~' M~' ) I > 2 ?
Relying on quite different techniques, several non-
equivalent sufficient conditions guaranteeing its validity
have been derived.
References
[1] DWORIN, L., Phys. Rev. 138 A (1965), 1121.
[2] HORI, J., Progr. Theor. Phys. 32 (1964),371.
[3] MATSUDA, H., Progr. Theor. Phys. 21 (1962), 81.
[4] MLADENOV, I., C.R. Acad. Sci. (Sofia) 38 (1985), 993.
[5] MLADENOV, I., Phys. Lett. A 131 (1989), 313.
[6] SAXON, D., AND HUTNER, R., Philips Res. Rep. 4 (1949), 81.
[7] TONG, B., AND TONG, S., Phys. Rev. 180 (1969), 739.
I.M. Mladenov
MSC 1991: 22E70, 81QlO, 81R05
SCHWARZ METHOD in numerical analysis ~ See
Schwarz alternating method.
MSC 1991: 65P05, 65Nxx, 35J35
SEARCH ALGORITHM on a graph, graph search ~
An algorithm that tries to find all nodes in a network
or graph that satisfy a given property. Such algorithms
are also used, e.g., to optimize a function on a graph or
network or on a set which can easily be turned into a
SEARCH ALGORITHM
graph, such as {O, l}n. (Two 0-1 vectors oflength n are
joined if an only if they differ in precisely one coordinate,
yielding a hypercube.) Thus, these are definite relations
and similarities between graph search and search theory
as a systematic optimization technique (of enumeration
type) [2]. See [4] for a very complete overview of global
optimization (from the search point of view, including
random search).
Two of the most often used search techniques in
graphs or networks are depth-first search and breadth-
first search. Let r = (V, E) be a finite oriented graph
(cf. Graph, oriented). For each v E V, let A(v) be the
set of edges (arcs) issuing from v. For instance, in Fig. 1,
A(l) = {(1, 2), (1,4)}, A(3) = {(3, 6)}, A(7) = 0.
1 2 3
4 6
7
Fig. 1.
It is assumed that the sets A(v), v E V, are given some
fixed total order (cf. also Totally ordered set) for all
v. The following algorithm picks out all nodes in r that
are reachable from a source node s by means of a di-
rected path. These nodes will be marked. Central to the
algorithm is a certain list L, which can be seen as a sort
of wave front indicating the boundary of the spreading
blob of marked points:
• unmark all points;
• mark the source node S;
• setL={s};
• as long as L is non-empty, run the following iter-
ative procedure:
- choose a node i E L;
- select the first oriented edge (i, j) E A( i) that
runs (from i) to an unmarked node j (if any);
- mark the node j;
- define the function revp on j as revp(j) = i;
- add j to L;
- if there is no (i, j) E A( i) that runs to an un-
marked node j, remove i from L.
• stop when L is empty.
The algorithm does not yet specify how to select a
node from L. If L is treated as a queue, i.e., the node
selected is the one that has been longest in L (first-in-
first-out) the result is breadth-first search. On the other
hand, if L is treated as a stack, i.e., the node selected is
the one that was last added to L (last-in-first-out) the
result is depth-first search.
447
SEARCH ALGORITHM

TODD (eds.): Optimization, North-Holland, 1991, pp. 211-

370.
[2] PAPADIMITRIOU, C.H., AND STEIGLITZ, K.: Combinatorialop-
timization, Prentice-Hall, 1982.
[3] SALKIN, H.M.: Integer programming, Addison-Wesley, 1975.
[4] ZHIGLJAVSKY, A.A.: Theory of global random search, Kluwer
Acad. Pub!., 1991. (Translated from the Russian.)
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 90C35

SERIES EXPANSION - An expansion of a function

Fig. 2.
For an oriented tree as in Fig. 2 (downwards OrI-
ented), starting at the indicated node, breadth-first
search will first pick the three children of the node indi-
cated (in some order) and then will proceed to the next
layer. Depth-first search will first pick a maximal down-
ward chain (maximal in the sense that it ends at a leaf,
not necessarily maximal in length) and then go back to
another child of the last branching node in that chain.
The order which is used on the edge sets A( v) also
matters, but not as much.
The edges picked out by the function revp (reverse
path), i.e., the edges (revp(j),j) form an oriented tree
comprising the reachable nodes from the source node s.
The results of the algorithm in four cases are given
below for the case of Fig. 1.
search marking oriented
method sequence tree
breadth first, 1 243 5 6 7
(or other object) into a Series. For example, the ex-
pansion of a function into a Taylor series (a Taylor
expansion), a Laurent series (a Laurent expansion),
or a Fourier series (a Fourier expansion).
MSC 1991: 26-XX, 30Bxx, 42Axx
SHIMURA VARIETY - The family of quotients of
a bounded symmetric domain X by the congruence
subgroups of a fixed algebraic group G acting transi-
tively on X. Examples include the family of elliptic mod-
ular curves (cf. Modular curve), the family of Hilbert
modular varieties corresponding to a fixed totally real
field, and the family of Siegel modular varieties of a fixed
dimension. The arithmetic properties of Shimura vari-
eties were extensively studied by G. Shimura beginning
in the early 1960s.
P. Deligne has given a definition according to which a
Shimura variety is defined by a reductive algebraic group
(cf. also Reductive group) Gover Q and a G(R)-
conjugacy class X of homomorphisms ex --+ G(R) sat-

~
lexicographic isfying certain axioms sufficient to ensure that X is a
order finite union of bounded symmetric domains [4]. The
on the A(i) Shimura variety is then the family
breadth first, 142 5 376 ShK(G, X) = G(Q)\X x G(Aj)/ K,

~
reverse
where A j is the ring of finite adeles of Q (cf. Adele) and
lexicographic
K runs through the compact open subgroups of G(Aj).
order
Initially, ShK(G,X) is only a complex manifold, but
on the A(i)
the Baily-- Borel theorem [2] endows it with a canonical
depth first 1 236 574
structure of a quasi-projective algebraic variety. The

~
lexicographic
Shimura varieties of Deligne's definition differ slightly
order
from the earlier examples in that they are families of
on the A(i)
non-connected varieties.
depth first 1 457 2 3 6
The weight of a Shimura variety is the common recip-

~
reverse
rocal of the restrictions of the mappings ex --+ G(R)
lexicographic
in X to R x. When the weight is defined over Q, the
order
Shimura variety may be a moduli variety for Abelian
on the A(i)
varieties with Hodge class and level structures (Shimura
There is an obvious analogous search algorithm for varieties of Hodge type), or Abelian motives with addi-
non-oriented graphs. These algorithms run in 0(# V + tional structure (Shimura varieties of Abelian type) [4],
#E) time. [6] (cf. also Moduli theory; Motives, theory of).
References A Shimura variety whose weight is not rational is not
[IJ AHUJA, R.K., MAGNANTI, T.L., AND ORLIN, J.B.: 'Network a moduli variety, and not every Shimura variety whose
flows', in G.L. NEMHAUSER, A.H.G. RINNOOY KAN, AND M.J. weight is rational is known to be a moduli variety.

448

The data (G, X) defining a Shimura variety deter-
mine a number field E c C, called the reflex field for
the Shimura variety, and every Shimura variety is known
to have a canonical model over its reflex field that is
characterized by the action of the absolute Galois group
(cf. also Galois group) of E on certain special points
of the Shimura variety [4], [5].
Holomorphic automorphic forms can be interpreted
as the sections of certain vector bundles on Shimura va-
rieties, called automorphic vector bundles, and the arith-
metic properties of the automorphic forms are reflected
in the arithmetic properties of the corresponding bun-
dles.
The Baily-Borel theorem provides a canonical com-
pactification of a Shimura variety that is minimal in
a certain sense, but which is usually highly singular.
The theory of toroidal imbeddings provides compacti-
fications that are both projective and smooth, but not
canonical [1].
The study of the boundaries of Shimura varieties sug-
gests the definition of a more general object, that of a
mixed Shimura variety, which plays the same role for
Fourier-Jacobi series that a Shimura variety plays for
holomorphic automorphic forms [5], [7].
Roughly speaking, the goal in the study of Shimura
varieties is to generalize everything that is known about
modular curves to all Shimura varieties. For example, R.
Langlands has launched an ambitious program to iden-
tify the zeta-function of a Shimura variety with an al-
ternating product of automorphic L-functions [3].
References
[1] ASH, A., MUMFORD, D., RAPOPORT, M., AND TAl, Y.: Smooth
compactijication of locally symmetric varieties, Math. Sci.
Press, 1975.
[2] BAILY, W., AND BOREL, A.: 'Compactification of arithmetic
quotients of bounded symmetric domains', Ann. of Math. (2)
84 (1966), 442-528.
[3] BLASIUS, D., AND ROGAWSKI, J.: 'Zeta functions of Shimura
varieties', in U. JANNSEN, S. KLEIMAN, AND J.-P. SERRE
(eds.): Motives, Vol. 55: 2 of Proc. Symp. Pure Math., Amer.
Math. Soc., 1994, pp. 525-571.
[4] DELIGNE, P.: 'Varietes de Shimura: interpretation modulaire,
et techniques de construction de modeles canoniques', in
A. BOREL AND W. CASSELMAN (eds.): Automorphic Forms,
Representations, and L-Functions, Vol. 33: 2 of Proc. Symp.
Pure Math., Amer. Math. Soc., 1979, pp. 247-290.
[5] MILNE, J.: 'Canonical models of (mixed) Shimura vari-
eties and automorphic vector bundles': Automorphic Forms,
Shimura Varieties and L-functions, Vol. 10 of Perspect.
Math., Acad. Press, 1990, pp. 283-414.
[6] MILNE, J.: 'Shimura varieties and motives', in U. JANNSEN,
S. KLEIMAN, AND J.-P. SERRE (eds.): Motives, Vol. 55: 2 of
Proc. Symp. Pure Math., Amer. Math. Soc., 1994, pp. 447-
523.
[7] PINK, R.: Arithmetical compactijication of mixed Shimura
varieties, Dissertation, Bonn, 1989.
J.S. Milne
SHUFFLE ALGEBRA
MSC 1991: llG18, 14Mxx, 20Gxx, llFxx
SHIRSHOV BASIS, Sirsov basis - A particular basis
for free Lie algebras introduced in [1]. It is identical, up
to symmetries, to the Lyndon basis (cf Lyndon wordj
Lie algebra, free).
A word is a sequence of letters (al, ... ,an), that is,
elements chosen from a set A called an alphabet. A
word is usually written as al ... an, or abbreviated by a
single symbol: u = al ... an. The length of w is equal to
the number of letters in w, i.e. n. One may concatenate
words u = al ... an, v = bl ... bm and this operation is
concisely written as uv = al ... anb l ... bm . The set of
all words over A is denoted by A * .
Shirshov's original description, as given in [2], is as
follows. Let A be a set totally ordered by a relation :-::; (cf.
Totally ordered set). Extend the order to all words
by setting uxv < uyw and u > uv for all u, v, w E A*
and x,y E A such that x < y.
Let F' be the set of words w = al··· an strictly
greater, with respect to :-::;, than any of their circu-
lar shifts aiH··· anal··· ai (i = 1, ... ,n - 1). Shir-
shov's lemma [1] shows that any word w is a non-
decreasing product of words in F': w = h ... In with
h, ... ,In E F' and h :-: ; ... :-: ; In. As for Lyndon words
(cf. Lyndon word), words in F' lead to a basis of the
free Lie algebra (over Aj cf. Lie algebra, free). Indeed,
only a bracketing 7r of words in F' is needed. This is done
inductively as follows. Set 7r(a) = a for a E A. Other-
wise, awE F' \ A may be written as w = h ... Ina
with a E A, h, ... ,In E F' and h :-: ; ... :-: ; In. Then
one defines
The set {7r(J): I E F'} is the Shirshov basis for the free
Lie algebra over A.
See also Hall wordj Hall set.
References
[1] SHIRSHOV, A.I.: 'On bases for free Lie algebras', Algebra i
Logika Sem. 1 (1962), 14-19. (In Russian.)
[2] VIENNOT, X.: Algebres de Lie libres et monmdes libres,
Vol. 691 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1978.
G. Melanryon
MSC 1991: 17BOl
SHUFFLE ALGEBRA - Let X = {Xi: i E I} be a set
(alphabet) and consider the free associative algebra
Z(X) on X over the integers, provided with the Hopf
algebra structure given by I1(Xi ) = 1 ® Xi + Xi ® 1,
E(Xi ) = 0, ~(Xi) = -Xi. As an Abelian group, Z(X)
is free and graded. Its graded dual is again a Hopf al-
gebra, sometimes called the shuffle-cut HopI algebra or
merge-cut HopI algebra. Its underlying algebra is the
shuffle algebra Sh(X). As an Abelian group, Sh(X) has
449
SHUFFLE ALGEBRA
as basis the elements of the free monoid (see Free semi-
group) X* of all words in the alphabet X. The product
of two such words u = a1 ... as, v = b1 ... bt is the sum
of all words of length s + t that are permutations of
a1··· asb 1 ... bt such that both ab ... ,as and b1, ... ,bt
appear in their original order. E.g.,
(aa)b = aab + aba + baa,
(aa)a = 3aaa,
(a1a2)(b1b2) = a1a2b1b2 + a 1b1a2b2 +
+a1b1b2a2 + b1a1a2b2 +
+b1a1b2a2 + b1b2a 1a2·
This is the shuffle product. It derives its name from the
familiar rifle shuffle of decks of playing cards.
As an algebra over Q, Sh(X) is a free commutative
algebra with as free commutative generators the Lyndon
words in X, see Lyndon word. I.e.,
Sh(X) ®z Q = Q[w : w E X* a Lyndon word]'
[1]. It is not true that Sh(X) is free over Z.
References
[1] REUTENAUER, C.: Free Lie algebms, Oxford Univ. Press,
1993.
M. H azewinkel
MSC 1991: 20M05,16W30
SIEGEL DISC - Consider a holomorphic vector
field with a singularity, i.e. of the form ± = Ax+· .. with
x E Rb or x E C. The eigenvalues >'b ... ,>'n are said to
be resonant if among the eigenvalues there exists a re-
lation of the form >'8 = (m, >'), where>. = (>'1, ... ,>'n),
m = (mb ... ,mn) with mi 2: 0, I:mi = Iml 2: 2 and
(m, >.) is the usual inner product. H. Poincare proved
in his dissertation that if the eigenvalues of A are non-
resonant, then ± = Ax + ... can be reduced to the lin-
ear equation iJ = Ay by a formal change of variable
x = y + .... The Iml th order term of this change ofvari-
able is given in terms of lower-order terms divided by
a term of the form (m, >.) - >'s. Since, in general, such
terms can be either zero (in the resonant case) or arbi-
trarily close to zero (in which case one says that one has
small denominators), the power series x = y + ... in
general does not converge. An example that divergence
can occur was already given by L. Euler. The eigenvalue
vector>' belongs to the Poincare domain if zero is not
in the convex hull of the eigenvalues >'j E C; its com-
plement is called the Siegel domain. When the vector of
eigenvalues>. is in the Poincare domain, the vector field
can be reduced to a polynomial vector field (called the
normal form) by a biholomorphic change of variables in
a neighbourhood of the singularity. If, in addition, there
are no resonances, then one can choose the polynomial
normal form to be linear. If >. is in the Siegel domain,
450
then one says it satisfies a Diophantine condition if there
exist C > 0, v > 0 such that I>.s - (m, >.) I 2: C /Imlv for
all mi 2: 0 with I: mi = Iml 2: 2. Siegel's theorem states
that, in this case, the vector field can be reduced to its
linear part by a holomorphic change of coordinates in
a neighbourhood of the singularity. Siegel sketched a
proof of this result in 1942, but only in the 1970s com-
plete proofs of this theorem were given (by A.N. Kol-
mogorov, J. Moser, V.1. Arnol'd, M.R. Herman, J.-C.
Yoccoz and many others in various settings, e.g. in the
C k category). Many problems concerning invariant tori
are based on similar small denominator estimates.
In the discrete case, when one considers a mapping
F(x) = Ax+···, the analogous results also holds. In that
case, the vector of eigenvalues>. is in the Poincare do-
main if the norm of all the eigenvalues >'i are all smaller
or all greater than one. The complement is again called
the Siegel domain. If the dimension n = 1, then this
reduces to the unit circle 1>'1 = 1.
In fact, in one-dimension the Siegel case is com-
pletely understood. So, assume that 1>'1 = 1 and that
>. is not a root of unity. Write>. = exp(27ria) and let
Pn/qn be the continued fraction expansion of a. If
sUPn~O (log qn+1) / qn = 00, then the formal power se-
ries of the linearizing coordinates need not converge
(Cremer's theorem). Around 1965, A.D. Bryuno proved
that if I:(logqn+1)/qn < 00, then this power series con-
verges. In the late 1980s, Yoccoz proved the converse: if
the Bryuno condition is not satisfied, then there exists
a holomorphic diffeomorphism with linear part Z H >.z
which is not holomorphically linearizable. In 1994, Yoc-
coz was awarded the Field Medal for this achievement.
If f is a rational mapping on the Riemann sphere,
then Siegel domains appear in the Fatou-Sullivan clas-
sification theorem. Let J(f) be the closure of the set of
repelling periodic points (cf. also Repelling set) and let
F(f) be its complement. F(f) is also the set of points
that have a neighbourhood U such that rlu forms a
normal family. Many properties of these sets were al-
ready obtained by G. Julia and P. Fatou in the 1920s
and 1930s. Using the measurable Riemann mapping the-
orem (cf. also Quasi-conformal mapping), D. Sulli-
van proved in the 1980s that each connected component
of F(f) is eventually mapped onto a periodic compo-
nent, and that the periodic components can be of four
types:
i) the basin of an attracting periodic point (where
the eigenvalue>. of the linear part satisfies 1>'1 < 1);
ii) the basin of a parabolic periodic point (when>. is
a root of unity);
iii) a Siegel domain (when>. has norm one but is not
a root of unity, but still the mapping is holomorphically
linearizable on some neighbourhood of the fixed point);

iv) a Herman ring (when the component is an annulus
on which the mapping is conjugate to a rotation).
References
[1] ARNOL'D, V.I.: Geometrical methods in the theory of or-
dinary differential equations, Vol. 250 of Grundlehren der
mathematischen Wissenschaften, Springer, 1983. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[2] BRYUNO, A.D.: 'Analytical form of differential equations',
Trans. Moscow Math. Soc. 25 (1971), 131-288. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[3] HERMAN, M.R.: 'Recent results and some open questions on
Siegel's linearisation theorem of germs of complex analytic
diffeomorphisms of en near a fixed point': Proc. VIII Int.
Conf. Math. Phys., World ScL, 1987.
[4] SIEGEL, C.L.: 'Iteration of analytic functions', Ann. of Math.
43 (1942), 807-812.
[5] SIEGEL, C.L., AND MOSER, J.: Lectures on celestial mechan-
ics, Springer, 1971.
[6] Yoccoz, J .-C.: 'Theoreme de Siegel, polyn6mes quadratiques
et nombres de Brjuno', Asterisque 231 (1995).
S. van Strien
MSC 1991: 58F23, 30D05, 58F13
SIGNORINI PROBLEM - Given an open subset n
of R3 with smooth boundary 8n and f an L 2 (n) func-
tion, the Signorini problem consists in finding a function
u on n that is a solution to the following boundary value
problem:
Au = finn;
8u 8u
u 2: 0, -
8//>- 0 , u - =0 on8n.
8//
Here, A is a second-order linear and symmetric ellip-
tic operator on n (in particular, A can be equal to ~,
the Laplace operator) and 8/8// is the outward nor-
mal derivative to n corresponding to A. This problem,
introduced by A. Signorini [5] and studied first by G.
Fichera [3], describes the mathematical model for the
deformation of an elastic body whose boundary is in
unilateral contact with another elastic body (the static
case). In this case u = u( x) is the field of displacements
and 8u/8// is the normal stress (see [2]). In the Signorini
problem, the boundary conditions can be equivalently
expressed as:
8u
-8//' u>
- 0 on8n·,
U = 0 onf,
8u
8// = 0 on 8n \ f,
where f is an unknown part of 8n. Thus, the Signorini
problem can be viewed as a problem with free bound-
ary, and a weak formulation of the problem is given by
SIMULATED ANNEALING
the variational inequality [4]:
uEK;
a(u,u-v) 2: If(U-V)dX, VVEK\O,
where a is the Dirichlet bilinear form associated to A
and K = {u E Hl(n): u 2: 00n8n}. Here, Hl(n) is the
usual Sobolev space on n. In this way the existence
and uniqueness of a weak solution to the Signorini prob-
lem follows from the general theory of elliptic variational
inequalities (see [1], [4]).
References
[1] BREZIS, H.: 'Inequations variationelles', J. Math. Pures Appl.
51 (1972), 1-168.
[2] DUVAUT, G., AND LIONS, J.L.: Inequalities in mechanics and
physics, Springer, 1976.
[3] FICHERA, G.: 'Problemi elastostatici con vincoli unilaterali e
il problema di Signorini con ambigue condizioni al contorno',
Memoirs Acad. Naz. Lincei 8 (1964),91-140.
[4] LIONS, J.L., AND STAMPACCHIA, G.: 'Variationalinequalities',
Comm. Pure Appl. Math. XX (1967), 493-519.
[5] SIGNORINI, A.: 'Questioni di elastostatica linearizzata e semi-
linearizzata', Rend. Mat. Appl. XVIII (1959).
v. Barbu
MSC 1991: 35J85, 73Cxx
SIMULATED ANNEALING - For N"P-hard opti-
mization problems, the use of exact algorithms for the
evaluation of the optimal solution is computationally
intensive, requiring an effort that increases exponen-
tially with the size of the problem (cf. also Algorithm,
computational complexity of an). In practice, exact
algorithms are used for solving only moderately sized
problem instances. This results in the development of
heuristic optimization techniques which provide good
quality solutions in a reasonable amount of computa-
tional time. One such popular technique is simulated
annealing, which has been widely applied in both dis-
crete and continuous optimization problems [1], [4], [11].
Simulated annealing is a stochastic search method mod-
eled according to the physical annealing process which is
found in the field of thermodynamics. Annealing refers
to the process of a thermal system initially melting at
high temperature and then cooling slowly by lowering
the temperature until it reaches a stable state (ground
state), in which the system has its lowest energy. S.
Kirkpatrick, C.D. Gelatt and M.P. Vecchi [7] initially
proposed an effective connection between simulated an-
nealing and combinatorial optimization, based on orig-
inal work by N. Metropolis, A. Rosenbluth, M. Rosen-
bluth, A. Teller, and E. Teller [8].
The main advantage of the simulated annealing al-
gorithm is its ability to escape from local optima by
using a mechanism which allows deterioration in the
objective function value. That is, in the optimization
451
SIMULATED ANNEALING
process, simulated annealing accepts not only better-
than-previous solutions, but also worse-quality solutions
controlled probabilistic ally through the temperature pa-
rameter T. More particularly, in the first stages of sim-
ulated annealing, where T is relatively high, the search
of the solution space is widely 'explored' so that dif-
ferent solution directions are identified, and often 'bad'
solutions are accepted with high probability. During the
course of the algorithm, the temperature T decreases in
order to steadily reduce the probability P of accepting
solutions that lead to worse objective function values.
With the allowance of controlled 'uphill' movements one
can avoid the entrapment to local optima and, eventu-
ally, higher quality solutions can be obtained.
There are many factors that have a strong impact on
the performance of the simulated annealing algorithm:
• The initial temperature T 1. A high value of T1
means that the probability P of accepting inferior so-
lutions is also high, leading to a diversified search in the
first iterations of the algorithm. With low values of the
initial temperature the search becomes more localized.
• The thermal equilibrium. This is the condition in
which further improvement in the solution cannot be
expected with high probability.
• The annealing schedule, which determines in what
point of the algorithm and by how much the tempera-
ture T is to be reduced.
Now, consider a minimizatiOll pr0cess. Let flE de-
note the change of the objective function value between
the current state and the state under consideration that
occurs as T decreases. This change corresponds to the
change in the energy level in the analogy with physical
annealing. Then the probability P of accepting a worse
quality solution is equal to e-AE/(kBT), where kB is the
Boltzmann constant (cf. Boltzmann equation). Sim-
ulated annealing is presented below in pseudo-code:
The following example (the quadratic assignment prob-
lem) illustrates the basic principles of simulated an-
nealing in combinatorial optimization. The quadratic
assignment problem is defined as follows: Given a set
N = {I, ... , n} and two (nx n)-matrices F = 1;j and
D = d kl , find a permutation p of the set N that mini-
mizes the following function:
n n
LL fijdp(i)p(j).
i=1 j=1
452
PROCEDURE simulated annealing()
InputInstance();
Generate randomly an initial solution;
ini tialize T;
DO T> 0
DO thermal equilibrium not reached -+
Generate a neighbour state randomly;
evaluate flE;
update current state
IF flE < 0 with new state;
IF flE 2: 0 with new state
with probability e-AE/(kBT);
OD;
Decrease T using annealing schedule;
OD;
RETURN(solution with the lowest energy)
END simulated annealing;
A pseudo-code for a simulated annealing procedure
In the context of location theory one uses the quadratic
assignment problem formulation to model the problem
of allocating n facilities to n locations with the objective
to minimize the cost associated not only with the dis-
tance between locations but also with the flow. F and
D correspond to the flow and distance matrices, respec-
tively [10].
Let Ti represent the temperature at stage i of the
procedure and let T1 > ... > Tj represent the anneal-
ing schedule. Then the application of simulated anneal-
ing to the quadratic assignment problem [2], [12] can be
described with the following steps:
• Start with a feasible solution (permutation). Make
an exchange between two randomly selected permuta-
tion elements (a 2-exchange). Evaluate the consequent
change flE.
• While flE < 0, repeat the above step. If flE 2: 0,
then randomly select a variable x from a uniform dis-
tribution U(O,l). Accept the pair exchange if x <
P(flE) = e- AE / Ti , and repeat the process.
• The system remains at stage i until a fixed number
of pair exchanges (equilibrium) has taken place before
going to the next stage.
• The procedure stops when all the temperatures in
the annealing schedule have been used, i.e. when i > f.

Simulated annealing has been used to solve a wide
variety of combinatorial optimization problems, such as
graph partitioning and graph colouring [5], [6], VLSI de-
sign [7], quadratic assignment problems [2], image pro-
cessing [3] and many others. In addition, implementa-
tions of simulated annealing in parallel environments
have recently appeared, with applications in cell place-
ment problems, traveling-salesman problems, quadratic
assignment problems, and others [9]. General references
on simulated annealing can be found in [1] and in [11].
References
[IJ AARTS, E.H.L., AND KORST, J.H.M.: Simulated annealing
and Boltzmann machines, Wiley, 1989.
[2] BURKARD, R.E., AND RENDL, F.: 'A thermodynamically mo-
tivated simulation procedure for combinatorial optimization
problems', European J. Operations Research 17 (1984), 169-
174.
[3] GEMAN, S., AND GEMAN, D.: 'Stochastic relaxation, Gibbs
distributions, and the Bayesian restoration of images', IEEE
Trans. Patern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 6 (1984),
721-741.
[4J HORST, R., AND PARDALOS, P.M.: Handbook of global opti-
mization, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1995.
[5] JOHNSON, D.S., ARAGON, C.R., MCGEOCH, L.A., AND
SCHEYON, C.: 'Optimization by simulated annealing: an ex-
perimental evaluation. Part I: graph partitioning', Operations
Research 37 (1989), 865-892.
[6] JOHNSON, D.S., ARAGON, C.R., MCGEOCH, L.A., AND
SCHEYON, C.: 'Optimization by simulated annealing: an ex-
perimental evaluation. Part II: graph coloring and number
partitioning', Operations Research 39 (1991),378-395.
[7] KIRKPATRICK, S., GELATT, C.D., AND VECCHI, M.P.: 'Opti-
mization by simulated annealing', Science 220 (1989), 671-
680.
[8] METROPOLIS, N., ROSENBLUTH, A., ROSENBLUTH, M.,
TELLER, A., AND TELLER, E.: 'Equation of state calculations
by fast computing machines', J. Chemical Physics 21 (1953),
1087-1092.
[9] PARDALOS, P.M., PITSOULIS, L.S., MAYRIDOU, T.D., AND
RESENDE, M.G.C.: 'Parallel search for combinatorial op-
timization: genetic algorithms, simulated annealing, tabu
search and GRASP': Vo!' 980 of Lecture Notes in Computer
Science, Springer, 1995, pp. 317-331.
[10] PARDALOS, P.M., AND WOLKOWICZ, H. (eds.): Quadratic as-
signment and related problems, Vo!' 16 of Discrete Math. and
Theoret. Computer Sci., Amer. Math. Soc., 1994.
[11] LAARHOYEN, P.J.M. YAN, AND AARTS, E.H.L.: Simulated an-
nealing, theory and practice, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1987.
[12] WILHELM, M.R., AND WARD, T.L.: 'Solving quadratic as-
signment problems by simulated annealing', IEEE Trans. 19
(1987), 107-119.
P.M. Pardalos
T.D. Mavridou
MSC 1991: 90Cxx
'SKEW YOUNG TABLEAU - Consider two parti-
tions, A of n + m and J1, of m. With those partitions one
can associate Young diagrams, or Ferrers diagrams (cf.
SKOLEM-MAHLER-LECH THEOREM
Young diagram), also denoted by A and J1,. Suppose
that each cell of J1, is also a cell of A. The set-difference
AI J1, contains exactly n cells. It is called a skew Young
diagram, or skew Ferrers diagram.
Such a diagram can be filled with integers from 1 to n
in increasing order in each row and in each column. This
is called a standard skew Young tableau. If repetitions
are allowed and if the rows are only non-decreasing, the
tableau is called semi-standard. These are generaliza-
tions of Young tableaux (cf. Young tableau).
For example,
27 13
3 6 and 2 2
'4 4 ' 1 3
are standard, respectively semi-standard, of shape
(4,3,2)/(1,1).
It is possible to define the Schur function S>. (X)
combinatorially as the generating function of all semi-
standard Young tableaux of shape A filled with indices
of elements of X, as follows.
Let X = {Xl, ... ,xd be an alphabet. Let T be a
semi-standard Young tableau of shape A, containing en-
tries from 1 to k. The product of the indeterminates
whose indices appear in T is a monomial. Then S>.(X)
is the sum of those monomials over the set of all possible
such tableaux T.
When replacing Young tableaux by skew Young
tableaux of shape AI J1" one obtains the skew Schur func-
tion S>'/I" (X). Those functions have many properties in
common with ordinary Schur functions. See [3] for Schur
functions.
This connection between combinatorial (Young
tableaux) and algebraic (Schur functions) objects is very
fruitful, both for combinatorics and for algebra. For ap-
plications to q-analysis, cf., e.g., [1] and [2].
References
[1] DESARMENIEN, J.: 'Fonctions symetriques associees a des
suites dassiques de nombres', Ann. Sci. Ecole Normale Sup.
16 (1983),231-304.
[2] DESARMENIEN, J., AND FOATA, D.: 'Fonctions symetriques et
series hypergeometriques basiques multivariees', Bull. Soc.
Math. Prance 113 (1985), 3-22.
[3] MACDONALD, I.G.: Symmetric functions and Hall polynomi-
als, second ed., Clarendon Press, 1995.
J. Desarmenien
MSC 1991: 05E10, 20C30
SKOLEM-MAHLER-LECH THEOREM - A recur-
rence sequence (ah) of order n is a solution to a linear
homogeneous recurrence relation with constant coef-
ficients
ah+n = slah+n-l + ... + Snah (h = 0, 1, ... ).
453
SKOLEM-MAHLER-LECH THEOREM
Thus, the generating function I:h>O ahXh of a recur-
rence is a rational function r(X)ji(X) where s(X) =
1 - SIX - ... - snxn = I1:':1 (1 - aix)ni, say; the
polynomial r of degree less than n is determined by the
initial values ao, ... , an-I. If so, the distinct complex
numbers ai are called the roots of the recurrence, and
the ni their multiplicities. It follows that the ah are given
by a generalized power sum ah = a(h) = I::':l Ai(h)a7
(h = 0,1, ... ); the polynomial coefficients Ai are respec-
tively of degree ni - 1.
The theorem of Skolem-Mahler-Lech asserts that if
a recurrence (equivalently, a generalized power sum)
has infinitely many zeros, then those zeros occur pe-
riodically. That is, given a power series I:h~o ahXh
representing a rational function with infinitely many
zero Taylor coefficients, the set {h: ah = O} is a finite
union of complete arithmetic progressions (cf. Arith-
metic progression), plus (a pre-period of) finitely
many isolated zeros. By virtue of Ritt's quotient the-
orem [3], it is equivalent that an infinitude of inte-
ger zeros of a complex exponential polynomial a(z) =
I::':l Ai(z)exp(zlogai) is accounted for by it being di-
visible (in the ring of exponential polynomials) by func-
tions sin 27r(z - r)jd.
Skolem's argument was generalized by K. Mahler
to algebraic number fields, and eventually to arbitrary
fields of characteristic zero by C. Lech and by Mahler.
The elegant argument of J.W.S. Cassels [1] bypasses the
technical complications in the chain of successive gener-
alizations. In brief, one observes that there are rational
primes p so that (technically, after embedding the data
in the field Qp of p-adic rationals) one has af-l == 1
(mod p) for each root. Then, for 0 ::::: r < p - 1, each
of the p - 1 different p-adic exponential polynomials
a(r+t(p-1)) = I::':l Ai(r+t(p-l))ai exp(tlogaf-l)
is a p-adic analytic function in the disc {t E Qp: Itlp <
pl-l/(p-l)}. It follows that if anyone of these functions
has infinitely many zeros (it turns out, as few as n ze-
ros [5]) in the unit disc, then it must vanish identically,
yielding the theorem with arithmetic progressions with
common difference d = p - 1. It follows that a recur-
rence sequence can have infinitely many zeros only if it
is degenerate, that is, some quotient adaj of its distinct
roots is a root of unity.
The theorem is provable without visible appeal to p-
adic analysis [2]. But a generalization, whereby if two
recurrence sequences have infinitely many elements in
common then they coincide along certain of their arith-
metic subprogressions (see [6]), as yet, (1996) relies on
a p-adic generalization of Schmidt's subspace theorem.
A different generalization, Shapiro's conjecture, accord-
ing to which two exponential polynomials with infinitely
454
many complex common zeros must have a common ex-
ponential polynomial factor, is still (1996) mostly con-
jecture [7].
A general reference surveying this and other relevant
material is [4].
References
[1] CASSELS, J.W.S.: 'An embedding theorem for fields', Bull.
Australian Math. Soc. 14 (1976), 193-198, Addendum: 14
(1976), 479-480.
[2] HANSEL, G.: 'Une demonstration simple du theoreme de
Skolem-Mahler-Lech', Theoret. Computer Sci. 43 (1986),
91-98.
[3] RITT, J.F.: 'On the zeros of exponential polynomials',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 31 (1929), 680-686.
[4] POORTEN, A.J. VAN DER: 'Some facts that should be better
known; especially about rational functions', in R.A. MOLLIN
(ed.): Number Theory and Applications, NATO AS!, Kluwer
Acad. Pub!., 1989, pp. 497-528.
[5] POORTEN, A.J. VAN DER, AND RUMELY, R.S.: 'Zeros ofp-adic
exponential polynomials II', J. London Math. Soc. (2) 36
(1987), 1-15.
[6] POORTEN, A.J. VAN DER, AND SCHLICKEWEI, H.-P.: 'Addi-
tive relations in fields', J. Australian Math. Soc. 51 (1991),
154-170.
[7] POORTEN, A.J. VAN DER, AND TIJDEMAN, R.: 'On common ze-
ros of exponential polynomials', L'Enseign. Math. I I" Sene
21 (1975), 57-67.
A.J. van der Poorten
MSC 1991: 1IB37
SKOROKHOD INTEGRAL - An extension of the
Ito stochastic integral (cf. Stochastic integral) intro-
duced by A.V. Skorokhod in [8] in order to integrate
stochastic processes that are not adapted to Brown-
ian motion. Suppose that W = {Wt : t E [0, I]} is a
Brownian motion and consider a stochastic pro-
cess U = {Ut: t E [0, I]}, measurable with respect to W,
which is not necessarily adapted (cf. also Optional ran-
dom process) and satisfies E fol u; dt < 00. The pro-
cess U can be developed into a sum of orthogonal mul-
tiple stochastic integrals Ut = I::=o In(fn(-, t)), where
fn E L2([0, l]n+l) is symmetric in the first n variables
(see [2]). The Skorokhod integral of the process u, de-
noted by Ii (u) = fol Ut dWt , is defined by
L
00
Ii(u) = In+1(Jn),
n=O
provided the above series converges in L2(0). Here, in
denotes the symmetrization of fn in all its variables.
In [1] it is proved that the Skorokhod integral co-
incides with the adjoint of the derivative operator on
the Wiener space (cf. also Wiener space, abstract).
Starting from this result, the techniques of stochastic
calculus of variations on the Wiener space (see [4]) have
made it possible to develop a stochastic calculus for the
Skorokhod integral (see [6]) which extends the classi-
cal Ito calculus introduced in the 1940s. The Skorokhod

integral possesses most of the mam properties of the
Ito stochastic integral. For instance, under suitable hy-
potheses on the integrand u, the Skorokhod integral is
local, the indefinite Skorokhod integral I~ US dWs is con-
tinuous and possesses a quadratic variation equal to
I~ u; ds, and a change-of-variables formula holds for
F(J~ US dWs ) (see [6]). Multiple Skorokhod integrals are
defined in [7], and the Skorokhod integral is studied in
[3] from the point of view of the white noise analysis.
References
[1] GAVEAU, B., AND TRAUBER, P.: 'L'inMgrale stochastique
comme operateur de divergence dans l'espace fonctionnel',
J. FUnctional Anal. 46 (1982), 23(}--238.
[2] ITO, K.: 'Multiple Wiener integral', J. Math. Soc. Japan 3
(1951), 157-169.
[3] Kuo, H.H., AND RUSSEK, A.: 'White noise approach to sto-
chastic integration', J. Multivariate Analysis 24 (1988), 218-
236.
[4] MALLIAVIN, P.: 'Stochastic calculus of variations and hypoel-
liptic operators': Proc. Inter. Symp. on Stach. Diff. Equa-
tions, Kyoto 1976, Wiley, 1978, pp. 195-263.
[5] NUALART, D.: The Malliavin calculus and related topics,
Springer, 1995.
[6] NUALART, D., AND PARDOUX, E.: 'Stochastic calculus with
anticipating integrands', Probab. Theory Rei. Fields 78
(1988), 535-581.
[7] NUALART, D., AND ZAKAI, M.: 'Generalized multiple stochas-
tic integrals and the representation of Wiener functionals',
Stochastics 23 (1988), 311-330.
[8] SKOROKHOD, A.V.: 'On a generalization of a stochastic inte-
gral', Th. Probab. Appl. 20 (1975), 219-233.
D. Nualart
MSC 1991: 60H05, 60H07
SKOROKHOD STOCHASTIC DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION - An equation of the form
t
X = Xo + lot a(s, Xs) dWs + lot b(s, Xs) ds, (1)
where the initial condition Xo and/or the coefficients
a and b are random, the solution X t is not adapted
(cf. also Optional random process) to the Brow-
nian motion W t , and the stochastic integral is inter-
preted in the sense of Skorokhod (see Skorokhod in-
tegral; Stochastic integral; [5]). One cannot use a
fixed-point argument to show the existence and unique-
ness of the solution, as it is done for the adapted Ito
stochastic equations, because the Skorokhod integral is
not continuous in the L 2 -norm.
If b == 0, and a(s,x) = asx, where as is a determin-
istic function, (1) has an explicit solution given by (see
[1])
X t = Xo (W. - 10· as dS) x (2)
x exp (lot as dWs - ~ lot a; dS) .
SKOROKHOD THEOREM
When as is random, a similar formula holds but the
martingale exponential should be replaced by the Gir-
sanov density associated with the anticipating shift
Wt H Wt - I~ as ds (see [3]).
Using the notion of Wick product, introduced in
the context of quantum field theory, the process (2)
can be rewritten as
(3)
Formula (3) can be used to solve linear multi-
dimensional Skorokhod equations (see [4]). One-
dimensional non-linear Skorokhod stochastic differential
equations are studied in [2], and a local existence and
uniqueness result is obtained by means of the pathwise
representation of one-dimensional diffusions.
References
[1] BUCKDAHN, R.: 'Linear Skorohod stochastic differential equa-
tions', Probab. Theory Rei. Fields 90 (1991), 223-240.
[2] BUCKDAHN, R.: 'Skorohod stochastic differential equations of
diffusion type', Probab. Theory Rei. Fields 92 (1993), 297-
324.
[3] BUCKDAHN, R.: Anticipative Girsanov tmnsformations and
Skorohod stochastic differential equations, Vol. 533 of Mem-
oirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1994.
[4] BUCKDAHN, R., AND NUALART, D.: 'Linear stochastic differ-
ential equations and Wick products', Probab. Theory Rei.
Fields 99 (1994), 501-526.
[5] SKOROKHOD, A.V.: 'On a generalization of a stochastic inte-
gral', Th. Probab. Appl. 20 (1975), 219-233.
D. Nualart
MSC 1991: 60HlO, 60H20, 60H07
SKOROKHOD THEOREM, 8korokhod representa-
tion theorem - Suppose that {Pn}n~l is a sequence
of probability measures on a complete and separable
metric space (8,S) that converges weakly (cf. Weak
topology) to a probability measure P (that is,
limn Is Is
f dPn = f dP for any continuous and bounded
function f on 8). Then there exists a probability
space (0,.1", P) and 8-valued random elements {Xn },
X with distributions {Pn } and P, respectively, such that
Xn converges P-almost surely to X (cf. Convergence,
almost-certain) .
If 8 = R, the proof of this result reduces to tak-
ing for 0 the unit interval (0,1) with Lebesgue mea-
sure and letting Xn(Y) = inf{z: Pn ( -00, z] ;::: Y}, and
X(y) = inf{z: P( -00, z] ;::: y}, for y E (0,1).
In [1] the theorem has been extended to general sep-
arable metric spaces, while in [4] the result is proved for
an arbitrary metric space, assuming that the limit prob-
ability P is concentrated on a separable set. Extensions
of this theorem to non-metrizable topological spaces are
discussed in [2].
References
[1] DUDLEY, R.M.: 'Distance of probability measures and ran-
dom variables', Ann. Math. Stat. 39 (1968), 1563-1572.
455
SKOROKHOD THEOREM
[2] SCHIEF, A.: 'Almost surely convergent random variables with
given laws', Probab. Th. Rei. Fields 81 (1989), 559~567.
[3] SKOROKHOD, A.V.: 'Limit theorems for stochastic processes',
Th. Probab. Appl. 1 (1956), 261~290.
[4] WICHURA, M.J.: 'On the construction of almost uniformly
convergent random variables with given weakly convergent
image laws', Ann. Math. Stat. 41 (1970), 284~291.
D. Nualart
MSC 1991: 60BlO, 60B05
SKOROKHOD TOPOLOGY - A topological struc-
ture (topology) on the space D[O,IJ of right-
continuous functions on [0, IJ having limits to the left at
each t E (0,1]' introduced by A.V. Skorokhod [4J as an
alternative to the topology of uniform convergence
in order to study the convergence in distribution of
stochastic processes with jumps.
Let A be the class of strictly increasing, continuous
mappings of [0, 1J onto itself. For A E A one defines
IIAII = sup IIOg A(t) - A(S) I.
sf.t t- s
The following distance, introduced by P. Billingsley [1],
induces the Skorokhod topology and makes D[O,IJ a
complete separable metric space:
d(x, y) = inf {IIAII + sup Ix(t) - X(A(t))I} .
>'EA tE[O,lj
An important property is that the Borel a-algebra asso-
ciated with this topology coincides with the projection
a-algebra.
The Skorokhod topology on the space D[O, (0) of
right-continuous functions on [0,(0) having limits to the
left can be defined by requiring the convergence in the
Skorokhod metric on each compact interval [0, TJ, T > 0.
Applying Prokhorov's theorem [3J to the complete
separable metric space D[O, (0) yields that a sequence
{Xn} of D[O, 00 )-valued random variables (cf. Random
variable) converges in distribution if and only if their
°
finite-dimensional distributions converge and the laws
of {Xn} are tight (for every f > there exists a com-
pact set K E D[O, (0) such that P{Xn E K} ~ 1 - f
for all n). Useful criteria for weak convergence can be
deduced from this result and from the characterization
of compact sets in D[O, (0) (see [1]).
Complete separable distances on the space D(T) of
functions with possible jumps on an arbitrary parame-
ter set T are introduced in [5J, and for T C R k these
distances have been applied to obtain criteria for the
convergence in law of multi-parameter stochastic pro-
cesses.
References
[1] BILLINGSLEY, P.: Convergence of probability measures, Wiley,
1968.
[2] POLLARD, D.: Convergence of stochastic processes, Springer,
1984.
456
[3] PROKHOROV, Y.V.: 'Convergence of random processes and
limit theorems in probability theory', Th. Probab. Appl. 1
(1956), 157~214.
[4] SKOROKHOD, A.V.: 'Limit theorems for stochastic processes',
Th. Probab. Appl 1 (1956), 261~290.
[5] STRAF, M.L.: 'Weak convergence of stochastic processes with
several parameters': Proc. Sixth Berkeley Symp. Math. Stat.
and Prob., 1972, pp. 187~221.
D. Nualart
MSC 1991: 60BlO, 60B12
SLACK VARIABLE, surplus variable ~ A non-
negative variable Yi that is introduced for a (linear) con-
straint Lj aijXj ~ bi in a mathematical program-
ming or linear programming problem to convert this
inequality into an equality Yi + Lj aijXj = bi . If this is
done for all inequalities in a linear programming prob-
lem, one sometimes speaks of logical variables.
M. Hazewinkel
MSC 1991: 90C05,90C30
SPARRE ANDERSEN THEOREM - See Andersen
theorem.
MSC 1991: 60J15, 60K05, 05A19
SPECTRUM GENERATING ALGEBRA, dynamical
symmetry (in quantum mechanics) - An enveloping al-
gebra of a Lie algebra (or other group-like algebraic
structure, cf. also Universal enveloping algebra) un-
der which the Hilbert space 1£ of the quantum system
forms a (unitary) irreducible representation. Typically,
the Hamiltonian H of the quantum system coincides
with the action of a non-central element of the spectrum
generating algebra.
The concept should not be confused with the notion
of a conserved symmetry algebra C, which is the en-
veloping algebra of a Lie algebra (or other group-like
structure) acting on the Hilbert space of the quantum
system and commuting with the Hamiltonian. In the
ideal case, the Hamiltonian is the action of a central ele-
ment (a Casimir or Casimir element) of C. In quantum
mechanics, the eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian are the
energy levels of the quantum system and hence these,
and their corresponding eigenspaces, can be obtained
by a decomposition (assuming this is possible) into irre-
ducible representations of C. The values of the Casimir
in the occurring irreducibles are the energy levels. A
spectrum generating algebra typically extends the sym-
metry to a larger algebra, the additional generators of
which map from one energy eigenspace to another. The
relevant transition operators can typically be expressed
in terms of the action of these additional generators,
hence transition amplitudes can be computed by group
theory as the matrix elements in the representation of

the spectrum generating algebra consisting of the whole
Hilbert space.
The concept has been used particularly in molecular
and nuclear physics. In molecular physics the various
vibrational and rotational modes of the molecule are
directly observable through the spectrum of the Hamil-
tonian. The formalism of quantum mechanics is used as
a language for building an effective model of the mole-
cule to fit the spectrum (rather than as a fundamental
process). In this context it is useful to look for a chain
of subalgebras
spectrum generating algebra = Go :::l G 1 :::l G 2 :::l ...
and successively refine the Hilbert space by pulling back
to, and decomposing into irreducibles of, each of the
G n in the chain. One decomposes 11. into irreducibles
of G 1 , and each of these into irreducibles of G 2 , etc.
In this way, 11. is typically decomposed into a basis of
one-dimensional irreducibles of the last subalgebra in
the chain, labelled uniquely by the chain of successive
irreducible representations to which a basis element be-
longs. The labels are called quantum numbers and are
usually expressed through the values of the Casimirs
{Cn,aJ of the successive subalgebras G n . Moreover, the
Hamiltonian is typically taken in the form
H = /-to + L /-tn,aCn,a
n>O,a
for some coefficients /-to, /-tn,a, and hence has a diagonal
form in this basis. Thus, the form of the spectrum of
energy eigenvalues is again determined by group theory.
A special case is when only one n, say n = N, con-
tributes to the Hamiltonian, in which case G = G N is a
conserved symmetry. All the G n , n < N, can be called
spectrum generating algebras, although, by definition,
only Go is a spectrum generating algebra in the strict
sense of acting irreducibly.
A simple example is provided by the rigid rotator.
This is a model of a di-atomic (dumbbell-shaped) mol-
ecule where only the rotation of the dumbbell about
its centre of mass is considered (vibrational modes
along the dumbbell are ignored). The Hilbert space and
Hamiltonian are:
11. = ffi/Vj,
3
H = (21)-1 L J;,
i=l
where Vj is the 2j + I-dimensional representation of the
Lie algebra S03, and J i are operators representing the
generators of S03 with the relations
[Ji' J j ] = i L EijkJk,
k
SPECTRUM GENERATING ALGEBRA
where Eijk is totally anti-symmetric with E123 = 1. The
constant I is the moment of inertia of the molecule. The
J i correspond to the angular momentum. The subalge-
bra S02 corresponding to Ja is chosen to further label a
quantum state according to the eigenvalue of Ja. On the
other hand, the entire Hilbert space 11. is a standard irre-
ducible representation space for so(3, 1), the enveloping
algebra of which may be taken as the spectrum gener-
ating algebra. Actually, for the present interpretation,
one should rather take a contraction limit of so(3, 1) to
the semi-direct sum Lie algebra e(3) = R3><lS03. Then
the additional generators are represented by operators
Xi obeying
[Xi, Xj] = 0, [Ji , Xj] = i L EijkXk·
k
The reduction chain at the level of the underlying Lie
algebras is then e(3) :::l S03 :::l S02. The energy spectrum
in this model is
{ j(j+l)
2I
..
.J E
N} ,
as the set of eigenvalues of H, with eigenspaces Vj. One
has S03 as conserved symmetry, while the operators Xi
do not commute with H and hence mix the Vj.
More interesting 'vibron models' include the vibra-
tional modes as well, and have spectrum generating al-
gebra U4, the Lie algebra of U 4 • The reduction chain
U4 :::l S04 :::l S03 :::l S02 can be used to model the hydro-
gen molecule (cf. also Hydrogen-like atom). A similar
'interacting boson model' in nuclear physics has spec-
trum generating algebra given by U6 and a typical re-
duction chain U6 :::l SU3 :::l S03 :::l S02' Also, a version
of the above rotator with spectrum generating algebra
so(3,1) can be considered one of the origins of string
theory.
A more fundamental point of view is to consider the
underlying algebra of observables A of the quantum sys-
tem. The spectrum generating algebra and its subalge-
bras may be realized in A itself by means of an algebra
homomorphism
11": spectrum generating algebra ---+ A.
This induces an inner 'adjoint' action of the spectrum
generating algebra and its subalgebras on A. The for-
malism can also be extended to allow these as outer
automorphism of A. Moreover, any concrete irreducible
representation ofthe system on a Hilbert space can then
be pulled back to one of the spectrum generating al-
gebra, and should be irreducible as such (if not, then
the proposed spectrum generating algebra needs, strictly
speaking, to be enlarged). A sufficient condition for this
is that 11" be surjective.
The simplest example here is obtained by taking A
the quantum harmonic oscillator generated by a, at with
457
SPECTRUM GENERATING ALGEBRA

relations [a, at] = 1. Its spectrum generating algebra is (cf. Kac-Moody algebra) and quantum groups as
the enveloping algebra of the Lie superalgebra osp(l I 2) spectrum generating algebras.
(cf. also Superalgebra) defined by generators J i , V± of References
degrees 0, 1, respectively, and Lie superbracket [1] BOHM, A., NE'EMAN, Y., AND BARUT, A.O.: Dynamical
1 groups and spectrum generating algebras, Vol. I, World Sci.,
[J3, V±] = ±2 V±, 1988.
[2] CROMBRUGGHE, M. DE, AND RITTENBERG, V.: 'Supersymmet-
1
{V+, V_} = -2 Ja , ric quantum mechanics', Ann. Phys. 151 (1983),99-126.
[3] IACHELLO, F., AND ARIMA, A.: The interacting boson model,
[h, V=r=] = ±V±, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987.
[h,V±] =0, S. Majid
1 MSC 1991: 81Rxx, 81R05
{V±, V±} = ±2h,
along with the Lie bracket of so(2, 1). Here, J± are the SPINODAL DECOMPOSITION - A term introduced
usual linear combinations of =f (Jl ~J2) . The required ho- in the physical description of unmixing of metallic alloys
momorphism is defined by by J.W. Cahn [2], cf. Fig. 1.

T TO
t:o
The usual Fock representation 1£ of A with basis {In) =
(at)n /v'nfIO)} (cf. also Fock space) pulls back to an
irreducible representation of osp(l I 2), the metaplectic
one. The reduction chain is osp(l I 2) :J so(2, 1) :J S02,
where 1£ decomposes into two irreducibles of so(2, 1),
namely those containing states of odd and even n. Here,
7r(2J3) = ata + 1/2 is the Hamiltonian.
Similar ideas can be used to solve the radial equation
for the hydrogen atom. After separating out the angu-
lar dependence, the Schrodinger equation becomes ,,
the eigenvalue problem H1jJ(r) = >.1jJ(r) for the operator , /

H - - ~ V'2 + ~ - ~
- 2 2r2 r'
a 1
V' = - +-, Fig. 1: Schematic plot of a 'quenching experiment' of a
or r mixture and the resulting build-up of concentration
where a, b are parameters. In the algebra generated by fluctuations in a mixture. Shown is the temperature
V' and r, r -1 , there is the realization (T) versus concentration (c) plane, while the third axis
7r(2iJt} = rV'2 - ~ + r, (x) is a spacial coordinate.
r
The thermodynamic state of such a mixture is de-
7r(2J3 ) = -rV'2 + ~ + r,
r scribed by the variables temperature T and relative con-
7r(J2) = rV'. centration c, and one considers a situation where in the
This yields an irreducible representation of so(2, 1) on a 'phase diagram' of this system one finds a 'miscibility
suitable Hilbert space of functions. On the other hand, gap', i.e. there is a curve in the (T, c)-plane in Fig. 1
(this curve is labelled by the two branches c~~~x, c~~~x in
7r((1- 2>')J3 - (1 + 2>.)iJ1 - 2b) = 2r(H - >.), Fig. 1, which merge in a critical point T = T e , c = ccrid
with the result that the problem can be solved by group underneath which the system cannot exist in a state
theory without recourse to the particular differential op- of homogeneous concentration c in thermal equilibrium,
erators. This is the modern version of Pauli's original while it does exist in such a state above this curve (e.g.,
algebraic solution of the hydrogen atom. It may be con- in the initial state at a temperature T = To, c = c in
sidered an origin of the concept of spectrum generating Fig. 1).

algebra.
As well as the enveloping algebras of (typically non-
compact) Lie algebras and Lie superalgebras, one may
also use infinite-dimensional Kac-Moody Lie algebras
°
One now considers a rapid cooling experiment
(quenching) where the system is brought at time t =
from this temperature To above the coexistence curve
to a temperature T below the so-called spinodal curve

458
 SPLICING OPERATION

Csp(T), defined by the condition that the second deriva- and

tive (8 2 1/8c2 )T of the free energy density I(c, T) van-
ishes. In this regime, the homogeneous state is intrinsi-
cally unstable, as is found from a linear stability analy-
k < kc = _(88c 2
;)
T,c=c
/K.
sis of concentration fluctuations [2]. According to such a
The 'critical wavelength' mentioned above is Ac =
linear stability analysis, all long wavelength concentra-
27r/kc .
tion fluctuations with wavelengths exceeding a critical
Of course, it is clear that the linear analysis is rele-
wavelength Ac are unstable, and the maximum growth
vant at best for the early stages of the process. Solving
rate occurs at a wavelength Am = V2Ac. While, accord-
the full non-linear partial differential equations (1) is a
ing to such a linear theory, one would expect that this
challenging problem of numerical mathematics. For ap-
wavelength dominates in the late stages of the phase sep-
plications in physics additional complications occur: in
aration process (Fig. 1), actually the process is highly
the initial stages of unmixing, the deterministic equa-
non-linear [1], and so-called 'coarsening' occurs (there
tion (1) needs to be amended by a stochastic 'random
is a dominant wavelength Am(t), but it depends upon
force' term to represent statistical fluctuations. In addi-
the time t after the start of the process, Am -+ t l/3 as
tion there occurs a coupling to further dynamical vari-
t -+ 00 [1]).
ables (in solids: the elastic displacement field u(i, t); in
If the thermal fluctuations are neglected, spinodal de-
fluid mixtures: the velocity field (i, t)). Nevertheless, (1)
composition is described by the following non-linear dif-
is a very useful starting point, and numerous experimen-
fusion equation for the local concentration c(i, t) at a
tal applications exist [1].
point i of d-dimensional infinitely extended space:
References
8c(i,t) = Mfl.{(8 1 (C(i,t))) -Kfl.C(i,t)} , (1) [1] BINDER, K.: 'Spinodal decomposition', in P. HAASEN (ed.):
8t 8c T Materials Science and Technology. Phase Transformations
in Materials, Vol. 5, VCH, 1991, pp. 405-471.
where M has the physical meaning of a mobility, K
comes from a gradient energy contribution, denotes fl. [2] CARN, J.W.: 'On spinodal decomposition', Acta Metall. 9
(1961), 795-801.
the Laplace operator, and the free energy density 1 K. Binder
can, e.g., be written in terms of'IjJ == c - Ccrit as MSC 1991: 35Q35, 76-XX

1= -~a (1- ~) 'ljJ2 + ~b'IjJ4, SPLICING OPERATION - A formal model of the

recombinant behaviour of DNA sequences under the in-
with a, b constants. A parabolic spinodal curve results
fluence of restriction enzymes and ligases; it was intro-
from
duced in [2].

(~:;)T =0, A splicing rule over an alphabet V is a string r =

Ul #U2$U3#U4, where Ul, U2, U3, U4 E V* and #, $ are
-----
csp(T) = Ccrit ± 3ab (1 - ~). two symbols not in V. With respect to such a rule,
for three strings X,Y,z E V* one writes (x,y) rr z if
x = X1U1U2X2, Y = Y1U3U4Y2, Z = X1U1U4Y2, for some
The linear stability analysis of (1) yields, writing Xl,X2,Yt,Y2 E V*.
c(i, t) = c + c5c(i, t), The pair x, Y is said to splice at the sites Ul U2, U3 U4,

t) = M fl. { (8
respectively.
~c5c(i,
8t 8c
2
;)
T,c=c
- K fl.} c5c(i, t), (2) A pair a = (V, R), where V is an alphabet and
R ~ V*#V*$V*#V* is a set of splicing rules, is called
and is solved by introducing spacial Fourier transforms, an H -scheme. For a language L ~ V*, one defines
c5c k(t) = J dd xe ikfi c5c(i, t), i.e., one finds an exponential
time dependence (k = 27r / A) , a(L) =
= {z E V*: (x,y) rr zfor somex,Y E L, r E R}.
c5Ck(t) = c5Ck(O) exp[R(k)t], (3)

R(k) = -Mk2 [(88c 2

;)
T,c=c
_ + Kk 2].
The operation can be iterated:

aO(L) = L,
One sees from (3) that the rate R(k) is positive if ai+l(L) = ai(L) U a(ai(L)), i 2: 0,

( -8
2/ ) <0
a*(L) = Uai(L).
8c2 T,c=c
i~O

459
SPLICING OPERATION
On this basis, the notion of an extended H -system has
been introduced, [6], as a construct
"1 = (V, T, A, R),
where V is an alphabet, T <;:; V (terminal alphabet),
A <;:; V* (axioms), and R <;:; V*#V*$V*#V*, where #,
$ are special symbols not in V; u = (V, R) is the under-
lying H -scheme of "1.
The language generated by "1 is defined by L( "1) =
u* (A) n T*. For two families of languages, F l , F 2 , let
EH(Fl' F2 ) be the family oflanguages L(-y) generated by
the extended H-systems "1 = (V,T,A,R) with A E F l ,
R E F 2 . Let FIN, REG and RE be the families of finite,
regular, and recursively enumerable languages, respec-
tively. Then:
1) EH(REG, FIN) = REG ([1]);
2) EH(FIN, REG) = RE ([5]).
The second result above was followed by many re-
lated characterizations of recursively enumerable lan-
guages by means of extended H-systems with finite sets
of axioms and splicing rules, with the splicing operation
controlled in various ways. (This theoretically proves the
possibility of constructing universal 'DNA computers'
based on splicing.) Details can be found in [3]' [4], [7].
See also Formal languages and automata.
References
[1] CULIK II, K., AND HARJU, T.: 'Splicing semigroups of domi-
noes and DNA', Discrete Appl. Math. 31 (1991),261-277.
[2] HEAD, T.: 'Formal language theory and DNA: an analysis
of the generative capacity of specific recombinant behaviors',
Bull. Math. Biology 49 (1987), 737-759.
[3] HEAD, T., PAUN, GR., AND PIXTON, D.: 'Language theory
and molecular genetics. Generative mechanisms suggested by
DNA recombination', in G. ROZENBERG AND A. SALOMAA
(eds.): Handbook of Formal Languages, Springer, 1997.
[4] PAUN, GR.: 'Splicing. A challenge to formal language theo-
rists', Bulletin of EATCS 57 (1995), 183194.
[5] PAUN, GR.: 'Regular extended H systems are computation-
ally universal', J. Automata, Languages, Combinatoric", 1,
no. 1 (1996), 27-36.
[6] PAUN, GR., ROZENBERG, G., AND SALOMAA, A.: 'Computing
by splicing', Theoret. Computer Sci. 161 (1996),321-336.
[7] PAUN, GR., AND SALOMAA, A.: 'DNA computing based on the
splicing operation', Math. Japon. 43, no. 3 (1996), 607 ·632.
Gh. Paun
MSC 1991: 68S05, 92D20
STATISTICAL MANIFOLD - A manifold S en-
dowed with a symmetric connection V' and a Rie-
mannian metric g. This structure is abstracted from
parametric statistics, i.e. inference from data distributed
according to some unknown member of a parametrized
family of probability distributions. The most cited such
family is the multivariate normal distribution for data
x ERn, given by
(211" det A)-n/2 exp -[(x - J.l)t A -1 (x - J.l)]dXl ... dx n ,
460
with as parameters the mean J.l E Rn and the covariance
matrix A. One thinks of the distributions themselves as
points on a 'surface' and the parameters as coordinates
for these points. In this way any parametric family con-
stitutes a manifold S with allowable parametrizations
providing admissible coordinate systems.
One can think of measures on a set as analogous to
points in a plane and measurable functions (or random
variables) as analogous to arrows which translate one
point to another. The random variable f translates
the measure IL to another v by the formula dv = e f dJ.l,
meaning that v has density e f with respect to J.l. Com-
position of translation operations corresponds to adding
the random variables (or arrows), and for points p and
q there is a unique translation moving p to q, provided
one stays within an equivalence class of measures, sub-
ject to some regularity conditions. Such translation by
a vector space of 'arrows' is called an affine structure,
and it is taken to be the essence of flat geometry.
Probability measures can be regarded as finite mea-
sures up to scale, since any finite (non-negative) measure
can be uniquely scaled into one. In this sense, proba-
bility distributions live inside the flat geometry of an
equivalence class as the finite measures. By choosing a
finite number of linearly independent random variables
Tl(x), ... , Tk(X), one obtains finite-dimensional affine
subspaces of measures of the form
For an open subset of the parameters "7 E R k, these mea-
sures are finite and can be scaled to probability measures
They are the well-known exponential families. Their flat-
ness can be related directly to their characterization in
terms of sufficiency reduction.
General families of probability distributions J.l( 8) are
usually expressed as dJ.l(8) = el(x,O) dJ.l, where J.l is fixed.
Geometrically this amounts to choosing an origin J.l and
describing each distribution J.l( 8) in terms of its displace-
ment vector l(x, 8) from that origin. Differences in these
displacement vectors give the displacement of one point
in the family from another, and the derivatives
l( 8) = 8l(x,8)
, x, o8 i
give infinitesimal displacements or tangent vectors to
the family, or manifold S, at the point J.l(8). The vector
of random variables Ii ( -,8) is called the score and its
components span the tangent space to the manifold S
at J.l(8).
By restricting f and g to the span of the score com-
ponents, EJ.L(o)(fg) defines an inner product on the
tangent space at J.l(8). Its matrix with respect to the

score basis is E,,(o)(li(x,O)lj(x,O)), known as the Fisher
information matrix. In this sense, the Fisher informa-
tion defines an inner product on each tangent space of
S, i.e. a Riemannian metric g. This is an observation
going back to C.R. Rao, who noted that the multivari-
ate normal family becomes a space of constant negative
curvature under this metric [7].
Because, as 8 varies, each score component li provides
a tangent vector at each point of S, they are vector fields
on S (cf. Vector field). The second derivatives
a
2 l(x, 8)
lij(x, 8) = aOiaOj
give rates of change of these vector fields, but not in-
trinsically on S, since these random variables will not
generally lie in the span of the score components. By
using the Fisher information 9 one can project the sec-
ond derivatives onto the tangent spaces, thus defining
intrinsically the rate of change of these vector fields on
S. Via linearity in X and the Leibnitz rule in Y one
defines V x Y, the rate of change of the vector field Y
along the vector field X, for any two vector fields X
and Y on S. V is called the Amari I-connection [1].
S.-I. Amari noted that the dual connection V* with re-
spect to 9 was generally different from V, i.e. V is not
the Riemannian or Levi-Civita connection of g. One can
therefore define a whole I-parameter family of connec-
tions va = aV + (1- a)V*, so that va and v-a are
dual with respect to g, and, in particular, V 1 / 2 is the
Levi-Civita connection.
Amari showed that statistical divergences, such
as Kullback-Leibler distances (cf. Kullback-Leibler-
type distance measures), could be defined in terms of
these structures. By duality, the rate of change of vector
fields allows one to define the rate of change of I-forms
and hence of differentials of functions. For any function
f, V xdf(Y) is bilinear and symmetric in X and Y. It
therefore makes sense to try to realize the Fisher infor-
mation in this form, i.e. to solve Vdf = 9 [6]. Solutions,
if they exist, are uniquely determined by specifying the
value of df at a single point. Unfortunately V must be
flat in order that a good supply of solutions exists. Let
8(p, -) be the solution whose differential vanishes at p.
Amari calls 8(p, q) the statistical divergence between p
and q. For the I-connection it is the Kullback-Leibler
distance. It is easy to show that the minimum value of
8(p, q), for p fixed and q ranging over a submanifold U,
occurs at the point q where the geodesic of V joining p
to q meets U orthogonally according to g.
Much research on statistical manifolds centres on
finding improved or more insightful asymptotic formu-
las. A connection is equivalent to specifying the rates
of change of differentials df, and the geometric form
of second-order Taylor expansion. The 'strings' [3] and
STEINER TREE PROBLEM
'yokes' [5] of O.E. Barndorff-Nielsen and P. Blaesild (cf.
also Yoke) define full geometric Taylor expansions in
terms related to parametric statistics, seeking insight
into results such as the Bartlett adjustment and the
Barndorff-Nielsen p* formula [4].
See also Differential geometry in statistical in-
ference.
References
[1] AMARI, S-I.: Differential-geometrical methods in statistics,
Vol. 28 of Lecture Notes in Statistics, Springer, 1985.
[2] AMARI, S-I., BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E., KASS, R.E., LAU-
RITZEN, S.L., AND RAO, C.R.: Differential geometry in sta-
tistical inference, Vol. 10 of Lecture Notes Monograph Series,
Inst. Math. Statistics, Hayward, California, 1987.
[3] BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E.: 'Strings, tensorial combinants,
and Bartlett adjustments', Proc. R. Soc. London A 406
(1986), 127-137.
[4] BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E.: Parametric statistical models
and likelihood, Vol. 50 of Lecture Notes in Statistics, Springer,
1988.
[5] BLAESILD, P.: 'Yokes and tensors derived from yokes', Ann.
Inst. Statist. Math. 43, no. 1 (1991),95-113.
[6] MURRAY, M.K., AND RICE, J.W: Differential geometry and
statistics, Vol. 48 of Monographs on Statistics and Applied
Probability, Chapman and Hall, 1993.
[7] RAO, C.R.: 'Information and the accuracy attainable in the
estimation of statistical parameters', Bull. Calcutta Math.
Soc. 37 (1945), 81-91.
J. W. Rice
MSC 1991: 62Fxx, 62Axx, 53Cxx
STEINER TREE PROBLEM, Steiner problem -
Given a set P of points in a metric space, the problem
is to find a shortest network connecting all the points
in the set. An optimal solution to this problem is called a
Steiner minimum tree for P. The Steiner minimum tree
may well have some vertices that are not in P. Such
vertices are called Steiner nodes or Steiner points, and
the other points are called regular points. These points
should not be confused with the Steiner point of a
convex body.
For subsets of networks, the Steiner tree problem is a
special network optimization problem. The Steiner tree
problem is .NP-hard.
A Steiner minimum tree in the Euclidean plane E2
has the following properties:
1) all leaves are regular points;
2) every two edges meet at an angle of at least 120°;
3) every Steiner point has degree at least three.
A tree satisfying these three conditions and connect-
ing all points of P c E2 (as regular points) is called a
Steiner tree.
The Steiner ratio is the ratio between the length of
a minimum Steiner tree and a shortest spanning tree
(see Tree). The Gilbert-Pollak conjecture [3] says that
461
STEINER TREE PROBLEM
the Steiner ratio of the Euclidean plane is .;3/2; it was
proved in [2].
References
[1] Du, DING-ZHU: 'Minimax and its applications', in R. HORST
AND P.M. PARDALOS (eds.): Handbook of Global Optimiza-
tion, Kluwer Acad. Publ., 1995, pp. 339-368.
[2] Du, DING-ZHU, AND HWANG, F.K.: 'A proof of the Gilbert-
Pollak conjecture', Algorithmica 7 (1992), 121-135.
[3] GILBERT, E.N., AND POLLAK, H.O.: 'Steiner minimal trees',
SIAM J. Appl. Math. 16 (1968), 1-29.
M. H azewinkel
MSC 1991: 51M16, 05C35
STICKELBERGER IDEAL - Let m be a fixed nat-
ural number and K m the cyclotomic field generated
by a primitive mth root of unity over the rational num-
ber field Q. Let G ~ {Z/mZ)X be its Galois group
and Z[G] the group ring of G (cf. also Group algebra;
Cross product) over the rational integers Z. They act
on ideals and on the ideal class group C of Km (cf. Class
field theory). The Stickelberger ideal S is an ideal in
Z[G] annihilating C and related with the relative class
number h- of Km. It is defined as follows.
Let 0 be the ring of integers of Km and p a prime
ideal of 0 that is prime to m. Let p be a prime integer
satisfying (p) = p n Z and let F p = Z / pZ be the prime
field. Define a mapping 'lj;o: F p -t C x = C \ {O} by
'lj;o{a) = exp (2;i a) ,
where C is the complex number field. Let F = O/p be
the residue field and define 'lj;p: F -t C x by compo-
sition of 'lj;o and the trace mapping T: F -t F p, i.e.,
'lj;p = 'lj;o 0 T. Let Wm be the group of unities in Km.
Then there is an injection
Wm -t 0 \p -t (O/p)X = F X ,
so that m divides q - 1 with q = N{p) = IFI. This in-
duces a bijection j: W m -t {FX )(q-l)/m. Define a char-
acter Xp: FX -t Wm of order m by
Xp{x) = j-l{x(q-l)/m)
for x E FX. One can now make up the Gauss sum
9a{P) =- L Xp{x)a. 'lj;p{x)
xEFX
for a E Z. For a real number x, let (x) be the num-
ber uniquely determined by x == (x) (mod Z) and
o ~ (x) < 1. For t (mod m) with gcd{t, m) = 1, let
O't be the element of G corresponding to t (mod m) by
G ~ (Z/mZ)x. For a E Z, let 9{a) E Q[G] be the ele-
ment
462
L. Stickelberger proved the following theorem: For
r 2 1, al, ... ,aT! bl ,··· ,br E Z one has E~=l ai9{bi) E
Z[G] if and only if E aibi == 0 (mod m). In this case, for
any prime ideal p prime to m one has n:l
9b, (p )a, E
Km and pE~=l a,8(b i ) is the principal ideal generated by
n:l 9b {p )a
i i •
The ideal S = {E~=l aiO{bi): E aibi == 0 (mod m)}
in Z[G] is called the Stickelberger ideal for K m , and an
element of S is called a Stickelberger opemtor for K m.
Since any class of C contains a prime ideal p prime to
m, Stickelberger's theorem implies that S annihilates C:
S·C=O.
For a Z[G]-module A, one defines A- = {a E A: {1+
J)a = O}, where J = 0'-1 corresponds to complex con-
jugation.
Let 9 be the number of primes that ramify in Km.
Now,
1) if 9 = 1, then [Z[G]- : S-] = h-, where h- is the
relative class number of Km (Iwasawa's theorem);
2) if 9 2 2, then [Z[Gt : S-] = 2a . h-, where
a = 2g - 2 - 1 (Sinnott's theorem).
These results have, to some extent, been generalized
to absolute Abelian fields. Stickelberger ideals are also
used to construct a p-adic L-function [2].
References
[1] IWASAWA, K.: 'A class number formula for cyclotomic fields',
Ann. of Math. (2) 76 (1962), 171-179.
[2] IWASAWA, K.: Lectures on p-adic L-functions, Vol. 74 of Ann.
Math. Studies, Princeton Univ. Press, 1972.
[3] KIMURA, T., AND HORIE, K.: 'On the Stickelberger ideal and
the relative class number', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 302
(1987), 727-739.
[4] LANG, S.: Cyclotomic jields, Vol. 1-2, Springer, 1990.
[5] SINNOTT, W.: 'On the Stickelberger ideal and the circular
units of a cyclotomic field', Ann. of Math. (2) 108 (1978),
107-134.
[6] SINNOTT, W.: 'On the Stickelberger ideal and the circular
units of an abelian field', Invent. Math. 62 (1980/1), 181-
234.
[7] STICKELBERGER, L.: 'Uber eine Verallgemeinerung der Kreis-
theilung', Math. Ann. 37 (1890), 321-367.
[8] WASHINGTON, L.C.: Introduction to cyclotomic jields,
Springer, 1982.
T. Kimura
MSC 1991: 11r18
STOCHASTIC LIl\'1IT OF QUANTUM THEORY-
The quantum-mechanical description of a physical sys-
tem is achieved by assigning: i) a Hilbert space 1£,
called the state space of the system; ii) a family 0 of
self-adjoint operators on 1£, called the observables (cf.
Self-adjoint operator); iii) a dynamical equation of
the form

Here, for each real number t (time), H(t) is a self-adjoint
operator, called the Hamiltonian (or interaction pic-
ture Hamiltonian; i is the imaginary unit; 1 denotes the
identity operator on 1l; and the derivative is meant in
a topology that is left unspecified. If the mathemati-
cal model has been correctly formulated, the Cauchy
problem (1) admits a unique solution for any choice of
the initial time to and for any real number t. Moreover,
for any pair (t, to), the operator U(t, to) is unitary (cf.
Unitary operator) and the uniqueness of the solution
implies the relation
U(t, to) = U(t, s)U(s, to), to,s,t E R. (2)
The aim of quantum theory is to compute quantities of
the form
(3)
where cP is a unit vector in 1l (preparation) and X is an
observable (measurement). Often, this problem can be
reduced to the calculation of the transition amplitudes
(4)
for sufficiently many vectors cPin (initial) and cPout (final)
of 1l.
This abstract scheme is simple, but in order to put
it to work in concrete situations, i.e. to deduce from it
predictions on the real world, one has to introduce ap-
proximations either to solve equation (1) or to read the
physics in its solution. The usual approximation proce-
dures are based on perturbation theory. The stochas-
tic limit of quantum theory is a new approximation pro-
cedure in which the fundamental laws themselves, as de-
scribed by the pair {1l, U(t, to)} (the set of observables
being fixed once for all, hence left implicit), are approx-
imated rather than the single expectation values (3).
Significant examples are obtained by considering mod-
els with Hamiltonians of the form H>. = Ho + )..,H1(t)
(in this case ).., is called the coupling constant). The first
step of the stochastic method is to rescale time in the so-
lution Ut(>.) of equation (1) according to the Friedrichs-
van Hove scaling: t I--t t / ).., 2 . One then considers the
limit of ut(!12 as ).., --t 0 in a topology which is the quan-
tum analogue of the probabilistic notion of convergence
in law (cf. Convergence in probability; Quantum
probability). Recently (1996), several different types of
rescalings have begun to emerge, which also give rise to
interesting stochastic limits, but for the moment the ma-
jority of results has been obtained for the t/ )..,2- scaling.
Physically, the rescaled time gives the time scale of the
fast degrees of freedom and the original time t that of the
slow ones, i.e. one is studying the long-time cummulative
effects of the interaction. The long time (t / ).., 2 --t +00)
compensates the weak coupling, or low density ().., --t 0),
and new rich structures emerge from the detailed study
STOCHASTIC LIMIT OF QUANTUM THEORY
of several models: as usual with non-linear problems,
there is no general theorem which encompasses all the
results. In fact, each limiting structure strongly depends
on the specific form of the non-linearity. There is, how-
ever, a general pattern which depends only on general
qualitative features and this allows one to insert the mul-
tiplicity of individual results within the framework of a
theory.
The remarkable new feature of this theory is that,
for many models, the limit evolution operator Ut =
(!12
lim>.-to ut not only exists, but is unitary and satisfies
a quantum stochastic differential equation driven by a
special type of quantum field which, in quantum optics
or solid state physics, is called a quantum noise (in the
recent, disjoint, literature on quantum field theory, such
fields have also implicitly made their appearance and
have been called master fields). The specific features of
this limit field strongly depend on the model. The ad-
vantage of the new stochastic equation versus the orig-
inal one is that one gets a simplification of the model
in the sense that many physical effects are more eas-
ily read in the new equations. It should be emphasized
that the unitarity of the evolution operator is preserved
under the stochastic limit. This throws a new light on
the problem of the emergence of irreversible behaviour
from reversible evolutions, allowing one to go beyond
the usual picture of the open system approach, based
on the system-reservoir picture and the master equa-
tion. In fact, several recent results show that in several
cases the stochastic limit can be performed on a single
system. Physically this means that the fast degrees of
freedom of a single system can act as noise on the slow
ones and, in the stochastic limit, a kind of separation of
these degrees of freedom takes place. In this sense one
can say that the stochastic limit also provides a dynam-
ical approach to quantum chaos.
Other applications of the stochastic limit are to sto-
chastic bosonization in arbitrary dimensions, to the
quantum components in the cosmological red shift, to
the large N limit in QCD, etc.
References
[1] ACCARDI, L., AREF'EVA, I.YA., AND VOLOVICH, LV.:
'The master field for half-planar diagrams and free non-
commutative random variables', Modern Physics Letters
(1996) .
[2] ACCARDI, L., FRIGERIO, A., AND Lu, Y.G.: 'The weak cou-
pling limit as a quantum functional central limit', Comm.
Math. Phys. 131 (1990), 537-570.
[3] ACCARDI, L., LAIO, A., Lu, Y.G., AND RIZZI, G.: 'A third
hypothesis on the origins of the red shift: applications to the
Pioneer 6 data', Physics Letters A209 (1995), 277-284.
[4] ACCARDI, L., AND Lu, Y.G.: 'The low density limit of quan-
tum systems', J. Phys. A24 (1991),3483-3512.
[5] ACCARDI, L., AND Lu, Y.G.: 'The Wigner semi-circle law in
quantum electro dynamics', Comm. Math. Phys. (1996).
463
STOCHASTIC LIMIT OF QUANTUM THEORY
[6J ACCARDI, L., Lu, Y.G., AND VOLOVICH, I.V.: 'Quantum the-
ory and its stochastic limit', To appear.
[7J ACCARDI, L., Lu, Y.G., AND VOLOVICH, I.V.: 'Non-
commutative (quantum) probability, master fields and
stochastic bosonization', Volterra preprint CVV-198-94
(1994), hep-th/9412246.
L. Accardi
MSC 1991: 81S20
STREAM FUNCTION - The continuity equation
for an incompressible fluid with velocity vector v =
(vx,vy,v z ) is div(v) = 0, or
8vx 8vy 8v z _ 0
8x + 8y + 8z - .
For two-dimensional motion in the (x, y)-plane, this
gives
8vx 8vy _ 0
8x + 8y - ,
and there is thus a stream function 'Ij; such that
8'1j; 8'1j;
Vx = 8y' Vy = - 8x'
References
[IJ BATCHELOR, G.K.: An introduction to fluid dynamics, Cam-
bridge Univ. Press, 1967.
[2J GOLDSTEIN, S. (ed.): Modern developments in fluid dynam-
ics, Vol. 1, Dover, reprint, 1965.
M. H azewinkel
MSC 1991: 76Dxx
STRUCTURE - A synonym for algebraic system.
Similarly, a substructure is a synonym for 'subsystem',
and elementary substructure is a synonym for 'elemen-
tary subsystem' (cf. Model theory). If L is a first-order
language of signature n and A is an algebraic system of
signature n, then A is called an L-structure.
A first-order language L is uniquely determined by
n
its signature n = (n" p , II) (cf. Algebraic system).
Therefore, in a more informal way of writing, many au-
thors describe L by just giving the set n, u np of func-
tion symbols (also called 'functionals') and relation sym-
bols (also called 'predicates'). Here, one omits the map-
ping II, which assigns to every symbol its arity, that
is, the number of variables of the function or relation
which interprets the symbol in a structure. This is jus-
tified when the arity can be read off from the symbol by
convention. It is even common to write L = n,un p . For
example, LG = {+, -, O} is called the language of groups
(additively written), LOG = {+, -,0, <} = LG U {<} is
the language of ordered groups, LR = {+,., -,0,1} is
the language of rings with 1, and LOR = LR U {<} is
the language of ordered rings. Here, '+' and '.' are bi-
nary function symbols, '-' is a unary function symbol
(for additive inversion), '<' is a binary relation symbol,
and '0' and '1' are constant symbols. A constant symbol,
464
belonging to n" is a O-ary function symbol, but often
constant symbols are considered separately. The field
axioms can be formulated in the language of rings, but
one can also use the language of fields obtained from LR
by adjoining a unary function symbol for multiplicative
inversion.
If the language L is given by a set of relation sym-
bols, function symbols and constant symbols, then an
L-structure A is a set IAI, called the universe of the
structure A, together with relations and functions on
IAI and elements of A (constants) which interpret the
corresponding symbols of L. Often, IAI is identified with
A; for example, R may denote the set of real numbers
as well as the field of real numbers. In this spirit, an
element of IAI is also called an element of A, and the
cardinality of a structure is defined to be the cardinality
of its universe.
If L' is a language containing L (as sets of symbols)
and A' is an L'-structure such that IAI = IA'I and the in-
terpretations of the relation, function and constant sym-
bols of L are the same in A as in A', then A' is called
an expansion of A, and A is called a reduct of A'. For
example, a field is an expansion of the two underlying
groups, and these groups are reducts of the field.
If X ~ IAI, then to add a name for every element in
X to the language, one passes to the expansion (A, X)
of A, which has signature (n, X) (cf. Model theory;
Elimination of quantifiers).
F. - V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 03C07
SYNGE WORLD FUNCTION - In a manifold M
with Riemannian metric g, a natural object charac-
terizing the geometry is the distance d(P, Q) between
any two points P, Q in M, defined as the infimum of the
length of all curves connecting the points. This does not
itself generalize to pseudo-Riemannian manifolds (cf.
Pseudo-Riemannian space; Pseudo-Riemannian
geometry). In that case, however, for any P there is an
open neighbourhood Up such that for Q E Up the two
points are joined by a unique geodesic 'YPQ in Up. If u is
an affine parameter with 'YpQ(ud = P, 'YPQ(U2) = Q,
and X = d'YPQ/du is the corresponding tangent vector,
then the quantity
1 2
n(p,Q) = 2(u2 - ud g(X,X)
is independent of the choice of affine parameter and
is well defined for both Riemannian and pseudo-
Riemannian metrics g. In the Riemannian case it re-
duces to d(P, Q)2/2, while in the case of general relativ-
ity (pseudo-Riemannian metric of Lorentz signature) it
evaluates to zero if P, Q are null-separated and to plus
or minus half the square of the space- or time-separation
of the points otherwise. This function was introduced by

H.S. Ruse [3J and popularized by J.L. Synge [4J as the
world function for general relativity.
If g is differentiable of class C k (k 2': 2), then n is of
class Ck-2 on the manifold D of pairs {(P, Q): Q E Up}.
On the diagonal ~ = {(P, P): P E M} the first few par-
tial derivatives with respect to the coordinates of the
first argument are given, in index notation, by
n,i = 0, n,ij = gij
n,ijk = 0,
where R is the Riemann tensor of g (with sign con-
vention R~kl = 8kql - ... ).
Since the world function is physically interpretable in
terms of the squares of lengths and times, and is linked
by the above formulas to the curvature, it could be
used by Synge [4J as a systematic tool in deriving the
basic formulas of differential geometry together with
their physical interpretation. In this spirit it was used by
C.J.S. Clarke and F. de Felice [1J to express the curva-
ture corrections to radar-ranging measurements; further
formulas of this kind have been presented in [2J.
References
[IJ CLARKE, C.J.S., AND FELICE, F. DE: Relativity on curved
manifolds, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990.
[2J GAMBI, J.M., ROMERO, P., SANMIGUEL, A., AND VICENTE,
F.: 'Fermi coordinate transformation under base-line change
in relativistic celestial mechanics', Int. J. Theoret. Phys. 30
(1991), 1097-1116.
[3J RUSE, H.S.: 'Taylor's theorem in the tensor calculus',
Proc. London Math. Soc. 32 (1931), 87.
[4J SYNGE, J.L.: Relativity: the general theory, North-Holland,
1960.
C. J. S. Clarke
MSC 1991: 83Cxx
SYRACUSE PROBLEM, (3x + 1)-problem, Col-
latz problem, Hasse algorithm, Hasse-Collatz problem,
Kakutani problem, Ulam problem - This problem con-
cerns the iteration of the Collatz mapping that sends
a positive integer an to an+! = a n /2 (an even) or
to 3an+1 + 1 (an odd). The (3x + 1)-conjecture (also
called the Collatz conjecture) asserts that for any start-
ing value ao 2': 2 there is some iterate an = l.
Some examples are:
a) 1 -+ 4 -+ 2 -+ 1;
b) 5-+16-+8-+4-+2-+1;
SYSTEM RELIABILITY
c) 7 -+ 22 -+ 11 -+ 34 -+ 17 -+ 52 -+ 26 -+ 13 -+
40 -+ 20 -+ 10 -+ 5 -+ 16 -+ 8 -+ 4 -+ 2 -+ l.
If ao is allowed to be a negative integer, the conjecture
is not true, as is shown by the example -5 -+ -14 -+
-7 -+ -20 -+ -10 -+ -5. In other words: the Collatz
conjecture with 3an + 1 replaced by 3an - 1 does not
hold.
This conjecture is generally attributed to L. Collatz,
who studied similar problems in the 1930s. It has been
numerically verified for all ao < 6 x 10 13 [5J. The con-
jecture is unsolved (1996) and apparently extremely dif-
ficult despite its simple appearance. General references
and surveys on the problem are [3], [4], [6J.
There is no periodic orbit of the Collatz mapping of
period less than 17087915, except the orbit {l, 4, 2}. The
set of positive integers ao that have some iterate an less
than ao has density one. At least X 8 / 10 of all positive
integers ao less than x have some iterate an = 1, [1J.
J.H. Conway [2J showed that a certain generalization
of the (3x + 1)-problem is non-computable. He defined
a particular mapping f from the positive integers into
the positive integers of the form f(n) = bnn, in which
{b n } is periodic (modulo some No) for a fixed modulus
No, which has the property that the set
{ m: some iterate f(k) (m) = 2j, some j 2': 0 }
is recursively enumerable but not recursive.
References
[IJ ApPLEGATE, D., AND LAGARIAS, J.C.: 'Density bounds for
the 3x + 1 problem II. Krasikov inequalities', Math. Compo
64 (1995), 427-438.
[2J CONWAY, J.H.: 'Unpredictable Iterations': Proc. 1972 Num-
ber Theory Conf. Univ. Colorado, Boulder, 1972, pp. 49-52.
[3J GUY, R.K.: Unsolved problems in number theory, second ed.,
Springer, 1994.
[4J LAGARIAS, J.C.: 'The 3x+ 1 problem and its generalizations',
Amer. Math. Monthly 92 (1985), 3-23.
[5J LEAVENS, G., AND VERMEULEN, M.: '3x+ 1 search programs',
Computers & Mathematics, with Applications 24, no. 11
(1992), 79-99.
[6J MULLER, H.A.: 'Das '3n + l' Problem', Mitteilung. Math.
Ges. Hamburg 12 (1991), 231-251.
J. C. Lagarias
MSC 1991: 11Bxx
SYSTEM RELIABILITY, reliability of systems - See
Reliability theory.
MSC 1991: 62N05
465
________ T________
TANGENT INDICATRIX, tantrix - The tangent in-
dicatrix T of a regular curve 'Y: [a, b] ~ Rn is the curve
of oriented unit vectors tangent to 'Y.
More precisely, if 'Y: [a, b] ~ Rn is a differentiable
curve whose velocity vector "y = d'Y / dt never vanishes,
then
"y( t)
T(t) = 1"y(t)l.
The tangent indicatrix T of any regular curve in R n thus
traces out a curve on the unit sphere sn-l E Rn which,
as a point set, is independent of the parametrization of
'Y. A direct computation shows that the 'speeds' of T
and 'Y relate via the curvature function K, of 'Y (cf. also
Curvature):
I~~I = K,(t) I~~I·
It follows immediately that the length of the tangent in-
dicatrix on sn-l gives the total curvature (the integral
of K, with respect to arc-length; cf. also Complete cur-
vature) of the original curve 'Y. Because of this, the tan-
gent indicatrix has proven useful, among other things,
in studying total curvature of closed space curves (see
[2, p. 29 ffJ).
References
[IJ ARNOL'D, V.I.: 'The geometry of spherical curves and the
algebra of quaternions', Russian Math. Surveys 50 (1995).
(Translated from the Russian.)
[2J CHERN, S.S.: Studies in global analysis and geometry, Vol. 4
of Studies in Mathematics, Math. Assoc. America, 1967.
[3J SOLOMON, B.: 'Tantrices of spherical curves', Amer. Math.
Monthly 103, no. 1 (1996), 30-39.
B. Solomon
MSC 1991: 53A04
TETRAHEDRON, ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY OF
THE - A tetrahedron is a spatial figure formed by
four non-co-planar points, called vertices. The term is of
Greek origin ('tetra' meaning 'four' and 'hedra' mean-
ing 'seat') and refers to its four plane faces, or sides.
As implied in the definition, the usual environment for
the study of the tetrahedron is the Euclidean space of
three dimensions. Here, it is a convex body (triangular
pyramid), the convex hull of its vertices, and, thus, is the
natural three-dimensional analogue of the plane trian-
gle, which is determined by three non-collinear points.
In fact, as will be shown, the geometry of the triangle
constitutes a basis on which much of the geometry of
the tetrahedron is built. The first systematic treatment
of the tetrahedron was published by J.L. Lagrange in
1773, see [13].
Whereas the triangle has two sets of proper faces,
vertices (O-dimensional faces) and sides (I-dimensional,
or l-co-dimensional, faces), the tetrahedron has ver-
tices (O-dimensional faces), edges (I-dimensional, or 2-
co-dimensional, faces, the line segments joining the pairs
of vertices), and the triangular sides (2-dimensional, or
l-co-dimensional faces) formed by all 3-sets of vertices.
If necessary, a face of dimension at least 1 is considered
as an (infinite) affine subspace, the affine hull of the orig-
inal bounded object (cf. also Affine space). Sometimes
it is convenient to think in terms of three pairs of oppo-
site edges, joining complementary pairs of vertices and
to associate with each vertex the opposite side, formed
by the three remaining vertices, and vice versa.
As expected, the vertices are normally labeled A, B,
C, and D. For the edges (and their lengths) bound-
ing the triangle ABC one may use Euler's notation:
a = [BC], b = [CA], c = [AB], with the opposite edges
indicated by a prime: a' = [AD], b' = [BD], c' = [CD].
A subscripting scheme is often more useful when cer-
tain analytic arguments are employed. Here, one takes
Ai, i E I = {i, j, k, l} = {O, 1,2, 3}, as labels for the
vertices and aij, {i,j} c I, for the edge (and its length)
connecting Ai and A j . Thus, aij = aji for i =I- j, with
the understanding that aii = o.
If the area of the side opposite the vertex X is de-
noted by F x, then the surface area of the tetrahedron is
 TETRAHEDRON, ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY OF THE

given by formed by all possible pairs of sides, and four trihedral

3 angles, formed by all possible triples of sides. The sum
O=FA+FB+Fc+FD = LFAil
i=O
while the volume V can be computed from the formula
1
V= :iF.h,
where F denotes the area of any side and h the corre-
sponding height, the distance of the side under consid-
eration from the parallel plane containing the opposite
vertex. The volume V of a tetrahedron is also given by
~ of the dihedral angles varies between 21f and 31f while
the sum n of the trihedral angles varies between 0 and
21f; both sums are related by
2~ - n = 41f,
see [1]. The dihedral angles may be acute, right or ob-
tuse, but there must exist at least three acute angles.
More precisely, a distribution of acute, right or obtuse
angles is possible if and only if the graph formed by one

-1 . det
23
(a1
2
'J
vertex for each side and one edge for each acute dihedral
angle between the corresponding sides is connected, see
[3].
which may be regarded as a three-dimensional analogue The circumcircle and the incircle of the triangle have
to Heron's formula for the area of a triangle (cf. also immediate analogues. Consider the perpendicular bi-
Heron formula), i.e., secting plane of each edge; then for each side the three
a+b+c corresponding planes share a line perpendicular to this
A = y's(s - a)(s - b)(s - c), s= - - - -
2 side. The six planes and four lines obtained in this way
Here, intersect in the circumcentre of the tetrahedron, the cen-
tre of the circumsphere with radius

is short for
0 ai2 ai3 ai4 1 where 9 denotes the area of the triangle with sides aa',
ai2 0 a~3 a~4 1 bb', ee'. For the incentre and the insphere, the six angle-
det ai3 a~3 0 a~4 1 bisecting planes of the dihedral angles have a point in
ai4 a~4 a~4 0 1 common; the inradius is given by
1 1 1 1 0
3· V
the Cayley-Menger determinant of A l , ... ,A4. r=O·
As a bonus result, the above formula for V provides
However, the treatment of exspheres requires special
a necessary (and also almost sufficient) condition
attention. The natural analogues of the excircles are the
det (at j ~) > 0, exspheres of the first kind, touching one side from the
exterior, but there may also be between zero and three
for the six numbers aij to be the edge lengths of a non- exspheres of the second kind, touching two sides from
degenerate tetrahedron, an analogue of the famous tri- the exterior, see [9]. There are no exspheres of the sec-
angle inequalities (cf. Plane trigonometry). Further- ond kind if and only if the tetrahedron is isosceles, i.e.,
more, it implies that the three products aa', bb', cc' (Eu- all sides have equal area, or, equivalently, opposite edges
ler's notation) satisfy the plane triangle inequalities. have equal length. See [12] for other characterizations of
Another spatial analogue of the triangle inequalities isosceles tetrahedra. There are three exspheres of the
is as follows. A set of four positive numbers can repre- second kind if and only if the sum of the areas of two
sent the areas of the sides of a tetrahedron if and only sides is never equal to the sum of the areas of the other
if the largest is smaller than the sum of the other three, two. The radius of the exsphere touching only the side
see [3], [4]. From this, one may also derive, by means of opposite to the vertex D from the outside is given by
the first given formula for the volume, a necessary and
sufficient condition for four lengths to be the heights of
a tetrahedron. But a tetrahedron is (up to congruence)
uniquely determined by six pieces, or conditions, and so the radius of the exsphere touching the sides opposite
is not uniquely determined by four suitable areas or four to the vertices C and D from the outside (if it exists) is
suitable heights. given by
There are two types of angles connected with a
tetrahedron: six dihedral angles (cf. Dihedral angle),

467
TETRAHEDRON, ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY OF THE
A sphere touching all the edges of a tetrahedron (an
edge-touching sphere) exists if and only if each of the
following conditions is satisfied:
i) a + a' = b + b' = c + c';
ii) the incircles of the sides touch each other;
iii) the perpendiculars to the sides through the incen-
tres concur in the centre of the edge touching sphere.
iv) the vertices are centres of four pairwise touching
spheres with radii PA,'" ,PD, see [6]. In particular,
2 . PA . PB . Pe . PD
P= 3· V '
where P represents the radius of the edge-touching
sphere.
Furthermore, in any class of tetrahedra with equal
heights, there is exactly one tetrahedron with an edge-
touching sphere, see [5].
In fact, many of the special points, lines and incidence
relations associated with the plane triangle do not have
unique analogues in the case of the tetrahedron. The fol-
lowing examples should help to substantiate this claim.
a) There are two types of medians for a tetrahedron:
the six planes each containing one edge and the middle
point of the opposite edge, and the four lines connect-
ing a vertex X to the centroid X' of the opposite side,
X E {A, B, e, D}. All these ten geometric objects inter-
sect in one point, the centroid of the tetrahedron, which
divides the line segments [X X'] in the ratio 3 : 1. The
central stretching with the centroid as centre and ra-
tio -1/3 transforms the circumsphere in the Feuerbach
sphere of the first kind. The centroid is also the middle
point of the three line segments connecting the middle
points of opposite edges. These line segments have equal
lengths if and only if the tetrahedron is orthocentric, a
property discussed below. In this case the centroid is
the centre of a sphere intersecting the sides in the re-
spective Feuerbach nine-point circles (cf. Nine-point
circle), the Feuerbach sphere of the second kind.
b) In case of the altitudes, G. Monge [15] took the
planes perpendicular to one edge containing the mid-
dle point of the opposite edge. The six planes obtained
concur in the Monge point, coinciding with the external
centre of similitude of the circumsphere and the Feuer-
bach sphere of the first kind. Thus the centroid is the
middle point of the line segment connecting the circum-
centre and the point of Monge, see [15]. On the other
hand, the altitudes of a tetrahedron (as lines) are defined
as the perpendiculars to the sides passing through the
respective opposite vertices, see the definition of height
given above. A tetrahedron is called orthocentric if the
altitudes concur in a point, the orthocentre of the tetra-
hedron. The following conditions are equivalent:
i) the tetrahedron is orthocentric;
468
ii) the three parallelograms MaMbMa,Mb"
MbMcMb,Mc' and McMaMc,Ma" where Mx
denotes the middle point of the edge x, are
rectangles;
iii) opposite edges are perpendicular;
iv) a 2 + a,2 = b2 + b,2 = c2 + c,2;
v) the line segments [MaMa'], [MbMb'] and
[McMc'] have equal lengths;
vi) the feet of the altitudes, the intersection points
of the altitudes and the respective sides, are the
orthocentres of the sides considered as triangles.
In condition ii), it suffices to require that only two of
the mentioned parallelograms are rectangles, while con-
dition iii) is fulfilled if and only if two pairs of opposite
edges are perpendicular. In condition vi) it suffices to
consider just one foot of an altitude, see [8].
More generally, the following conditions on a tetra-
hedron ABeD are equivalent:
i) the altitudes through A and B, hA and hB, in-
tersect in a unique point HA,B;
ii) the altitudes he and hD intersect in a unique
point He,D;
iii) the edges AB and e D are perpendicular;
iv) the parallelogram MaMbMa,Mb' is a rectangle;
v) a 2 + a'2 = b2 + b'2;
vi) the line segments [MaMa'] and [MbMb'] have
equal lengths.
A tetrahedron with just one pair of perpendicular op-
posite edges is called semi-orthocentric and can always
be labeled in such a way that the given conditions are
fulfilled. In this case, the plane formed by the altitudes
hA and hB and that formed by the altitudes he and hB
intersect in the line HA,BHe,D, with the point of Monge
being the middle point of the line segment [HA,BHe,D].
The altitudes of a tetrahedron with no pair of per-
pendicular opposite edges are pairwise skew (cf. Skew
lines), but belong to a equilateral hyperboloid whose
centre is the point of Monge, see [16]. A geometric de-
scription of the axes of this hyperboloid is an open prob-
lem (1996).
In case of an orthocentric tetrahedron, the point of
Monge coincides with the orthocentre. In addition, an
orthocentric tetrahedron has an edge-touching sphere if
and only if it is a regular pyramid, i.e., one side is an
equilateral triangle and the three edges not contained in
this side have equal lengths. In this case one also has
the identities
a . a' = b . b' = c . c'.
Tetrahedra with this property are sometimes called iso-
dynamic.
Orthocentric tetrahedra have a lot of extremal prop-
erties, see [10]. An example is the following: Given four

concentric spheres S x, X E {A, B, C, D}, the tetrahe-
dra with maximal volume among all tetrahedra ABC D
with X E Sx for all X E {A, B, C, D} are orthocentric;
the common centre of the spheres S x is the orthocentre
of these maximal tetrahedra.
An analogue to the Pythagoras theorem holds
for tri-rectangular tetrahedra, i.e., tetrahedra such that
three concurrent edges are pairwise perpendicular. If
these edges concur in the vertex D, then
F1 = F~ + F~ + F6,
see [2].
In addition, there are analogues to the Gauss and Bo-
denmiller theorems (cf. Gauss theorem; Bodenmiller
theorem) for tetrahedra, see [7].
An interesting result related to the edge-touching
sphere of a tetrahedron is given in [5], whereby a ques-
tion raised in elementary particle physics leads from the
edge-touching sphere to Steiner's Rome surface which,
in the Euclidean 3-dimensional space, is given by the
equation
intersecting the sides of the regular tetrahedron with
vertices (1,1,1), (-1, -1, 1), (1, -1, -1), (-1,1, -1) in
the respective incircles.
As with the triangle, there are many known inequal-
ities relating various parts of the tetrahedron. For ex-
ample, the triangle inequality R ~ 2r (where R is the
circumradius and r the inradius), with equality for equi-
lateral triangles, reads for the tetrahedron: R ~ 3r,
with equality for the regular case. Actually, these are
both special cases of the n-simplex inequality (in n-
dimensional Euclidean space En) R ~ nr, with equality
for the regular simplex. For these, and other inequalities,
see [14].
Most of the properties given above have generaliza-
tions to higher-dimensional simplices; see the bibliogra-
phy.
References
[1] EGGER, T., FRITSCH, R., AND SEEBACH, K.: 'Zum Winkel-
summensatz fur Tetraeder', Didaktik der Math. 11 (1983),
14-35.
[2] FAULHABER, J.: Mirocula Arithmetica, David Franck, 1622.
[3] FIEDLER, M.: 'Geometrie simplexu v En', Casopis Pest. Mat.
79 (1954), 297-320.
[4] FRITSCH, R.: 'Dreiecksungleichungen fur Tetraeder', Der
mathem. und naturwissenschaftl. Unterr. 34 (1981), 274-
278.
[5] FRITSCH, R.: 'Energietetraeder?', Mitteil. Math. Sem.
Giessen (Goxeter Festschrift II) 164 (1984), 151-177.
[6] FRITSCH, R.: 'Kantenkugeln-geometrische Anwendungen der
linearen Algebra', Math. Semesterber. 32 (1985),84-109.
[7] FRITSCH, R.: 'An n-dimensional Bodenmiller theorem', Grux
Mathematicorum 21 (1995), 109-113.
TOTAL POSITIVITY
[8] FRITSCH, R.: 'H6henschnittpunkte fur n-Simplizes', Elem.
Math. 31 (1995), 1-8.
[9] GERBER, L.: 'Spheres tangent to all the faces of a simplex',
J. Gombin. Theory 12 (1972), 453-456.
[10] GERBER, L.: 'The orthocentric simplex as an extreme sim-
plex', Pacific J. Math. 56 (1975),97-111.
[11] GERRETSEN, J.e.H.: 'An analogue of the nine-point circle
in the space of n dimensions', Indagationes Mathematicae 7
(1945), 123-124.
[12] KUPITZ, Y.S., AND MARTINI, H.: 'The Fermat-Torricelli point
and isosceles tetrahedra', J. Geometry 49 (1994), 150-162.
[13] LAGRANGE, J.L.: 'Solutions analytiques de quelques
problemes sur Ie pyramides triangulaires', Nouveaux Mem.
Acad. R. des Sci. et Belles-Lettres (1773), 149-176.
[14] MITRINOVIC, D.S., PECARIC, J.E., AND VOLENEC, V.: Recent
advances in geometric inequalities, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1989.
[15] MONGE, G.: 'Sur la pyramide triangulaire', Gorresp. Ecole
Imp. Poly technique 2/3 (1811), 263-266.
[16] STEINER, J.: 'Aufgaben und Lehrsatze', J. Reine Angew.
Math. 2 (1827), 96-98.
R. Eddy
R. Fritsch
MSC 1991: 51M20, 52-XX
TOTAL POSITIVITY - A real-valued function (or
kernel) K(x, y) on two linearly ordered sets X and Y is
called totally positive if for each positive integer m and
for all
Xl < ... < Xm; YI < ... < Ym, Xi E X, Yj E Y,
(1)
one has
K(XI"" ,xm) =det(K(xi,Yj)h::;i,j::;m~O. (2)
YI,··· ,Ym
If both X and Y are finite sets, then K can be consid-
ered a finite matrix and then one calls it a totally posi-
tive matrix. Consequently, a totally positive matrix is a
matrix whose minors (cf. Minor) are all non-negative.
When all the inequalities are strict in these definitions,
the matrix or kernel is called strictly totally positive.
Some authors replace the term 'total positivity' by 'total
non-negativity' and 'strict total positivity' by 'total pos-
itivity'. When (2) holds only for m :S r, where r is a
positive integer, the kernel is called totally positive of
order r.
Sign-regularity is an extension of the concept of total
positivity. For it, (2) is replaced by the weaker require-
ment that
Em K (Xl,," ,xm) :S 0, 1:S m :S r, (3)
Yl,'" ,Ym
for a given sequence (El,' .. ,Er) with each Em = ±l. In
this case K is said to be sign-regular of order r, with sig-
nature sequence (Eb ... ,Er). Analogously one can define
strict sign-regularity.
If K is a totally positive function of order r of the
form K(x, y) = f(x - y), then f is a called a P6lya
469
TOTAL POSITIVITY
frequency function (respectively, a P61ya frequency se-
quence) of order r when X = Y = R (respectively,
X = Y = Z, the integers).
Simple examples of totally positive functions are
K(x,y) = e XY with X = Y = Rand
I if a ::; x ::; y ::; b,
K (x,y ) = {
o if a ::; x ::; y ::; b,
with X = Y = [a, b]. A well-known example of a strictly
totally positive matrix on X = Y = R is the Vander-
monde matrix (cf. also Vandermonde determinant)
V(XI, . .. ,x
n) = (xi) l~i~n;O~j-S;m
, the control polygon of the curve, determined by certain
defined for Xl < ... < x n .
Generalizations of all these concepts can be found in
[3]. This useful book has, for many years, been the only
one entirely devoted to the theory of total positivity.
Interesting historical facts concerning the development
of this subject can be found scattered throughout its
chapters.
The theory of totally positive matrices was devel-
oped in the 1930s by F.R. Gantmacher and M.G. KreIn
in connection with vibrations of mechanical systems.
Green functions of certain differential operators provide
important examples of totally positive matrices. Inde-
pendently, I.J. Schoenberg developed the theory of to-
tal positivity in connection with the variation diminish-
ing properties of matrices, giving rise to spline theory.
Schoenberg also initiated the study of P6lya frequency
functions and sequences. Much of this work was influ-
enced by the work of O.D. Kellog, G. P6lya, M. Fekete,
T.S. Motzkin to name only a few of the many mathe-
maticians who worked in various aspects of this subject.
Spectral properties of totally positive kernels were stud-
ied by Gantmacher and Krein. An interesting and de-
tailed discussion of the history of this development with
a self-contained presentation of the main results can be
found in [5].
Starting in the late 1950s, S. Karlin began to demon-
strate in numerous publications on the subject the
breath of application and depth of mathematical impor-
tance of total positivity. Under Karlin's influence, many
authors have been motivated to investigate the appli-
cation of total positivity to approximation theory,
analysis, statistics, biology, and geometric modeling.
See [6] for a valuable reference source for information
on total positivity.
Totally positive matrices form a subclass of the non-
negative matrices. See [1] for a very interesting survey of
totally positive matrices up to 1987j it contains many of
their properties available up to that time. In 1996 a new
book, [2], appeared, devoted entirely to the theory and
applications of total positivity. It is an excellent source
470
of information on the exciting recent developments in
the subject with a special emphasis on its applications.
For example, it has chapters devoted to the connections
between spline functions and total positivity, others to
Chebychev spaces, totally positive matrices, combina-
torics, statistics, integral equations, geometric modeling,
complex analysis and nonlinear analysis.
One of the most recent fields where total positivity
has interesting applications is that of geometric model-
ing. In the design of curves it is useful to be able to pre-
dict and control the shape of the curve from the shape of
points. There are several articles in [2] which address
this important practical problem.
Totally positive functions arise quite naturally in the
theory of diffusion stochastic processes (cf. also Diffu-
sion process). For a birth-and-death process, the
transition probability function is totally positive. These
questions will be addressed in Volume II of [3] which,
unfortunately, has yet (1996) to appear. A series of pa-
pers written by Karlin and J.L. McGregor address this
fascinating connection to total positivity, see, for exam-
ple, [4].
References
[IJ ANDO, T.: 'Totally positive matrices', Linear Alg. & Its Appl.
90 (1987), 165-219.
[2J GASCA, M., AND MICCHELLI, C.A. (eds.): Total positivity and
its applications, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1996.
[3J KARLIN, S.: Total positivity, Vo!' I, Stanford Univ. Press,
1968.
[4J KARLIN, S., AND MCGREGOR, J.L.: 'Classical difussion pro-
cesses and total positivity', J. Math. Anal. Appl. 1 (1960),
163-183.
[5J PINKUS, A.: 'Spectral properties of totally positive kernels
and matrices', in M. GASCA AND C.A. MICCHELLI (eds.): To-
tal Positivity and its Applications, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1996,
pp. 477-511.
[6J SCHUMAKER, L.L.: Spline /unctions: Basic theory, Wiley,
1981.
M. Gasca
Ch. Micchelli
MSC1991: 15-XX
TOTIENT FUNCTION, Euler totient function, Eu-
ler totient - Another frequently used named for the Eu-
ler function <p(n), which counts the natural numbers
k E {I, ... ,n} that are relatively prime to n.
The Carmichael conjecture on the Euler totient func-
tion states that if <p(x) = n, then <p(y) = n for some
y =1= Xj i.e. no value of the Euler function is assumed
once. This has now been verified for x < 1010 000 000, [4].
A natural generalization of the Euler totient function
is the Jordan totient function Jk(n), which counts the
number of k-tuples (al,'" ,ak), ai E {I, ... ,n}, such
that (ab ... ,ak,n) = 1. Clearly, Jl(n) = <p(n).

One has
Jk(n) = nk II (1 _ p-k),
pin
where p runs over the prime numbers dividing n, and
Jk(n) = Ldkft (S),
din
where ft is the Mobius function and d runs over all
divisors of n. For k = 1 these formulas reduce to the
well-known formulas for the Euler function.
The Lehmer problem on the Euler totient function
asks for the solutions of Mip(n) = n - 1, MEN, [2].
For some results on this still (1996) largely open prob-
lem, see [3] and the references therein. The correspond-
ing problem for the Jordan totient function (and k > 1)
is easy, [7]: For k > 1, Jk(n) I n k -1 if and only if n is a
prime number. Moreover, if n is a prime number, then
Jk(n) = n k - l.
For much more information on the Euler totient func-
tion, the Jordan totient function and various other gen-
eralizations, see [6], [5].
References
[1] DICKSON, L.E.: History of the theory of numbers, Vol. I: Di-
visibility and primality, Chelsea, reprint, 1971, pp. Ch. Vj
113-155.
[2] LEHMER, D.H.: 'On Euler's totient function', Bull. Amer.
Math. Soc. 38 (1932), 745-751.
[3] PRASAD, V. SIVA RAMA, AND RANGAMMA, M.: 'On composite
n for which <p(n) I n - 1', Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde (4)
5 (1987), 77-83.
[4] SCHLAFLY, A., AND WAGON, S.: 'Carmichael's conjecture on
the Euler function is valid below 1010 000 000, , Math. Compo
63 (1994), 415-419.
[5] SIVAMARAKRISHNAN, R.: 'The many facets of Euler's totient
1', Nieuw Archief Wiskunde (4) 4 (1986), 175-190.
[6] SIVAMARAKRISHNAN, R.: 'The many facets of Euler's totient
II: generalizations and analogues', Nieuw Archief Wiskunde
(4) 8 (1990), 169-188.
[7] SUBBARAO, M.V., AND PRASAD, V. SIVA RAMA: 'Some ana-
logues of a Lehmer problem on the totient function', Rocky
Mountains J. Math. 15 (1985), 609-620.
M. H azewinkel
MSC 1991: llAxx
TRANSFER PRINCIPLE - A principle that allows
one to transfer assertions from one algebraic system
to another. The completeness of an elementary the-
ory T yields a transfer principle for the models of T:
every elementary sentence (i.e., closed formula in the
first-order language of T) is true in all models of T if
it is true in at least one model. For example, the com-
pleteness of the theory of algebraically closed fields of
fixed characteristic means that every elementary sen-
tence in the language of fields which holds in one alge-
braically closed field will also hold in all other alge-
braically closed fields of the same characteristic. This is
TRIO
an elementary version of the Lefschetz principle, which
was introduced and partially proved by S. Lefschetz and
A. Weil and states (roughly speaking) that algebraic
geometry over all algebraically closed fields of a fixed
characteristic is the same (,there is but one algebraic ge-
ometry in characteristic p') (d. [1]). But Lefschetz and
Weil did not have in mind only the elementary sentences.
That is why Weil worked with universal domains, that
is, algebraically closed fields of infinite transcendence
degree over their prime field. So, the conjecture was
that there is but one algebraic geometry over universal
domains of fixed characteristic. A satisfactory formal-
ization and model-theoretic proof is due to P. Eklof [2].
It uses the infinitary language L ocIW , which admits infi-
nite conjunctions and disjunctions in one sentence. With
such a sentence, one can express the fact that a field has
infinite transcendence degree over its prime field. This
cannot be done with a single elementary sentence. In-
deed, algebraically closed fields are elementarily equiva-
lent to the algebraic closure of their prime field, even if
they have infinite transcendence degree.
The analogue of the elementary Lefschetz principle
for real algebraic geometry is the Tarski principle (the
completeness of the elementary theory of real closed
fields, d. Real closed field). A similar principle is
known for p-adically closed fields (d. p-adically closed
field). The Ax-Kochen-Ershov principles in the model
theory of valued fields can be viewed as conditioned
transfer principles.
References
[1] CHERLIN, G.: 'Model theoretic algebra', J. Symb. Logic 41
(1976), 537-545.
[2] EKLoF, P.C.: 'Lefschetz's principle and local functors',
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 37 (1973), 333-339.
F.- V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95
TRIO - A non-trivial family of languages that is
closed under three of the six natural closure opera-
tions (cf. Abstract family of languages; AFL oper-
ations). Initiated in [2], the theory of abstract families
of languages, AFL-theory, is a framework for systemat-
ically studying the closure properties of families of lan-
guages under certain operations. The starting point is
the observation that the four basic families in the Chom-
sky hierarchy, the families of regular (REG), context-
free (CF), context-sensitive (CS), and recursively enu-
merable (RE) languages, have similar closure properties;
more specifically, all these families are closed under six
important operations, the so-called AFL operations;
moreover, also the proof techniques for such results are
similar.
471
TRIO
These six operations are: union, concatenation,
Kleene closure +, intersection with regular languages,
morphisms, and inverse morphisms.
A non-trivial family of languages (that is, a family
containing at least one non-empty language) is called a
trio (sometimes one uses the term cone; see also Ab-
stract family of languages) if it is closed under non-
erasing morphisms, inverse morphisms and intersection
with regular languages. A trio closed under union is
called a semi-AFL. A semi-AFL closed under concatena-
tion and Kleene + is called an AFL. A trio (semi-AFL,
AFL) is said to be full if it is closed under arbitrary mor-
phisms (and Kleene * in the case of AFLs). A family of
languages closed under none of the six AFL operations
is called an anti-A FL.
The family REG is the smallest full trio; the fami-
lies REG, CF, RE are full-AFLs, whereas CS is an AFL
which is not full (in fact, each language in RE is the
morphic image of a language in CS). The family of lin-
ear languages is a full semi-AFL not closed under con-
catenation and Kleene +. Examples of anti-AFLs can be
found, for example, in the area of Lindenmayer systems
[3J.
The six AFL operations are not independent. Hence,
to show that a family of languages is an AFL one does
not need to show closure under all six operations. (See
AFL operations for results of this type.) Moreover,
closure under certain other operations implies closure
under AFL operations and, conversely, knowing that
a family of languages is an AFL one obtain its clo-
sure under certain other operations. For instance, each
substitution-closed trio is an AFL, whereas every trio is
472
closed under substitution with A-free regular languages
(A is the empty string), under non-erasing generalized
sequential machine mappings and under inverse gen-
eralized sequential machine mappings; any full trio is
closed under substitution with arbitrary regular lan-
guages, arbitrary generalized sequential machine map-
pings, left and right quotient with regular languages
(e.g., the right quotient of L1 with respect to L2 is the
language {x: xy E L1 for y E Ld).
A trio (semi-AFL, AFL) F is said to be principal if
there is a language L such that F is the least trio (semi-
AFL, AFL, respectively) containing L; the language L
is called a generator of the family F.
All four families in the Chomsky hierarchy are prin-
cipal; for instance, from the Chomsky-Schiitzenberger
characterization of context-free languages one sees that
the Dyck languages are generators of CF.
Characterizations of AFLs in terms of abstract fami-
lies of automata are also possible. Details can be found in
[lJ; results like those mentioned above and bibliograph-
ical information can be found in AFL operations.
See also Formal languages and automata; Ab-
stract family of languages.
References
[1] GINSBURG, S.: Algebraic and automata-theoretic properties of
formal languages, North-Holland, 1975.
[2] GINSBURG, S., AND GREIBACH, S.A.: 'Abstract families of
languages', in S. GINSBURG, S.A. GREIBACH, AND J.E.
HOPCROFT (eds.): Studies in Abstract Families of Languages,
Vol. 87 of Memoirs, Amer. Math. Soc., 1969.
[3] ROZENBERG, G., AND SALOMAA, A.: The mathematical theory
of L systems, Acad. Press, 1980.
Gh. Paun
MSC 1991: 68S05, 68Q45
________ u________
U -STATISTIC - A sum is the mean value of the sample. The von Mises func-
tional, given by
n
Vnm(ip) = n- m L ip(Xil ,··· ,Xi =) =
(i l , ... ,i=)=l

H oeffding's form for U -statistics is [4]:

U;:'( ip) := n -[mJ

where
1
L hi (dx)
n
IIn(dx) =-
The kernel of aU-statistic, ip: xm -+ R, is a sym- n i=l
metric real-valued function of m variables. The random
is the empirical distribution, can be represented by a
variables Xl, ... ,Xn (cf. also Random variable) are
linear combination of U-statistics [7]. For the primitive
independent identically distributed with common distri-
bution function P(A) on a measurable space (X, X),
kernel ipm(X1,'" ,x m ) = n:1
¢(Xi), the U-statistic
m
A E X. The number m :S n is called the degree of the
U -statistic. The number of terms in the sum is equal to

is a symmetric polynomial statistic of the random vari-

( n) n!
ables Yk = cp(Xk), 1 :S k :S n.
m - m!(n-m)!
The starting point of the analysis of U-statistics is
in the first sum and to the Hoeffding decomposition of U-statistics, [4]:
,
n[ mJ __ - -n.- - =n (n-1 ) ... (n-m+1 ) U;:'(ip) = Eip + f (:)u~(gc),
(n - m)! c=r

where gc = gc(X1, ... ,xc), l' :S c :S m, are completely

in the second sum. Also, n-[mJ = 1/n[mJ. degenerate kernels: Eg c (X 1, ... ,Xc) = O. The integer
Various statistics can be represented as U-statistics l' 2: 1 is called the rank of the U -statistic. Here, by def-
or can be approximated by U-statistics with a suitable inition, Eip is the mean value of the kernel and, also,
choice of the kernel ip. For example, the sampling vari- EU;.n (ip) = Eip. Therefore, an U -statistic is an unbi-
ance ased estimator of the functional () = Eip.
The theory of U-statistics, founded by W. Hoeffding
in the seminal work [4], published in 1948, was devel-
oped under the impact of the theory of sums of inde-
pendent random variables. The law of large numbers,
can be obtained using the kernel ip(X1' X2) the central limit theorem, the law of the iterated
X2)2/2. Here, logarithm, etc. were investigated in various works (see
the references in [6]). The asymptotic behaviour of U-
1 n
statistics can be reduced to the analysis of sums of inde-
X= - LXi
n pendent identically distributed random variables. For a
i=l
U-STATISTIC

non-degenerate kernel <I> with E<I> = 0 and EI<I>14/3 < 00 [2] DENKER, M.: Asymptotic theory in nonparametric statistics,
Vieweg, 1985.
there is weak convergence (as n -+ 00; cf. also Conver-
[3] DYNKIN, E.B., AND MANDELBAUM, A.: 'Symmetric statistics,
gence, types of)): Poisson point process and multiple Wiener integrals', Ann.
ylnU:;' (<I> ) Stat. 11 (1983), 739-745.
=> r, [4] HOEFFDlNG, W.: 'A class of statistics with asymptotically
ma
normal distribution', Ann. Math. Stat. 19 (1948),293-325.
where r is a random variable with standard Gaussian
[5] KOROLYUK, V.S., AND BOROVSKIKH, Yu.V.: Random perma-
distribution with Er = 0 and Er2 = 1. Here, a 2 = Egf. nents, VSP, 1994. (Translated from the Russian.)
For r ~ 2 the limit distribution of U -statistics de- [6] KOROLYUK, V.S., AND BOROVSKIKH, YU.V.: Theory of U-
pends essentially on the kernel. For a primitive com- statistics, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1994. (Translated from the
Russian.)
pletely degenerate kernel
[7] LEE, A.J.: U-statistics. Theory and practice, Vo!' 110 of Sta-
m
<I>m(Xb'" ,xm ) = II cp(xc) tistics textbooks and monographs, M. Dekker, 1990.
[8] SERFLING, R.J.: Approximation: theorems of mathematical
c=l
statistics, Wiley, 1980.
with Ecp(Xd = 0 and Ecp2(Xd = a 2 < 00, there is weak V. S. K orolyuk
MSC 1991: 60Fxx, 62Exx
convergence (as n -+ 00):
nm/2u m (<I> )
n m => Hm(r), UNIFORMLY INTEGRABLE SET OF RANDOM
am
VARIABLES - A set of random variables (cf. Ran-
where Hm(x) is the Hermite polynomial of degree m [5] dom variable) having finite expectations such that
(cf. also Hermite polynomials). integrated tails of their distribution functions are uni-
U-statistics with completely degenerate kernel, formly small. Let a set X consist of random variables
Eg(Xb'" ,xm ) = 0 and Eg2 < 00, converge weakly (as defined on a common probability space (n, F, P). It
n -+ 00) to the Ito-Wiener stochastic integral [6], [3]: is called uniformly integrable if

nm/2U:;'(g) =>
x'"
1 g(Xb""
c=l
Xm) IT W(dxc). lim sup E(X; IXI
c-too XEX
> c) =

U -statistics can also be represented by the stochastic = lim sup ( X(w) P(dw) = O.
integral with respect to the permanent random mea- c-too XEX J{w: IX(w)l>c}
sure, as follows, [6], Uniform integrability is a kind of compactness of sets
of random variables or their distribution functions. It
U:;'(g) =
plays a key role in a variety of convergence problems.
=n-[m] ( g(Xl, ... ,xm)~:(dXb'" ,dx m ), An example of this is the following theorem [1].
Jxm Theorem 1. Let a sequence X = {Xn}n~O of ran-
where dom variables such that EIXnl < 00, n ~ 0, con-
verge in probability to a random variable X (cf. Con-
m vergence in probability). Then EIXI < 00 and
L II[8 xjJdx c ) - P(dxc)]. limn-too EIXn - XI = 0 if and only if the set X is uni-
formly integrable.
l$.it #"'-j.j", $.n c=l

The asymptotic analysis of U -statistics is based on the
martingale structure of U -statistics and involves func-
tional limit theorems, rate of convergence, almost sure
convergence, asymptotic expansions, and probability of
large deviations.
The contemporary development of the theory of U-
statistics contains various generalizations: U-statistics
with kernel taking values in a Hilbert or Banach
space [1], multi-sampling U-statistics, bootstrap and
truncated U-statistics, weighted U-statistics, etc. U-
statistics with kernel depending on n are used in non-
parametric density and regression estimation [7], [6], [8],
[3], [2].
References
[1] BOROVSKIKH, Yu.V.: U-statistics in Banach space, VSP,
1995. (Translated from the Russian.)
In fact, the definition of uniform integrability is
stated in terms of marginal distribution functions of ran-
dom variables X E X and does not necessarily require
that all these random variables are defined on the same
probability space.
Each finite set of random variables having finite abso-
lute expectations is uniformly integrable. This does not
hold, in general, for infinite sets.
Theorem 2. A set X of random variables is uniformly
integrable if and only if there exists a non-negative in-
creasing convex function G: R+ -+ R+ such that
lim G(t) = 00
t-too t
and
sup EG(IXI) = 9 < 00.
XEX

474

The criterion above leads to a quantification of the
notion of uniform integrability: The straightforward es-
timate
c(g - G(O))
1~~ E(IXI ; IXI > c) ::; G(c) _ G(O)
represents a uniform upper bound of the integrated tails
of all random variables belonging to a uniformly inte-
grable set.
References
[1] MEYER, P.A.: Probability and potentials, Blaisdell, 1966.
V. Kalashnikov
MSC 1991: 60AlO, 60B10
UNITAL - A 2-(q3+1, q+1, 1)-design (cf. also Block
design). It arose originally as the set of self-conjugate
points and non-self-conjugate lines in a unitary polarity
in a Desarguesian projective plane PG(2, q2) (cf. De-
sargues geometry), in which case it has an automor-
phism group PfU(3, q2) with associated simple group
PSU(3, q2) (when q > 2); see [3]. This type is known
as a classical or Hermitian unital. The points can be
considered as points of the curve with equation
xq+l + yq+l + zq+l = 0
whose coordinates lie in the field GF(q2). The design
was first explicitly constructed by R.e. Bose [2]. In
fact, such a polarity and hence a unital exists in a non-
Desarguesian plane constructed from a finite commuta-
tive semi-field with an involution [6].
UNITAL
A unital with q = 6 has been constructed by R.
Mathon [5] and by S. Bagchi and B. Bagchi [1]. This
shows that a unital of order q cannot necessarily be em-
bedded in a plane of order q. It had in fact been shown
by H. Liineberg [4] that another class of unitals, the Ree
unitals, which have an associated simple automorphism
group G, cannot be embedded in a projective plane in
such a way that G is induced by a collineation group of
the plane.
A class of unitals other than the Hermitian ones and
those embeddable in PG(2, q2) are the Buekenhout-
Metz unitals (cf. Buekenhout-Metz unital).
References
[1] BAGCHI, S., AND BAGCHI, B.: 'Designs from pairs of finite
fields I. A cyclic unital U(6) and other regular Steiner 2-
designs', J. Combin. Th. A 52 (1989),51-61.
[2] BOSE, R.C.: 'On the application of finite projective geome-
try for deriving a certain series of balanced Kirkman arrange-
ments': Golden Jubilee Commemoration Volume, 1958-1959,
Calcutta Math. Soc., 1959, pp. 341-354.
[3] HIRSCHFELD, J.W.P.: Projective geometries over finite fields,
Oxford Univ. Press, 1979.
[4] LUNEBURG, H.: 'Some remarks concerning Ree groups of type
(G2)', J. Algebra 3 (1966), 256-259.
[5] MATHON, R.: 'Constructions of cyclic 2-designs', Ann. Dis-
crete Math. 34 (1987), 353-362.
[6] PIPER, F.: 'Unitary block designs', in R.J. WILSON (ed.):
Graph Theory and Combinatorics, Vo!' 34 of Research Notes
in mathematics, Pitman, 1979, pp. 98-105.
J. w.P. Hirschfeld
MSC 1991: 51E20, 05B05, 20G40
475
________ v ________
VALUED FUNCTION FIELD An (algebraic) fum:-
tion field F I K (that is, a finitely generated field ex-
tension of transcendence degree at least one; cf. also
Extension of a field) together with a valuation v, or
place P, on F.
The collection of all places P on F which are the iden-
tity on K is called the Riemann space of F I K. Such a
P is called a place of the function field F I K and the
transcendence degree of its residue field F P over K is
called the dimension of P. If F P = K, then P is called
a rational place of F I K; this is the analogue of the
notion of a K-rational point of an algebraic variety
defined over K.
Let v be an arbitrary valuation on F. Then its re-
striction to K is a valuation on K; the respective value
groups are denoted by vF and vK and the respective
residue fields are denoted by Fv and K v. The transcen-
dence degree of F I K is greater than or equal to the
sum of the transcendence degree of the residue field ex-
tension Fv I Kv and the Q-dimension of (vF/vK) C29 Q
(which is equal to the maximal number of elements in
vF that are rationally independent over vK; it may be
viewed as the 'transcendence degree' of the group exten-
sion vF I vK). If equality holds, one says that (F I K, v)
is without transcendence defect; in this case, the exten-
sions Fv I K v and vF I vK are finitely generated. An
important special case is when v is a constant reduction
of F I K, that is, the transcendence degree of F I K is
equal to that of Fv I K v (which is then again a function
field).
Stability theorem. The stability theorem gives criteria
for a valued function field to be a defectless field (see also
Defect); a defect less field is also called a stable field. It
was first proved by H. Grauert and R. Remmert (1966)
for a special case; their proof was later generalized by
several authors to cover the case of constant reduction
in general (cf. [1]). A further generalization (with an al-
ternative proof) was given in [7]: If (F I K, v) is a valued
function field without transcendence defect and if (K, v)
is a defectless field, then so is (F, v). This theorem has
applications in the model theory of valued fields via
the structure theory of Henselizations of valued function
fields, sketched below. As an application to rigid ana-
lytic spaces (cf. Rigid analytic space), the stability
theorem is used to prove that the quotient field of the
free Tate algebra Tn (K) is a defect less field, provided
that K is. This, in turn, is used to deduce the Grauert-
Remmert finiteness theorem (cf. also Finiteness theo-
rems), in a generalized version due to L. Gruson (1968;
see [1]).
Independence theorem. If F contains a set
T = {Xl,'" ,X,., YI, ... ,Ys} such that the values of
Xl, ... ,X r form a maximal set of elements in vF ra-
tionally independent over vK, and the residues of
YI, ... ,Ys form a transcendence basis of Fv I K v, then
by the initial remarks, T is a transcendence basis of
F I K and (F I K, v) is without transcendence defect. In
this case, the stability theorem can be used to prove the
independence theorem, which states that the Henselian
defect of the finite extension F I K(T) is independent
of the choice of such a set T. This makes it possible to
define a Henselian defect for all valued function fields
without transcendence defect; in particular, in the con-
stant reduction case. A different notion of defect, the
vector space defect, was considered in [4].
Constant reduction of function fields of transcen-
dence degree one. This was introduced by M. Deuring
in [2] and studied by many authors; for a survey, see [3].
The main object of investigation is the relation between
the function fields F I K and Fv I Kv.
Answering a question of M. Nagata, J. Ohm [8] gave
an elementary proof for the ruled residue theorem: If v
is a valuation on K(x) such that the residue field K(x)v
is of transcendence degree one over Kv, then K(x)v is
a rational function field over a finite extension of K v.
More generally, one seeks to relate the genus (cf. Al-
gebraic function) of F I K to that of Fv I Kv. Several
authors proved genus inequalities; one such inequality,

proved by B. Green, M. Matignon and F. Pop in [4], is
given below. Let F I K be a function field of transcen-
dence degree one and assume that K coincides with the
constant field of F I K (the relative algebraic closure of
K in F). Let VI, ... ,Vs be distinct constant reductions
of F I K having a common restriction to K. Then
1- gF :S 1- s + L Oieiri(l- gi),
i=1
where gF is the genus of F I K and gi is the genus
of FVi I K Vi, ri is the degree of the constant field
of FVi I K Vi over K vi, Oi is the Henselian defect of
(F I K, Vi)' and ei is the ramification index (ViF : ViK)
(which is always finite in the constant reduction case).
It follows that constant reductions VI, v2 with common
restriction to K and gl = g2 = gF 2:: 1 must be equal. In
other words, for a fixed valuation on K there is at most
one extension V to F which is a good reduction, that is,
i) gF = gFv;
ii) there exists a f E F such that v(f) = 0 and
[F : K(f)] = [Fv : Kv(fv)], where fv denotes the
residue of f;
iii) Kv is the constant field of Fv I Kv.
An element f as in ii) is called a regular function.
More generally, f is said to have the uniqueness prop-
erty if fv is transcendental over K V and the restriction
of V to K(f) has a unique extension to F. In this case,
[F: K(f)] = Oe [Fv: Kv(fv)]' where 0 is the Henselian
defect of (F I K, v) and e = (vF : vK(f)) = (vF : vK).
If K is algebraically closed, then e = 1, and it follows
from the stability theorem that 0 = 1; hence in this case,
every element with the uniqueness property is regular.
It was proved in [5] that F has an element with the
uniqueness property already if the restriction of v to K
is Henselian. The proof uses the model completeness of
the elementary theory of algebraically closed valued
fields (see Model theory of valued fields), and ultra-
products (cf. Ultrafilter) of function fields. Elements
with the uniqueness property also exist if vF is a sub-
group of Q and K v is algebraic over a finite field. This
follows from work in [6], where the uniqueness property
is related to the local Skolem property, which gives a
criterion for the existence of algebraic v-adic integral
solutions on geometrically integral varieties.
Divisor reduction mappings. A further way to com-
pare F I K with Fv I K v is to construct a rela-
tion between their Riemann spaces by divisor reduction
mappings. Such morphisms, which preserve arithmeti-
cal properties, were introduced by M. Deuring in [2] for
the case of good reduction when the valuations are dis-
crete. This was generalized to non-discrete valuations
by P. Roquette in [9]. A partial reduction mapping not
needing the assumption of good reduction was used in
VALUED FUNCTION FIELD
[5] for the construction of elements with the uniqueness
property.
Structure of Henselizations of valued function
fields. Valued function fields play a role also in the
model theory of valued fields. The question whether an
elementary theory is model complete or complete can be
reduced to the existence of embeddings of finitely gener-
ated extensions of structures (cf. Existentially closed;
Robinson test; Prime model). In the case of valued
fields, these are just the valued function fields (or the
finite extensions, but a field is never existentially closed
in a non-trivial finite extension). Since there is no hope
for a general classification of valued function fields up to
isomorphism, it makes sense to pass to their Henseliza-
tions and use the universal property of Henselizations
(see Henselization of a valued field). The main re-
sults are as follows (cf. [7]).
1) In the case of valued function fields without tran-
scendence defect, natural criteria can be given for the
isomorphism class of their Henselizations to be deter-
mined by the isomorphism classes of the value group
and the residue field. This makes essential use of the
stability theorem.
2) If (F I K, v) is a valued function field of transcen-
dence degree one which is an immediate extension, and
if (K, v) is a tame field (see Ramification theory of
valued fields), then the Henselization of (F, v) is equal
to the Henselization of a suitably chosen rational func-
tion field contained in this Henselization. This reduces
the classification problem to the rational function field,
where in turn it can be solved using methods developed
by 1. Kaplansky (1942; see Kaplansky field). If the
residue field of K has characteristic zero, the above re-
sult is a direct consequence of the fact that in this case
(K (x), v) is a defect less field, for every x E F.
References
[1] BOSCH, S., Gi'rNTZER, V., AND REMMERT, R.: Non-
Archimedean analysis, Springer, 1984.
[2] DEURING, M.: 'Reduktion algebraischer Funktionenkorper
nach Primdivisoren des Konstantenkorpers', Math. Z. 47
(1942), 643-654.
[3] GREEN, B.: 'Recent results in the theory of constant reduc-
tions', Sem. de Theorie des Nombres, Bordeaux 3 (1991),
275-310.
[4] GREEN, B., MATIGNON, M., AND POP, F.: 'On valued func-
tion fields I', Manuscripta Math. 65 (1989),357-376.
[5] GREEN, B., MATIGNON, M., AND POP, F.: 'On valued func-
tion fields II', J. Reine Angew. Math. 412 (1990), 128-149.
[6] GREEN, B., MATIGNON, M., AND POP, F.: 'On the local
Skolem property', J. Reine Angew. Math. 458 (1995), 183-
199.
[7] KUHLMANN, F.-V.: Valuation theory of fields, abelian
groups and modules, Algebra, Logic and Applications. Gor-
don&Breach, forthcoming.
477
VALUED FUNCTION FIELD
[8] OHM, J.: 'The ruled residue theorem for simple transcenden-
tal extensions of valued fields', Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 89
(1983), 16-18.
[9] ROQUETTE, P.: 'Zur Theorie der Konstantenreduktion alge-
braischer Mannigfaltigkeiten', J. Reine Angew. Math. 200
(1958), 1-44.
F.- V. Kuhlmann
MSC 1991: 12J20, 14H05
V APNIK-CHERVONENKIS CLASS, Vapnik-
Cervonenkis class - Let S be a set, C a collection of
subsets of Sand F a finite subset of S. Then C is said
to shatter F if for every subset A of F there is a set C
in C with A = C n F. If there is a largest, finite k such
that C shatters at least one set of cardinality k, then C
is called a Vapnik-Chervonenkis class, or VC class, of
sets and S(C) = kits Vapnik-Chervonenkis index.
Let ~ C (F) be the number of different sets C n F
for C E C. Let mC(n) be the maximum of ~C(F)
over all sets F of cardinality n. Thus, C is a Vapnik-
Chervonenkis class if and only if m C (n) < 2n for some
finite n, and then for all n > S(C). Bauer's lemma says
that
S(C)
mC(n) ::; L (~).
j=O J
Thus, mC(n) is either always 2n or, for a Vapnik-
Chervonenkis class C, it is bounded above by a polyno-
mial in n of degree B(C). (This is the so-called Vapnik-
Chervonenkis property: if mC(n) < 2n for large n, then
m C ( n) is bounded by a polynomial.)
Vapnik-Chervonenkis classes have turned out to be
useful in computer science (learning theory [1]), prob-
ability theory and mathematical statistics [9], be-
cause certain probability limit theorems hold uniformly
over them under suitable measurability conditions. One
such sufficient measurability condition is that there ex-
ist a a-algebra S of subsets of B, including C, and a
mapping Y from a complete separable metric space U
onto C such that the set of pairs (x,u) with x E Y(u)
is product-measurable in S x U. A VC class C satisfy-
ing this last condition is called a VCM class. While VC,
but not VCM, classes can be shown to exist using the
axiom of choice, the VC classes usually encountered
in applications are VCM.
Let P be a probability measure on (S, S) and let
Xl, X 2 , ..• be independent coordinates with distribu-
tion P, specifically, on a countable Cartesian product of
copies of (B, S, P). Let P n be the sum ofthe point masses
lin at Xi for i = 1, ... ,nj it is called an empirical mea-
sure for P (cf. also Empirical process). Then the law
of large numbers for empirical measures holds uni-
formly over any VCM class C, meaning that the supre-
mum for C E C of l(Pn - P)(C)I approaches zero almost
478
surely as n becomes large [10]. This can be improved to
a uniform law of the iterated logarithm, meaning
that for any VCM class C, with probability 1,
lim sup n l / 2 sup l(Pn - P)(C)I =
n-+oo GEC (2 log log n)1/2
= sup(P(A)(I - p(A)))1/2.
AEC
Moreover, a central limit theorem holds uniformly: if
C is any VCM class, and G p assigns to sets in C jointly
normal (Gaussian) random variables with mean zero and
covariances EGp(A)Gp(B) = P(A n B) - P(A)P(B),
then for any f > 0 there is a sufficiently large m such
that for every n 2: m, there exists a G p with
sup Inl/2(Pn - P)(A) - Gp(A)1 <f
AEC
on an event with probability at least 1 - L For the uni-
form central limit theorem to hold for each probability
measure P on (S, S), the VC property is also necessary.
VC classes can be generated as follows. Let V be a
k-dimensional vector space of real-valued functions on
S. For each f E V, let pos(J) be the set where f > O.
Then the class C of all sets pos(J) for f E V is a VC
class with S(C) = k. For example, the set of all ellipsoids
in a Euclidean space Rd is a VCM class for each d. Also,
let C be a VC class and m a finite integer. Let 'D be the
union of all Boolean algebras of sets (cf. Boolean alge-
bra), each generated by at most m sets in C. Then 'D is
a VC class. For example, the set of all convex polytopes
with at most m faces in Rd is a VC class for each m and
d. Classes of projections of positivity sets of polynomials
of bounded degree, and some other related classes, are
also VC [7].
The class of all finite sets in R d, and the class of all
closed convex sets for d 2: 2, are not VC classes.
The notion of VC class extends in different ways to a
class F of real functions on S. The subgraph of a func-
tion f is the set
{ (s, x) : 0 ::; x ::; f (s) or f (s) ::; x ::; O}
in S x R. Then F is called a VC subgraph class if the
collection of all subgraphs of functions in F is a VC class
in S x Rj it is called a VC major class if the class of
all sets {s E S: f (s) > x} for f E F and real x is a VC
class in S.
The above probability limit theorems extend to these
and larger classes of functions, with suitable measura-
bility and boundedness. Neither the VC subgraph nor
VC major property implies the other. For a uniformly
bounded, suitably measurable family of functions, the
uniform central limit property for all P appears not to
be equivalent to any VC-type combinatorial property.
For a probability measure P and two events A, B, let
dl,p(A,B) = EllA -IBI· For a totally bounded metric

space (T, d) and E > 0, let D( E, T, d) be. the maximum
number of points of T all at distance at least E from each
other. For any m there is a Km < 00 such that for every
VCM class C with S(C) = m and any P,
D(E,C,d1,p)::; KmE- m ,
[5]. There is a universal constant K such that for every
VCM class C and any M < 00,
Pr {sup I(P n
AEC
- P)(A)I > M} : ;
::; KM 2S (C)-1 exp( -2M2),
[8].
Every VC class is included in a maximal class with
the same VC index. If C is a maximal VC class of index
1, then for any A E C the set of symmetric differences
(B \ A) U (A \ B) for B E C has a tree-like partial or-
dering by inclusion, and conversely, such an ordering
implies S(C) = 1 [3]. For index greater than 1 no such
structure is known (1996).
A general reference on VC classes of sets and func-
tions, also from the viewpoint of probability and statis-
tics, is [9, Sect. 2.6].
References
[1] BLUMER, A., EHRENFEUCHT, A., HAUSSLER, D., AND WAR-
MUTH, M.K.: 'Learnability and the Vapnik-Chervonenkis di-
mension', JACM 6 (1989), 929-965.
[2] DUDLEY, R.M.: 'Central limit theorems for empirical mea-
sures', Ann. of Probab. 6 (1978),899-929.
[3] DUDLEY, R.M.: 'The structure of some Vapnik-Cervonenkis
classes': Proc. Berkeley Conf.in honor of J. Neyman and J.
Kiefer, Vol. 2, Wadsworth, 1985, pp. 495-508.
[4] DUDLEY, R.M.: 'Universal Donsker classes and metric en-
tropy', Ann. of Probab. 15 (1987), 1306-1326.
[5] HAUSSLER, D.: 'Sphere packing numbers for subsets of the
Boolean n-cube with bounded Vapnik-Chervonenkis dimen-
sion', J. Combin. Th. A 69 (1995), 217-232.
[6] POLLARD, D.: Convergence of stochastic processes, Springer,
1984.
[7] STENGLE, G., AND YUKICH, J.: 'Some new Vapnik-
Chervonenkis classes', Ann. Statist. 17 (1989), 1441-1446.
[8] TALAGRAND, M.: 'Sharper bounds for Gaussian and empirical
processes', Ann. Probab. 22 (1994), 28-76.
[9] VAART, A. VAN DER, AND WELLNER, J.: Weak convergence
and empirical processes, Springer, 1996.
[10] VAPNIK, V.N., AND CERVONENKIS, A.YA.: 'On the uniform
convergence of frequencies of occurrence of events to their
probabilities', Th. Probab. Appl. 16 (1971), 264-280.
R.M. Dudley
J. H. J. Einmahl
MSC 1991: 05A05, 60B12
VLASov-MAXWELL EQUATION, Vlasov-
Maxwell system - The same as the Vlasov kinetic
equation. It is more rarely called the Vlasov-Enskog
equation or Vlasov-Enskog system.
M. H azewinkel
VLASOV-POISSON-FOKKER-PLANCK SYSTEM
MSC 1991: 78A35
VLASOV-POISSON-FoKKER-PLANCK SYS-
TEM - The linear Fokker-Planck operator is a model
for a certain type of collision in a gas or plasma of par-
ticles, which are assumed to be described by a kinetic
distribution function f(t,x,v) 2: O. This means that the
number of particles having their positions and velocities
(x, v) E D at time t is given by JD
f(t, x, v) dx dv. The
linear Fokker-Planck collision process has been intro-
duced by S. Chandrasekhar [6]. The main assumption is
that the collisional effects take the form of a stochastic
perturbation in Newton's laws of classical mechanics,
which are written as
dx = v dt, dv = (F(t, x) - (3v) dt + v'2a dW.
Here, W denotes the standard Wiener process, (J > 0
is a diffusion coefficient, (3 2: 0 is a friction parameter
and F is an external force (per mass unit). This random
perturbation can be interpreted as the result of interac-
tions with a thermal bath at temperature kT = m(J / (3,
with m the mass of particles and k the Boltzmann
constant. Writing the local conservation of the number
of particles JD f(t, x, v) dx dv, one obtains the Vlasov-
Fokker-Planck equation
ad + v· \1 xf + divv[(F(t, x) - (3v)f - (J\1 vf] = o.
The Fokker-Planck term
Lf = div v [(3vf + (J\1vf]
can also be viewed as a simplified version of the Fokker-
Planck-Landau collision operator, which is quadratic as
the Boltzmann collision operator, see [9] or [7].
There are two situations where the Vlasov-Fokker-
Planck equation is relevant: for charged particles and
for gravitational systems. When dealing with a self-
consistent force field F, one obtains in both cases the
Poisson equation
F = -\1 x cP,
The constant A is positive in the Coulombic case and
negative in the Newtonian case. See [8], [10] for discus-
sions on this model in the latter gravitational case.
Concerning the mathematical study of the Vlasov-
Poisson-Fokker-Planck system, the situation is compa-
rable with the Vlasov-Poisson system, which is obtained
when (J = (3 = O. The main differences are that there
are no characteristics, and that the Laplacian term gives
rise to smoothing effects. Actually, the Vlasov-Fokker-
Planck operator is hypo-elliptic as soon as F E Coo;
when F = 0, the Green function can be computed
explicitly.
479
VLASOV-POISSON-FOKKER-PLANCK SYSTEM
Weak solutions in the whole space x E R 3, v E R3
can be obtained exactly as for the Vlasov-Poisson case,
using an estimate of the energy
II Iv~2 I 1~12
£(t) = f dx dv + ~ dx.
Existence of strong solutions (with a bounded force F)
is obtained in [2], and smoothing effects are provided in
[3]. For a bounded domain x E fl, v E R3 with bound-
ary conditions, existence of weak solutions is obtained
in [5]. Concerning the asymptotics, it is proved in [4]
that f tends to a stationary solution when t -+ 00 (at
least in the Coulombic case), by using the decrease of
the free energy
A(t) = £(t) +~ II flnf dx dv,
which satisfies
The same analysis has been generalized to the case of a
bounded domain in [1].
References
[lJ BONILLA, L.L., CARRILLO, J.A., AND SOLER, J.: 'Asymptotic
behavior of an initial-boundary value problem for the Vlasov-
Poisson-Fokker-Planck system', SIAM J. Aplied Math. to
appear (1997).
[2J BOUCHUT, F.: 'Existence and uniqueness of a global smooth
solution for the Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-Planck system in
three dimensions', J. Funct. Anal. 111 (1993),239-258.
[3J BOUCHUT, F.: 'Smoothing effect for the non-linear Vlasov-
Poisson-Fokker-Planck system', J. Diff. Eq. 122 (1995),
225-238.
[4J BOUCHUT, F., AND DOLBEAULT, J.: 'On long time asymp-
totics of the Vlasov-Fokker-Planck equation and of the
Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-Planck system with coulombic and
newtonian potentials', Diff. Int. Eq. 8 (1995), 487-514.
[5J CARRILLO, J.A.: 'Global weak solutions of the absorption
and reflection-type initial-boundary value problems for the
Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-Planck system', submitted (1996).
[6J CHANDRASEKHAR, S.: 'Stochastic problems in physics and as-
tronomy', Rev. Mod. Phys. 15 (1943), 1-89.
[7J CHAPMAN, S., AND COWLING, T.G.: The mathematical theory
0/ non-uniform gases, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1939.
[8J KIESLING, M.K.H.: 'On the equilibrium statistical mechanics
of isothermal classical gravitating matter', J. Stat. Phys. 55
(1989), 203-257.
[9J LIFSHITZ, E.M., AND PITAEVSKII, L.P.: Physical kinetics,
Pergamon, 1981.
[10J PADMANABHAN, T.: 'Statistical mechanics of gravitating sys-
tems', Phys. Reports 188 (1990), 285-362.
F. Bouchut
MSC 1991: 35Q60, 35Q72, 35H05, 78A35, 82C31, 83-
XX
VMO-SPACE, space of functions of vanishing mean
oscillation - The class of functions of vanishing mean
oscillation on R n , denoted by VMO(Rn), is the sub-
class of BMO(Rn) consisting of the functions f with
480
the property that
lim _111 f If - fQI dt -+ O.
iQ
Q
IQI--+O
Here, IQI denotes the volume of the ball Q and fQ de-
notes the mean of f over Q (see BMO-space). As with
BMO, VMO can be defined for spaces of homogeneous
type.
Some properties of VMO are as follows (see also [1],
[2], [3]). Bounded, uniformly continuous functions are
in VMO (cf. Uniform continuity), and VMO can be
obtained as the VMO-closure of the continuous func-
tions that vanish at infinity. The Hilbert transform
of a bounded, uniformly continuous function on R is
in VMO(R). VMO(Rn) is the dual of the Hardy space
Hl(Rn) (cf. also Hardy spaces).
VMO appears in the theory of Douglas algebras: Let
T be the boundary of the unit disc in C. Let H OO denote
the subspace of Loo (T) consisting of the boundary values
of bounded holomorphic functions (cf. Analytic func-
tion) on the unit disc and let C denote the set of contin-
uous functions on T. Put Hoo+C = {J+g: f E Hoo,g E
C}. H OO + C is a closed subalgebra of Loo(T) and the
simplest example of a Douglas algebra. Its largest self-
adjoint subalgebra, QC, equals Loo(T) n VMO(T), [2],
[3].
See also BMO-space.
References
[lJ COIFMAN, R.R., AND WEISS, G.: 'Extensions of Hardy-spaces
and their use in analysis', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 83 (1977),
569-645.
[2J GARNETT, J.: Bounded analytic/unctions, Acad. Press, 1981.
[3J SARASON, D.: 'Functions of vanishing mean oscillation',
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 207 (1975), 391-405.
J. Wiegerinck
MSC 1991: 26A45, 46Exx, 32A37, 32A35
VON KARMAN EQUATIONS for plates - A semi-
linear elliptic system of two fourth-order partial differ-
ential equations with two independent spatial variables
(cf. also Elliptic partial differential equation). They
were proposed by T. von Karman [10] to describe the
equilibrium of thin elastic plates undergoing displace-
ments of moderate size with small strain under the ac-
tion of normal forces (cf. also Elasticity, mathemat-
ical theory of; Elasticity theory, planar problem
of). For an isotropic, homogeneous plate with constant
thickness h, with constant elastic (Young) modulus E >
0, and with constant Poisson ratio II E (-1,1/2), these
equations for the unknowns wand <P have the form
Dll.2w - h[<P, w] = f,
~2<p = -!E[w w]
2 "

where
8 4u 8 4u 8 4u
6. 2U == 8x4 + 2 8x28y2 + 8y4
is the two-dimensional biharmonic operator (cf. Bihar-
monic function) acting on a function u,
8 2u 8 2v 8 2u 8 2v 8 2u 8 2v
[u,v]==--+---2----
8x 2 8y2 8y2 8x 2 8x8y 8x8y
is the Monge-Ampere operator (cf. Monge-Ampere
equation) acting on the functions u and v,
Eh 3
D=----
12(1 - v 2 )
is a positive material constant, called the flexural rigid-
ity, and f is a prescribed function. For non-homogeneous
or anisotropic plates, the biharmonic operator is re-
placed by slightly more general operators with the same
structure (see [7, Sect. 64]). The von Karman equations
are supplemented with any of a variety of boundary con-
ditions, which express the way the plate is supported
on its edge. (These conditions have the same nature as
those for linear plate theories, which are discussed in
many of the books listed in [9].)
To interpret the variables of the von Karman equa-
tions, one conceives of a plate of constant thickness h
as a three-dimensional body whose natural (unstressed)
state in Euclidean (x, y, z)-space occupies a thin region
of the form {(x,y,z): (x,y) E [2, Izl ::; h/2}, where [2
is a connected region in the (x, y)-plane. One identifies
a material point of this body by its Cartesian coordi-
nates (x, y, z). Then w(x, y) denotes the component of
displacement of the material point (x, y, 0) in the direc-
tion normal to the plane z = 0, and f(x, y) denotes the
resultant of external force normal to this plane per unit
of its area acting on material points with coordinates
(x, y, z). Other components of force are regarded as neg-
ligible. q, is a stress function; second derivatives of it give
the components of average stress in the plane. By means
of auxiliary relations inherent in the modelling process
leading to the von Karman equations, other geometric
and mechanical variables can be expressed in terms of w
and q,. The von Karman equations can readily be char-
acterized as the Euler-Lagrange equations (cf. Euler-
Lagrange equation) for a suitable energy functional
(cf. [5]). Several dynamical versions of the von Karman
equations are available (see the references in [9]).
Von Karman [10] derived these equations by a heuris-
tic method in which he discarded certain terms he re-
garded as physically or geometrically negligible. P.G.
Ciarlet [2] (in work generalized by J.-1. Davet [6], cf.
[3]) showed that these equations could be systematically
derived as the leading term of a formal asymptotic ex-
pansion in a thickness parameter of the exact equations
of three-dimensional non-linear elasticity (away from the
VON KARMAN EQUATIONS
boundary), provided that the applied forces are suitably
scaled in terms of the thickness parameter.
The beautiful mathematical structure of the von
Karman equations has attracted a considerable amount
of mathematical analysis. Many of the major advances
in steady-state bifurcation theory were stimulated and
illustrated by studies of buckling of plates described by
these equations. (See [5], [11] for examples and refer-
ences. Global analyses of these equations are merely of
mathematical interest because the assumptions under-
lying the equations lose their physical validity when the
strains are large.)
The von Karman equations are typical of many linear
and semi-linear models for plates and shells (a compre-
hensive bibliography for which is given in [9]; see also
[4] and Shell theory). These models may be contrasted
with geometrically exact theories, for which the equilib-
rium of elastic plates is governed by quasi-linear elliptic
systems (cf. [1], [8] and Quasi-linear equation). These
theories account for large deformations and non-linear
constitutive laws for bodies that need not be exceedingly
thin. The analytic difficulties posed by the quasi-linear
systems have so far (1996) prevented the treatment of
concrete problems other than those governed by ordi-
nary differential equations.
References
[1] ANTMAN, S.S.: Nonlinear problems of elasticity, Springer,
1995.
[2] CIARLET, P .G.: 'A justification of the von Karman equations',
Arch. Rational Mech. Anal. 73 (1980), 349-389.
[3] CIARLET, P.G.: Plates and junctions in elastic multi-
structures, Masson, 1990.
[4] CIARLET, P.G., AND LODS, V.: 'Asymptotic analysis of lin-
early elastic shells I. Justification of membrane shell equa-
tions', Arch. Rational Mech. Anal. 136 (1996), ll9-161.
[5] CIARLET, P.G., AND RABIER, P.: Les equations de von
Karman, Springer, 1980.
[6] DAVET, J.-L.: 'Justification de modeles de plaques non-
lineaires pour des lois de comportment generales' , Mod. Math.
Anal. Num. 20 (1986), 147-192.
[7] LEKHNITSKII, S.G.: Anisotropic plates, second ed., GITTL,
1957. (In Russian.)
[8] NAGHDI, P.M.: 'Theory of shells', in C. TRUESDELL (ed.):
Handbuch der Physik, Vol. VIa/2, Springer, 1972, pp. 425-
640.
[9] NOOR, A.K.: 'List of books, monographs, conference proceed-
ings and survey papers on shells', in A.K. NOOR, T. BE-
LYTSCHKO, AND J.C. SIMO (eds.): Analytic and Computa-
tional Models of Shells, Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 1989,
pp. vii-xxxiii.
[10] KARMAN, T. VON: 'Festigkeitsprobleme in Maschinenbau', in
F. KLEIN AND C. MULLER (eds.): Encyklopiidie der Mathema-
tischen Wissenschaften, Vol. IV /4, Teubner, 1910, pp. 3ll-
385.
[ll] VOROVICH, 1.1.: Mathematical problems of the nonlinear the-
ory of shallow shells, Nauka, 1989. (In Russian.)
S.S. Antman
MSC 1991: 73K10, 73K15, 73Cxx, 31A30, 3IB30
481
VORONOI DIAGRAM
VORONO'l DIAGRAM - A very important geomet-
ric structure in computational geometry, named af-
ter G.F. Vorono!' The earliest significant use of Voronol
diagrams seems to have occurred in the work of C.F.
Gauss, G. Dirichlet and Voronol on the reducibility of
positive-definite quadratic forms (cf. Quadratic form).
Let S = {PI, ... ,Pn} be a set of n points in Rd. The
Voronol diagram generated by S is the partition of the
Rd into n convex cells, the Voronoi' cells, Vi, where each
Vi contains all points of R d closer to Pi than to any other
point:
Vi = {x: Vj =1= i, d(X,Pi)::; d(x,pj)} ,
where d(x, y) is the Euclidean distance between x and
y.
See also Delaunay triangulation.
References
[1] EDELSBRUNNER, H.: Algorithms in combinatorial geometry,
Springer, 1987.
[2] OKABE, A., BOOTS, B., AND SUGIHARA, K.: Spatial tessella-
tions: concepts and applications of Voronoi diagrams, Wiley,
1992.
[3] PREPARATA, F.P., AND SHAMOS, M.I.: Computational geom-
etry: an introduction, Springer, 1985.
[4] VORONO!, G.F.: 'Nouvelles applications des parametres con-
tinus ala theorie des formes quadratiques', J. Reine Angew.
Math. 134 (1908), 198-287.
O.R. Musin
MSC 1991: 68U05
VOTING PARADOXES - Voting paradoxes describe
counter-intuitive election outcomes. The mathematical
study started in 1770 when J.C. Borda [1] constructed
an example to argue that the plurality vote (where each
voter votes for one candidate) used to select members
to the French Academy of Science was flawed. Borda's
example has 5 voters with the (complete, transitive)
preferences A >- C >- B, 4 with B >- C >- A, and
3 with C >- B >- A. Here, the plurality ranking of
A >- B >- C conflicts with the pairwise rankings of
C >- A, C >- B, B >- A with the respective tallies of
7 : 5, 8 : 4, 7 : 5. Borda suggested an alternative method,
the Borda count, where with n alternatives a voter's jth
ranked candidate receives n- j points, j = 1, ... ,n. The
Borda count outcome for the example is the more rea-
sonable C >- B >- A with the 15 : 11 : 10 tally.
More generally, an n ~ 3 candidate election can be
tallied with a voting vector w n = (WI, ... ,wn ) where
Wj ~ Wj+l, j = 1, ... ,n-l, and WI > Wn = O. (The plu-
rality vote corresponds to (1,0, ... ,0) while the Borda
count is (n-l, n-2, . .. ,1,0).) With the infinite number
of ways to tally ballots, P.S. Laplace and other math-
ematicians started a two-century controversy by ques-
tioning which w n would be 'optimal'. The difficulty of
this area is partially captured by Arrow's assertion that
482
no procedure does what is commonly expected (cf. Ar-
row impossibility theorem). See [4], [5] for a flavour
of the rich history of this area and [6] for a mathematical
introduction.
All paradoxes. What makes voting paradoxes difficult
to analyze is that they are 'counter-intuitive', so it is
not clear what to search for. Consequently, while sev-
eral paradoxes have been discovered (e.g., see [3]), they
are limited. However, by using symmetry and arguments
from chaotic dynamics, all possible voting paradoxes fi-
nally have been characterized [7], [8]. To describe them,
notice that n ~ 3 alternatives define 2n - (n + 1) subsets
with two or more candidates; for each subset, choose a
voting vector. D. Saari showed that for almost-all choices
of voting vectors, 'anything can happen'. Namely, for
each of the 2n - (n + 1) subsets, choose any ranking
of the candidates. There exists an example of voters,
each with a transitive ranking of the candidates, where
when the ballots for each subset are tallied with the
specified voting vector, the outcome is the selected one.
More specifically, the vector W n , which designates these
2n - (n+ 1) choices of voting vectors, is in an appropriate-
dimensional vector space. There is a lower-dimensional
algebraic set an so that if wn rf. an, then this 'any-
thing can happen' conclusion holds. A positive assertion
is that the number and kind of paradoxes is minimized
if the Borda count is used to tally each subset of can-
didates. More precisely, if a listing of rankings (i.e., a
voting paradox) can occur with the Borda count, it also
occurs with any other W n . However, if wn uses a non-
Borda count choice to tally a subset of candidates, then
wn admits paradoxes that never occur with the Borda
count. As an illustration, only the Borda count rank-
ings are related with the pairwise rankings; e.g., for any
other w 3 there are voters' preferences where the election
outcomes are the same as in the introductory example.
To illustrate the Borda count consistency advantage
over other procedures, let IIBnl1 and Ilpnll denote, re-
spectively, the number of lists of distinct election rank-
ings allowed by the Borda count and the plurality vote
over the 2n - (n + 1) subsets. Even for n = 6, it turns
out that 105 °IlB611 < IIP611. These results indicate that
the Borda count is the pragmatic answer to Laplace's
question about the optimal choice of a voting procedure.
Statistics. A closely related assertion holds for rankings
determined by non-parametric methods of statistics. In
particular, D. Haunsperger [2] published a similar the-
orem, showing that for n ~ 3 alternatives, almost-all
non-parametric methods allow anything to happen. She
then showed that the Krushkal- Wallis test plays the role
of the Borda count by minimizing the number and kinds
of paradoxes that can occur.
References
 VOTING PARADOXES

[lJ BORDA, J.e.: 'Memoire sur les elections au Scrutin', Histoire
de l'Acad. R. des Sci. (1781).
[2] HAUNSPERGER, D.: 'Dictionaries of paradoxes for statistical
tests on k samples', J. Amer. Stat. Assoc. (1992), 149-155.
[3] KELLY, J.: 'Social choice bibliography', Soc. Choice Welfare
8 (1991),97-169.
[4J McLEAN, I., AND HEWITT, F.: Condorcet, Edward Elgar,
1994.
[5J McLEAN, I., AND URKEN, A.: Classics of social choice, Univ.
Michigan Press, 1995.
[6] SAARI, D.G.: Basic geometry of voting, Springer, 1995.
[7] SAARI, D.G.: 'A chaotic examination of aggregation para-
doxes', SIAM Review 37 (1995), 37-52.
[8] SAARI, D.G.: 'The mathematical symmetry of choosing',
Math. Japon. 44 (1996), 183-200.
D. Saari
MSC 1991: 90A28

483
___~w ___~
WALSH FUNCTIONS - Functions in a complete or-
thonormal system (cf. also Complete system) on
the interval [0, 1). The values of the first four are: Wo ==
1; WI == 1 on [0,1/2) and WI == -1 on [1/2,1); W2 == 10n
[0, 1/4)U[I/2,3/4) and W2 == -Ion [1/4, 1/2) U [3/4, 1);
W3 == 1 on [0,1/4) U [3/4,1) and W3 == -1 on [1/4,3/4).
They were introduced by J.L. Walsh (a student of
G.D. Birkhoff at Harvard University) in 1923, as lin-
ear combinations of Haar functions (cf. Haar sys-
tem). R.E.A.C. Paley, who noticed that they could
also be defined using products of Rademacher functions,
showed that the Walsh system is the completion of the
Rademacher system in 1932. (This connection has
had ramifications both for the study of Walsh functions
and for probability theory.) N.J. Fine (a student of
A. Zygmund at Chicago University) in 1949 and N.Ya.
Vilenkin in 1947 showed independently that the Walsh
system is essentially the character group of the dyadic
group. (This connection made the theory of Walsh func-
tions a special case of the general study of harmonic
analysis on compact groups.) For details and general
references, see [4].
The Walsh system satisfies the following properties:
1) each Walsh function Wk, k > 0, has range
{+1,-1};
2) each Walsh function Wk is piecewise constant on
[0,1);
3) if k and n are integers which satisfy 2n ~ k <
2n+l, then Wk changes sign once on intervals of the form
°
I(j, n) = [j2-n, (j + 1)2- n ), for each ~ j < 2n;
4) the Walsh-Dirichlet kernels of order 2n , D 2 n (x) =
l:~:~1 Wk(X), are non-negative on [0,1).
These properties characterize the Walsh system: J.J.
Price [3] proved that among orthonormal systems whose
functions in alternate sign on finer and finer partitions
of [0,1), as n ~ 00, the Walsh system is the only one
whose Dirichlet kernels of order 2n are non-negative.
S.V. Levizov [2] proved that any orthonormal system
whose functions in have exactly n sign changes on [0,1),
have range {I, -I}, and satisfy in(O) = 1 is (a re-
ordering of) the Walsh system.
References
[1] GOLUBOV, B., EFIMOV, A., AND SKVORTSOV, V.: Walsh se-
ries and transforms, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1991. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[2] LEVIZOV, S.V.: 'Some properties of the Walsh system', Mat.
Zametki 21 (1980), 715-720. (In Russian.)
[3] PRICE, .1 ..1.: 'Orthonormal sets with non-negative Dirichlet
kernels, II', Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 100 (1961), 153-161.
[4] SCHlPP, F., WADE, W.R., AND SIMON, P.: Walsh series; an
introduction to dyadic harmonic analysis, A. Hilger, 1990.
W.R. Wade
MSC 1991: 42ClO,43A75
WALSH SERIES - An infinite series of the form
2:%"=0 akWk, where the ak's are (usually) real num-
bers, and the Wk'S are the Walsh functions (either
in Walsh's original order or in Paley's order). A Walsh-
Fourier series is a Walsh series whose coefficients satisfy
for some integrable function i on [0,1). Key questions
are: When does a Walsh--Fourier series approximate a
function? When does a function have only one approxi-
mating Walsh series? And, how does the behaviour of i
affect the growth of the coefficients f( k)?
The theory of Walsh series is distinguished from
that of other orthonormal series (cf. also Orthonor-
mal system) by three key features: 1) It has a close
analogy with trigonometric series, owing to the fact
that Walsh functions are piecewise-constant imitations
of trigonometric functions, e.g., WI (x) imitates sin(27rx)
and W3(X) imitates cos(27rx), and are the characters of
the dyadic group, which can be identified with the inter-
val [0,1), just like the complex trigonometric functions
are the characters of the circle group, which can be iden-
tified with the interval [0, 27r). 2) The 2n th partial sum
of any Walsh series forms a martingale. This opens the

way for probabilistic techniques to be used on Walsh se-
ries, e.g., martingale convergence theorems and Hardy
spaces without analytic functions. 3) It is the simplest
of all orthogonal series, hence a good place to look for
counterexamples. For example, P. Enflo used Walsh se-
ries to solve the basis problem by proving that there is
a separable Banach space which has no basis.
Walsh series have many applications. For details and
references see [2], [1] and [3].
Approximation theory. Since the Walsh-Fourier series of
a function f usually converges to f in some sense (e.g.,
uniformly, absolutely, in LP norm, almost everywhere),
Walsh series can be used to construct piecewise-constant
approximations to functions.
Image enhancement. Since the number of jumps of a
Walsh function Wk increases as k gets larger, higher-
order Walsh~-Fourier coefficients tend to be generated
by sharp edges. Thus, one can reduce the contrast of
an image by diminishing the higher-order terms of its
Walsh-Fourier series, and increase contrast by dimin-
ishing the lower-order terms.
Filtering. By collecting data across several channels at
once, one can obtain the Walsh-Fourier coefficients of a
given signal while, at the same time, filter out most of
its noise. This method is especially effective when the
background noise is independent of the intensity of the
signal, e.g., spectroscopy and radio astronomy.
Data compression. One can reduce the space needed to
store or transmit a signal by using its Walsh-Fourier co-
efficients instead of the original signal, e.g., transmission
of data through a photonic fibre optic cable.
Optimization. Genetic algorithms, methods for finding
maxima and minima of non-differentiable functions, de-
pend on Walsh functions for some of the theoretical de-
velopment (cf. also Genetic algorithm).
Modeling. Walsh functions have been effective for mod-
eling phenomena which have sharp transitions, such as
shock waves from seismographs and visual patterns in a
typical primate temporal cortex.
References
[IJ GOLUBOV, B., EFIMOV, A., AND SKVORTSOV, V.: Walsh se-
ries and transforms, Kluwer Acad. Pub!., 1987. (Translated
from the Russian.)
[2J HARMUTH, H.F.: Transmission of information by orthogonal
functions, Springer, 1972.
[3J SCHIPP, F., WADE, W.R., AND SIMON, P.: Walsh series; an
introduction to dyadic harmonic analysis, A. Hilger, 1990.
WR. Wade
MSC 1991: 43A75,42C10
WHITEHEAD PROBLEM - A problem attributed,
to J.H.C. Whitehead, which asks for a characterization
of Abelian groups A that satisfy the homological con-
dition Ext(A, Z) = 0, where Z is the group of integers
WHITEHEAD PROBLEM
under addition (cf. also Homology). A group which
satisfies this condition is called a Whitehead group. An
equivalent characterization is: A is a Whitehead group
if and only if for every surjective homomorphism 7r onto
A, if the kernel of 7r is isomorphic to Z, then the ker-
nel is a direct summand of the domain of 7r. A suffi-
cient condition for A to be a Whitehead group is that A
is free (see Free Abelian group). This condition has
been proved to be necessary if A is countable. Since a
subgroup of a Whitehead group is again a Whitehead
group, this means that every Whitehead group is N1 -
free, that is, every countable subgroup is free. Before
1973 only partial results were obtained for uncountable
groups: Whitehead groups were proved to be separable
and slender, and under the assumption of the contin-
uum hypothesis (CH), they were proved to be strongly
Nl -free, that is, every countable subset is contained in
a countable free subgroup which is a direct summand
of countable subgroups containing it (see [3] for results
prior to 1973).
In 1973, S. Shelah [5] proved that it is undecidable un-
der the axioms of Zermelo-Frankel set theory (cf. also
Set theory), ZFC, whether every Whitehead group of
cardinality Nl is free. Specifically, he proved that this is
true assuming the Gi:idel constructibility axiom, V = L
(see Godel constructive set), but it is false assuming
Martin's axiom (cf. Suslin hypothesis) and the nega-
tion of the continuum hypothesis (MA +-., CH). Later he
proved that V = L implies that every Whitehead group,
of arbitrary cardinality, is free [6]. He also proved that
the problem is undecidable even if CH is assumed [7] and
that it is consistent with -., CH that there are Whitehead
groups of cardinality Nl that are not strongly Nrfree [8].
For more information see [1], [4] or [2].
References
[IJ EKLOF, P.C.: 'Whitehead's problem is undecidable', Amer.
Math. Monthly 83 (1976), 775-788.
[2J EKLOF, P.C., AND MEKLER, A.H.: Almost free modules,
North-Holland, 1990.
[3J FUCHS, L.: Infinite Abelian groups, Vo!' 2, Acad. Press, 1973.
[4J NUNKE, R. J.: 'Whitehead's problem': Abelian Group Theory,
Vo!' 616 of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1977,
pp. 240-250.
[5J SHELAH, S.: 'Infinite abelian groups, Whitehead problem and
some constructions', Israel J. Math. 18 (1974),243-25.
[6J SHELAH, S.: 'A compactness theorem for singular cardinals,
free algebras, Whitehead problem and transversals', Israel J.
Math. 21 (1975), 319-349.
[7J SHELAH, S.: 'Whitehead groups may not be free even assum-
ing CH, I', Israel J. Math. 28 (1977), 193~-203.
[8J SHELAH, S.: 'On uncountable abelian groups', Israel J. Math.
32 (1979),311-330.
[9J SHELAH, S.: 'Whitehead groups may not be free even assum-
ing CH, II', Israel J. Math. 35 (1980),257-285.
P.C. Eklof
MSC 1991: 20K20, 03Exx, 04-XX
485
WHITEHEAD PROBLEM
WHITNEY MAPPING - Let X be a compact Haus-
dorff space. The hyperspace of X is denoted by 2x;
the subspace of 2x , consisting of all sub-continua of X
is denoted by C(X). A Whitney mapping of X is a real-
valued continuous function w on 2x (or on C(X)) with
the following properties:
°
1) w({x}) = for each x E X;
2) if A and B are in the domain of wand if A is a
proper subset of B, then w(A) < w(B).
A set of type w- 1 (t), for °: : : t < w(tX), is called a
Whitney level.
The existence of a Whitney function on 2x im-
plies that X is a Go-subset of its hyperspace, which in
turn implies that X is metrizable (cf. also Metrizable
space). One of the simplest constructions of a Whit-
ney mapping for a compact metrizable space X is as
follows. Let 0 be a countable open base of X, and, for
°
each pair U, V E 0 such that Cl(U) ~ V, fix a mapping
f: X ~ [0, 1] which equals on U and 1 outside V.
Enumerate these functions as (fn)':'=l and let
00
w(A) = LTndiamfn(A).
n=l
Below it is assumed that all spaces are metric con-
tinua. Whitney functions have been developed as a fun-
damental tool in continua theory. Their first use in this
context was involved with order arcs in 2x , and led to
a proof that 2x is acyclic and that both C(X) and 2x
are even contractible if X is Peanian (1942). Later on
they became a subject of study in their own right.
A Whitney property is a topological property P such
that if a metric continuum X has P, then so does each
Whitney level of it in C(X). Examples are: being a (lo-
cally connected) continuum; being a hereditarily inde-
composable continuum; being a (pseudo-) arc or a cir-
cle; etc. Counterexamples are: being contractible; being
acyclic in Alexander-Cech cohomology; being homoge-
neous; being a Hilbert cube.
Whitney functions were introduced by H. Whitney [4]
in 1933 in a different context. They were first used by
J.L. Kelley [2] to study hyperspaces. Every metric con-
tinuum can occur as a Whitney level [1]. For an account
of continua theory see [3].
References
[IJ CHARATONIK, W.J.: 'Continua as positive Whitney levels',
Pmc. Amer. Math. Soc. 118 (1993), 1351-1352.
[2J KELLEY, J.L.: 'Hyperspaces of a continuum', Trans. Amer.
Math. Soc. 52 (1942), 22-36.
[3J NADLER, S.B.: Hyperspaces of sets, M. Dekker, 1978.
[4J WHITNEY, H.: 'Regular families of curves', Ann. of Math. 2
(1933), 244-270.
M. van de Vel
MSC 1991: 54Exx
486
WIENER-HoPF OPERATOR - An operator which
arises from another operator by compression to a sub-
space. Given a linear operator A: X ~ X and a pro-
jection P = p 2 on X with range ImP, the correspond-
ing Wiener-Hopf operator Wp (A) is defined as the op-
erator on ImP that sends x E ImP to P(Ax) E ImP.
Thus, Wp(A) = PAI 1mP .
A Wiener-Hopf integral operator formally acts by the
1
rule
(Wf)(x) = cf(x) + 00
k(x - t)f(t) dt
(x > 0) on some space of functions over R+ = (0,00),
say on Lp (R+) (1 ::::: p ::::: 00). It may be regarded as the
restriction to Lp (R+) of a convolution integral operator
on Lp(R). The operator W is bounded if, for example,
c E C and k E Ll(R). Many properties of W can be
read off from its symbol. This is the function a given by
L
a(~) = c + (~ E R).
k(t)e iEt dt
The operator W is Fredholm (cf. Fredholm operator),
i.e. invertible modulo compact operators, if and only if
its symbol a has no zeros on the one-point compact-
ification R U {oo} (cf. also Aleksandrov compact i-
fication) of R. In that case the kernel and cokernel
dimensions of Ware:
dimKerW = max{-K,O}
dimCokerW = max{K,O},
where K is the winding number of the symbol a about
the origin. The equation W f = g can be solved by
Wiener--Hopf factorization, which means that one rep-
resents a in the form
a(~) = a_(~) ( ~~ ~:')1< a+(~)
such that a_ and a+ extend to analytic functions with-
out zeros in the lower and upper complex half-planes,
respectively.
Many interesting operators are Wiener-Hopf integral
operators with discontinuous symbols. For example, the
Cauchy singular integral operator S+ (cf. also Singular
integral) on Lp(R+) (1 < p < 00),
(S+f)(x) = ~ ( f(t) dt (x E R+),
1Tt JR+ t - x
can be interpreted as the Wiener-Hopf integral operator
with symbol - sign~. The spectrum of S+ on Lp(R+)
is the set of all A E C at which the line segment [-1,1]
is seen at an angle of at least max{21T/p, 21T/q}, where
l/p+ l/q = l.
Wiener-Hopf integral operators with matrix-valued
symbols, on finite intervals, or on higher-dimensional
domains (including the quarter-plane) have also been
extensively studied.

A discrete Wiener-HopI operator, or a Toeplitz oper-
ator (cf. also Toeplitz matrix), is given by a matrix
of the form (aj-k).i:'k=O on some sequence space, e.g. on
lP(Z+). In this case the symbol is the function on the
complex unit circle whose Fourier coefficients constitute
the sequence (an)nEz.
There is a rich literature on Wiener-Hopf operators.
A good introduction is the classical monograph [2]; [1]
and [3] provide an overview of some recent develop-
ments.
References
[1J BOTTCHER, A., AND SILBERMANN, B.: Analysis of Toeplitz
operators, Springer, 1990.
[2J GOHBERG, I., AND FELDMAN, LA.: Convolution equations
and projection methods for their solution, Amer. Math. Soc.,
1974.
[3J GOHBERG, I., GOLDBERG, S., AND KAASHOEK, M.A.: Classes
of linear operators, Vol. I-II, Birhauser, 1990-1993.
A. Bottcher
MSC 1991: 45ElO, 47 A68, 47B35
WIENER MEASURE - The probability distribu-
tion of a Brownian motion B(t,w), t ~ 0, wEn,
where (n, B, P) is a probability space. The Wiener
measure is usually denoted by m. The Brownian motion
B is a Gaussian process such that
E(B(t)) == 0, E(B(t) . B(s)) = min(t, s).
Given a Brownian motion B(t,w), one can form a new
Brownian motion B(t,w) satisfying:
i) B (t, w) is continuous in t for almost all w.
ii) P(B(t,w) = B(t,w)) = 1 for every t.
Such a process B(t,w) is called a continuous version
of B(t,w).
The Kolmogorov-Prokhorov theorem tells that the
probability distribution m of the Brownian motion B(t)
can be introduced in the space e = e[O, 00) of all con-
tinuous functions on [0, 00 ) .
Let B be the topological Borel field (cf. also Borel
field of sets) of subsets of e. The measure space
(e, B, m) thus obtained is the Wiener measure space.
The integral of a B-measurable functional on e with
respect to m is defined in the usual manner. (See also
Stochastic integral.)
An elementary and important example of a B-
measurable functional of y E e is a stochastic bilinear
lorm, given by (il, f), where I is an L2 [0,00 )-function.
It is usually denoted by I(y). It is, in fact, defined by
- Io oo y (t) j (t) dt for smooth functions I. For a general I,
I(y) can be approximated by stochastic bilinear forms
defined by smooth functions I. An integral of this type
is called a Wiener integral. Under certain restrictions,
such as non-anticipation, the integral can be extended
WIENER SPACE, ABSTRACT
to the case where the integrand is a functional of t and
y. And an even more general case has been proposed.
The class of general (non-linear) functionals of y is
introduced as follows. Let H be the Hilbert space of
all complex-valued, square-m-integrable functionals on
e. Then, H admits a direct sum decomposition (Fock
space)
The subspace ll n is spanned by the Fourier-Hermite
polynomials of degree n, which are of the form
II H
.
. ((y,/j))
nJ v'2 '
J
where Enj = nand {/j} is a complete orthonormal
system in the Hilbert space L2 [0,00). The space H can
be interpreted as the space of multiple Wiener integrals
of degree n.
References
[1J CAMERON, R., AND MARTIN, W.T.: 'The orthogonal devel-
opment of non-linear functionals in series of Fourier-Hermite
functionals', Ann. of Math. (2) 48, 385-392.
[2J HIDA, T.: Brownian motion, Vol. 11 of Applications of Math-
ematics, Springer, 1980.
T. Hida
MSC 1991: 60J65, 60Hxx
WIENER SPACE, ABSTRACT - The probability
distribution of a Brownian motion {B(t): t ~ O}
is a Gaussian measure (cf. also Constructive quan-
tum field theory) that can be supported by the space
e = e[O, 00) of continuous functions. For this reason, e
is also called the classical Wiener space. This notion can
be generalized to a Banach space on which a Gaussian
measure can be introduced.
Advanced stochastic analysis can be carried out on a
Wiener space. The analysis was initiated by P. Levy and
N. Wiener, and a systematic development was made by
R.H. Cameron and W.T. Martin, I.E. Segal, L. Gross,
K. Ito, and others.
Following [2], one can introduce the notion of an ab-
stract Wiener space, which is a generalization of the
classical Wiener space.
Let H be a real separable Hilbert space with norm
11·11. On H one introduces the weak Gaussian distribu-
tion v in such a way that on any finite-, say n-, dimen-
sional subspace K of H the restriction of v to K is the
n-dimensional standard Gaussian distribution. In fact,
v may be called the weak white noise measure. A semi-
norm (or norm) 11·111 on H is called a measurable norm
if for any positive f there exists a finite-dimensional pro-
jection operator Po such that for any finite-dimensional
projection operator P orthogonal to Po the inequality
v{x: IIPxll l > f} < f holds.
487
WIENER SPACE, ABSTRACT
Now, let IIxl11 be a measurable norm on H and let B
be the completion of H with respect to this norm (cf.
Complete space). Then B is a Banach space. Let R
be the O"-ring generated by the cylinder subsets of B (cf.
Cylinder set). For a cylinder set measure /1 on R in-
duced by the Gaussian distribution on H, the measure
/1 is countably additive on R. Therefore, taking the 0"-
field B generated by R, a measure space (H, B, /1) is
obtained.
The classical definition of an abstract Wiener space
is given as follows. First, take a Hilbert space H with
norm 11·11 and take a measurable norm 11·111' to obtain
a Banach space B. The injection mapping from H into
B is denoted by i. Then the triple (i, H, B) is called an
abstract Wiener space. This means that a weak measure
on H can be extended to a completely additive measure
supported by B. A stochastic analysis can be developed
for this latter measure (see [4]).
One of the developments of the notion of an abstract
Wiener space is that of a rigged Hilbert space, due to
I.M. Gel'fand and N.Ya. Vilenkin (see [1]). Let H be a
real Hilbert space and let <1> be a countably Hilbert nu-
clear space that is continuously imbedded in H. The
dual space <1>* of <1> gives rise to the rigged Hilbert space
<1> C H c <1>*.
Given a characteristic functional C(~), ~ E <1>, that is,
C(~) is continuous in ~, positive definite and C(O) = 1,
there exists a countably additive probability measure /1
in <1>* such that
C(~)= ( exp[i(x,~)]d/1(x).
J<I>*
A typical example of a rigged Hilbert space IS
the triple consisting of the Hilbert space L 2 (R), the
Schwartz space S and the space S* of tempered dis-
tributions (cf. Generalized function). White noise
is also an important example; it has characteristic func-
tional C(~) = exp[-II~112 /2]. The analysis on the func-
tion space with the white noise measure is well devel-
oped (see [3]).
References
[1] GEL'FAND, I.M., AND VILENKIN, N.YA.: Genemlized func-
tions 4: applications of harmonic analysis, Acad. Press, 1964.
(Translated from the Russian.)
[2] GROSS, L.: 'Abstract Wiener spaces': Pmc. 5th Berkeley
Symp. Math. Stat. Pmbab., Vol. 2, 1965, pp. 31-42.
[3] HIDA, T., Kuo, H.H., POTTHOFF, J., AND STREIT, L.: White
noise. An infinite dimensional calculus, Kluwer Acad. Pub!.,
1993.
[4] Kuo, H.H.: Gaussian measures in Banach spaces, Vo!' 463
of Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer, 1975.
T. Hida
MSC 1991: 60Hxx
488
WIGNER-ECKART THEOREM - A theorem de-
scribing the form of the matrix elements of tensor op-
erators transforming under some representation of a
group or a Lie algebra. Tensor operators are defined
as follows. Let Tu be a finite-dimensional irreducible
representation of a compact group G acting on a
linear space Vu with a basis V m , m = 1, ... ,dim Tu.
Let R':r" m = 1, ... ,dim Tu , be a set of operators act-
ing on a Hilbert space 1{. One says that the set
RU == {R':r,: m = 1, ... ,dim Tu} is a tensor operator,
transforming under the representation Tu of G, if there
exists a representation T (infinite dimensional if the
space 1{ is infinite dimensional) of G on 1{ such that
for every element 9 E G,
dimT"
T(g)R':nT (g-l) = L t~m(g)R~,
n=1
m = 1, ... ,dimTu,
where t~m (g) are the matrix elements of the representa-
tion Tu with respect to the basis {vm}. If the compact
group G is a Lie group, then the definition of tensor
operator can be given also in infinitesimal form. Infini-
tesimal operators of representations of Lie algebras are
important examples of tensor operators [1].
In general, a representation T of a group G is re-
ducible and decomposes into irreducible components:
T = I:i EElTA;. Let e~, s = 1, ... ,dim T A;, be orthonor-
mal bases in the support spaces of the representations
T A;.
The Wigner-Eckart theorem states that if no multi-
ple irreducible representations appear, then the matrix
elements (e~IR':r,let) of the operators R':r, with respect
to the basis {e~} of 1{ are of the form
(e~ IR':n1 en = (Ai,S I O",m;Aj,r) (Ai IIRUII Aj),
where (Ai, s I 0", m; Aj, r) are the Clebsch-Gordan coef-
ficients of the tensor product of the representations Tu
and T A; of G (if multiple irreducible representations ap-
pear in these tensor products, then additional indices
must be included) and (AiIIRullAj) are the so-called re-
duced matrix elements of the tensor operator R u. The
reduced matrix elements are independent of indices of
basis elements s, m, T.
The Wigner-Eckart theorem represents matrix ele-
ments of tensor operators as a product of two quantities:
the first one (Clebsch-Gordan coefficient) is determined
by a group structure and the second one (reduced matrix
element) is independent of the group. The first quan-
tity is the same for all tensor operators. Taking arbi-
trary numbers as reduced matrix elements (AiIIRullAj)
one obtains, by the Wigner-Eckart theorem, matrix el-
ements of some tensor operator, transforming under the
representation Tu.

The Wigner-Eckart theorem can be formulated also
for finite-dimensional and unitary infinite-dimensional
representations of locally compact Lie groups, [2]. The
definition of tensor operators and the corresponding
Wigner-Eckart theorem for quantum groups are more
complicated.
The Wigner-Eckart theorem is a generalization of
Schur's lemma on operators commuting with all repre-
sentation operators (cf. Schur lemma). The Wigner-
Eckart theorem and tensor operators are extensively
used in quantum physics.
References
[1] BIEDENHARN, L.C., AND LOUCK, J.D.: Angular momentum
in quantum physics, Addison-Wesley, 1981.
[2] KLIMYK, A.U: Matrix elements and Clebsch-Gordan coeffi-
cients of group representations, Naukova Dumka, 1979. (In
Russian.)
A.U. Klimyk
MSC 1991: 81R05, 22C05, 22DlO, 22E70
WINOGRAD FOURIER TRANSFORM ALGO-
RITHM, WFT algorithm - An algorithm exploiting
multiplicative structure on the data indexing set to
transform a Fourier transform computation into a
cyclic convolution computation [1], [5], [6]. Divide-and-
conquer fast Fourier transform algorithms, such as the
Cooley-Tukey fast Fourier transform algorithms [2], de-
pend on the existence of non-trivial divisors of the trans-
form size, which determine subgroups of the additive
group structure of the indexing set and split the global
computation into local computations. This divide-and-
conquer strategy does not apply to prime size Fourier
transform computations.
C. Rader [4] observed that a Fourier transform com-
putation of prime size p could be computed by a (p -
I)-point cyclic convolution. S. Winograd [5] extended
Rader's result to Fourier transform computations of
prime power size pN and introduced cyclic convolution
algorithms based on the polynomial version of the Chi-
nese remainder theorem to compute the resulting
cyclic convolutions (cf. Winograd small convolution
algorithm). The overall strategy is usually called the
Winograd fast Fourier transform algorithm, or Wino-
grad FFT algorithm. Rader computed the (p - I)-point
cyclic convolution by calling on the convolution theo-
rem to turn the (p - I)-point convolution into several
(p - I)-point Fourier transform computations.
The Winograd FFT algorithm tends to reduce the
number of multiplications at the price of increased ad-
ditions. For large transform sizes a direct application
of the Winograd FFT algorithm entails a prohibitively
large number of additions, especially on modern RISC-
architectures with multiply and accumulate facilities
which mask multiplications inside additions. However,
WINOGRAD SMALL CONVOLUTION ALGORITHM
hybrid strategies can be effective when build on small-
size Winograd core routines and when these cores are
nested in the Good-Thomas prime-factor fast Fourier
transform. The resulting strategy is usually called the
Winograd large Fourier transform algorithm, or Wino-
grad large FFT algorithm [4]. An alternative approach
has been suggested in [3], using the Good-Thomas
prime-factor fast Fourier transform to decompose the
global computation into smaller Fourier transform com-
putations, implemented by the Winograd small fast
Fourier transform algorithm and reducing some of the
additions at the cost of some multiplications.
In [4], the Winograd class of fast Fourier transform
algorithms was modeled in tensor product formalism,
leading to algorithmic versions and programming strate-
gies based on the use of macros and reduction rules.
References
[1] BORODIN, A., AND MUNRO, 1.: Computational complexity and
algebraic and numeric problems, Amer. Elsevier, 1975.
[2] COOLEY, J.W., AND TUKEY, J.W.: 'An algorithm for the ma-
chine calculation of complex Fourier series', Math. Compo 19
(1965), 297-301.
[3] KOLBA, D.P., AND PARKS, T.W.: 'Prime factor FFT algo-
rithm using high speed convolution', IEEE Trans. Acoustics,
Speech and Signal Processing ASSP-25 (1977),281-294.
[4] TOLIMIERI, R., AN, M., AND Lu, C.: Algorithms for discrete
Fourier transform and convolution, Springer, 1989, p. 197.
[5] WINOGRAD, S.: 'On computing the discrete Fourier trans-
form', Math. Comput. 32 (1978), 175-199.
[6] WINOGRAD, S.: 'On the multiplicative complexity of the dis-
crete Fourier transform', Adv. Math. 32 (1979), 83-117.
R. Tolimieri
MSC 1991: 65T20
WINOGRAD SMALL CONVOLUTION ALGO-
RITHM - A general strategy for computing linear and
cyclic convolutions by applying the polynomial version
of the Chinese remainder theorem [2]. For polyno-
mials g(x) and h(x) of degree N -1 and M -1, respec-
tively, the linear convolution
s(x) = h(x)g(x)
has degree L - 1, where L = M + N - 1. For any poly-
nomial m(x) of degree L, the linear convolution s(x)
can be computed by computing the product h(x)g(x)
modulo m(x), i.e.,
s(x) =s(x) mod m(x).
The Chinese remainder theorem permits this computa-
tion to be localized. Choose a factorization
into relatively prime factors. The Winograd small convo-
lution algorithm proceeds by first computing the reduced
489
WINOGRAD SMALL CONVOLUTION ALGORITHM

polynomials where 0 :S ,2 < 2. Then

h{k}(x) == h(x) mod mk(x), 1:S k :S r,
L I (n) = (1 + o( 1)) . ogx
x . -1 (2)
g{k}(x) == g(x) mod mk(x), 1:S k :S r, n:<;x
followed by the local computations
s{k}(x) == h{k}g{k}(x) mod mk(x), 1:S k :S r,
and is completed by combining these local computations The proof uses an inversion of the order of summa-
using the formula tion in Ln:<;x I(n) ·logn = Ln:<;x I(n)· Lpkln logpk, to

L s{k}(x)ek(x),
r
show that
s(x) =

where
k=1
L I(n) rv T· ~
log x
. L .!:. ·/(n).
n
n:<;x n:<;x

The last sum may be dealt with by elementary ar-

is a complete system of idempotents corresponding to
the initial factorization of m(x).
S. Winograd [3] expanded on this general strategy by
developing bilinear algorithms for computing the prod-
uct of polynomials modulo a polynomial. Within this
general strategy, these bilinear algorithms permit one
to use small efficient algorithms as building blocks for
larger-size algorithms [1].
References
[1] AGARWAL, R.C., AND COOLEY, J.W.: 'New algorithms for
digital convolution', IEEE Trans. Acoustics, Speech and Sig-
nal Processing 25 (1977), 392-410.
[2] BORODIN, A., AND MUNRO, I.: Computational complexity and
algebraic and numeric problems, Amer. Elsevier, 1975.
[3] WINOGRAD, S.: 'Some bilinear forms whose multiplicative
complexity depends on the field of constants', Math. Systems
Th. 10 (1977), 169-180.
R. Tolimieri
MSC 1991: 65T20, 12D05
WIRSING THEOREMS - Multiplicative arithmetic
functions I: N --+ C are determined by their values
at the prime powers (cf. Multiplicative arithmetic
function). Higher prime powers pk, k 2: 2, are rare,
and so the behaviour of I at the primes should strongly
influence the behaviour of I in general. This vague idea,
which also lies behind the theorems of Delange and El-
liott (see Delange theorem; Elliott-Daboussi theo-
rem), led E. Wirsing in 1961 [6] to the following result,
which provides asymptotic formulas for a large class of
non-negative multiplicative functions.
Let I be a non-negative multiplicative function. As-
sume that the values of I at the primes satisfy, with
some positive constant T,
L I(p) ·logp = (T + 0(1)) . x as x --+ 00,
p~x
and that the values of I at higher prime powers are not
'too large':
I(pk) :S ,1 .,~ for k = 2,3, ... ,
guments or by a skilful application of the Hardy-
Littlewood-Karamata Tauberian theorem (cf. Tauber-
ian theorems).
In 1967, B.V. Levin and A.S. FalnleTh [5] also gave
asymptotic evaluations of sums Ln~x I(n) for multi-
plicative functions I, by reducing the problem to the
study of the asymptotic behaviour of solutions of inte-
gral equations of the form t· z(t) = J~ K(t - u)z(u) duo
In [6], Wirsing also deduced results for complex-
valued multiplicative functions. Unfortunately, these re-
sults did not contain the prime number theorem (in the
form Ln<x J.L(n) = o(x); cf. also de la Vallee-Poussin
theorem), and they did not settle the Erdos- Wintner
conjecture: Any multiplicative function assuming only
the values +1 and -1 has a mean value (see [1]).
But six years later, in 1967 [7], Wirsing was able to
settle this conjecture. He proved in an elementary, but
complicated, way several results on multiplicative func-
tions. For example: If I is a real-valued multiplicative
function and if III :S 1, then the mean value M(f) exists
[7, Satz 1.2.2].
The asymptotic formula (2) can now be proved under
the condition
'" I(p)
~ --logp rv T ·logx,
p p
which is much weaker than (1). However, 0 :S I(p) :S G
and some other restrictions must be assumed. There
are also corresponding, complicated, results on complex-
valued multiplicative functions, [7, Satz 1.2].
In 1968, G. Halasz [2] gave a more satisfactory result
(1)
(see Halasz mean value theorem). In 1986, A. Hilde-
brand [4] proved a Wirsing-type theorem by elementary
means (his result also contains a proof of the Erdos-
Wintner conjecture): There exists a universal constant
, > 0 with the property that for any multiplicative func-
tion I with values in the interval [-1, +1] C R and with

490

divergent series Lp lip' (1 - !(p)), the estimate
~. ~ f(n) ::;"y. (1+ ~ ~. (1- f(P))) -1/2
holds for any x 2: 2. As shown in [3], it is possible to
deduce stronger estimates by analytical methods.
References
[1] ERDOS, P.: 'Some unsolved problems', Michigan Math. J.4
(1957), 291-300.
[2] HALASZ, G.: 'Uber die Mittelwerte multiplikativer zahlen-
theoretischer Funktionen', Acta Math. Acad. Sci. Hung. 19
(1968), 365-403.
[3] HALASZ, G.: 'On the distribution of additive and the mean
values of multiplicative arithmetic functions', Studia Sci.
Math. Hung. 6 (1971),211-233.
[4] HILDEBRAND, A.: 'On Wirsing's mean value theorem for mul-
tiplicative functions', Bull. London Math. Soc. 18 (1986),
147-152.
[5] LEVIN, B.V., AND FAINLEIB, A.S.: 'Application of certain in-
tegral equations to questions of the theory of numbers', Us-
pekhi Mat. Nauk 22, no. 3 (135) (1967), 119-197. (In Rus-
sian.)
[6] WIRSING, E.: 'Das asymptotische Verhalten von Summen
iiber multiplikative Funktionen', Math. Annalen 143 (1961),
75-102.
[7] WIRSING, E.: 'Das asymptotische Verhalten von Summen
iiber multiplikative Funktionen, II', Acta Math. Acad. Sci.
Hung. 18 (1967),411-467.
W. Schwarz
MSC 1991: llN37
WORD METRIC, length metric - A metric on a
finitely-generated group G, defined as follows. Let
A be a finite set of generators for G. Let A-I be the set
of inverses of elements in A. If "( EGis not the identity
element, then the length of"( is defined as the minimal
number of elements of A U A -1, counted with multiplic-
ity, such that "( can be written as a product of these
elements. The length of the identity element is defined
to be zero. The word metric dA on G with respect to A
is then defined by the following formula: for all "( and
"(' in G, dAb, "(') is equal to the length of the product
,,('-1,,(. The action of G by left translations on the metric
space (G, dA) is an action by isometries. If A and Bare
two finite generating sets for G, then the identity map-
ping between the metric spaces (G, dA ) and (G, dB) is a
quasi-isometry.
An equivalent definition is the following: d A is the
maximal metric on G that is invariant by the left-action
WORD METRIC
of G on itself, and such that the distance of any element
of A or A-I to the identity element of G is equal to 1.
The notion of word metric lies at the foundation of
geometric group theory. A group G (equipped with a
finite generating set A) can be canonically imbedded, as
the set of vertices, in the associated Cayley graph, which
is a simplicial graph. This graph has a canonical met-
ric, and the metric induced on the vertices is the word
metric.
The word metric on a group has much to do with the
growth function of a finitely-generated group (cf. also
Polynomial and exponential growth in groups
and algebras; [4], [1]; see also [3], especially Sect. 37,
for other and related techniques in the study of groups).
Using the word metric (or the length of words), one
defines
1
(x· y) = 2(lxl + Iyl -lx- 1 yl),
where Ixl is the length of the element x E G.
A group G is hyperbolic (cf. also Hyperbolic group)
if there is a constant 82: 0 such that for all x, y, z E G,
(x· y) 2: min{(x· z), (y. z)} - 8
(cf. also [4], [2]). Hyperbolic groups are always finitely
presented (cf. also Finitely-presented group), and as
such realizable as the fundamental group of a smooth
bounded region M. Hyperbolicity is then equivalent to
the purely geometric property that there is a constant
c such that for every smooth closed curve C in M, con-
tractible in M and bounding a disc D, one has
area(D) ::; clength(C).
This gives (further) geometric methods for studying hy-
perbolic groups.
References
[1] GRIGORCHUK, R., AND NAGNIBEDA, T.: 'Operator growth
functions of discrete groups', Invent. Math. (to appear).
[2J GROMOV, M.: 'Hyperboloic groups': Essays in Group Theory,
Springer, 1987, pp. 75-263.
[3] OL'SHANSKII, A.Yu.: Geometry of defining relations in
groups, Kluwer Acad. Publ., 1991. (Translated from the Rus-
sian.)
[4] UFNAROVSKII, V.A.: 'Combinatorial and asymptotic methods
in algebra', in A.1. KOSTRIKIN AND I.R. SHAFAREVICH (eds.):
Algebra, Vol. VI, Springer, 1995. (Translated from the Rus-
sian.)
A. Papadopoulos
MSC 1991: 20F32, 57M07
491
--------y--------
YAMABE PROBLEM - Let (Mn' g) be a Coo com-
pact Riemannian manifold of dimension n 2: 3;
let R be its scalar curvature. The Yamabe problem
is: Does there exist a metric g', conformal to g (cf.
also Conformal-differential geometry), such that
the scalar curvature R' of g' is constant?
In 1960, H. Yamabe wanted to solve the Poincare
conjecture. As a first step he tried to make constant
the scalar curvature by a conformal change of met-
rics. He thought he had succeeded. Unfortunately, in
his beautiful paper [15] there is a mistake in an in-
equality: Ilv(q) Ilqn ::; constllv(q) Il q, must be replaced by
Ilv(q) Ilqn ::; constllv(q) II~;-W-l, and this does not yield
the result in the general case. Now, thirty years after-
wards, the problem is entirely solved.
Yamabe was a pioneer of solving geometrical prob-
lems by analysis. If one writes the conformal deforma-
tion in the form g' = ¢4/(n-2)g (where ¢ E Coo, ¢ > 0),
then the scalar curvature R' is given by
R' = ¢-(n+2)/(n+2) [R¢ + 4(n - 1)~¢]
n-2
with ~¢ = _'\li'\li¢. So, the Yamabe problem is equiv-
alent to solving the equation
L¢=f¢(n+2)/(n-2), ¢>O, withf=l,O,-l. (1)
Here, L = ~¢ + (n - 2)R/4(n - 1) is the conformal
Laplacian (cf. also Laplace operator). To solve this
problem, Yamabe introduced the so-called Yamabe func-
tional, J(¢) = 11¢IIN2 Iv¢L¢dV, with N = 2n/(n - 2).
The Euler equation of J(¢) is (1). Thus, the vari-
ational method seems applicable. Let f.1 be the infimum
of J(¢) for ¢ E A = N E HI: 'Ij; 2: 0,'Ij;"¥- a}. One can
prove that f.1 is a conformal invariant, and that f.1 is the
infimum of J(¢) over all ¢ E HI, ¢ "¥- 0. But N is the
critical exponent in the Sobolev imbedding theorem (d.
Imbedding theorems), and HI C LN is not compact.
Hence one cannot prove that f.1 is attained. To over-
come this difficulty, Yamabe considered the functionals
lq(V)) = 11'Ij;11;;2 J~ 'Ij;£'Ij; dV, 2 < q < N, and solved the
family of approximated equations
The following theorem holds, [15]: There exists a Coo
strictly positive function ¢q, with lI¢q IIq = 1 and satis-
fying equation (2), where JL q = lq(¢q) = inf Jq('Ij;) for
all V) E HI, V)"¥- 0.
According to the sign of f.1, there are three mutually
exclusive cases: positive, negative and zero; f.1q has the
sign of JL. Then Yamabe claimed that the set {¢q} is
uniformly bounded. This is not true on the sphere, and
this cannot be overcome in the positive case. But in the
negative case the wrong term plays no role, and one can
remove it (it has negative sign). Yamabe's proof works
°
also in the zero case: if JL q = 0, L¢q = and ¢q satis-
fies (1) with f = 0. In the positive case, if one considers
the metric g = ¢~/(n-2) g, then R = f.1q¢g-N > 0. So
Yamabe was able to prove that there exists a conformal
metric whose scalar curvature is either a non-positive
constant or is everywhere positive.
The positive case remained open. When f.1 > 0, one
can exhibit subsequences {¢qi} with qi ---+ Nand 'Ij; E HI
such that 'Ij; 2: ° satisfies L'Ij; = 'lj;N -1 weakly in HI.
However, there are two difficulties: the regularity and
the triviality of 'Ij; (according to the maximum principle,
either 'Ij; > 0 or V) == 0). The regularity was resolved by
N. Trudinger [14]. He proved that a weak solution of (1)
is smooth. To prove that 'Ij; is non-trivial, the best con-
stants in the Sobolev imbedding theorem must be found.
In [2] (see also [3]), T. Aubin considered three Banach
spaces B 1 , B2 and B3 such that Bl c B2 is continuous
but not compact and Bl C B3 is compact. There are
pairs of real numbers (C, A) such that all x E Bl sat-
isfy IIxllB2 ::; CII:cIl B1 + Allx1lB3. It can be proved that
K = inf{C: 3A} > 0.
This situation occurs with HI, LN and L 2. Moreover,
Aubin proved that the best constant K(n,2) depends
only on n, and not upon the compact manifold. So, [2],

for any f > 0 there exists a constant A( f) such that every
</J E Hi satisfies II</JIIN :::; [K( n, 2) + f]llY' </J112 + A( f) 11</J112'
Recently it has been proved [7] that the best constant
is achieved (i.e., A(O) exists). Using the above result,
Aubin was able to prove the key theorem [1]: fL satisfies
fL :::; Its = n(n - 2)w~/n/4 (for (Sn, can), fL = fLs). If
fL < fLs, then there exists a strictly positive CCXJ solu-
tion'lf; of L'If; = fL'If;N-l with 11'If;IIN = 1. For the metric
9 = 'If;4/(n-2)g one has R = fL. Here, Wn is the volume of
Sn(1).
It remains to exhibit a test function 'If; such that
J ('If;) < fLs. All subsequent work has centred on the
discovery of appropriate test functions.
By considering the functional J in a suitable confor-
mal metric and using as test functions truncations of the
functions (r2 + f)1-n/2 (here, r(Q) = d(P, Q) with P a
point at which the Weyl tensor is not zero), Aubin was
able to prove [1] that if (Mn,g) (n 2: 6) is a compact
non-locally conform ally flat Riemannian manifold, then
fL < fLs· Hence there exists a conformal metric g' with
R'=fL·
The remaining cases. In 1984, G. Medrano [9] proved
that for a large class of locally conformally-flat mani-
folds fL < fLs. At the same time, R. Schoen [10] reduced
the proof of fL < fLs to the proof of the positive mass
conjecture. If (Mn' g) is locally conformally flat, there is
a conformal metric 9 such that 9 is flat in a neighbour-
hood () of P. In the positive case the conformal Laplacian
is invertible; let G be its inverse. The expansion of G(x)
in () is
r2- n + a(x)
G(x) = W n -l, (3)
n-2
where r = d(P, x) and a(x) is a harmonic function.
When n = 4,5, in a conformal metric g, G L has an
expansion like (3); when n = 3, G L has the form (3);
a(x) is C 1 or Lipschitzian according to the dimension.
In [10] it is proved that if A = a(P) > 0, then fL < fLs;
it uses test functions equal to (E + r 2 )1-n/2 in a neigh-
bourhood of P and equal to EoG(X) when r is large. It
remained to proved that A > 0 if (Mn' g) is not confor-
mal to (Sn, can). This was done for n = 3 in [12]. For
locally conformally-flat manifolds the result is in [13],
and for dimensions smaller than 7 in [11]. For a unifica-
tion of the work of Aubin and Schoen, see [8].
There are also direct proofs, not considering the func-
tions </Jq; one proceeds by successive approximation, the
other by the blow-up method. These proofs use the value
of the best constant K n ,2. In [4], A. Bahri presents an
algebraic-topological proof for locally conformally-flat
manifolds, not using the positive mass conjecture. Here
it can not be shown that fL is achieved.
In [6], both the Yamabe problem and the
Lichnerowicz problem are solved.
YAMABE PROBLEM
Let (Mn' g) be a compact Riemannian manifold of
dimension n 2: 3 which is not conformal to (Sn, can).
There exists a conformal metric 9 with R = const for
which any conformal transformation is an isometric
mapping (I, (M,g) = C(M,g)).
A generalization of the Yamabe problem is the pre-
scribed scalar curvature problem in a given conformal
class. This problem on Sn is known as the Nirenberg
problem. Although research is intensive, these problems
have not yet (1996) been entirely solved. On compact
manifolds with boundary, P. Cherrier presented an orig-
inal problem in [5]: To find a conformal metric with pre-
scribed scalar curvature and prescribed mean curvature
of 8M.
References
[1] AUBIN, T.: 'Equations differentielles non-lineaires et
probleme de Yamabe concernant la courbure scalaire', J.
Math. Pures Appl. 55 (1976), 269-296.
[2] AUBIN, T.: 'Espaces de Sobolev sur les varietes Riemanni-
ennes', Bull. Sci. Math. 100 (1976), 149-173.
[3] AUBIN, T.: Nonlinear analysis on manifolds. Monge-Ampere
equations, Springer, 1982.
[4] BAHRI, A.: 'Proof of the Yamabe conjecture, without the pos-
itive mass theorem, for locally conformally flat manifolds',
in T. MABUCHI AND S. MUKAI (eds.): Einstein Metrics and
Yang-Mills Connections, M. Dekker, 1993.
[5] CHERRIER, P.: 'Problemes de Neumann non-lineaires sur les
varietes Riemanniennes', J. Funct. Anal. 57 (1984), 154-206.
[6] HEBEY, E., AND VAUGON, M: 'Le probleme de Yamabe
equivariant', Bull. Sci. Math. 117 (1993), 241-286.
[7] HEBEY, E., AND VAUGON, M.: 'The best constant problem
in the Sobolev embedding theorem for complete Riemannian
manifolds', Duke Math. J. 79 (1995), 235-279.
[8] LEE, J.M., AND PARKER, T.H.: 'The Yamabe problem',
Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 17 (1987), 37-91.
[9] MEDRANO, O.G.: 'On the Yamabe problem concerning the
compact locally conformally flat manifolds', J. Funct. Anal.
66 (1986), 42-53.
[10] SCHOEN, R.: 'Conformal deformation of a Riemannian met-
ric to constant scalar curvature', J. Diff. Geom. 20 (1984),
479-495.
[11] SCHOEN, R.: 'Variational theory for the total scalar curvature
functional for Riemannian metrics and related topics': Top-
ics in Calculus of Variations, Vol. 1365 of Lecture Notes in
Mathematics, Springer, 1989.
[12] SCHOEN, R., AND YAU, S.T.: 'On the proof of the positive
mass conjecture in general relativity', Comm. Math. Phys.
65 (1979),45-76.
[13] SCHOEN, R., AND YAU, S.T.: 'Conformally flat manifolds,
Kleinian groups and scalar curvature', Invent. Math. 92
(1988),47-71.
[14] TRUDINGER, N.: 'Remarks concerning the conformal deforma-
tion of Riemannian structures on compact manifolds', Ann.
Scuola Norm. Sup. Pisa 22 (1968), 265-274.
[15] YAMABE, H.: 'On a deformation of Riemannian strctures on
compact manifolds', Osaka Math. J. 12 (1960), 21-37.
T. Aubin
MSC 1991: 53C21
493
YOKE

YOKE - The concept of a yoke, introduced in [3]'
IS of great importance in relation to geometric, i.e.
parametrization invariant, calculations on statistical
models (cf. also Differential geometry in statistical
inference; Statistical manifold). A yoke on a model
M induces a metric and families of connections, deriv-
ative strings and tensors on M in terms of which geo-
metric properties of M may be formulated, see [5]. Dif-
ferences and similarities between the expected and ob-
served geometry of M may be discussed using yokes, see
[5]. Furthermore, invariant Taylor expansions of func-
tions defined on M are obtainable via yokes. Finally,
a relationship between yokes and symplectic forms has
been established in [4].
In order to define a yoke, let M be a smooth d-
dimensional manifold and let w = (wI, ... ,w d) and,
correspondingly, (w, w') = (WI, ... ,w d, w,I, ... ,w,d) de-
note local coordinates on M and M x M, respectively.
Arbitrary components of w will be denoted by the letters
i, j, k, m, .... For two sets of indices K t = kl ... k t and
Mu = ml ... mu and a smooth function g: M x M ---+ R,
the symbollJ K ' M is used for the values of the function
" u
, at+Ug(w, w')
gK,;MJW, w ) = a w'·
k
.. a w'
k a
W'm,... a W'm"
evaluated at the diagonal of M x M, i.e.
Some further notation is needed for the discussion of
properties of yokes. If f: M ---+ R is a smooth function,
one sets
f - at f(w)
/K, - awk, ... aw k ,'
Furthermore, if'lj; = ('lj;I, ... ,'lj;d) is an alternative set of
local coordinates for which arbitrary components are de-
noted by the letters a, b, c, d, ... and if for t, T = 1,2, ...
Ct and K r are two sets of indices related to the local
coordinates 'lj; and w, respectively, one sets
Here, the summation is over ordered partitions of Ct =
Cl ... Ct into T (non-empty) subsets C tl , ... ,Ctr such
that the order of the indices in each of the subsets
is the same as the order within C t and such that for
JL = 1,... ,T - 1 the first index of Ctl-' comes before
the first index of Ct,I-'+l as compared with the ordering
within Ct. For T > t, the sum is to be interpreted as O.
Let g be an arbitrary yoke and let IJ;
{IJK,;M u : t,u = 1,2, ... }. Then the most important
properties of g are:
a) IJ; satisfies the balance relation
IJK,; + L IJK t1 ;K'2 = O.
K,f2

b) IJ; is a double derivative string, i.e. the transfor-

With this notation, a yoke is a smooth function
mation law is
g: M x M ---+ R, such that for every w EM:
i) lJi;(w) = 0;
ii) the matrix [IJ i;j (w )] is non-singular.
A normalized yoke is a yoke satisfying the addi- In particular, lJi;j is a symmetric non-singular (0,2)-
tional condition g( w, w) = O. For any yoke g there tensor, and consequently M equipped with this metric
exists a corresponding normalized yoke g, given by is a Riemannian manifold. The inverse of the matrix
g(w, w') = g(w, w') - g(w', w'), and a dual yoke g*, given [lJi;j] will be denoted by [i;j].
by g*(w,w') = g(w',w). a a.
c) For a E R the collection of arrays r = {r K, : t =
In the statistical context the two most important ex- 1,2, ... }, where
amples of normalized yokes are the expected and the
observed likelihood yoke. For a parametric statistical a.
rt
K, -
_ {1+a __
2 IJK,;j +
I-a} ..
__
2 IJj;K, IJ
t;]

model with parameter space M, sample space X and

log-likelihood function l: M x X ---+ R, the expected like- a
is a connection string, i.e. r satisfies the transformation
lihood yoke is given by
law
g(w,w') = EW1{l(w;x) -l(w';x)}.

The observed likelihood yoke is given by

g(w,w') = l(w;w',a) -l(w';w',a). a

Here, a is an auxiliary statistic such that the function
x ---+ (w, a), where wdenotes the maximum-likelihood es-
timator of w (cf. also Maximum-likelihood method),
is bijective. Further examples of statistical yokes are re-
lated to contrast functions, see [5].
In particular, ri,k 2 is the (upper) Christoffel sym-
bol of a torsion-free affine connection, the so-called
a
a-connection, V' corresponding to the yoke g.
The expected and observed a-geometries, see [1] and
[2], are those corresponding to the expected and ob-
served likelihood yokes, respectively.

494
 YOKE

d) For a E R there exists a sequence of tensors Furthermore, "(IT = "(il ... "(iT, where "( indicates the ex-
<> <> <>
T; = {TIT;Jv: T, v = 1,2, ... }, such that TIT;J v is a tended normal coordinates around m whose components
<> are given by
covariant tensor of degree T + v. The quantities T; are
referred to as the tensorial components of 9; with re-
"( i() = -g;j (w,w '),/,i;j
<> <>
spect to r and are obtained by intertwining 9; and r, W 11 ,

i.e. determined recursively by the equations

u= L L 1\;J}k r;0u'
t u
9 being the normalized yoke corresponding to g and
9K,;M w' = w'(m).
r=lv=l
where The Taylor expansion is invariant in the sense that
1
rIT = "ril ... riT . f I lIT and "(IT are tensors.
K, ~ Ktl K'T
Kt/r References
In terms of the local coordinates w, an invariant Tay- [1] AMARI, S-1.: Differential-geometrical methods in statistics,
Vol. 28 of Lecture Notes in Statistics, Springer, 1985.
lor expansion, around m E M or w' = w'(m), of a
[2] BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E.: 'Likelihood and observed geome-
smooth function f is of the form tries', Ann. Stat. 14 (1986), 856-873.
00 11 [3] BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E.: 'Differential geometry and sta-
f(w) = f(w') +L ,fIIIT(W')-/T,
T.
tistics. Some mathematical aspects', Indian J. Math. (Ra-
r=l manujan Centenary Volume) 29 (1987),335-350.
1 [4] BARNDORFF-NIELSEN, O.E., AND JuPP, P.E: 'Statistics, yokes
where {f I /IT: T 1,2, ... } are the tensorial compo- and symplectic geometry', Ann. Toulouse to appear (1997).
nents of the derivatives {fl K, : T = 1,2, ... } with re- [5] BL!ESILD, P.: 'Yokes and tensors derived from yokes', Ann.
i Inst. Statist. Math. 43 (1991), 95-113.
spect to the connection string r given recursively by
til P. BlfEsild
flK, = LfIIIJ~,. MSC 1991: 62Axx, 53Cxx
r=l

495
________ z________
ZARISKI CATEGORY - An abstract model of the
category of commutative algebras (cf. Commutative
algebra) in which basic commutative algebra and alge-
braic geometry can be performed. Zariski categories
are axiomatically defined as categories A satisfying the
following six axioms:
1) A is co-complete, i.e., has all small colimits;
2) A has a strong generating set of objects whose ob-
jects are finitely presentable and flatly co-disjunctable;
3) regular epimorphisms in A are universal, i.e., sta-
ble under pull-backs along any morphism (cf. Mor-
phism);
4) the terminal object of A is finitely presentable and
has no proper subobject;
5) the product of two objects in A is co-universal,
i.e., stable under pushouts along any morphism;
6) for any finite sequence of co-disjunctable congru-
ences rl, ... ,rn on any object A E A, with respective
co-disjunctors d 1 , ... ,dn , one has
rl V ... V rn = 1AxA => d1 V ... V dn = 1AxA,
where V denotes union of congruences on A on the left-
hand side and co-union of quotient objects of A on the
right-hand side.
These axioms rely on the notions of limits, colimits,
finitely presentable objects, and co-disjunctors [1]. This
latter notion describes in a universal way the calculus of
fractions, and is defined as follows. Let (g, h): C ~ A
be an arbitrary pair of parallel morphisms in A. It is
said to be co-disjointed if its co-equalizer is a strict ter-
minal object. A morphism f: A --+ B co-disjoints (g, h)
if (f g, f h) is co-disjointed. A co-disjunctor of (g, h) is a
morphism d: A --+ D that co-disjoints (g, h) and through
which any morphism f that co-disjoints (g, h) factors
uniquely. The pair (g, h) is co-disjunctable if it has a
co-disjunctor. The object A is co-disjunctable if the pair
of inductions A ~ A U A of A into its coproduct by
itself is co-disjunctable. It is flatly co-disjunctable if,
moreover, the co-disjunctor d of A ~ A U A is a flat
morphism, i.e., the pushout functor along d preserves
monomorphisms.
The whole of basic commutative algebra and alge-
braic geometry can be formally developed in any Zariski
category as if its objects were commutative rings. Any
result proven in an arbitrary Zariski category has various
interpretations in various concrete categories of commu-
tative algebras of different kinds, possible equipped with
some extra structure such as an order, lattice, gradation,
filtration, differentiation, etc.
References
[1] DIERS, Y.: Categories of commutative algebras, Oxford Univ.
Press, 1992.
[2] DIERS, Y.: 'The Zariski category of graded commutative
rings', Canad. Math. Soc. Conf. Fmc. 13 (1992), 171··18l.
Y. Diers
MSC 1991: 18Fxx, 14Axx
ZERO-TWO LAW - A term used for a group of re-
sults dealing with the sequence ITn+! - Tnl, where T
is a positive contraction. Usually, either this sequence
converges to zero (uniformly or strongly), or for all n
the value two is associated with it. An example is the
following result (see [3] and [1]). Let T be a positive
contraction on L p , where 1 :::; P :::; 00. Then either
IIITn+ 1 - Tnlll = 2 for all n or IIT n+! - Tnll --+ 0 as
n --+ 00. For generalizations and additional references
see [2].
References
[1] KATZNELSON, Y., AND TZAFRIRI, L.: 'On power bounded op-
erators', 1. Fnnct. Anal. 68 (1986),313-·328.
[2] SeREP, A.R.: 'A remark on the uniform zero-two law for pos-
itive contractions', Arch. Math. 53 (1989),493-496.
[3] ZARAROPOL, R.: 'The modulus of a regular linear operator
and the "zero-two" law in LP-spaces (1 < p < 00, p oF 2)', J.
Fnnct. Anal. 68 (1986), 300-312.
A.R. Schep
MSC 1991: 47B38
--_________ SUBJECTINDEX ___________
O-dimensional topological space
[54035; 54035]
(see: Banaschewski compactifica-
tion)
O-dimensional topological space see:
strongly -
I-connection see: Amari-
1 graph see: class--
I-symmetric space
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
I-unconditional space
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
2 constant see: type--
2 elliptic genus see: level--
2-form see: fund~mental-
3-dimensional sphere see: fake-
3-frame see: large partial -
3-terminal recursive class
[05C05, 05C45, 05CS5, 05C99;
05C05, 05C45, 05CS5, 05C99]
(see: Halin graph)
3 - j, 6 - j, and 9 - j coefficients see:
Racsh, Wigner, -
3n- j coefficients
[2OCxx, 2OG05, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx, 2OG05, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
(3x+ 1) -conjecture
[IIBxx; IIBxx]
(see: Syracuse problem)
(3x+l)-problem
[IIBxx; IIBxx]
(see: Syracuse problem)
4-manWold see: topological-
4-manWolds see: classification of closed
simply-connected topological -
4-PSK constellation
[05E30, 94B15, 94B35; 05E30,
94BI5,94B35]
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes)
6-j, and 9-j coefficients see: Racah,
Wigner,3-j, -
7 see: Hilbert problem -
9 - j coefficients see: Racah, Wigner, 3-
j,6-j, and-
10 see: Hilbert problem -
10th problem see: Hilbert-
17th problem see: p-adic Hilbert -
1050 see: MIL 8TD -
t{ l{ree group
[03Exx, O4-XX, 20K20; 03Exx, 04-
XX,20K20]
(see: Whitehead problem)
I'll -free group see: strongly-
___ A ___
a-conformal family of probability mea-
sure.'i
[II Fxx, 2S0xx, 3OCxx, 32Nxx, 58Fxx,
SO-XX; IIFxx, 2S0xx, 3OCxx, 32Nxx,
5SFxx, SO-XX]
(see: Conformal measure)
a-connection
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx]
(see: Yoke)
a-connection see: expected ob-
served -
a-dual
[40H05, 46A45; 40H05, 46A45]
(see: Kiitbe--Toeplitz dual)
a-geometry see: expected -; observed -
a-mixing
[2S0xx, 60AIO, 60005, 6OFxx,
6OG60, 60Kxx; 2S0xx, 60AIO,
60005, 6OFxx, 60G60, 60Kxx]
(see: Absolute regularity)
a-mixing random variables
[2S0xx, 60AIO, 60005, 60Fxx,
6OG60, 60Kxx; 2S0xx, 60A 10,
60005, 60Fxx, 60G60, 60Kxx]
(see: Absolute regularity)
a-perfect subset
[40H05, 46A45; 40H05, 46A45]
(see: Kiithe--Toeplitz dual)
a-saturated extension
[03C50, 03C95; 03C50, 03C95]
(see: Existentially closed)
A see: Botzas-Hammons-Kumar con-
struction -
A see: Kaplansky hypothesis -
A a-lattice
[II H56, 94B35; IIH56, 94B35]
(see: Octacode)
A;-Iattice
[IIH56, 94B35; IIH56, 94B35]
(see: Octacode)
A -measure see: Maslov-
a posteriori bound
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
A priori and a posteriori bounds in ma-
trix computations
(65Fxx; 65Fxx)
(refers to: Defective value; Newton
method; Puiseux series; spectral ra-
dius; Stability of a computational
process)
a priori bound
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
a priori estimate
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
A 00 ring space
[19006; 19006]
(see: Plus-construction)
A -semi-module
[15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44-
XX, 44AI5, 6SQIO, SI-XX, 9OC39,
93C30; 15A4S, 16Y6O, 19Lxx, 2SCxx,
44-XX, 44AI5, 6SQIO, SI-XX,
90C39,93C30]
(see: Idempotent analysis)
A-stability
[65L05, 65L06; 65L05, 65L06]
(see: Adaptive Runge--Kutta metbod;
Rosenbrock methods)
A-stability see: test equation of -
A-stable numerical method
[65L06; 65L06]
(see: Rosenbrock metbods)
Abel-Jacobi mapping
[IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 19Dxx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Bellinson conjectures)
Abelian difference set
(05BIO, IIBl3, 20KOI; 05BIO,
IIBI3,20KOI)
(refers to: algebraic number theory;
automorphism; cyclic group; cyclo-
tomic field; Difference set; group)
Abelian difference set see: multiplier of
an -
Abelian extension
[II R20; II R20]
(see: Abelian number field)
Abelian group see: developing a starter
in an -; patterned starter in an -; sep-
arable -; slender -; starter in an -;
state on an ordered -; un perforated or-
dered -
Abelian groups see: Gamma-invariant in
the theory of -
Abelian lattice
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
Abelian number field
(lIR20; lIR20)
(refers to: Class field tbeory; Exten-
sion of a field; Galois group)
Abelian p-group see: elementary-
Abelian semi-group see: Ressel charac-
terization of completely posijive-definite
bounded functions on an -
Abelian surface
(l4Kxx,5SF07; 14Kxx, 5SF07)
(refers to: Abelian variety; Alge-
braically closed field; Ample sheaf;
complex torus; Elliptic curve; ge-
ometric genus; Hamiltonian sys-
tem; Heisenberg representation;
irregularity; Isogeny; isogeny; Ja-
cobi variety; Kodaira dimension;
Kowalewski top; Kummer surface;
Master equations in cooperative and
social phenomena; Moduli problem;
Projective scheme; Riemann-Roch
tbeorem; sheaf)
Abelian surface see: polarized -; type of
a polarized -
Abelian type see: 8himura variety of -
Abian-Brown-Pelczar theorem
[06A06; 06A06]
(see: Fixed-point property)
Absolute Cesaro summability
(4OCxx; 4OCxx)
(refers to: Absolute summability;
Cesaro summation metbods; Ma-
trix summation method; matrix
summation method; Riesz summa-
tion method; Summation methods;
Voronoi summation method)
absolute Cesaro summability
[4OCxx; 4OCxx]
(see: Absolute Cesaro summahility)
absolute cohomology
[IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
19Dxx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Bellinson conjectures)
absolute decomposition field
[12J20, 13B15; 12J20, 13B15]
(see: Ramification tbeory of valued
fields)
absolute Euler summability
[40Cxx; 4OCxx]
(see: Absolute Cesaro summability)
absolute Galois group
[II Fxx, lIGIS, 14Mxx, 2OGxx;
IIFxx, IIGIS, 14Mxx, 20Gxx]
(see: Shimura variety)
absolute Hodge cohomology
[IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; lIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Bellinson conjectures)
absolute inertia field
[12J20, l3BI5; 12J20, 13B15]
(see: Ramification tbeory of valued
fields)
absolute matrix summability
[4OCxx; 4OCxx]
(see: Ahsolute Cesaro summability)
absolute NiMund summability
[4OCxx; 4OCxx]
(see: Absolute Cesaro summability)
absolute ramification field
[12J20, 13B15; 12120, 13B15]
(see: Ramification tbeory of valued
fields)
Absolute regularity
(2SDxx, 60A 10, 60005, 60Fxx,
6OG6O, 60Kxx; 2SDxx, 60A 10,
60005, 6OFxx, 60G60, 60Kxx)
(refers to: central limit theorem; er-
godic tbeory; m-dependent process;
mixing; probability tbeory; Random
field; Renewal tbeory; Stochastic dif-
ferential equation; stochastic geome-
try; Stochastic process)
absolute regularity coefficient
[2S0xx, 60AIO, 60005, 60Fxx,
6OG60, 60Kxx; 2SDxx, 60A 10,
60005, 60Fxx, 6OG60, 60Kxx]
(see: Absolute regularity)
497
ABSOLUTE REGULARITY OF STOCHASTIC PROCESSES ANO FIELDS
Absolute regularity of stochastic pro-
cesses and fields
[280xx, 60AIO, 60005, 60Fxx,
6OG6O, 6OKxx; 280xx, 6OAIO,
60005, 6OFxx, 6OG6O, 6OKxx]
(see: Absolute regularity)
absolute Riesz summability
[4OCxx; 4OCxx]
(see: Absolute Cesaro summability)
absolute Vorono( summability
[4OCxx; 4OCxx]
(see: Absolute Cesarosummability)
absolutely indecomposable module
[2OC05, 2OCIO; 2OC05, 20CIO]
(see: Clifford tbeory)
ab.folutely p-summing
[47BIO; 47BIO]
(see: Absolutely summing operator)
absolutely p-summing operators see: Ba-
nach space of -
Absolutely summing operator
(47B 10; 47B 10)
(refers 10: Adjoint space; Banacb
space; Borel measure; Compact
operator; Hausdorff space; Hllbert-
SchmIdt operator; Hilbert space;
linear functional; linear operator;
Nuclear operator)
Absorbing boundary conditions
(65M05, 65MIO, 86-08; 65M05,
65MIO,86-08)
(refers to: Difference scbeme; finite
difference; Maxwell equations; Pade
approximation; pseUdo-differential
operator; Stability)
abstract see: Wiener space. -
Abstract algebra
(OOAxx; OOAxx)
(refers to: algebra)
Abstract approximation tbeory
(41A35, 41A36, 41A65; 41A35,
41A36,41A65)
(refers 10: adjoint space; Approxi-
mation of functions, linear metb-
ods; Approximation of functions,
measure of; approximation tbe-
ory; Bernstein polynomials; Borel
measure; Equicontinuity; Fejer
sum; interpolation; Korovkin tbe-
orems; Korovkin-type approxima-
tion tbeory; linear space; LocaUy
convex space; locally convex space;
Polar; Semi-norm; Semi-ordered
space; Spline approximation; Stone-
Weierstrass tbeorem; trigonometric
interpolation; Trigonometric poly-
nomial)
Abstract family of languages
(68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05)
(referred 10 in: AFL operations; Con-
textual grammar; Grammar form;
Regulated rewriting; Trio)
(refers to: AFL operations; Formal
languages and automata; Grammar
form; Trio)
abstract L -space
[28A99, 62BI5, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62BI5, 62B20, 62C05]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
abstract M -space
[28A99, 62BI5, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62BI5, 62B20, 62C05]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
Abstract Volterra equation
(45005, 47Bxx; 45005, 47Bxx)
(refers to: Abstract Volterra opera-
tor; Completely-continuous opera-
tor)
Abstract Volterra operator
(47Bxx, 93Axx, 93B28; 47Bxx,
93Axx, 93B28)
(referred to in: Abstract Volterra
equation)
(refers to: linear operator; operator;
Volterra operator)
498
Abstract Witt ring
(IIE81; IIE81)
(refers 10: field; Witt ring)
abstraction function
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
AC -contact Bochner curvature tensor
[53A45, 53B35, 53CI5, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C25]
(see: Bocbner curvature tensor)
accelerated
[65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration metbods)
Accelerated life testing
(62N05, 90B25; 62N05, 90B25)
(refers to: Bayesian approacb; dis-
tribution function; Weibull distribu-
tion)
acceleration see: Chebyshev -; precondi-
tioning -
acceleration constant see: relative-
acceleration junction
[62N05, 90B25; 62N05, 90B25]
(see: Accelerated life testing)
acceleration function see: linear -; power-
type -
acceleration jump see: amplitude vector of
an -
acceleration method see: classical-
Acceleration metbods
(65FIO; 65FIO)
(refers 10: Acceleration of conver-
gence; Anti-eigenvalue; approxi-
mation tbeory; Cbebysbev poly-
nomials; Hyperrelaxation metbod;
Jacobi metbod; linear algebra; Non-
singular matrix; Sparse matrix;
spectral radius; spectral tbeory;
Steepest descent, metbod of)
acceleration of a method
[65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration metbods)
Acceleration wave
(73Bxx. 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033; 73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx. 73040.
76033)
(refers 10: Smootb function)
acceleration wave
[73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx. 73040,
76033; 73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033]
(see: Acceleration wave)
acceptable quality level
[62NIO; 62NIO]
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
Acceptance sampling
(62N 10; 62N 10)
(referred to in: Acceptance sampling
plan for attributes; Acceptance sam-
pling plan for variables)
(refers 10: Acceptance sampling plan
for attributes; Acceptance sampling
plan for variables; statistical quality
control)
acceptance sampling plan see: double-
sample -
Acceptance sampling plan for at-
tributes
(62NIO; 62NIO)
(referred 10 in: Acceptance sampling;
Acceptance sampling plan for vari-
ables)
(refers 10: acceptance sampling;
Nomograpby; probability)
Acceptance sampling plan for variables
(62NIO; 62NIO)
(referred 10 in: Acceptance sampling)
(refers to: Acceptance sampling;
acceptance sampling plan for at-
tributes)
Accessibility
(93Bxx; 93Bxx)
(refers to: control system)
Accessibility in control theory
[93Bxx; 93Bxx]
(see: Accessibility)
accessibility property
[93Bxx; 93Bxx]
(see: Accessibility)
accessibility property see: strong-
Accessible random variable
(6OBII, 60H05, 60H07; 60BII,
6OH05, 60H07)
(refers 10: Brownian motion; Com-
plete topological space; Countably-
additive set function; Generalized
function, derivative of a; Hilbert
space; Martingale; matbemati-
cal statistics; measurable space;
probability; probability measure;
probability space; Stocbastic dif-
ferential equation; Stocbastic inte-
gral; stocbastic process; wbite noise;
Wiener measure)
accessible random variable
[60BII, 60H05, 60H07; 60BII,
6OH05,60H07]
(see: Accessible random variable)
accommodative estimation
[62F35; 62F35]
(see: Outlier)
accretive oparator see: strongly-
Accuracy
(62-XX. 65-XX; 62-XX, 65-XX)
(refers 10: Error; Errors, tbeory of)
accuracy see: computational-
accuracy analysis
[62-XX. 65-XX; 62-XX, 65-XX]
(see: Accuracy)
accuracy credibility theory see: greatest-
ACFo
[03C45; 03C45]
(see: Morley rank)
ac(}wuic tensor
[73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033; 73Bxx. 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
760331
(see: Acceleration wave)
acoustic wave equation
[65M05, 65MIO, 86-08; 65M05,
65M 10.86-08]
(see: Absorbing boundary condi-
tions)
action see: affine type for a primitive per-
mutation group -; almost-simple type for
a primitive permutation group -; diago-
nal type for a primitive permutation group
-; ergodic group -; Frobenius -; holo-
morphic simple type for a primitive per-
mutation group -; Polyakov -; properly
discontinuous group -; twisted wreath
product type for a primitive permutation
group -; type for a primitive permutation
group -
action of a wreath product type see: prod-
uct -
(action of the real number set) see: flow-
Action potential
(92C20; 92C20)
(referred to in: Hodgkin-Huxley sys-
tem)
(refers 10: Hodgkin-Huxley system)
action potential
[68T05. 92C20; 68T05, 92C20]
(see: Hebb rule)
action potential see: stationary-
actions see: dressing -; Poisson -
Activation energy
(33K57, 35B25, 80A25; 33K57,
35B25, 80A25)
(refer., to: combustion tbeory; Per-
turbation tbeory; saddle point;
Scbriidinger equation)
Active constraint
(90C30; 9OC30)
(referred 10 in: Passive constraint)
(refers 10: Matbematical program-
ming; Passive constraint)
active constraint
[9OC30; 90C30]
(see: Active constraint)
actuarial mathematics
[62Cxx, 62P05; 62Cxx, 62P05]
(see: Credibility tbeory)
Acyclic group
(I90xx,20Jxx; 190xx, 20Jxx)
(referred 10 in: Binate group)
(refers 10: Abelian group; algebraic
K -tbeory; algebraic topology; Bi-
nate group; classifying space; cone;
general linear group; Homology;
plus-construction)
acyclic group see: torsion-generated-
acyclic mapping
[19006; 190061
(see: Plus-construction)
Acyclic orientation
(05Cxx; 05Cxx)
(refers 10: grapb; Graph, bipartite;
Grapb colouring; Grapb, connectiv-
ity of a; Grapb, oriented; Gray code;
Partial order)
acyclic orientation see: dependent edge in
an -
acyclic orientation graph
[05Cxx; 05Cxx]
(see: Acyclic orientation)
Adams conjecture
(I9L20, 55Q20; 19L20, 55Q20)
(refers 10: algebraic geometry; alge-
braic K -tbeory; algebraic topology;
Becker-Gottiieb transfer; Cobomol-
ogy operation; CW-complex; bomo-
topy; vector bundle)
Adams-Hilton model
(55Pxx; 55Pxx)
(refers 10: CW-complex; bomotopy;
Homotopy group; Homotopy type;
Pontryagin class; Pontryagin invari-
ant; topological space)
Adams-Hilton model
[55Pxx; 55Pxx]
(see: Adams-Hilton model)
Adams operation
[I9L20, 55Q20; 19L20, 55Q20]
(see: Adams conjecture)
Adams operators
[IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG4O, 14CI7, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: BeDinson conjectures)
adaptive control
[93C4O, 93021 ; 93C40, 93021]
(see: Adaptive stabilization)
adaptive control see: direct -; indirect -;
model reference -; self-tuning -
Adaptive quadrature
(41A25, 41A46, 65C05, 65030,
65032, 65Y20, 68Q25; 41A25,
41 A46, 65C05, 65030. 65032, 65Y20,
68Q25)
(refers 10: integral; matbematical
statistics; Monte-Carlo metbod)
adaptive quadrature formula
[41A25, 41A46, 65C05, 65030,
65032, 65Y20, 68Q25; 41A25,
41 A46, 65C05, 65030, 65032, 65Y20,
68Q25]
(see: Adaptive quadrature)
adaptive quadrature formula see: non--
adaptive quadrature method
[41A25, 41A46, 65C05, 65030,
65032, 65Y20, 68Q25; 41A25,
41 A46, 65C05, 65030, 65032, 65Y20,
68Q25]
(see: Adaptive quadrature)
adaptive quadrature method see: non--
Adaptive Runge-Kutta metbod
(65L05; 65L05)
(refers 10: Runge-Kutta metbod; Stiff
differential system)
adaptive Runge-Kulla method see: 8-
stage -
Adaptive sampling
(62005; 62005)
(refers 10: unbiased estimator)
Adaptive sampling
[62005; 62005]
(see: Adaptive sampling)
Adaptive stabilization

(93C40, 93021; 93C40, 93021)
(refers to: dynamic programming;
dynamical system)
adaptive stabilization
[93C40, 93021; 93C40, 93021]
(see: Adaptive stabilization)
add~ion see: idempotent -; Minkowski -
add~ion formula see: Euler-
addition formula for a family of special
functions
[22Exx, 33-XX, 42Cxx; 22Exx, 33-
XX,42Cxx]
(see: Addition theorems in the theory
of special functions)
add~ion formulas see: Weierstrass theorem
on -
addition of n+ 1 angular momenta
[2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx,2OO05,22A25,22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3 - j, 6 - j, and
9-j coefficients)
addition operation see: graph of the -
add~ion theorem see: algebraic-
Addition theorems in the theory of spe-
cial functions
(22Exx, 33-XX, 42Cxx; 22Exx, 33-
XX,42Cxx)
(refers to: analytic continuation; an-
alytic function; Bessel functions;
Elementary functions; elliptic func-
tion; exponential function; General-
ized displacement operators; Jacobi
polynomials; Legendre polynomi-
als; polynomial; Special functions;
ultraspherical polynomials)
add~ive function see: Cesari quasi- -;
quasi- -
additive measure see: completely-
additive operator on a Boolean algebra
[03Gxx, 03G15, 06Exx, 06E15;
03Gxx, 03015, 06Exx, 06E15]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
additive polynomial
[12110,12120; 12J10, 12J20]
(see: Kaplansky field)
Additive selection
(52Axx, 54C6O, 54C65; 52Axx,
54C60, 54C65)
(refers to: convex body; Hausdorff
metric; homomorphism; Lexico-
graphic order; semi-group)
additive selection
[52Axx, 54C6O, 54C65; 52Axx,
54C6O, 54C65]
(see: Additive selection)
add~ive sequence of measures see:
(m,n)- -; symmetrically-
add~ive set functions see: Banach space
of complex bounded fin~ely- -
Additive stochastic process
(60130; 60130)
(refers to: Brownian motion; Charac-
teristic function; factorization identi-
ties; Infinitely-divisible distribution;
Martingale; normal distribution;
Poisson distribution; Poisson pro-
cess; Stable distribution; stochastic
process; topological group)
additive stochastic process see: homoge-
neous -
additiv~y theorem see: Segal-Faris-
Adequacy theorem
(03Bxx; 03Bxx)
(refers to: interpretation; modal logic;
model (in logic); Ordinal number;
Transfinite number)
adequacy theorem
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
Adequacy theorem for senses
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
adic (-function see: p--
adic see: totally p- -
adic field element see: totally p - -
adic fields see: formally p- -
adic Hilbert 17th problem see: p--
adic Hilbert Nullstellensatz see: p--
adic logarithm see: p--
adic numbers see: elementary theory of
the p- -; Galois group of the p- -
adic regulator see: p--
adic Serre bound see: p--
adically closed field see: p--
adically closed p-valued field see: p--
ADINA system
(65L6O, 65N30, 65Y99; 65L6O,
65N30, 65Y99)
(refers to: Difference scheme, vari-
ational; Euler equation; Navier-
Stokes equations)
adjoining see: operation of -
adjoint see: strongly continuous -
adjoint bundle of a projective surface
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99]
(see: Adjunction theory)
adjoint eigenvectors
[58F14; 58F14]
(see: Hopf bifurcation)
adjoint linear operator see: bounded seR-
adjoint semi-group
[47003; 47003]
(see: Adjoint semi-group of opera-
tors)
Adjoint semi-group of operators
(47003; 47003)
(refers to: Banach lattice; Banach
space; Reflexive space; Semi-group
of operators; Strongly-continuous
semi-group; SusHn hypothesis)
adjunction
[03B53, 06C05, 68Q20, 68Q55;
03B53, 06C05, 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs; Argue-
sian lattice; Paraconsistent logic)
adjunction mapping in algebraic geome-
try
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99]
(see: Adjunction theory)
adjunction termination theorem
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99]
(see: Adjunction theory)
Adjunction theory
(l4C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99)
(refers to: algebraic curve; Ample
vector bundle; Birational morphism;
bundle; fibration; Kodaira dimen-
sion; Projective algebraic set; projec-
tive space; Riemann surface)
adjusted cO/orsion group
[20Kxx; 20Kxx]
(see: Cotorsion group)
adjustment see: Bartlett-
Adler-Kostant-Symes theorem
[58F07; 58F07)
(see: Kowalewski top)
admissibility see: thermodynamical-
admissibility condition
[42Cxx, 47B35, 47B38; 42Cxx,
47B35,47B38)
(see: Calderon-Toeplitz operator)
AF-algebra
(l9Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46L80)
(refers to: C' -algebra; Choquet
simplex; Commutation and anti-
commutation relationships, repre-
sentation of; Hilbert space; homo-
morphism; ideal; inductive limit;
K -theory; subgroup; Wedderburn-
Artin theorem)
AF-algebras see: classification theorem
for-
affine Benz plane see: classical-
affine chain
[5IB05; 51B05)
(see: Chain geometry; Chain space)
affine chain geometry
[5IB05; 51B05)
(see: Chain geometry)
affine chain space
[5IB05; 51B05)
(see: Chain space)
affine differential geometry see: affine
isoperimetric inequality of -
affine isoperimetric inequality
[52A40; 52A4O)
(see: Blaschke-Santalo inequality)
affine isoperimetric inequality of affine
differential geometry
[52A40; 52A40)
(see: Blaschke-Santalo inequality)
affine model of a Benz plane
[5IB05; 51B05)
(see: Benz plane)
affine plane see: derived-
affine root
[20G25; 20025)
(see: Bruhat-Tits building)
affine space see: blow-up of -; centre
of a blow-up of -; equivalence in an -;
equivalent points in an -; partial -
affine structure
[53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx,
62Axx, 62Fxx)
(see: Statistical manifold)
affine type for a primitive permutation
group action
[20BI5; 20BI5)
(see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
AFL
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05)
(see: Abstract family of languages;
AFL operations; Trio)
AFL see: anti- -; Full -; full semi- -;
principal -; principal semi- -; semi- -
AFL family of languages see: anti--
AFL operations
(68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05)
(referred to in: Abstract family of lan-
guages; Trio)
(refers to: Abstract family of lan-
guages; Trio)
AFL-theory
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Abstract family of languages;
Trio)
AFL-theory see: main theorem of -
aggregation
[28010, 54H20, 58Fxx, 80A05;
28010, 54H20, 58Fxx, 80A05)
(see: Coarse graining)
aggressive strategy
[90AI4, 900xx, 92Bxx; 9OA14,
900xx, 92Bxx)
(see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
Aharonov effect see: Bohm--
Ahlswede-Daykin inequality
(06A06, 6OE15; 06A06, 60E15)
(referred to in: Correlation inequal-
ities; Fishburn-Shepp inequality;
FKG inequality; Holley inequality)
(refers to: Correlation inequalities;
distributive lattice; Fishburn-Shepp
inequality; FKG inequality; Holley
inequality)
AK-property
[40H05, 46A45; 4OH05, 46A45]
(see: Kothe-Toeplitz dual)
Akaike information criterion
[62MIO; 62MIO)
(see: Canadian lynx series)
Akhiezer function see: Baker--
Akhiezer theorem
[42A05, 47 A56; 42A05, 47A56)
(see: Fejer-R1esz theorem)
Akivis algebra
(l70xx, 20Nxx, 22E05, 22E67;
170xx, 20Nxx, 22E05, 22E67)
(refers to: field; Lie algebra; Lie
group; Lie group, local; Loop, an-
alytic; MaI'tsev algebra; Moufang
loop; Non-associative rings and al-
gebras; Quasi-group; vector space;
Web)
Akivis condition
ALGEBRA
[170xx, 20Nxx, 22E05, 22E67;
170xx, 20Nxx, 22E05, 22E67)
(see: Akivis algebra)
Albert
[68Q40; 68Q40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
Alfven speed
[33A30, 33A40, 35L05, 35L 10,
35NIO, 76W05, 85A35, 86A25;
33A30, 33A40, 35L05, 35L 10, 35N 10,
76W05, 85A35, 86A25)
(see: Alfven waves)
Alfven waves
(33A30, 33A4O, 35L05, 35L 10,
35NIO, 76W05, 85A35, 86A25;
33A30, 33A40, 35L05, 35LIO, 35NIO,
76W05, 85A35, 86A25)
(refers to: Bessel functions; Fourier
transform; Hypergeometric func-
tion; Magneto-hydrodynamics,
mathematical problems in; Maxwell
equations)
algebra see: Abstract -; additive oper-
ator on a Boolean -; AF- -; Akivis
-; approximately finite-dimensional -;
Archimedean /- -; Arens-regular -;
B 0 - - ; Banach function -; band in
an -; Baric -; Batalin-Vil'koviskii -;
BCH- -; BCI- -; BCK- -; Bernstein
-; bi- -; BL- -; Blow-up -; Borel-Lie
-; boundary for a function -; boundary
for a subset of a function -; bounded
BCK- -; BV- -; canonical extension
of a Boolean -; CAR- -; commutative
BCK- -; complete locally bounded -;
congruence-simple universal -; con-
served symmetry -; current -; cylindric
-; de Morgan -; diagonalizable -;
double centralizer -; double of a Lie
-; exact Gerstenhaber -; exterior -;
p- -; /- -; first-order Bernstein -;
Fourier-Eymard -; Frschet -; free
associative -; free Magari -; function
-; fundamental theorem of -; G- -;
gametic diploid -; Gell-Mann-Dashen
-; generalized Bernstein -; geometric
-; Gerstenhaber -; Glimm -; graded
Poisson -; group-like element of a co-
-; group measure -; Grzegorczyk -;
implicative BCK- -; irrational rotation
C'- -; 6-pseudo-Boolean -; t- -;
LB- -; lattice-ordered -; Leibniz-
Hopf -; Lie-Rinehart -; Lindenbaum
-; Lindenbaum sentence -; locally
pseudo-convex P- -; loop -; m-
convex Bo- -; MS- -; Magari -;
mantissa sigma -; Markov -; max-plus
- ; measure -; merge-cut Hopf -;
Modular group -; multiplicatively-convex
Bo- -; nest -; non-modular group -;
normal operator on a Boolean -; normed
Cayley-Dickson -; nth order Bernstein
- ; 0- - ; Ockham -; operator on a
Boolean -; Orlik-Solomon -; over-
lapping shuffle -; p-semi-simple BCI-
-; perfect extension of a Boolean -;
Poisson -; Poisson-Hopf -; Pontryagin
-; positive cone of an ,. -; positive im-
plicative BCK- -; pos~ive semi-definite
element in a C' - -; prime spectrum of
an -; Primitive element in a co- -; prim-
itive element of a co- -; pseudo-Boolean
-; pseudo-normed Cayley-Dickson -;
quadratic -; reduced -; reductively
fillered Lie -; Rees -; relation -;
representation-finite -; Riesz -; u- -;
Schouten -; second-order Bernstein -;
semi-prime /- -; semi-regular Banach
-; Shuffle -; shuffle-cut Hopf -; Spec-
trum generating -; stochastic process
-; Stone -; Stone semi- -; strict t- -;
structure constants of an -; subdirectly
irreducible -; tail u- -; Tate-Oort -;
totally-ordered t- -; trace on a C'-
-; two-element Boolean -; UHF- -;
uniform -; uniformly hyper-finite -; von
Neumann enveloping -; weight function
499
ALGEBRA
of a weighted -; weighted -; Wiener
-;/--;1--
algebra approach see: max-plus-
algebra congruence see: Ockham-
algebra element see: positive-definite-
algebra generated by the hit-or-miss topol-
ogy see: Borel rI- -
algebra in positive characteristic see:
weight of a group -
algebra of a relation structure see: com-
plex -
algebra of a relational structure see: com-
plex -
algebra of Cayley numbers
[16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
algebra of Cayley octonions
[16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
algebra of complex numbers
[ 16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
algebra of differential forms
[16W55, 17B56, 17B60, 17B70,
17B81, 58AIO; 16W55, 17B56,
17B60, 17B70, 17B81, 58A 10]
(see: Poisson algebra)
Algebra of finite representation type
(l6G60; 16G60)
(refers to: Representation of an asso-
ciative algebra)
algebra of fractions
[08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx;
08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx]
(see: Jacobson category)
algebra of Hamilton numbers
[16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
algebra of Hamilton quatemions
[16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
algebra of hyperbolic complex numbers
[16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
algebra of hyperbolic octonions
[16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
algebra of hyperbolic quatemions
[16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
algebra of observables
[8IRxx, 81R05; 8lRxx, 8IROS]
(see: Spectrum generating algebra)
algebra of octonions
[16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
algebra of positive characteristic see:
equivalent weights of a group -
algebra of primitive elements see: Lie-
algebra of quatemions
[16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
algebra of type Bo
[46Hxx; 46Hxx]
(see: Frechet algebra)
algebra of type F
[46Hxx; 46Hxx]
500
(see: Fn\chet algebra)
algebra package see: Computer-
algebra structure see: graded Gersten-
haber -; graded Poisson -; Poisson -
algebra system see: computer-
algebra under constraint see: Lie-
algebra under constraints see: Lie-
algebra with band structure
[47AS7, 47A68; 47A57, 47A68]
(see: Band method)
algebra with band structure see: diagonal
in an -; right multiplicative diagonal in
an -
algebra with conjugation see: commutative
Hopf -
algebra with operators see: Boolean-
Algebra with polynomial identities
(l6Rxx; 16Rxx)
(refers to: PI-algebra)
algebra sp (8,R) see: symplectic Lie-
algebraic addition theorem
[22Exx, 33-XX, 42Cxx; 22Exx, 33-
XX, 42Cxx]
(see: Addition theorems in the theory
of special functions)
Algebraic analysis
(44A99, 47A05; 44A99, 47 A05)
(refers to: Algebraically closed field;
calculus; commutative algebra; con-
volution of functions; differential
operator; Linear operator; linear
space; Microlocal analysis; opera-
tional calculus; Taylor formula)
aLgebraic completely integrable system
[14Kxx,58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07]
(see: Ahelian surface)
Algebraic Diophantine equations
(03C60, II G35, II RS8, 12L05,
14G25;03C60, IIG35, IIR58, 12L05.
14G25)
(referred to in: Model theory of valued
fields)
(refers to: Algebraically closed field;
algorithm; Diophantine equations,
solvability problem of; Diophantine
set; elementary theory; elimination
of quantifiers; glohal field; Model
theory of valued fields)
algebraic function see: semi--
Algebraic-geometric code
(94B27; 94B27)
(referred to in: Artin-Schreier code)
(refers to: Artin-Schreier code;
Goppa code)
algebraic geometry see: adjunction map-
ping in -
algebraic geometry code
[94B27; 94B27]
(see: Algebraic-geometric code)
algebraic groups see: Borel theorem for -
algebraic integers see: decidability of the
elementary theory of the ring of -; ele-
mentary theory of the ring of -; ring of -
algebraic K -theory see: higher-
algebraic logic
[03Gxx, 03G 15, 06Exx, 06E 15;
03Gxx, 03G15, 06Exx, 06E15]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
algebraic number field
[IIBxx, IIGxx, 11J81, 20KOI; II Bxx,
IIGxx. 11J81, 20KOI]
(see: Davenport constant; G-
function)
algebraic numbers see: field of -
algebraic reconstruction technique see:
multiplicative -
algebraic solution of the hydrogen atom see:
Pauli -
algebraic stability in numerical analysis
[65L06; 6SL06]
(see: B-convergence)
algebraic topology see: Group completion
theorem in -; localization in -; transfer
in -
algebraic varieties see: Riemann hypothe-
sis for non-singular projective -
algebraic variety see: projective -; strict
transform of an -
algebraically closed fields see: complete-
ness of the theory of -
algebraically closed group
[19Dxx. 20Jxx; 19Dxx. 20Jxx]
(see: Acyclic group)
algebraically closed valued fields see: ele-
mentary theory of -
algebraically completely integrable
Hamiltonian system
[14020, 14H40. 14H52, 14K25.
22E67, 33E05. 34L05. 35Q53, 58F07.
70H20: 14020. 14H40, 14H52.
14K25. 22E67. 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53.
58F07. 70H20]
(see: Calogero-Moser-Krichever
system)
algebraically integrable dynamical sys-
tem
[58F07; 58F07]
(.see: Goryachev-Chaplygin top)
algehraically maximal field extension
[03C60, 12J 10, 12L12; 03C60, I2J 10.
12L12]
(see: Model theory of valued fields)
algebras see: canonical variety of -;
category of weighted -; classification
theorem for AF- -; complex variety of
-; Douglas -; duality theorem for Ma-
gari -; elementary class of -; ale·
mentary variety of -; equational class
of -: Gerfand-Mazur-type theorem for
13 0 - - ; Gel'fand-Mazur-type theorem
for LB- -; morphism of weighted -;
polyadic -: representation theorem for
Magari -; Stone representation theorem
for Boolean -; wide-sense elementary
class of -
algebroid see: Lie-
algorithm see: Branch-and-bound
Buchberger -: contact -; Cooley-
Tukey fast Fourier transform -; de
Casteljau -; Dijkstra -; Dinitz-Stinson
-; divide-and-conquerfast Fouriertrans-
form -; Duval factorization -; Duval
generation -: Ford -; Genetic
Greedy -: Hasse -; hill-climbing -;
Idempotent -; Karp -; Kruskal -;
Levinson -; linear-time Chazelle trian-
gulation -; myopic -; out-of-kilter -;
Prim .~; probabilistic -; revolving door
-; Schensted insertion -; Schur ~;
Search ~; stability of a numerical ~;
steepest ascent -; steepest descent -;
stochastic search ~; universal semi-ring
-; WFT -; Winograd bilinear -; Wino-
grad fast Fourier transform ~; Winograd
FFT --; Winograd Fouriertransform -;
Winograd large FFT -; Winograd large
Fourier transform -; Winograd small
convolution ~ (see: Lyndon word)
algorithm on a graph see: Search-
algorithms see: partition in genetic
primal-dual interior-point ~; schemata in
genetic -
Aliquot sequence
(1IB37; IIB37)
(refers to: Amicable numbers; perfect
number)
aliquot sequence see: eventually periodiC
~; terminating ~
Aliquot sequence startillgfro
[IIB37; IIB37]
(.see: Aliquot sequence)
ALJABR
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Alladi formula see: de Bruijn- -
Almgren-Calahi theorem
[53C42, 57R40. 57R42; 53C42,
57R40. 57R42]
(see: Bernstein problem in differen-
tial geometry)
almost co-symplectic manifold
[53A45. 53B35, 53C15, 53C25;
53A45. 53B35, 53C15, 53C25]
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
almost-complex distribution
[32CI6, 53C15; 32C16, 53C15]
(see: CR-manifold)
almost contact manifold
[53C25; 53C25]
(see: Sasakian manifold)
almost contact metric man(fold
[53C2S; 53C25]
(.see: Sasakian manifold)
almost contact metric .\'tructure
[53C25; 53C25]
(see: Sasakian manifold)
almo,ft contact structure
[53C25; 53C25]
(see: Sasakian manifold)
almost contact structure .... ee: normal-
alm""tJree group
[20K20; 20K20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of Abelian groups)
almost Hermitian manifold
[53CI5. 53C40. 53C56: 53C15.
53C40, 53C56]
(see: CR-submanifold)
almost-periodic K -contact How
[53CI5, 53C57. 58F05; 53C15.
53C57, 58F05]
(see: K -contact flow)
almost-simple group
[20BI5; 20B15]
(.see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
almost-simple type/or a primitive permu-
tation group action
[20BI5; 20B15]
(see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
almost-sure C(Jnvergemoe
[60-XX; 60-XX]
(see: Convergence, a_so)
Alperin conjecture
(I9Cxx.20C20; 19Cxx. 20C20)
(refers to: algebraically closed field;
Block; Brauer homomorphism;
Character of a group; Clifford the-
ory; Field; Finite group; finite group;
Finite group, representation of a:
group algebra; Ideal; K -theory;
Normalizer of a subset: p-group;
Simple finite group)
Alperin-McKay conjecture
[19Cxx, 20C20; 19Cxx, 20C20]
(see: Alperin conjecture)
Alperin weight conjecture
[19Cxx, 20C20; 19Cxx, 20C20]
(see: Alperin conjecture)
alphabet see: Morse -; splicing rule over
an -
alphaheticalorder
[05Axx, 17BO I. 20M05; 05Axx.
17BOI.20M05]
alternating Choquet capacity of infinite
order
[28Cxx, 60005; 28Cxx, 60005]
(see: Choquet-Kendall-Matheron
theorem)
Alternating-direction implicit method
(65Nxx; 65Nxx)
(refers to: Boundary value problem,
elliptic equations; Elliptic partial dif-
ferential equation; Parabolic partial
differential equation; Poisson equa-
tion)
Alternating Schwarz method
(31-XX, 35A25, 35105. 35125, 65M55;
31-XX, 35A25, 35J05, 35J25, 65M55)
(refers la: Schwarz alternating
method)
alternating sequential filter
[60005, 68U10; 60005, 68UIO]
(see: Mathematical morphology)
alternative see: Hopf-
alternative in statistics see: logistic -; nor-
mal-
Alternative set theory
(03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70)

(refers to: Abstraction of actual in-
finity; Borel set of ambiguous class;
Borel system of sets; Metric space;
Separable space; Set theory; Topo-
logical structure (topology))
alternative set theory see: class in -;
countable class in -; dynamical -; fig-
ure in -; monad in -; static-
alternatives see: independence of irrele-
vant -; intensity of irrelevant -
altitude of a tetrahedron
[SIM20, S2-XX; 51M20, S2-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
altitude of a tetrahedron see: foot of an -
Amari i-Clmnection
[S3Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; S3Cxx,
62Axx, 62Fxx]
(see: Statistical manifold)
ambiguity function
[05B30; OSB30]
(see: Costas array)
amenability
[43A07, 43AIS, 46A22, 46Exx,
SIM20, SIM2S; 43A07, 43A15,
46A22, 46Exx, SI M20, 51 M25]
(see: Banach limit)
amenability
[43AIO, 43A46, 43A62; 43A10,
43A46,43A62]
(see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
sis on locally compact)
amenable semi-group see: left- -; right--
American Monthly see: The-
amicable pair
[IIB37; IIB37J
(see: Aliquot sequence)
Amitsur-Levitzki theorem
(I6Rxx; 16Rxx)
(refers to: bilinear form; Commuta-
tive ring; graph theory; PI-algebra;
symmetric group)
Ampere operator see: Monge--
amplitude
[73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033; ?JBxx, 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033]
(see: Acceleration wave)
amplitude see: transition-
amplitude ve('for (~lan acceleration jump
[73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033; 73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033]
(see: Acceleration wave)
analogue de,\'ign
[62JI5, 62KOS; 62J 15, 62KOSJ
(see: Paired comparison model)
analogue of Enflo's example of a space
without the approximation property see:
Szarek finite-dimensional -
analysis see: accuracy -; Algebraic -; al-
gebraic stability in numerical -; Clifford
-; cluster -; complex -; correctness
relation in program -; diagonal stability
in numerical -; geometric -; Idempo-
tent -; Lie symmetry -; linear stability
-; Painleve -; Performance -; pertur-
bation -; primitive in -; program -; q-
-; Renormalization group -; Schwarz
method in numerical -
ana(vsis junction
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68QSS]
(see: Analysis of programs)
Analysis of programs
(68Q20, 68QSS; 68Q20, 68Q5S)
(refers to: algorithm; Complete lat-
tice; complete lattice; Fixed point;
Permissible law (inference); pro-
gram; Theoretical programming;
Transfinite induction)
analysis on locally compact see: Hyper-
groups, harmonic ~
analysis system see: automatic dynamic
incremental non-linear -
analysis with symbolic software see: Lie
symmetry -
ARENS MULTIPLICATION
analytic function see: normal --: restricted ANSIIASQC ZI.9 [43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035;
real- ~ [62N 10; 62N 10] 43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035J
analytic loop see: local ~ (see: Acceptance sampling plan for (see: Arens regularity)
Andersen theorem variables) approximate identity
(OSAI9, 60J 15, 60KOS; OSA 19, 601lS, answer substitution see: computed ~ [35K05, 41A3S, 60135; 35K05,
60KOS) antecedent see: Sahlqvist- 41 A3S, 60135 J
(referred to in: Sparre Andersen the- anti-AFL (see: Gauss kernel)
orem) [68Q45, 68S05; 68Q4S, 68S05] approximately finite-dimensional algebra
(refers to: arcsine law; Random vari- (see: Trio) [19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
ahle; Random walk; renewal theory) anti-AFL family of languages 46Lxx, 46L80]
Andersen theorem see: Sparre- [03005, 68QSO, 68S05; 03005, (see: AF-algebra)
Anderson-Darling statistic 68Q50, 68S05] approximation see: Cramer-Lundberg -;
(62Fxx, 62Gxx, 62G30; 62Fxx, (see: Contextual grammar) Galerkin -; simultaneous -
62Gxx, 62G30) Anti-de Sitter space approximation property
(refers to: Bahadur efficiency; (53C20, S3C42; 53C20, 53C42) [46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
Goodness-of-fit test; Maximum- (referred to in: De Sitter space) 46B20, 52A21 J
likelihood method; Normal distri- (refers to: curvature; De Sitter space; (see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
bution; random variable; statistical Gaussian curvature; Minkowski approximation property see: Szarek finite-
estimator) space; Riemannian manifold; scalar dimensional analogue of Enflo's example
Ando-Hiai inequality curvature; second fundamental of a space without the -
[47 A63; 47 A63] form) approximation theorem see: Roquette unit
(see: Furuta inequality) anti-de Sitter space see: index of an -; density -
Andreascu-Valcan theorem see: Radel-- mean curvature of a hypersurface in an approximation theory see: Abstract -;
Andre\-vs-Curfis conjecture -; space-like hypersurface in an - Baskakov operators in -; inverse theo-
[20FOS, 57M20, S7QOS; 20F05, Anti-eigenvalue rem in -; Korovkin-type -; local inverse
57M20, S7QOS] (47AI0, 49RIO, 65F10; 47AIO, theorem in -; Lupas operators in -; sat-
(see: Collapsibility) 49RIO,6SFIO) uration theorem in -; Szasz operators
Andrews-Curtis conjecture (referred to in: Acceleration methods) in -
[20FOS, 57M20, 57QOS; 20FOS, (refers to: Eigen value; Hilbert space; AQL
S7M20, S7QOS] normal operator; Richardson ex- [62N 10; 62N I0]
(see: Collapsibility) trapolation; spectral theory) (see: Acceptance sampling plan for
Andmnov-Hol'f bifurcation anti-eigenvector attributes)
[58FI4; 58F14] [47AIO, 49RIO, 6SFIO; 47AIO, AR
(see: Hopf bifurcation) 49RIO,65FIO] [20FOS, 57M20, 57Q05; 20FOS,
angle see: trihedral-
(see: Anti-eigenvalue) S7M20, 57QOS J
angular momenta see: addition of n+ 1 -
anti-extensive operator (see: Collapsibility)
anKular momentum quantum number
[60005, 68U 10; 60005, 68U IOJ AR (2)-model
[20Cxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
(see: Mathematical morphology) [62MIO; 62M10]
20Cxx, 20G05, 22A2S, 22E70]
anti-invariant submanifold (see: Canadian lynx series)
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3-j, 6-j, and
[53CI5, 53C40, S3CS6; S3C15, Arakelov intersection pairing
9- j coefficients)
53C40, 53CS6] [IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
animation see: computer-
(see: CR-submanifold) 19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
anisotropic plate
anti-invariant submanifold of a Sasakian 190xx, 19Exx, 19F27J
[3IA30, 31 B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
manifold (see: Beilinson conjectures)
73KIS; 31A30, 31B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
[S3C2S; S3C2S] arbitrary sub-a-fields see: measure of de-
73KIS]
(see: Sasakian manifold) pendence between two -
(see: Von Karman equations)
anti-matroid Arborescence
annealinK
[90C27; 90C27] (05C05; OS COS)
[90Cxx; 90Cxx]
(see: Greedy algorithm) (refers to: tree)
(see: Simulated annealing)
anticipative operator see: non-- arc see: Hermitian -; (q+l)--
annealing see: Simulated-
antipodal theorems see: Borsuk- Archimedean copulas
annealing schedule
ANU Software [60Exx, 60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20; 60Exx,
[90Cxx; 90Cxx]
[68Q40; 68Q40] 60J xx, 62Gxx, 62H20 I
(see: Simulated annealing)
(see: Computer algebra package) (see: Copula)
anomalies see: global -; local .-
AO(G) Archimedean I-algebra
Anomalies (in quantization)
[05Cxx; OSCxx] [06F25, 46E05, 46Jxx; 06F2S, 46EOS,
(81 Q30, 81 R2S, 81T70; 81 Q30,
(see: Acyclic orientation) 46JxxJ
8IR25,8IT70)
(refers to: Chern class; Chiral AOQ (see: I -algebra; I-algebra)
[62N 10; 62N 10] Archimedean I-group
anomaly; cohomology; covariant
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for [06FI5, 20F60; 06FIS, 20F60]
derivative; Exterior algebra; Ex-
attributes) (see: I-group)
terior form; Fredholm operator;
Index formulas; K -theory; Lie alge- apartment see: empty- Archimedean model see: non--
apartment of a building Archimedean rO-Kroup
bra; loop space; quantum field the-
ory; Riemann surface; space-time; [20G25; 20G2S] [06FIS; 06FISJ
(see: Bruhat-Tits building) (see: ro-group)
Spinor structure; transgression; Vi-
rasoro algebra; Yang-Mills field) aperiodh' ('()rrelation Archimedean space
[IIB37, IIB83, 94Bxx; IIB37, [46A40; 46A40]
anoma1ous dimension
II B83, 94Bxx] (see: Dedekind completion)
[8IR40, 81T17, 82B28; 81R40,
8ITI7,82B28] (see: Correlation property for se- Archimedean vector Lattice
quences) [46EOS, 46Jxx; 46EOS, 46JxxJ
(see: Renormalization group analy-
sis) APL (see: I-algebra)
anomaly (68NIS; 68NIS) Archimede:l theorem
[81 Q30, 81 R25, 81 T70; 81 Q30, (refers to: programming language) [SIM04; SIM04]
8IR25,8IT70] APL \360 (see: Centroid)
(see: Anomalies (in quantization)) [68NI5; 68NIS] area see: Levy-
anomaly see: Chiral -; conformal -; grav- (see: APL) area inequality see: Petty geo-minimal sur-
itational -; quantum -; quantum field APL2 face -
-: triangle ~ [68NIS; 68N15] area of a tetrahedron see: surface-
Anosov system (see: APL) area of a triangle see: Heron formula for
[280xx, 58FIS; 280xx, 58FIS] appearance checking the -
(see: Pesin theory) [68Q42, 68S05; 68Q42, 68S0S] Arens multiplication
Ansatz see: Bethe- (see: Regulated rewriting) (43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035;
ANSIIASQC ZI.4 applications of see: Hopf orders, - 43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035)
[62NIO; 62NIOJ approach see: cross-validatory -; max- (referred to in: Arens regularity)
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for plus algebra -; Schur parametrization - (refers to: Arens regularity; Banach
attributes) approximable operator algebra; Banach space; C* -algebra;
SOl
ARENS MULTIPLICATION
Compact group; Hilbert space; ho-
momorphism; Jacobson radical; Lo-
caUy compact skew-field; nonned al-
gebra; Spectral decomposition of a
linear operator; Ston~ech com-
pactification; von Neumann algebra)
Arens product see: first -; second -
Arens products
[43Axx. 46Hxx. 47027. 4703S;
43Axx. 46Hxx. 47027. 4703S]
(see: Arens multiplication)
Arens-regular algebra
[43Axx. 46Hxx. 47027. 4703S;
43Axx. 46Hxx. 47027. 47035]
(see: Arens multiplication; Arens
regularity)
Arens regularity
(43Axx. 46Hxx. 47027. 4703S;
43Axx. 46Hxx. 47027. 4703S)
(referred to in: Arens multiplication)
(refers to: Algebra of measures;
Arens multiplication; Banach al-
gebra; Banach space; C· -algebra;
Compact group; LocaUy compact
skew-field; nonned algebra; Reflex-
ive space; Stone-Cech compactifica-
tion; von Neumann algebra; Weak
topology)
Arguesian lattice
(06COS; 06COS)
(refers to: Abelian category; alge-
braic lattice; Algebraic system; Al-
gebraic systems, variety of; anti-
isomorphism of partiaUy ordered
sets; binary relation; Boolean alge-
bra; Brouwer lattice; composition
sequence; congruence; Congruence
(in algebra); decision problem; De-
sargues assumption; dimension the-
ory; direct product; Distributive
lattice; equivalence; field; Filter;
group; Homomorphism; Isometric
mapping; lattice; Lattice with com-
plements; Modular lattice; modular
lattice; Module; Morita equivalence;
Nonnal subgroup; Orbit; partial
order; pre-order; projective geom-
etry; projective plane; projective
space; quasi-variety; representation
of a partiaUy ordered set; Ring;
semi-group; semi-lattice; sesquilin-
ear fonn; subdirect product; Vector
space)
Arguesian law
[06C05; 06COS]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
argument see: Bertini-type induction -
argument in continuum physics see:
Cauchy tetrahedron -
artthmetic see: Peano-
arithmetic function see: mean value of
an -
arithmetic functions see: Novoselov theory
of integration of -
artthmetic intersection peiring see: Gillet-
Soule -
artthmetical function see: mean value of
an -
Arithmeti/ca
[11041. 11005. 14H25. 14H52;
11041. 11005. 14H25. 14HS2]
(see: Fermat last theorem)
arily of a /unction symbol
[03C07. 68N 17; 03C07. 68N 17]
(see: Logic programming; Structure)
arily of a relation symbol
[03C07; 03C07]
(see: Structure)
ARK method
[65L05; 65LOS]
(see: Adaptive Runge-Kutta method)
Aronszajn tree
(03E05. 05C05. 54HOS; 03EOS.
05C05. 54H05)
(refers to: axiom of choice; Cardi-
nal number; Combinatorial analy-
sis; continuum hypothesis; Forcing
502
method; Nonnal space; set theory;
Suslin hypothesis; topological space;
Topology, general; tree)
Aronszajn tree see: /<- - ; WI- - ; regular
-; special-
arrangement see: Boolean -; braid -
Arrangement of hyperplanes
(05B35. 20F36. 20F5S. 52B30. S7N65;
OSB3S. 20F36. 20F55. S2B30. S7N6S)
(referred to in: Computational geom-
etry)
(refers to: affine space; cohomology;
CW-complex; Divisor; fundamen-
tal group; ideal; Kiinneth fonnula;
Mobius function; quantum groups;
Stein manifold; symmetric group)
arrangement of hyperplanes
[05835. 20F36. 20F5S. 52B30. S7N65;
05B3S.20F36.20F55. 52B30. S7N65]
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
arrangement of hyperplanes see: charac-
teristic polynomial of an -; divisor of an
-; edge of an -; exponent of an -;
free-
arrangement of hyperplanes in general
position
[05B3S. 20F36. 20F55. 52B30. 57N65;
05B35. 20F36. 20F55. 52B30. 57N65)
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
arrangement of lines
[S2BS5. 68Q20. 68Q2S. 6SUOS;
S2B5S. 68Q20. 6SQ2S. 6SUOS)
(see: Computational geometry)
array see: Bargmann (3 x 4) - -; Costas
-; muHi-dimensional Kirkman -
array of order n see: Costas-
A rrheniu.. law
[33K57. 35B25. SOA2S; 33K57.
3SB2S. SOA2S]
(see: Activation energy)
Arrhenius law
[3SKS7. 35K60. 35K65; 35K57.
35K60. 35K6S]
(see: Quenching)
Arrow impossibility theorem
(90AOS. 90AOS. 90A2S; 90AOS.
90AOS. 90A2S)
(referred to in: Voting paradoxes)
arrow of time
[73B30. SOAOS. SOA97; 73830.
SOA05. SOA97)
(see: Clausius-Ouhem inequality)
arrowed rhamb
[OSB45; 0584S]
(see: Penrose tiling)
Art gaUery theorems
(5IM20; SIM20)
(referred to in: Chvaital theorem)
(refers to: Chvaital theorem; polygon)
Artin conjecture
[03C60. 12JIO. 12L12; 03C60. 12JIO.
12L12)
(see: Model theory of valued fields)
Artin-Schreier characterization of real-
closed fields
[I2F05. 12J1S; 12FOS. 12JIS)
(see: Artin-Schreier theory)
Artin-Schreier code
(I2E20. 14H25. 94827; 12E20.
14H2S.94827)
(referred to in: Algebraic-geometric
code; Artin-Schreier theorem;
Bombieri-Weil bound)
(refers to: algebraic cu"e; Algebraic-
geometric code; covering; Error-
correcting code; Extension of a field;
field; finite field; Goppa code; Tower
of fields)
Artin-Schreier curve
[12E20. 14H2S. 94827; 12E20.
14H25.94827]
(see: Artin-Schreier code)
Artin-Schreier curves
[12F05. 12JIS; 12F05. 12J1S]
(see: Artin-Schreier theorem)
Artin-Schreier operator
[03C60. 12Jl0. 12L12; 03C60. 12J10.
12LI2)
(see: p-adically closed field)
Artin-Schreier polynomial
[12FOS. 12J15; 12FOS. 12JIS]
(see: Artin-Schreier theorem)
Artin-Schreier theorem
(I2F05. 12J15; 12FOS. 12J IS)
(refers to: Artin-Schreier code)
Artin-Schreier theorem
[12FOS. 12J IS; 12FOS. 12J 15]
(see: Artin-Schreier theorem; Artin-
Schreier theory)
Artin-Schreier theory
(I2F05. 12J15; 12F05. 12JIS)
(referred to in: Bombieri-Weil bound)
(refers to: Ordered field)
Artin theorem
[12FOS. 12J15; 12FOS. 12JIS]
(see: Artin-Schreier theory)
ary code see: uniquely decipherable D- -
ascent algortthm see: steepest-
Ascoli theorem
(26A15; 26AIS)
(refers to: Arzebl-Ascoli theorem)
ASN curve
[62N 10; 62N 10)
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
assignable pair of matrices see: coefficient
-;pole -
assignment finder see: legal-
Assignment problem
(90806. 908S0. 9OC05; 90806.
908S0. 9OC05)
(refers to: Konig theorem; linear pro-
gramming; pole assignment prob-
lem; simplex method; transport
problem)
assignment problem see: Pole -; quadra-
tic-
associated wtth a diffeomorphism see: for-
ward filtration at a point. -
associated wijh a rooted tree see: elemen-
tary differential -
associated wijh Bessel polynomials see:
moments -
association scheme
[05E30. II S20. II S31. 94835; 05E30.
IIS20. IIS31. 94835]
(see: Galois ring)
associative algebra see: free-
asymmetric object
[OSC70; OSC70]
(see: One-factorization)
asymmetry see: chiral-
asymptotic Bahadur efficiency
f60FIO. 62F12. 62G20; 6OFIO. 62F12.
62G20J
(see: Bahadur efficiency)
asymptotic centre for Bn see: non-
uniqueness of an -
asymptotic class of geodesic rays
[S3C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
asymptotic efficiency of the Bayesian es-
timator
[62AI5; 62AI5)
(see: Bernstein-von Mises theorem)
Asymptotic invariant of a group
(20F32. S7M07; 20F32. S7M07)
(refers to: Absolute; finitely-generated
group; Finitely-presented group;
Hyperbolic group; Invariant aver-
age; metric space; Quasi-isometric
spaces; quasi-isometry; word metric)
Asymptotic optimality
(62FI2. 62G20; 62F12. 62G20)
(refers to: Confidence estimation;
Consistent estimator; Efficient esti-
mator; Fisher amount of infonna-
tion; Martingale; Nonnal distribu-
tion; Probability measure; sample;
Unbiased estimator)
asymptotic optimality
[62F12. 62G20; 62F12. 62020)
(see: Asymptotic optimality)
Asymptotic optimality of estimating func-
tions
[62F12. 62020; 62F12. 62020)
(see: Asymptotic optimality)
asymptotic ray in a Gromov hyperbolic
space
[S3C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
asymptotically free field theory
[SIR40. SITl7. S2B2S; SIR40.
SITl7. S2B2S)
(see: Renormallzation group analy-
sis)
asymptotically optimal
[62F12. 62G20; 62F12. 62020)
(see: Asymptotic optimality)
asymptotically optimal family of periodic
sequences
111837. 118S3. 948xx; 11837.
118S3.948xx)
(see: Correlation property for se-
quences)
asymptotically stable equilibrium
[5SFxx. SSFI4; 5SFxx. 5SF14]
(see: Centre manifold)
Atiyah-Hirzebruch-type spectral se-
quence
[5SN2S; SSN2S1
(see: Bredon cohomology)
atom see: p- -; Pauli algebraic solution of
the hydrogen -; n- -; radial equation
for the hydrogen -; relation-symbol -
atomic decomposition theorem
[42830; 42830)
(see: Hardy spaces)
attaching circle
[57NI3. S7RIO; S7N13. 57RIO]
(see: Casson bandle)
attainable pattern
[90AI4. 900xx. 928xx; 90A14.
900xx.928xx]
(see: EvolutionarilY stable strategy)
aHitude see: propositional-
aHractor see: chaotic -; funnel-type
strange -; screw-type strange -; spiral-
type strange -
attrac/or of an iterated /unction sy.,tem
[2SASO. 5SFII. 6OJ05; 2SASO. 5SFII.
6OJ05]
(see: Iterated function system)
aHribute utiltty theory see: multi--
aHributes see: Acceptance sampling plan
for-
aHrttion see: war of -
augmented Lagrangian method
[9OC30; 9OC30]
(see: Proximal point methods in
mathematical programming)
auto-regressive model see: exponential
-; logistic smooth transition -; random
coefficient -; self-exctting threshold -;
subset -
autocorrelation coefficient see: periodic-
automatic dynamic incremental non-
linear analysis sy.,/em
[65L60. 65N30. 6SY99; 65L60.
6SN30. 6SY99]
(see: ADINA system)
automatic reasoning
[0384S. 6ST99; 03B4S. 6ST99)
(see: Incidence calculus)
automaton see: language marked by an -
automorphic form see: bounded holo-
morphic -; holomorphic -; p-integrable
holomorphic -; weight of an -
automorphic form of weight - 2q for a
group
[30F3S; 30F35)
(see: Bers space)
automorphic Green function
[11F20; 11F20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular fonns)
automorphic invariant in the theory of
modular form.,
fllF20; 11F20)

(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
automorphic L-function
[IIFxx, IIGIS, 14Mxx, 20Gxx;
IIFxx, IIGI8, 14Mxx, 20Gxx]
(see: Shimura variety)
automorphic Laplacian
[ II F20; II F20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
automorphic modular invariant
[1IF20; IIF201
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
automorphic vector bundle
[IIFxx, IIGIS, 14Mxx, 20Gxx;
I I Fxx, IIGIS, 14Mxx, 20Gxxl
(see: Shimura variety)
automorphism of a totally ordered set see:
order-
autonomous non-linear dynamical system
in the plane
[58Fxx; 5SFxx]
(see: Non-linear dynamics)
autonomous systems of ordinary differen-
tial equations see: locally topologically
equivalent -; topologically equivalent -
average length of a code
[94A29; 94A29]
(see: Huffman code)
average outgoing quality
[62NIO; 62NIO]
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
average sampling number curve
[62NIO; 62NIO]
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
Ax-Kochen-Ershov principle
[03C60, 12JlO, 12L12; 03C60, 12JlO,
12L12]
(see: Model theory of valued fields)
Ax-Kochen-Ershov principle
[03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95;
03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95 1
(see: Transfer principle)
Ax theorem
[IIT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT71, 14GI5,
94B27; II T22, II T23, II T24, II T71,
14G 15, 94B27]
(see: Bombieri-Weil bound)
axial perspectivity
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
AXIOM
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
axiom see: Bralot convergence -; Euclid
parallel -; Godel constructibility -; Mar-
tin -; tangency -
axiom for a Bralot harmonic structure see:
base -
axiom of a contextual grammar
[03005, 68Q50, 6SS05; 03005,
6SQ50,6SS05]
(see: Contextual grammar)
axiom of local state
[73B30, 80A05, SOA97; 73B30,
80A05, 80A97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
axioms see: Kuratowski -; Kuratowski
closure -; Lascar -
axis intercept form
[SIMxx, SIN20; SIMxx, SIN20]
(see: Intercept)
axon
[68T05, 92C20; 68T05, 92C20]
(see: Hebb rule)
___ B ___
{3 see: entropy of degree -
{3-dual
[40H05, 46A45; 40H05, 46A4S]
(see: Kothe-Toeplitz dual)
{3 -mixing coefficient
[280xx, 60AIO, 60005, 60Fxx,
60G60, 60Kxx; 280xx, 60A 10,
60005, 60Fxx, 60G60, 60Kxx]
(see: Absolute regularity)
{3-mixing random variables
[280xx, 60A I0, 60005, 60Fxx,
60G60, 60Kxx; 280xx, 60AIO,
6000S, 60Fxx, 60G60, 60Kxx I
(see: Absolute regularity)
{3 -perfect subset
[40H05, 46A45; 40H05, 46A45]
(see: Kothe-Toeplitz dual)
{3-spline
[41A15, 41A50, 6S005, 65007,
65010, 6501S, 6S017, 6SU05,
68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5, 41A50,
65005, 65007, 65010, 6S0lS,
65017, 68UOS, 68U07, 68UIO]
(see: Bezier spline)
/31]-conversion
[03B40; 03B40]
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
(31)-equality
[03B40; 03B40]
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
B see: Botzas-Hammons-Kumar con-
struction -
Bn see: non-uniqueness of an asymptotic
centre for -
Bo see: algebra of type -; space of
type -
Bo-algebra
[46Hxx; 46HxxJ
(see: Frechet algebra)
Eo-algebra see: m-convex
multiplicatively-convex -
Bo-algebras see: Gel'fand-Mazur-type
theorem for -
B-consistency
[65L05; 65L05]
(see: Adaptive Runge-Kutta method)
B-convergence
(65L06; 65L06)
(refers to: Differential equation, or-
dinary; Initial conditions; Runge-
Kutta method; Stiff differential sys-
tem)
BI-group
[03Exx, 04-XX, 20KIS, 20K20;
03Exx, 04-XX, 20K15, 20K20]
(see: Butler group)
B2-group
[03Exx, 04-XX, 20KI5, 20K20;
03Exx, 04-XX, 20K15, 20K20]
(see: Butler group)
b pseudo-prime see: Euler base- -; ordi-
nary base- -; strong base- -
B-serie.'!
[65Lxx; 65Lxxl
(see: Butcher series)
Bo-space
[46Axx, 46A03, 46A13; 46Axx,
46A03,46A13]
(see: Frechet topology)
B-spline see: cardinal -; uniform -
Baas-Sullivan construction
[55N22; 55N22]
(see: Brown-Peterson spectrum)
Babuska-Lax-Milgram theorem
(35AIS, 35G15; 3SAIS, 35015)
(referred to in: Lax-Milgram lemma)
(refers to: Banach space; bilinear
functional; Boundary value prob-
lem, ordinary differential equations;
Boundary value problem, partial
differential equations; functional;
Hilbert space; Lax-Milgram lemma;
Linear space; Norm; Reflexive space)
Backlund transformation
[35Axx, 35A30, 35L05, 58F07, 5SF37;
35Axx, 35A30, 35L05, 5SF07, 5SF37]
(see: Liouville equation)
backpropagation learning rule
[62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68Tl 0;
62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68TlO]
(see: Neural network)
backward spectrum of a diffeomorphism
ata point
[280xx, 58F15; 2S0xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
backward upper Lyapunov exponent
[280xx, 5SF15; 280xx, 58FI5J
(see: Pesin theory)
Baer-Fomin theorem
[20Kxx; 20Kxxl
(see: Cotorsion group)
Baer group
(5IEI5; 51E15)
(refers to: field; Flock; group; projec-
tive plane)
Baer gmup
[SIEI5; 51El5]
(see: Baer group)
Baer gmup, maximal of elation type
[5IEI5; 51E15]
(see: Baer group)
Baer gmup, maximal of homology type
[5IEI5; 51E15]
(see: Baer group)
Baer subplane
[5IB05, 51E15; 51B05, 51E15]
(see: Baer group; Chain geometry)
Baernstein example of a reflexive space
not having the Banach-Saks property
[46A22; 46A22]
(see: Banach-Saks property)
Bahadur efficiency
(60FIO, 62F12, 62G20; 60FIO, 62FI2,
62G20)
(referred to in: Anderson-Darling
statistic)
(refers to: significance level; Statisti-
cal hypotheses, verification of; Test
statistics)
Bahadur efficiency see: asymptotic-
Bahadur efficient statistic
[60FIO, 62FI2, 62G20; 60FIO, 62F12,
62G20]
(see: Bahadur efficiency)
Bahadur exact slope
[60FIO, 62FI2, 62G20; 60FIO, 62FI2,
62G20]
(see: Bahadur efficiency)
Baily-Borel theorem
[IIFxx, IIGIS, 14Mxx, 20Gxx;
IIFxx, IIGI8, 14Mxx, 20Gxx]
(see: Shimura variety)
Bairstow method
(26C 10, 65H05; 26C 10, 65H05)
(refers to: Horner scheme; Jacobi ma-
trix; Newton method; polynomial)
Bairstow method see: local convergence
theorem for the -
Baker-Akhiezer function
[14020, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 5SF07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
58F07, 70H20]
(see: Calogero--Moser-Krichever
system)
Baker-Beynon duality
(06F20; 06F20)
(refers to: Collapsibility; I-group;
Riesz space; universal algebra)
Baker-Beynon duality
[06F20; 06F20]
(see: Baker-Beynon duality)
Baker function
[14020, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 58F07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
58F07, 70H20]
(see:
system)
Calogero--Moser-Krichever
Baker method see: Gel'fond--
Baker method for Diophantine equations
see: Gel'fond--
balance condition
BANACH-SAKSSEQUENCE
[90B06, 90B80, 90C05; 90B06,
90B80,90C05]
(see: Assignment problem)
balance relation
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62AxxJ
(see: Yoke)
balanced group presentation
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
balanced Howell rotation see: complete-
balanced Room square
[05BI5; 05BI51
(see: Room square)
Banach algebra see: semi-regular-
Banach category theorem
[26AI5, 54C30; 26A15, 54C30]
(see: Blumberg theorem)
Banach contraction mapping principle
[47H1O; 47HIOJ
(see: Banach contraction principle)
Banach contraction principle
(47HIO; 47HIO)
(refers to: Contracting-mapping
principle)
Banach couple
[46B70; 46B701
(see: Calderon couples)
Banach function algebra
(46JlO; 46JlO)
(refers to: Algebra of functions; Ba-
nach algebra; Commutative Banach
algebra; Hausdorff space; maximal
ideal)
Banach function space
[45P05, 46E30, 47B55; 45P05, 46E30,
47BS5]
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
Banach lattice
[41Axx, 46Bxx, 47B65; 41Axx,
46Bxx, 47B65]
(see: Bohman-Korovkin theorem)
Banach lattice see: order-complete-
Banach limit
(43A07, 43AI5, 46A22, 46Exx,
51M20, 51M25; 43A07, 43AI5,
46A22, 46Exx, 51 M20, 51 M25)
(refers to: Hahn-Banach theorem;
Lebesgue measure; probability mea-
sure; semi-group; Tarski problem;
vector space)
Banach-Mazur compactum
(46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21)
(refers to: Adjoint space; Brunn-
Minkowski theorem; convex body;
dimension; Haar measure; inner
product; Isomorphism; Isoperimet-
ric inequality; metric; metric space;
norm)
Banach-Mazur compactum
[46Bxx, 46B20, S2A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Banach-Mazur compactum see: radius of
the -
Banach-Mazur distance
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Banach-Mazur distance to the cube
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Banach pair
[46B70; 46B70]
(see: Calderon couples)
Banach-Saks property
(46A22; 46A22)
(refers to: Banach space; Hahn-
Banach theorem; Ramsey theorem;
Reflexive space)
Banach-Saks property see: Baernstein ex-
ample of a reflexive space not having the
-; stability of the -; weak -
Banach-Saks sequence
503
BANACH-SAKSSEQUENCE
[46A22; 46A22)
(see: Banach-Saks property)
Banach space see: 8-reflexive -; weakly
compactly generated -
Banach space of absolutely p-summing
operators
[47B 10; 47B 10)
(see: Absolutely summing operator)
Banach space of complex bounded
finitely-additive set functions
[43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 470351
(see: Arens multiplication)
Banach spaces see: basis problem for -
Banach-Tarski paradox
[43A07, 43A15, 46A22, 46Exx,
51M20, 51M25; 43A07, 43A15,
46A22, 46Exx, 51 M20, 51 M2S)
(see: Banach limit)
Banach-type extension theorem for convex
cones see: Hahn--
Banach-type separation theorem for convex
cones see: Hahn--
Banaschewski compactification
(54035; 54035)
(refers to: algebra; Boolean algebra;
Dirac delta-function; Filter; Haus-
dorff space; homeomorphism; lat-
tice; normal space; Separation ax-
iom; Stone space; Stone-Cech com-
pactification; Tikhonov space; topo-
logical space; Ultrafilter; Wallman
compactification)
band
[2SA99, 62B 15, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62B 15, 62B20, 62C05]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
band extension
[47A57, 47 A6S; 47A57, 47A6S)
(see: Band method)
band extension of the Carath<iodory-
Toeplitz extension problem
[30E05, 47A57, 93EII; 30E05,
47A57,93EII]
(see: Caratheodory-Toeplitz exten-
sion problem)
band in a matrix
[30E05, 47A57, 93EII; 30E05,
47A57,93EII)
(see: Caratheodory-Toeplitz exten-
sion problem)
band in an algebra
[47A57, 47A68; 47A57, 47A68)
(see: Band method)
Band method
(47A57, 47A68; 47A57, 47A68)
(referred to in: Caratheodory-
Toeplitz extension problem; Nehari
extension problem; Partially speci-
fied matrices, completion of)
(refers to: algebra; C' -algebra;
Caratheodory-Toeplitz extension
problem; Fourier series; Nehari
extension problem; Self-adjoint op-
erator; trigonometric polynomial)
bandpaltern
[15-XX, 30E05, 47A57; 15-XX,
30E05, 47 A57)
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion of)
band structure see: algebra with -; diago-
nal in an algebra with -; right multiplica-
tive diagonal in an algebra with -
BAO
[03Gxx, 03G15, 06Exx, 06E15;
03Gxx, O3GI5, 06Exx, 06E15)
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
Bargmann (3 x 4) -array
[2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx, 2OG05,22A25, 22E70)
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3 - j, 6 - j, and
9- j coefficients)
Baric algebra
(16A99, 17092, 90010; 16A99,
17092,90010)
(referred to in: Bernstein algebra)
S04
(refers to: Associative rings and al-
gebras; Bernstein algebra; category;
Clifford algebra; field; Jordan alge-
bra; Lie algebra; morphism)
Barker .'Iequence
[IIB37, IIBS3, 94Bxx; IIB37,
II BS3, 94Bxx)
(see: Correlation property for se-
quences)
Barlotti theorem see: Segre--
Barndorff-Nielsen p* formula
[53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx,
62Axx, 62Fxx 1
(see: Statistical manifold)
Barratt-Federer spectral sequence
[55T99; S5T99]
(see: Federer spectral sequence)
barrier functionsee: logarithmic-
Bartlett adjustment
[S3Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; S3Cxx,
62Axx, 62Fxx]
(see: Statistical manifold)
Bartlett correction factor
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx)
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
baryeentre
[SIM04; 51M041
(see: Centroid)
barycentre see: equi--
baryon
[SIR05, 81V2S; SIR05, SIV25)
(see: Gell-Mann-Okubo formula)
base Qxiom for a Bre/of harmonic struc-
ture
[31005; 310051
(see: Brelot harmonic space)
base-b pseudo-prime see: Euler -; ordi-
nary -; strong -
base in 7r H see: cylinder set with -
base-invariant probability measure
[60Axx, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60Axx,
60Exx, 62Exx 1
(see: Benford law)
base of lines
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
basic commutator Hall set
[17BOI; 17BOI)
(see: Hall polynomial; Hall set)
basis see: Chen-Fox-Lyndon -; corre-
sponding Grabner -; Grabner -; Hall
-; LLL-reduced lattice -; Lyndon -;
Meier-Wunderli -; reduced -; Shirshov
-; Spitzer-Foata -; Sirsov -
basis constant in a nonned space
[46Bxx, 46B20, S2A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21)
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
basis matrix
[IIH06, IIHI6, IIH31, IIH46,
IIH50, 5IMII, 51M15, SIMI6,
51M20, 51M2S; IIH06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIH50, SIMII,
51M15, 51M16, 51M20, 51M25)
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
basis of a lattice
[I I H06, IIHI6, IIH31. IIH46,
IIH50, SIMII, 51M15, 51M16,
51M20, SIM25; I I H06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIH50, 5IMII,
51M15, 51M16, 51M20, 51M251
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
basis ofa statement of an IC L -sYstem
[03B40; 03B401
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
basis of short vectors
[IIH06. IIHI6. IIH31, IIH46.
IIH50, 51M II, 51 MIS, 51 M 16.
51M20, 51M25; IIH06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIH50, 5IMII,
51M15, 51M16, 51M20, SIM2S1
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
basis problem for Banach spaces
[42CIO, 43A7S; 42CIO. 43A751
(see: Walsh series)
basis reduction
[II H06, IIHI6, IIH3I, IIH46,
IIH50, 5IMII, 51M15. SIMI6,
51M20, SIM25; II H06. IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, II HSO, SIMII,
51M15, 51M16, SIM20, SIM25]
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
basis reduction method see: LLL-
basis theorem see: Hilbert-
Baskakov-Kantorovich operator see:
Bernstein- -
Baskakov operators
(4IAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 4IA27, 41A36, 41A40)
(referred to in: Bernstein-Baskakov-
Kantorovich operator)
Baskakov operators in approximation the-
ory
[4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40]
(see: Bernstein-Baskakov-Kantoro-
vich operator)
Batalin-Vii' koviski{ algebra
[16WSS, 17B56, 17B60, 17B70,
17BSI, SSAIO; 16W55, 17BS6,
17B60, 17B70, 17B81, SSAIOJ
(see: Poisson algebra)
Bateman-Horn conjecture
(II N05, II P45; II N05, II P45)
(referred to in: Bunyakovskii conjec-
ture)
(refers to: Bunyakovskii conjecture;
congrnence equation; Dirichlet theo-
rem; Distribution of prime numbers;
Irreducible polynomial; Polynomial;
Twins)
Bauer-Fike theorem
[6SFxx; 65Fxxl
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
Bautin bifurcation
[SSFI4; 5SF14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
Baxter equation see: classical Yang- -;
modified Yang- -; solution of the classi-
cal Yang- -; solution of the generalized
Yang- -
Bayes theory see: Robbins empirical -
Bayesian estimator see: asymptotic effi-
ciency of Ihe -; slrong consistency of
the -
Bayesian hierarchical model
[62AIS; 62AI5j
(see: Dirichlet process)
Bayesian inference
[62A15; 62A15]
(see: Bernstein-von Mises theorem)
BCH-algebra
(03G25. 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx;
03G2S, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx)
(refers to: BCI-algebra; binary rela-
tion)
BCH code
[05E30, 94B15, 94B3S; OSE30,
94B15,94B3S)
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes)
BCI-algebra
(03G25. 04A03. 06Dxx, 06Exx;
03G2S. 04A03. 060xx. 06Exx)
(referred to in: BCH-algebra)
(refers to: Abelian group; BCK-
algebra; binary relation; Divisible
group; homomorphism; ideal; par-
tialorder)
BCI-algebra see: p-semi-simple-
BCK-algebra
(03G2S. 04A03, 060xx. 06Exx;
03G25. 04A03. 060xx, 06Exx)
(referred to in: BCI-algebra)
(reiers to: binary relation; Boolean
algebra; Commutative ring; congru-
ence; distributive lattice; filter; ideal;
I-group; partial order; prime ideal)
BCK-algebra see: bounded -; commu-
tative -; implicative -: positive implica-
tive -
RCS theory of superconductivity
[81R40, 81T17, 82B28; 81R40,
SITI7,82B2SI
(see: Renormalization group analy-
sis)
Becker-Gottlieb-Dold tramfer
[SSRI2; S5R12]
(see: Becker-Gottlieb transfer)
Becker-Gottlieb transfer
(SSRI2; 5SR12)
(referred to in: Adams conjecture)
(refers to: Covering homotopy; CW-
complex; Degree of a mapping; fibra-
tion; Suspension)
Becker-Gottlieb transfer
119L20, 55Q20; 19L20, 55Q20 J
(see: Adams conjecture)
Beckman-Quarles-type theorems
(SIM05, 5IMIO; 51M05, 5IMIO)
(refers to: affine transformation;
Convex set; Euclidean geometry;
hyperbolic geometry; isometric op-
erator; Lorentz transformation; Pre-
Hilbert space; Vector space)
behaviour see: theory of smooth dynamical
systems with non-uniformly hyperbolic -
behaviour for a Calder6n-Toeplitz operator
see: Schatten ideal -
BeTiinson cohomology see: Deligne--
Beilinson conjectures
(1IG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27)
(refers to: cohomology; Cohomology
operation; complex manifold; de-
rived functor; elliptic curve; Hodge
conjecture; Hodge structure; iso-
morphism; Jacobian; K -theory;
L-function; Motives, theory of;
Poincare duality; Projective scheme;
Quasi-projective scheme; Riemann
surface; scheme)
Ber!in.wmfirst conje('ture
IIIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx. 19F27]
(see: Beilinson conjectures)
Bertinson-Jannsen conjecture
IIIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx. 190xx,
19Exx. 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Beilinson conjectures)
Bertinson regulator mappinK
[IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx. 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Beilinson conjectures)
Hertinson second conjecture
IIIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17. 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Bellinson conjectures)
Bell inequalities
(810IS, SIPxx; S1015, 8lPxx)
(refers to: measure space; quantum
field theory)
Bell numbers
(05A IS; OSA 15)
(referred to in: Bell polynomial)
(refers to: Combinatorial analysis)
Bell polynomial
(05AI9, IIBS3; 05A19, IIBS3)
(referred to in: Lah number)
(refers to: Bell numbers; Combina-
torial analysis; composite function;
generating function; Lah number;
Moment; Partition; probability dis-
tribution; Semi-invariant)
Bell polynomial
[OSAI9, IIBS3; 05A19, IIBS3]
(see: Bell polynomial)
Bell polynomial see: complete -; partial -
Bell theorem
[81015, SIPxx; 8101S, 8lPxx]
(see: Bell inequalities)
Bellman equation
116Y60, 49Lxx. 90C39; 16Y60,
49Lxx.9009]

(see: Idempotent algorithm)
Bellman equation see: generalized station-
ary ~; homogeneous -
Bellman method for solving shortest path
problems
[16Y60, 49Lxx, 90C39; 16Y60,
49Lxx, 90C39]
(see: Idempotent algorithm)
Bellman optimality principle
[16Y60,44AIS, 49Lxx,60BS, XI-XX,
90C39; 16Y60, 44AIS, 49Lxx, 6013S,
81-XX,90C39]
(see: Idempotent correspondence
principle)
Belousov-Zhabotinskii reaction
(S8FI3; S8F13)
(refers to: Poincare return map;
routes to chaos)
Benford law
(60Axx, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60Axx,
60Exx, 62Exx)
(refers to: Central limit theorem;
Convergence, almost-certain; mea-
surable space; probability distribu-
tion; probability measure)
Benjamin-Feir instability
(3SQS3, S8F07, 76BIS; 3SQS3,
S8F07,76BIS)
(refers to: chaos; Schrodinger equa-
tion; soliton)
bent junction sequence
[IIB37, IIB83, 94Bxx; IIB37,
II B83, 94Bxx]
(see: Correlation property for se-
quences)
Benz-Berens theorem
[SIM05, SIMIO; 51M05, SIMIOI
(see: Beckman-Quarles-type theo-
rems)
Benz plane
(5IB05; SIBOS)
(referred to in: Chain geometry;
Chain space)
(refers to: chain geometry; chain
space; cylindrical surface (cylinder);
Euclidean geometry; Extension of a
field; oval; ovoid; quadric; Stereo-
graphic projection)
Benz plane
[5IB05; 51BOSI
(see: Benz plane)
Benz plane see: affine model of a -; circle
in a - ~ classical -; classical affine -;
egg-like -; finite -; generator in a -;
imbeddable -; Miquelian -; order of a
finite -; point in a -
Berens theorem see: Benz--
Berge-Cruse theorem
[OSC70; 05C70]
(see: One-factor)
Bergman
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Bergman integral operator
(35CI5; 3SC15)
(refers to: Analytic function; Bessel
functions; Curvilinear integral; El-
liptic partial dilTerential equation;
Helmholtz equation; integral trans-
form; Laplace operator)
Bergman-Shilov boundary
(32E2S, 461 10; 32E2S, 46J I 0)
(refers to: Algebra of functions; Ana-
lytic function; Analytic polyhedron;
Boundary (in the theory of uniform
algebras); Commutative Banach
algebra; compact space; complex
space; holomorphic function; maxi-
mum principle; Pseudo-convex and
pseudo-concave)
Bergman-Shi/ov boundar\'
[32E25, 46110; 32E2S, 461 101
(see: Bergman-Shilov boundary)
Bergman-type integral transform
[35CIS; 3SC15]
(see: Bergman integral operator)
Berman class
[06D30; 060301
(see: Ockham algebra)
Bernays standard provability predicate see:
Hilbert- -
Bernoulli coefficient see: weak-
Bernoulli excursion
(60115; 601lS)
(referred to in: Brownian excursion)
(refers to: Bernoulli random walk;
probability theory; random walk)
Bernoulli ex(,ursion
[60115; 601lSI
(see: Bernoulli excursion)
Bernoulli measure
(28Dxx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35;
28Dxx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35)
(refers to: De Finetti theorem; prob-
ability measure; probability theory;
random variable; Statistical me-
chanics, mathematical problems in;
zero-one law)
Bernoulli measures see: Percolation theory
on -
Bernoulli shili
128Dxx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K3S;
28Dxx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K3S]
(see: Bernoulli measure)
Bernoulli shifts see: isomorphic -; isomor-
phism between -
Bernstein algebra
(17092,920 I0; 17092, 92010)
(referred to in: Baric algebra)
(refers to: Baric algebra; field; Ge-
netic algebra; probability)
Bernslcin algebra
[17092,92010; 17092,920101
(see: Bernstein algebra)
Bernstein algebra see: first-order
generalized -; nth order -; second-
order -
Bernstein-Baskakov-Kantorovich op-
erator
(4IAxx, 4IA27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40)
(refers to: approximation theory;
Baskakov operators; Bernstein poly-
nomials; mathematical analysis;
Taylor series; Weierstrass theorem)
Bernstein-Hezier curve
[65DI7, 68U07; 65017, 68U071
(see: Bezier curve)
Bernstein j"equaNty
[4IAI7; 41AI71
(see: Markov-Bernstein-type in-
equalities)
Hernstein-Kanf<Jrovich po/ynomial.\'
[4IAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40]
(see: Bernstein-Baskakov-Kantoro-
vich operator)
Bernstein operator
[4IAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A401
(see: Bernstein-Baskakov-Kantoro-
vich operator)
Bernstein polynomial
141Axx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40]
(see: Uaskakov operators)
Bernstein polynomials
141AIS, 4IASO, 6SDOS, 6S007,
6S010, 6S01S, 6S017, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO; 4IAIS, 41A50,
6500S, 65007, 6S01O, 6S015,
6S017, 68U05, 68U07, 68UIO]
(see: Bezier spline)
Bernstein polynomials see: bivariate -;
Durrmeyer integral modification of the -;
Durrmeyer modification of the -
Bernstein prohlem
117092,92010; 17092, 92DIO]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
Bernstein problem see: classical -; spher-
ical-
Bernstein problem in dilTerential geom-
etry
(53C42, 57R40, 57R42; 53C42,
57R40, 57R42)
(refers to: Bernstein theorem; dif-
ferential geometry; Entire function;
holomorphic function; Immersion
of a manifold; Liouville theorems;
mean curvature; minimal surface;
Plateau problem; Riemannian mani-
fold; smooth function)
Bernstein stationarity principle
[17092,92010; 17092,92010]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
Bernstein theorems on representations
[20G05, 22E50; 20G05, 22E50]
(see: Kirillov conjecture)
Bernstein-type inequalities see: Markov-
Bernstein-type inequality
[4IAI7; 41AI7]
(see: Markov-Bernstein-type in-
equalities)
Bernstein-von Mises theorem
(62AI5; 62A15)
(refers to: Bayesian approach; Con-
vergence in distribution; Maximum-
likelihood method; normal distribu-
tion; Probability distribution; Ran-
dom variable)
Bers embedding
[30F35; 30F35 I
(see: Bers space)
Bers space
(30F35; 30F3S)
(refers to: Absolutely convergent
series; Banach space; Conformal
mapping; Fractional-linear map-
ping; Fuchsian group; holomorphic
function; Kleinian group; quasi-
conformal mapping; Riemann sur-
face; Schwarzian derivative; Te-
ichmiiller space; Uniform conver-
gence)
Bers space
[30F35; 30F35 I
(see: Bers space)
Bertini-type induction argument
[03C60, llG35, IIR58, 12L05,
14G2S; 03C60, IIG35, IIR58, 12LOS,
14G2S]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
Bertsekas exponential multipliers method
[90C30; 90C30]
(see: Proximal point methods in
mathematical programming)
Berwald coefficients
[53C60; S3C60]
(see: Berwald space)
Berwald connection
(53C60; 53C60)
(referred to in: Berwald space)
(refers to: affine connection; Berwald
space; ChristolTel symbol; connec-
tion; Euler-Lagrange equation;
Euler theorem; Finsler geometry;
Geodesic line; Lyapunov stability;
manifold; Riemannian geometry;
tangent bundle; Tensor calculus)
Berwald connection
[53C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
Berwald curvature tensor
[S3C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
Berwaldframe
[53C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
Berwald-Gauss curvature
[53C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
Berwald geometry
[53C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
Berwald space
(53C60; 53C60)
(referred to in: Berwald connection)
BEZIER CONTROL POINT
(refers to: Berwald connection;
Finsler space; Minkowski space;
Riemannian space)
Berwald space
[53C60; 53C601
(see: Berwald space)
Berwald theorem
[53C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald space)
Besov-Triebel-Lizorkin space
[33C I 0, 35Sxx, 47B38; 33CI 0, 35Sxx,
47B38]
(see: Bessel potential operator)
Bessel function of the third kind see: modi-
fied -
Bessel polynomials
mClO; 33CIO)
(refers to: Bessel functions; Krein
space)
Bessel polynomials see: moments associ-
ated with -; weight equation for -
Bessel potential operator
(33CIO, 35Sxx, 47B38; 33CIO, 35Sxx,
47B38)
(refers to: Bessel functions; convo-
lution of functions; Fourier trans-
form; Kernel of an integral oper-
ator; Laplace operator; linear op-
erator; Multiplier theory; pseudo-
dilTerential operator; Symbol of an
operator)
Bessel potential space
[33ClO, 35Sxx, 47B38; 33CIO, 35Sxx,
47B38]
(see: Bessel potential operator)
Bessel process see: a-dimensional -; di-
mension of a -
Bessel processes
(6016S; 6016S)
(refers to: Brownian motion; Infinitely-
divisible distribution; Markov pro-
cess; random variable)
Besseling-Ishlinskii model in plasticity
[47H30; 47H30]
(see: Hysteresis)
Besse/ing model of elasto-plasticitv
[47H30; 47H30]
(see: Hysteron)
Best linear unbiased estimator
(62105; 621OS)
(refers to: Least squares, method of;
linear regression; statistical estima-
tor; unbiased estimator)
best linear unbiased estimator
[62105; 621OS]
(see: Best linear unbiased estimator)
Bethe Ansatz
[58F07, 8ITlO, 81T20, 83C47; 58F07,
8ITIO, 8IT20, 83C47]
(see: Massive Thirring model)
Betti realization functor
[IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Beilinson conjectures)
Betti reciprocal theorem
(73Cxx; 73Cxx)
(refers to: Elasticity, mathematical
theory of; Self-adjoint operator)
Beurling-Lax methods
[30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Nehari extension problem)
Beynon duality see: Baker--
Bezier control net
[4IAIS, 4IASO, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65010, 6501S, 65017,
68U05, 68U07, 68UIO; 41A15,
4IASO, 41A63, 65005, 65D07,
65010, 6S015, 6S017, 68UOS,
68U07, 68U lO]
(see: Bezier surface)
Bezier control point
[4IAI5, 41A50, 41A63, 6S00S,
65007, 65010, 6S01S, 65017,
68U05, 68U07, 68U1O; 41A15,
4IASO, 41A63, 6S00S, 6S007,
50S
BEZIER CONTROL POINT
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07, 68U 10]
(see: Bezier surface)
Bezier curve
(65017, 68U07; 65017, 68U07)
(referred to in: Bezier spline; Bezier
surface)
(refers to: Bernstein polynomials;
Bezier spline; Bezier surface; Box
spline)
Bezier curve
[41A15, 41A50, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5, 41A50,
65005, 65007, 65010, 65015,
65017, 68U05, 68U07, 68UIO]
(see: Bezier spline)
Bezier curve see: Bernstein--
Bezier curve of degree n over an interval
[41A15, 41A50, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65D17, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5, 41A50,
65005, 65007, 65010, 65015,
65017, 68U05, 68U07, 68UIO]
(see: Bezier spline)
Beziernet
[41A15, 41A50, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65010, 65015, 65D17,
68U05, 68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65D15, 65D17, 68U05,
68U07,68UIO]
(see: Bezier surface)
Bhier patch
[41A15, 41A50, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65010, 65015, 65017,
68U05, 68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65D17, 68U05,
68U07,68UIO]
(see: Bezier surface)
Bhier point
[41A15, 41A50, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65010, 65015, 65017,
68U05, 68U07, 68U\0; 41AI5,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07,68UIO]
(see: Bezier spline; Bezier surface)
Bhier polygon
[41A15, 41A50, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5, 41A50,
65005, 65007, 65010, 65015,
65017, 68U05, 68U07, 68U 10]
(see: Beuer spline)
Bezierspline
(41A15, 41A50, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5, 41A50,
65005, 65007, 65D10, 65D15,
65017, 68U05, 68U07, 68UIO)
(referred to in: Bezier curve; Bezier
surface)
(refers to: Bernstein polynomials;
Bezier curve; Frenet trihedron; Nat-
ural parameter; Spline; spline)
Bhier spline
[41A15, 41A50, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65D17, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5, 41A50,
65005, 65007, 65010, 65D15,
65017, 68U05, 68U07, 68UIO]
(see: Bezier spline)
Bezier spline see: rational-
Bezier surface
(41A15, 41A50, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65D10, 65015, 65017,
68U05, 68U07, 68U\0; 41AI5,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65D17, 68U05,
68U07,68UIO)
(referred to in: Bezier curve)
(refers to: barycentric coordinates;
Bernstein polynomials; Bezier curve;
Bezier spline)
506
Beziersurfacesee: rational-; tensor prod-
uct -; triangular -
Bezier triangle
[41A15, 41A50, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65010, 65D15, 65017,
68U05, 68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07,68UIO]
(see: Bezier surface)
Bezier volume
[65017, 68U07; 65D17, 68U07]
(see: Bezier curve)
Bhallacharyya coefficient
[62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62PxxJ
(see: Bhattacbaryya distance)
Bhaltacharyya coefficient see: Hellinger-
Bhattacharyya distance
(62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62Pxx)
(refers to: Hellinger distance;
Kuliback-Leibler-type distance
measures; measure space; pattern
recognition; Probability distribu-
tion; Probability measure; Radon-
Nikodym theorem)
Bhallacharyya distance
[62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62PxxJ
(see: Bhattacharyya distance)
bi-algebra
[16S30, 16W30, 17BOI, 17B35;
16S30, 16W30, 17BOI, 17B35J
(see: Lie polynomial; Primitive ele-
ment in a co-algebra)
bi-viscosity model
[73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 760xx]
(see: Bingham fluid)
bialgebra see: tangent Lie -
bialgebra structure see: double of a Lie -;
dual of a Lie -
Bianchi group
(20020; 20020)
(refers to: congruence subgroup; Eu-
clidean algorithm; Fuchsian group;
modular group; Riemann surface)
Bianchi group
[20020; 20020]
(see: Bianchi group)
Bianchi group see: Euclidean-
BIBD
(05B05; 05B05)
(refers to: Block design)
bicritical graph
[05C05, 05C45, 05C85, 05C99;
05C05, 05C45, 05C85, 05C99J
(see: Halin graph)
Biedenharn-Elliot identity
[2OCxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
bifurcation see: Andronov-Hopf -; Bautin
-; Bogdanov-Takens -; cusp -; dou-
ble -; fold -; fold-Hopf -; general-
ized Hopf -; Hopf -; Hopf-Hopf -;
NeTmark-Sacker -; non-transversal ho-
moclinic -; Saddle-node -; subcriji-
cal Hopf -; supercritical Hopf -; zero-
Hopf -
bifurcations see: Codimension-two -; Ho-
moclinic -
bifurcations of equilibria see: codimension-
two-
big-step natural semantie.,
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
biharmonic operator
[31A30, 31B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73K15; 31A30, 31B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73K15]
(see: Von Karman equations)
bilateral Laplace-Stieltjes transform
[44AIO; 44AIO]
(see: Laplace--Stieltjes transform)
bilinear algorithm see: Winograd-
bilinear form see: stochastic-
bilinear functional see: strictly defined -;
symmetric -
bilinear model see: subset-
Billard method
(60005, 6OJ45; 60005, 60J45)
(referred to in: Dvoretzky problem;
Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp theo-
rem)
(refers to: capacity; Dvoretzky prob-
lem; Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp
theorem; martingale; mathematical
expectation; potential theory; prob-
ability measure; probability space)
Billard method for random covering
[60005, 6OJ45; 60005, 6OJ45]
(see: Billard method)
billiard
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
billiard dynamical system
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58FI5J
(see: Pesin theory)
binary code
[05B05, 05B07, 94B25; 05B05,
05B07, 94B25J
(see: Golay code)
binary code see: reflected-
binary constraint
[9OCxx; 90CxxJ
(see: Constrained optimization prob-
lem)
binary Golay code
[05B05, 05B07, 94B25; 05B05,
05B07,94B25]
(see: Golay code)
binary reflected Gray code
[05C45, 6SPxx, 68Rxx, 94B60;
05C45,68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60J
(see: Gray code)
binary relation see: compatible-
Binary tree
(05A15, 05C05, 20M05; 05AI5,
05C05, 20M05)
(referred to in: Free magma; Hall
polynomial; Hall set; Hall word;
Lazard set; Lyndon word)
(reters to: free magma)
binary tree
[05Cxx, 68R 10; 05Cxx, 68R 10]
(see: Depth-first search)
binary tree see: complete -; rooted pla-
nar-
binary trees see: rooted planar -
Binate group
(20E06, 20E07, 20Jxx; 20E06, 20E07,
20Jxx)
(referred to in: Acyclic group)
(reters to: acyclic group; commuta-
tor; Finitely-generated group; homo-
morphism; Hopfgroup)
binale tower
[20E06, 20E07, 20J xx; 20E06, 20E07,
20JxxJ
(see: Binate group)
Bingham fluid
(73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 760xx)
Bingham material
[73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 760xx]
(see: Bingham fluid)
binomial moment
[6OC05; 60C05J
(see: Bonferroni inequalities)
Biot-Savar! kernel
[60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05;
60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05J
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial dilTerential equations)
Birch-Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture
[11040, 14CI7, 140xx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; 11040, 14CI7, 140xx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27J
(see: BeHinson conjectures)
Birch-Tate conjecture
(lIS40, 19Cxx, 19F27; IIS40, 19Cxx,
19F27)
(refers 10: Abelian group; Algebraic
number; Dedekind zeta-function;
field; Galois group; p-group)
Birch-Tale conjecture
[IIS40, 19Cxx, 19F27; IIS40, 19Cxx,
19F27)
(see: Birch-Tate conjecture)
Birkhoff cancellation problem
[06A06; 06A06]
(.,ee: Fixed-point property)
Birkhof!...(Justavson normalform
[58F36; 58F36]
(see: BirkholT normal form)
BirkholT normal form
(58F36; 58F36)
(refers to: bifurcation; Hamiltonian;
Hamiltonian system; inner product;
Lie bracket; Normal form; Poisson
brackets; qualitative theory of dIf-
ferential equations; singularities of
dilTerentiable mappings; symplectic
structure)
Birkhoff-Wilt theorem see: Poincare---
Bishop boundary
[46120; 46120]
(see: Choquet boundary)
Bishop-Cannings theorem
[90A14, 900xx, 92Bxx; 90AI4,
900xx, 92Bxx]
(see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
Bishop-Phelps theorem
(46A22; 46A22)
(referred to in: Bfllndsted-Rockafellar
theorem)
(refers 10: adjoint space; Banach
space; Brllnclsted-Rockafellar theo-
rem; convex analysis; convex set;
Hahn-Banach theorem; Linear
functional; Reflexive space)
bispectral property
[14020, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 58F07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
58F07,70H20]
(see: Calogero-Moser-Krichever
system)
Biuadze-Lavrenl'evequation
[35M xx, 76N15; 35Mxx, 76N15]
(see: BitsBdze-Lavrent'ev problem)
Bitsadze-Lavrenl'ev normal curve
[35Mxx, 76N15; 35M xx, 76NI5)
(see: Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev problem)
Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev problem
(35Mxx, 76N15; 35Mxx, 76N15)
(refers to: Goursat problem)
Bitsadz~avrent'ev problem see: regular
solution of the -; Tricomi--- -
BitsBdze--Samarskii problem
(35L20; 35L20)
(refers to: BitsBdze equation)
bivariate Bernstein polynomials
[41A15, 41A50, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65010, 65D15, 65017,
68U05, 68U07, 6SUIO; 41AI5,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65D17, 68U05,
68U07, 68U 10]
(see: Bezier surface)
bivector see: Poisson-
bivector part
[15A66, 30030, 30035; 15A66,
30030, 30035)
(see: ClilTord analysis)
BK-space
[40H05, 46A04, 46A45, 46B45;
40H05, 46A04, 46A45, 46B45]
(see: FK-space; Kothe-ToepUtz dual)
BL-algebra
[8lRxx, 81Txx; 81Rxx, SlTxxJ
(see: Chiral anomaly)
black box principle
[20K20; 20K20)
(see: Cotorsion-free group)
Blaschke--Santal6 inequality
(52A40; 52A40)

(refers 10: affine differential geom-
etry; centroid; convex body; ellip-
soid; Grassmann manifold; Isoperi-
metric inequality; Minkowski prob-
lem; stochastic geometry; Zonohe-
dron)
Blaschke-SantaM inequality
[52A40; 52A40]
(see: Blaschke-Santal6 inequality)
Bliman dry friction model
[47H30; 47H30]
(see: Hysteresis)
Bloch constant
[30045; 30045]
(see: Bloch function)
Bloch function
(30045; 30045)
(refers 10: Banach space; Fractional-
linear mapping; holomorphic func-
tion; normal family; semi-norm;
Univalent function; B M 0 -space)
Bloch norm
[30045; 30045]
(see: Bloch function)
Bloch theorem
[30045; 30045]
(see: Bloch function)
Block
(l60xx, 16L30, 20C20, 20020;
160xx, 16L30, 20C20, 20020)
(referred 10 in: Alperin conjecture;
Brauer homomorphism; Brauer
homomorphism; Defect group of
a block; Defect group of a block;
Modular group algebra)
(refers 10: Artinian ring; Centre of a
ring; Character of a group; Commu-
tative ring; finite group; ideal; idem-
potent; Local ring; Noetherian ring;
Perfect ring; Primitive ring; Rep-
resentation of a group; Sylow sub-
group; valuation)
block
[160xx, 16L30, 19Cxx, 20C20,
20020; 160xx, 16L30, 19Cxx,2OC20,
20020]
(see: Alperin conjecture; Block)
block see: character belonging to a -;
Defect group of a -; defect of a -
block decomposition
[160xx, 16L30, 2OC20, 20020;
160xx, 16L30, 20C20, 20020]
(see: Block)
block form see: Lyapunov-
block idempotent
[160xx, 16L30, 20C20, 20020;
160xx, 16L30, 20C20, 20020]
(see: Block)
block LLL reduction
[IIH06, IIHI6, 11H31, IIH46,
IIH50, 51MII, 51M15, 51M16,
51M20, 51M25; IIH06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, I1H50, 51MII,
51M15, 51M16, 51M20, 51M25]
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
block of a tole ranee
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
block of defect zero
[19Cxx,2OC20; 19Cxx, 20C20]
(see: Alperin conjecture)
block of positive defect
[19Cxx,2OC20; 19Cxx, 20C20]
(see: Alperin conjecture)
block reduction
[IIH06, IIHI6, IIH31, IIH46,
IIH50, 51MII, 51M15, 51M16,
51M20, 51M25; IIH06, IIHI6,
11H31, IIH46, IIH50, 5IMII,
51M15, 51M16, 51M20, 51M25]
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
blocking set
[5IExx; 5lExx]
(see: Galois geometry)
blocking supervisor see: non--
Blow-up algebra
(l4B05, 14E15; 14B05, 14E15)
(refers 10: affine variety; algebraic
variety; base change; Birational
morphism; ideal; Localization in a
commutative algebra; Mobius strip;
Noetherian ring; Proper morphism;
Quasi-projective scheme; resolution
of singularities; scheme; Surjection)
blow-up algebra
[14B05, 14E15; 14B05, 14E15]
(see: Blow-up algebra)
blow-up '!f affine space
[14B05, 14E15; 14B05, 14E15]
(see: Blow-up algebra)
blow-up of affine space see: centre of a -
blOW-Up of the time-derivative see: critical
size and-
BLUE
[62J05; 62105]
(see: Best linear unbiased estimator)
Blumberg set
[26A 15, 54C30; 26A 15, 54C30J
(see: Blumberg theorem)
Blumberg space
[26A15, 54C30; 26A15, 54C30]
(see: Blumberg theorem)
Blumberg theorem
(26A15, 54C30; 26A15, 54C30)
(refers 10: Baire space; Hausdorff
space; homeomorphism; metric
space; Stone-eech compactification;
Topological space)
B M 0 -norm of a function
[26A45, 32A37, 46Exx; 26A45,
32A37, 46Exx]
(see: BMO -space)
BMO-space
(26A45, 32A37, 46Exx; 26A45,
32A37,46Exx)
(refers 10: Analytic function; Hardy
spaces; harmonic analysis; Hilbert
transform; linear operator; Martin-
gale; norm; polynomial; Riesz inter-
polation formula; Schwartz kernel;
Singular integral; wavelet analysis)
BMOA
[26A45, 32A37, 46Exx; 26A45,
32A37,46Exx]
(see: BMO -space)
BMOA-space
[26A45, 32A37, 46Exx; 26A45,
32A37,46Exx]
(see: BMO -space)
Bochner curvature tensor
(53A45, 53B35, 53C15, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C25)
(refers 10: Betti number; Hermitian
structure; Kahler manifold; Lie al-
gebra; Ricci tensor; Riemann ten-
sor; Riemannian manifold; Sasakian
manifold; scalar curvature)
Bochner curvature tensor
[53A45, 53B35, 53C15, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C15, 53C25]
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
Bochner curvature tensor see: AC-
contact -; contact -; E -contact -;
EK-contact -; generalized-
Bochner tensor see: C - -
Bodenmiller theorem
(5IM04; 51M04)
(referred 10 in: Tetrahedron, elemen-
tary geometry of the)
(refers 10: quadrilateral)
body see: deformation of an elastic -; M-
position of a convex -; polar -; strain in
an elastic -; width of a convex -
Bogdanov-Takens bifurcation
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
Bohm-Aharonov effect
(8ITxx; 81 Txx)
(refers 10: de Rham cohomology;
differential form; Differential topol-
ogy; fundamental group; Holonomy
group; Knot theory; Parallel dis-
placement; Quantum field theory;
BOTZAS-HAMMONS-KUMAR CONSTRUCTION B
quantum field theory; Stokes theo-
rem)
Bohman-Korovkin theorem
(4IAxx, 46Bxx, 47B65; 4lAxx,
46Bxx,47B65)
(referred 10 in: Korovkin theorems)
(refers 10: Banach space; Cheby-
shev system; Korovkin theorems;
Korovkin-type approximation the-
ory; linear operator)
Boltzmann constant
[35H05, 35Q60, 35Q72, 78A35,
82C31, 83-XX; 35H05, 35Q60,
35Q72, 78A35, 82C31, 83-XX]
(see: Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-
Planck system)
Bombieri-Dwork conjecture
[IIGxx, 11181; IIGxx, 11181]
(see: G-function)
Bombieri multi-dimensional prime number
theorem see: Hinz--
Bombieri prime number theorem
(IINI3, IIN36; IINI3, IIN36)
(refers 10: Density theorems; Dirich-
let theorem; Distribution of prime
numbers; large sieve; Number the-
ory; Page theorem; Prime number;
Riemann hypotheses; Selberg sieve;
Totient function)
Bombieri-Weil bound
(IIT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT7I, 14G15,
94B27; II T22, II T23, II T24, II T71,
14GI5,94B27)
(refers 10: algebraic geometry; alge-
braic variety; Artin--Schreier code;
Artin--Schreier theory; Betti num-
ber; cohomology group; Cyclotomic
field; Elliptic curve; etale cohomol-
ogy; Finite field; Gauss sum; har-
monic analysis; L-function; Projec-
tive scheme; Riemann hypotheses;
zeta-function)
Bonferroni inequalities
(6OC05; 60C05)
(referred 10 in: Bonferroni-type in-
equalities)
(refers 10: Bonferroni-type inequali-
ties; Inclusion-and-exclusion princi-
ple; probability space)
Bon/erroni inequalities
[6OC05; 6OC05]
(see: Bonferroni inequalities)
Bonferroni-type inequalities
(6OC05; 60C05)
(referred 10 in: Bonferroni inequali-
ties)
(refers 10: Bonferroni inequalities;
Brun sieve; graph; probability space)
Bonferrani-type inequalities
[60C05; 60C05]
(see: Bonferroni-type inequalities)
Bonferroni-type inequalities see: method of
polynomials for proving -
Boolean algebra see: additive operator on
a -; canonical extension of a -; f::,,-
pseudo- -; normal operator on a -; op-
erator on a -; perfect extension of a -;
pseudo- -; two-element -
Boolean algebra with operators
(03Gxx, 03G15, 06Exx, 06E15;
03Gxx, 03G 15, 06Exx, 06E15)
(refers 10: Algebraic systems, vari-
ety of; Boolean algebra; modal logic;
topological space)
Boolean algebras see: Stone representa-
tion theorem for -
Boolean arrangement
[05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65;
05B35,20F36,20F55, 52B30, 57N65]
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
Boolean calculus see: derivative in -; dif-
ferential in -; differential of a variable in
-; differential of a vector in -
Boolean differential calculus
(06E30; 06E30)
(refers 10: Automaton, finite; Boolean
function; differential calculus; Dis-
crete event system; Error-correcting
code)
Boolean differential equation
[06E30; 06E30]
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
Boolean equation
[06E30; 06E30]
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
Boo/ean function
[06E30; 06E30]
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
Boolean function see: differential of a -;
kth partial differential of a -; partial dif-
ferential of a -; total differential of a -
Boolean space
[06E30; 06E30]
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
Boothby-Wang fibering
[53A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C15, 53C25]
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
Borda count
[90A05, 90A08, 90A28; 90A05,
90A08, 90A28]
(see: Arrow impossibility theorem;
Voting paradoxes)
Borel II-algebra generated by the hit-or-
miss topology
[28Cxx, 60005; 28Cxx, 60005]
(see: Choquet-Kendall-Matheron
theorem)
Borel cylinderfunction
[60BII, 60H05, 60H07; 60BII,
60H05, 60H07]
(see: Accessible random variable)
Borel cylinder function see: lifting of a -
Borel hierarchy of sets
[03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
Borel-Lie algebra
[8IRxx, 8lTxx; 8lRxx, 8lTxx]
(see: Chiral anomaly)
Borel space
[28015, 58F17; 28015, 58F17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
Borel theorem see: Baily--
Borel theorem for algebraic groups
[03C60; 03C60]
(see: Group of finite Morley rank)
Borel-Weil theorem
[14FI7, 14MI5, 20GIO; 14F17,
14MI5,20GIO]
(see: Kempf vanishing theorem)
Borsuk antipodal theorems
[54H25, 55M20; 54H25, 55M20]
(see: Borsuk fixed-point theorem)
Borsuk fixed-point theorem
(54H25, 55M20; 54H25, 55M20)
(refers 10: Antipodes; Degree of a
mapping)
Borsuk odd mapping theorem
[54H25, 55M20; 54H25, 55M20]
(see: Borsuk fixed-point theorem)
Borsuk-Ulam theorem
[05AI8, 51M25, 54H25, 55M20;
05A18, 51M25, 54H25, 55M20]
(see: Borsuk fixed-point theorem;
Ham-sandwich theorem)
boson see: Goldstone-
boson model see: interacting-
Boll periodicity
[16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G 12;
16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G12]
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
Batt theorem
[14FI7, 14M15, 20G10; 14F17,
14MI5,20GIO]
(see: Kempf vanishing theorem)
Botzas-Hammons-Kumar construction
A
[05E30, II S20, II S31, 94B35; 05E30,
IIS20, IIS31, 94B35]
(see: Galois ring)
Botzas-Hammons-Kumar construction
B
507
BOTZAS-HAMMONS-KUMAR CONSTRUCTION LJ
[OSE30, II S20, II S31, 94B3S; OSE30,
IIS20, IIS31, 94B3S]
(see: Galois ring)
bound see: a posteriori -; a priori -;
Bombieri-Weil -; Drinfel'd-Vladut -;
Gilbert-Varshamov -; p-adic Serre -;
Sidel'nikov -; Welch -
bound algorithm see: Branch-and--
bound operator see: upper-
bound states of the massive Thirring
model
[58F07, 81T10, 81T20, 83C47; 58F07,
8ITI0,8IT20,83C47]
(see: Massive Thirring model)
boundary see: Bergman-Shilov -; Bishop
-; Choquet -; distinguished -; mini-
mal -; Shilov-
boundary-coercive Bregman/unction
[52Axx, 9OCxx, 90C05, 90C25;
52Axx, 9OCxx, 90C05, 90C2S]
(see: Bregman function)
boundary conditions see: Absorbing -;
Dirichlet -; Mur -; Neumann -; non-
reflecting -; radiating -
boundary conditions o[thefirst kind
[35015; 35015]
(see: Dirichlet boundary conditions)
boundary conditions of the second kind
[35015; 3S01S]
(see: Neumann boundary conditions)
boundaryfor afunction algebra
[32E2S, 46JIO; 32E25, 4611 OJ
(see: Bergman-Shilov boundary)
boundary jor a subset (~r a function alge-
bra
[46120; 46J20J
(see: Choquet boundary)
boundary of a Gromov hyperbolic space see:
hyperbolic -
boundary value problem see: first initial-
-; focal -; free -; Riemann -
boundary value problem for an elliptic op-
erator
[35J85, 73Cxx; 35J85, 73Cxxl
(see: Signorini problem)
boundary value problem of mixed type
[35Mxx, 76N15; 35Mxx, 76N15]
(see: Bilsadze-Lavrent'ev problem)
boundary value problem of the first kind
[3S015; 3S01S]
(see: Dirichlet boundary conditions)
houndary value problem of the second
kind
[35015; 35015]
(see: Neumann boundary conditions)
boundary value problem of the second
kind
[45005, 47Bxx; 45005, 47Bxx]
(see: Abstract Volterra equation)
Boundary value problem of the third
kind
(350xx; 350xx)
(refers to: First boundary value prob-
lem; Second boundary value prob-
lem; third boundary value problem)
boundary value systems see: minimal real-
ization of-
bounded algebra see: complete locally -
bounded BCK-algebra
[03025, 04A03, 06Dxx, 06Exx;
03025, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx]
(see: BCK.algebra)
bounded finitely-additive set functions see:
Banach space of complex -
bounded functions on an Abelian semi-
group see: Ressel characterization of
completely positive-definite -
hounded holomorphic automorphic form
[30F35; 30F351
(see: Bers space)
bounded image
[06C05; 06C051
(see: Arguesian lattice)
bounded integral operator see: ordered--
bounded mean oscillation see: function of
-; space of functions of -
bounded morphism
S08
[030xx, 03015, 06Exx, 06EIS;
030xx, 03015, 06Exx, 06EI5J
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
bounded self-adjoint linear operator
[45P05, 46E30, 47BS5; 45POS, 46E30,
47B5S1
(see: Integral representations of lin·
ear operators)
bounded set see: order--
bounded topological vector space see: lo-
cally -
bounded variation
[26A45, 26B IS, 28A 7S, 28BOS,
49Q2S; 26A4S, 26B IS, 28A 7S, 28B05,
49Q2S]
(see: Burkill-Cesari integral)
boundedly complete idempotent semi-ring
[ISA48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44-
XX, 44AIS, 68QIO, SI-XX, 90C39,
93C30; I SA4B, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx,
44-XX, 44A15, 68QIO, 81-XX,
90C39,93C301
(see: Idempotent analysis)
boundednessfor a Calder,;n-7iJeplitz op-
erator
[42Cxx, 47B3S, 47B38; 42Cxx,
47B35,47B381
(see: Calder6n-Toeplitz operator)
boundedness theorem see: Federbush-
Faris semi- -
bounds for a Calder6n-Toeplitz operator
see: eigenvalue-
bounds in matrix computations see: A priori
and a posteriori -
Bourbaki theorem see: Jacobson--
Bourgain-Szarek estimate
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A211
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Boussinesq equation
[34A20, 34A2S, 34C20, 581'07;
34A20, 34A2S, 34C20, 58F07]
(see: Painleve·type equations)
Bowen measure see: SinaT-Ruelle--
Box-Cox transformation
(62E20; 62E20)
(refers to: Cumulant; Exponential
distribution; Gram-Charlier series;
maximum·likelihood method; Nor·
mal distribution; Outlier; Poisson
distribution; random variable; Re-
gression; Robust statistics)
box principle see: black-
Box spline
(4IA05; 41A(5)
(referred to in: Bezier curve)
box spline theory
[41 AOS; 41AOSI
(see: Box spline)
Boyd index
(46B20; 46B20)
(refers to: Interpolation of opera-
tors; linear operator; Marcinkiewicz
space; measurable function)
Boyd index see: lower -; upper -
BPO(\1)
133C 10, 3SSxx, 47B38; 33C 10, 3SSxx,
47B381
(see: Bessel potential operator)
bracket see: Poisson -; Schouten -
bracket notation for rooted trees
[65Lxx; 6SLxxi
(see: Butcher series)
bracketed word see: completely-
bracketed word of weight one
[17BOI, 20MOS; 17BOI, 20MOSI
(see: Hall set; Hall word; Lazard set)
bracketed words see: completely-
bracketed word, o[weight one
[17BOI; 17BOI]
(see: Hall polynomial)
bracketing of a word
[OSAIS, OSC05, 20MOS; 05AIS,
OSCOS, 20MOS]
(see: Binary tree)
bracketing of a word see: complete-
Bradford-Goffinan theorem
126A15, 54C30; 26A15, 54C301
(see: Blumberg theorem)
Bradley-Terry model
(62JI5; 62JlS)
(referred to in: Paired comparison
model)
(refers to: Likelihood equation;
Paired comparison model)
Brafman polynomials
(33C4S; 33C45)
(refers to: Hermite polynomials; Hy·
pergeometric function: orthogonal
polynomials)
braid arrangement
I05B35, 20F36, 20F55, S2B30, 57N6S;
OSB3S, 20F36, 20FSS, S2B30, 57N651
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
braid space see: pure-
brain see: understanding 01 human -
Branch·and·bound algorithm
(90CIO; 90CIO)
(referred to in: Lagrangean relax·
ation)
(refers to: integral part; Lagrangean
relaxation; linear programming)
branching process see: interacting-
Bratteli diogram
119Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46L80 1
(see: AF·algebra)
Brauer characterization of characters
(20CI5; 20CIS)
(refers to: cyclic group; direct prod-
uct; field; finite group; Grothendieck
group: group algebra; homomor·
phism; Induced representation; p-
group; Representation of a group;
vector space)
Brauer characterization qj'dwracters
120C15; 20CI51
(see: Brauer characterization of
characters)
Brauer correspondence
116S34; 16S341
(see: Modular group algebra)
Brauerfirst rnain theorem
120C20; 20C20 1
(see: Brauer homomorphism)
Brauer homomorphism
(20C20; 20C20)
(referred to in: Alperin conjecture)
(Iders to: Block; block; Defect group
of a block; field; finite group; Finite
group, representation of a: group al·
gebra; Jacobson radical)
Brauer h(JfJlOf110rphism
120C20; 20C20 1
(see: Brauer homomorphism)
Brauer k( B)-conjecture
1160xx, 16L30, 20C20, 20020;
I flOxx, 16L30, 20('20, 20020]
(see: Block)
search
bre(/(lth~first
190C35; 90C351
(see: Search algorithm)
breaking see: continuous symmetry
symmetry -
Bredon cohomology
(55N25; 55N2S)
(refers 10: category; Complex; com·
plex; CW·complex; Equivariant
cohomology; equivariant cohomol·
ogy; functor; homotopy; obstruction;
spectral sequence)
Uregman distance
(S2Axx, 90Cxx, 90COS, 90C25:
S2Axx, 90Cxx, 90C05, 90C25)
(referred to in: Uregman function;
Proximal point metbods in mathe-
matical programming)
(refers to: Bregman function; convex
function (of a real variable); Proxi·
mal point methods in mathematical
programming)
Hrewnan distance
1S2Axx, 90Cxx, 90COS, 90C25;
52Axx, 90(,xx, 90(,OS, 90C25 1
(see: Bregman distance; Bregman
function)
Bregman function
(52Axx, 90Cxx, 90C05, 9OC25;
52Axx, 90Cxx, 90C05, 90C2S)
(referred to in: Bregman distance;
Proximal point methods in mathe·
matical programming)
(refers to: Bregman distance; con·
vex function (of a real variable);
Kullback-Leibler.type distance
measures; polyhedron; Proximal
point methods in mathematical pro·
gramming)
Bregman funt 'lion
[S2Axx, 90Cxx, 90C05, 9OC25;
52Axx, 90Cxx, 9OC05, 90C25 1
(see: Bregman function)
Bregman function see: boundary-coercive
-; zone-coercive -; zone consistent
with a -; zone of a-
Bregman method
IS2Axx, 9OCxx, 90COS, 9OC25;
52Axx, 90Cxx, 9OC05, 90C2S1
(see: Bregman distance)
Bregman projection
IS2Axx, 90Cxx, 9OCOS, 90C2S;
52Axx, 90Cxx, 90COS, 90C25 1
(see: Bregman distance)
Bre/Of conver!wnce axiom
131 OOS; 31005]
(see: Brelot harmonic space)
Brelot harmonic space
(3ID05; 31005)
(refers to: basis; Dirichlet prob·
lem; Harmonic function; Harmonic
space; Laplace equation; locally
compact space; Markov process;
potential theory; Potential theory,
abstract; sheaf; topological space)
Bre/of harmonic space
J3ID05; 31005]
(.see: Brelot harmonic space)
Bre/ot harmonic structure
13IDOS; 3100S]
(see: Brelot harmonic space)
Brelot harmonic structure see: base axiom
fora -
BRG code
105C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60;
OSC45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60]
(see: Gray code)
bridgesee: Brownian-
bridge in a graph
105C70; 05C70]
(,see: One·factor)
bridge in a graph
105C70; OSC70 1
(see: One·factorization)
Brieskom manifold
IS3CI5, 53C57, 58F05; 53C15,
53C57,58FOSI
(see: K ·contact flow)
Broadwell model
(82B40; 82B40)
(refers to: Boltzmann equation; Gas
dynamics, equations of; Gas dynamo
ics, numerical methods of: Gas flow
theory)
Brody theorem
[32H20; 32H201
(.,ee: Kobayashi hyperbolicity)
Br;;ndsted-Rockqfellar theorem
126A15, 5400, 54ESO; 26A15,
S4C30, S4E50]
(see: Ekeland variational principle)
Brouwer degree
[S5RI2; S5RI21
(see: Becker-Gottlieb transfer)
Brown-Pelczar theorem see: Abian--
Brown-Peterson spectrum
(S5N22; 5SN22)
(refers to: Cobordism; homotopy;
spectral sequence; Spectrum of a
ring; Steenrod algebra; Suspension)
Rrown-Peterson spectrum
155N22; 55N221

(see: Brown-Peterson spectrum)
8rownian bridge
[60810, 60Exx, 60F05, 62Exx; 608 10,
60Exx, 60F05, 62Exxl
(see: Empirical process)
Brownian excursion
(60J65; 60J65)
(refers to: Bernoulli excursion; Den-
sity of a probability distribution;
Markov process; Normal distribu-
tion; probability theory)
Brownian excunion process
[60J65; 60J65[
(see: Brownian excursion)
Brownian functional
(60H05, 6OH07, 60J65; 60H05,
60H07,60J65)
(refers to: Approximate continu-
ity; Brownian motion; Generalized
function; potential theory; proba-
bility measure; probability space;
random variable; Stochastic ditTer-
ential equation; stochastic integral;
Stratonovich integral; Wiener chaos
decomposition; Wiener space, ab-
stract)
Brownian functional see: generalized -;
skeleton of a -
Brownian motion see: continuous version
of a -; recurrent -
Bnlndsted-Rockafellar theorem
(52A07; 52A07)
(referred to in: Bishop-Phelps theo-
rem)
(refers to: Banach space; Bishop-
Phelps theorem; Closed set; Convex
function (of a real variable); Con-
vex set; Dense set; linear functional;
Semi-continuous function; Support
function)
8RST cohomology
[16W55, 17856, 17860, 17870,
17881, 58A I 0; 16W55, 17856,
17860,17870, 178XI, 5XAIOI
(see: Poisson algebra)
8rudnyl-Kruglyak K ·divisibility theo·
rem
[46870; 46870[
(see: Calderon couples)
Bruhat-Tits building
(20G25; 20G25)
(refers to: centralizer; Commutator
subgroup; field; homomorphism;
metric; Normalizer of a subset; Re-
ductive group; reductive group; root
system; Semi-simple group; Til.
building; torus)
Bruhat-Tits building
[20G25; 20G251
(see: Bruhat-Tits building)
Bruijn-Alladi formula see: de-
Brun-Titchmarsh theorem
(I I M06, IIN05, IIN35; IIM06,
IIN05,IIN35)
(refers to: Riemann hypotheses; sieve
method)
Brun-71tchmarsh theorem
[IIM06, II N05, llN35; 11M06,
11 N05, II N35]
(see: Brun-Titchmarsh theorem)
Brunn-Minkowski inequality
[46Bxx, 46820, 52A21; 468xx,
46820, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Brunn-Minkowski inequality see: in-
verse -
Bruno formula see: Faa di -
BS-stability
[65L06; 65L06]
(see: B-convergence)
Buchberger algorithm
(I3PIO, 68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40)
(referred to in: Computer algebra
package)
(refers to: field; monoid; Noetherian
ring; Totally ordered set)
Buchberger algorithm
IIWIO,6XQ40; l3PIO, 6XQ401
(.see: Buchberger algorithm)
Buckley-Leverett equation
(76S05; 76S05)
(refers to: Hyperbolic partial ditTer-
ential equation; Quasi-linear hyper-
bolic equations and systems; Shock
waves, mathematical theory of)
Hucklev-Leverett profile
[76S0S; 76S051
Csee: Buckley-Leverett equation)
Buekenhout-Metz unital
(51 E20; 51 E20)
(referred to in: Unital)
(refers to: Desargues geometry; In-
cidence system; ovoid; projective
plane; Translation surface; unital)
building see: apartment of a -; Bruhat-
Tits -; face of a-
Bukhstab function
(1IN05, IIN2S; IIN05, IIN25)
(refers to: distribution of prime num-
bers; Euler constant)
Bukhstab identity
(II N35; II N35)
(refers to: inclusion-and-exclusion
principle; Prime number; Sieve
method)
8ukhvalov theorem
145P05, 46E30, 47855; 45P05, 46E30,
47B551
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
bundle !·jee: automorphic vector -;
Horrocks-Mumford -; hyperplane sec-
tion -; involutive subbundle of the tan·
gent -; principal C; - -; spanned line -
humlle condition
15IBOS; 51B051
(see: Benz plane)
bundle of a projective surface see: adjoint
-; canonical -
BunYllkovskir ('ondition
I II NOS, IIP45; IIN05, IIP451
(see: Bateman-Horn conjecture)
Bunyakovskil conjecture
(II N05, II N 13, 11 N32; II N05,
IINI3,IIN32)
(referred to in: Bateman-Horn con-
jecture)
(refers to: Bateman-Horn conjecture;
Dirichlet theorem; Irreducible poly-
nomial; polynomial; Prime number)
BurliU geometry
ISIB05; 51B051
(see: Chain geometry)
Burgers equation see: viscous-
Burkholder-Davis-Gundy inequality
(4IAI7, 42B30; 41A17, 42830)
(referred to ill: FetTerman-Garsia in-
equality)
(refers to: Fourier series; Fourier
transform; harmonic analysis; mar-
tingale; Orlicz space)
Burkill-Ce.wri integrability
[26A45, 26815, 28A75, 28805,
49Q25; 26A45, 26815, 28A 75,28805,
49Q25]
(see: Burkill-Cesari integral)
Burkill-Cesari integrable function
[26A45, 26815, 28A75, 28B05,
49Q25; 26A45, 26815, 28A75,28805,
49Q25]
(see: Burkill-Cesari integral)
Burkill-Cesari integral
(26A45, 26B I 5, 28A 75, 28805,
49Q25; 26A45, 268 15, 28A75, 28B05,
49Q25)
(refers to: Banach space; Bochner in-
tegral; Burkill integral; Hellinger in-
tegral; Kurzweil-Henstock integral;
Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral; Martin-
gale; Pettis integral; Riemann inte-
gral; topological space; Variational
calculus)
Burkill-Cesari weak integration
CALOGERO-MOSER-KRICHEVER SYSTEM
[26A45, 26815, 28A 75, 28B05,
49Q25; 26A45, 26815, 28A 75,28805,
49Q25]
(see: Burkill-Cesari integral)
Burkill integrability
[26A45, 26815, 28A75, 28805,
49Q25; 26A45, 26815, 28A 75,28805,
49Q25]
(see: Burkill-Cesari integral)
Burkill integrable rectanglefunction
[26A45, 26815, 2XA 75, 28B05,
49Q25; 26A45, 26815, 28A 75, 2XB05,
49Q2S1
(see: Burkill-Cesari integral)
Burns criterion see: Katok--
Butcher series
(65Lxx; 65Lxx)
(refers to: analytic function; bijec-
tion; Graph; Runge-Kutta method;
Taylor series)
Butcher series
165Lxx; 65Lxxl
(see: Butcher series)
Butler group
(03Exx, 04-XX, 20K 15, 20K20;
03Exx, 04·XX, 20K 15, 20K20)
(refers to: Abelian group; continuum
hypothesis; GOdel constructive set;
pure subgroup; Rank of a group; Set
theory)
Butler group of Richman type
[03Exx, 04·XX, 20K15, 20K20;
03Exx, 04·XX, 20K15, 20K201
(see: Butler group)
BV-algebra
116W55, 17856, 17860, 17870,
17881, 58AIO; 16W55, 17856,
17860, 17870, 17881,58AIO]
(see: Poisson algebra)
___ c ___
C
[68NI5; 68N15]
(see: APL)
C * -algebra .see: irrational rotation -; pos-
itive semi-definite element in a -; trace
ona -
C -Bochner tensor
153A45, 53B35, 53C15, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C15, 53C25]
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
C 1 -continuous foliation
1280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58FI51
(see: Pesin theory)
C family of logics see: da Costa -
C1,roliation
1280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
C-pair
146870; 46B701
(see: Calderon couples)
Co-semi-group
[47003; 47003]
(see: Adjoint semi-group of opera-
tors)
c-valuations see: ostensive-
C (A) see: positive element in -
CA-property
[93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93855,
93C05,93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
CA-ring
[93855, 93C05, 93015; 93855,
93C05,93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
CAD
[52855, 68Q20, 68Q25, 68U05;
52855, 68Q20, 68Q25, 68U05]
(see: Computational geometry)
CAO
[65017, 68U07; 65017, 68U07]
(see: Bezier curve)
CAD system see: Renault UNISURF -
CAGO
[4IAI5, 41A50, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65010, 65015, 6S017,
68U05, 68U07, 68UIO; 4IAIS,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 6501S, 65017, 68U05,
68U07,68UIOI
(see: Bezier spline; Bezier surface)
Calabi theorem see: Almgren--
calculus see: Boolean differential -; Car-
tan's exterior -; derivative in Boolean -;
differential in Boolean -; differential of a
variable in Boolean -; differential of a
vector in Boolean -; Dixmier symbolic
-; holomorphic functional -; idempo-
tent -; Incidence -; It6 stochastic -;
Malliavin -; modal -; Saba lev differen-
tial -; untyped lambda- -
calculus for framed links see: Kirby-
calculus of several complex variables see:
functional -
Caldenin couple
[46870; 468701
(see: Calderon couples)
Calder6n couple see: relative-
Calderon couples
(46870; 46870)
(refers to: Banach space; Imbedding
theorems; Interpolation of opera-
tors; interpolation of operators; lin-
ear operator; Normed space; Sobolev
space; topological vector space)
Calderdn-Mityagin couple
146870; 468701
(see: Calderon couples)
Calder6n monotonicity property for inter-
polation spaces
[46870; 46B701
(see: Calderon couples)
Clildenln pair
[46870; 46B701
(see: Calderon couples)
Caldenln reproducing formula
[42Cxx, 47835, 4783X; 42Cxx,
47835,478381
(see: Calderon-Toeplitz operator)
Calderon theorem on interpolation spaces
146870; 46B701
(see: Calderon couples)
Calderon-Toeplitz operator
(42Cxx, 47B35, 47B3X; 42Cxx,
47B3S,47B38)
(refers to: Fourier transform; integral
operator; Wavelet analysis)
Calder6n-Toeplitz operator see: bound-
edness for a -; compactness for a -;
correspondence principle for a -; eigen-
value bounds for a - ; Schatten ideal be-
haviour for a -
Calder6n transforms see: space of -
Calden>n-Zygmund ()perafor
[26A45, 32A37, 46Exx; 26A4S,
32A37, 46Exx I
(see: BMO -space)
Calderon-Zygmund·singular integral
[42830; 42830]
(see: Hardy spaces)
CALI
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Calogero-Moser-Krichever system
(14020, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 58F07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
58F07,70H20)
(refers to: Completely-integrable dif-
ferential equation; Elliptic function;
Hamiltonian system; Integrals in in-
volution; Korteweg-de Vries equa-
tion; Lame equation; Schriidinger
equation; Soliton; soliton; tomogra-
phy; Weierstrass elliptic functions)
Calogero-Moser-Krichever system see:
elliptic -
509
CALOGERO-MOSER-SUTHERLAND-KRICHEVER SYSTEM
Calogero-Moser-Sutherland-Krichever
.'ystem
[14D20, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 5SF07,
70H20; 14D20, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
5SF07,70H20)
(see: Calogero-Moser-Krichever
system)
Calogero-Moser system see: rational-
Calogero-Sutherland system see: trigono-
metric-
Cameron-Martin space
[60Hxx, 6OH07; 6OHxx, 60H07)
(see: Malliavin calculus)
campanology
[05C45, 6SPxx, 6SRxx, 94B60;
05C45, 6SPxx, 6SRxx, 94B60)
(see: Gray code)
Canadian lynx data
(62MIO; 62MIO)
(referred to in: Canadian lynx series)
(refers to: Canadian lynx series;
Predator-prey system; time series)
Canadian lynx series
(62MIO; 62MIO)
(referred to in: Canadian lynx data)
(refers to: Bayesian approach; Cana-
dian lynx data; time series)
cancellation cond~ion see: smail--
cancellation problem see: Birkhoff-
cancellation theorem see: Wi"-
cancellation theoremfor partially ordered
sets
[06A06; 06A06]
(see: Fixed-point property)
Cannings theorem see: Bishop---
canonical bundle of a projective surface
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99)
(see: Adjunction theory)
canonical extension of a Boolean algebra
[03B45, 03Gxx, 03G05, 03G15,
06Exx,06EI5,06E25;03B45,03Gxx,
03G05, 03G 15, 06Exx, 06E15, 06E25)
(see: Boolean algebra with operators;
Sahlqvist identities)
canonical form see: Trench-
canonical frame
[06C05; 06C05)
(see: Arguesian lattice)
canonical frame
[03B45, 03G05, 06Exx, 06E25;
03B45, 03G05, 06Exx, 06E25)
(see: Sahlqvist theorem)
canonical mapping of a curve
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99)
(see: Adjunction theory)
canonical modal formula
[03B45, 03G05, 06Exx, 06E25;
03B45, 03G05, 06Exx, 06E25)
(see: Sahlqvist theorem)
canonical model of a Shimura variety
[IIFxx, IIGIS, 14Mxx, 20Gxx;
IIFxx, IIGIS, 14Mxx, 200xx)
(see: Shimura variety)
canonical ring
[16W55, 17B56, 17B60, 17B70,
17BSI, 5SAIO; 16W55, 17B56,
17B60, 17B70, 17BSI, 5SAIO)
(see: Poisson algebra)
canonical variety of algebras
[03Gxx, 03G15, 06Exx, 06E15;
03Gxx, 03G15, 06Exx, 06E15)
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
Cantelli-type theorems see: Glivenko--
Cantor set see: triadic-
cap
[5IExx; 51Exx)
(see: Galois geometry)
capac~ see: Chequet-
capac~ of infinite order see: ahemating
Chequet -
CAR-algebra
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46LSO; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46LSO)
510
(see: AF -algebra)
Caratheodory interpolation
(26CIO, 30D55, 30E05, 41A05,
46EIO, 47A57, S6A22; 26CIO, 30D55,
30E05, 41 A05, 46EIO, 47 A57, S6A22)
(referred to in: Caratheodory-Schur
extension problem; Commutant lift-
ing theorem)
(refers to: Blaschke product; Fract-
ional-linear mapping; Hardy spaces;
Taylor series; Toeplitz matrix)
Caratheodory interpolation problem
[26CIO, 30055, 30E05, 41A05,
46EIO, 47A57, S6A22; 26CIO, 30D55,
30E05, 41 A05, 46EIO, 47 A57, S6A22]
(see: Caratheodory interpolation)
Caratheodory interpolation problem see:
Schur method for solving the -
Caratheodory-Schur extension prob-
lem
(30E05, 41A05, 47A57; 30E05,
41A05, 47A57)
(referred to in: Caratheodory-
Toeplitz extension problem)
(refers to: analytic function; Carathe-
odory interpolation; Nehari exten-
sion problem; Nevanlinna-Pick in-
terpolation; polynomial; Taylor se-
ries; Toeplitz matrix)
Caratheodory-Schur extension problem
[30E05, 41A05, 47A57; 30E05,
41A05, 47A57)
(see: Caratheodory-Schur extension
problem)
Caratheodory-Toeplitz extension
problem
(30E05, 47A57, 93EII; 30E05,
47A57,93EII)
(referred to in: Band method; Par-
tially specified matrices, completion
of)
(refers to: Analytic function; Ba-
nach algebra; band method;
Caratheodory-Schur extension
problem; decomposition; Degener-
ate matrix; Fourier series; Partially
specified matrices, completion of;
Rlesz space; Toeplitz matrix)
Carathtiodory-Toeplitz extension prob-
lem
[30E05, 47A57, 93EII; 30E05,
47A57,93EII)
(see: Caratheodory-Toeplitz exten-
sion problem)
Caratheodory-Toepl~z extension problem
see: band extension of the -; central
solution of the -
cardinal see: inaccessible -; Mahlo -
cardinal B-spline
[4IA05; 41A05)
(see: Box spline)
cardinal spline theory see: Schoenberg-
cardinality of a structure
[03C07; 03C07)
(see: Structure)
Caristi fixed-point theorem see: Kirk--
Carleman linearization
[5SFxx; 5SFxx)
(see: Non-linear dynamics)
Carleman operator
(47B3S; 47B3S)
(refers to: Banach space; Bochner in-
tegral; Eigen function; integral oper-
ator; Series expansion)
Carleman operators see: generalized-
Carle.",n-Chang theorem
[46E35, 5SGXX; 46E35, 5SGXX)
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
Carleson corona theorem
[26A45, 32A37, 46Exx; 26A45,
32A37, 46Exx)
(see: BMO -space)
Carleson theorem for function spaces see:
Rudin- -
Carmichael conjecture on the Euler to-
tient function
[IIAu; IIAxx)
(see: Totient function)
Carmichael number
(IIA5I, IIN25, IIY11; IIA51,
IIN25,IIYII)
(referred to in: Probabilistic primality
test; Pseudo-prime)
(refers to: Fermat little theorem;
Probabilistic primality test; Pseudo-
prime)
carrier frequency
[35Q53, 5SF07, 76B 15; 35Q53,
5SF07,76B15)
(see: Benjamin-Feir instability)
Carroll diagram
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94CIO]
(see: Karnaugh map)
Cartan-Hadamard manifold
[53C99; 53C99)
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
Cartan spinor theory
[17Dxx, 53A50, 55R05, 70-XX,
70M20; 17Dxx, 53A50, 55R05, 70-
XX,70M20)
(see: Kustaanheimo-Stiefel transfor-
mation)
Cartan torsion ten.~or
[53C60; 53C60)
(see: Berwald space)
Caetan's exterior calculus
[34C20, 35A30, 5SD19, 5SG35;
34C20, 35A30, 5SDI9, 5SG35)
(see: Lie symmetry analysis)
Cartesian geometry
[20BI5; 20B15]
(see: O'Nao-Scott theorem)
CASA
[6SQ40; 6SQ40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
case see: Fermat last theorem. first -;
Fermat last theorem, second -
case complexity see: polynomial worst- -
Casimir
[SIRxx, SIR05; SIRxx, SIR05)
(see: Spectrum generating algebra)
Casimir element
[SIRxx, SIR05; SIRxx, SIR05)
(see: Spectrum generating algebra)
Casimir element
[17Bxx, SIR05; 17Bxx, SIR05)
(see: Gell-Mann formula)
Casimir invariant
[5SF07; 5SF07)
(see: Kowalewski top)
Casson handle
(57N 13, 57R 10; 57N 13, 57R 10)
(refers to: differential topology; gen-
eral position; Handle theory; Immer-
sion; Immersion of a manifold; Inter-
section theory; manifold; Topology of
manifolds; lObular neighbourhood)
Casson handle see: generalized-
Casson tower see: n-stage-
Casteljau algorithm see: de-
CAT (-I)-space
[2SD15, 53C99, 5SF17; 2S0I5,
53C99, 5SF17]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space; Hopf
alternative)
Catalan-Dickson conjecture
[l1B37; 11B37)
(see: Aliquot sequence)
Catalan equation see: Tijdeman thAorem
on the -
Catalan number
[05A15, 05C05, 20M05, 6OJl5;
05AI5, 05C05, 20M05, 60Jl5]
(see: Bernoulli excursion; Binary
tree)
categoriallanguage
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
categorial product
[05CI5; 05CI5)
(see: Hedetniemi conjecture)
categorical duality
[03Gxx, 03GI5, 06Exx, 06EI5;
03Gxx, 03G15, 06Exx, 06EI5)
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
category see: co-complete -; Jacobson
-;Zariski -
category of weighted algebra.,
[16A99, 17092, 90DIO; 16A99,
17D92,9ODIO)
(see: Baric algebra)
category theorem see: Banach-
Cauchy-Davenport theorem
[05C55, 05010, 20KOI; 05C55,
05DIO,20KOI)
(see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem)
Cauchy formula
[15A66, 30030, 30035; 15A66,
30030, 30035)
(see: ClilTord analysis)
Cauchy--Goursat problem
[35Mxx, 76N15; 35Mxx, 76NI5)
(see: Bilsadze-Lavrent'ev problem)
Cauchy integral formula
[15A66, 30030, 30035; 15A66,
30030, 30035)
(see: ClilTord analysis)
Cauchy-Riemann equations
(30A05, 30Exx, 32Axx; 30A05,
30Exx, 32Axx)
(referred to in: Clifford analysis;
Hardy spaces)
(refers to: Analytic function; Cauchy-
Riemann conditions)
Cauchy-Riemann operator see: Eu-
clidean -
Cauchy sequence see: pseudo--
Cauchy singular integral operator
[45EIO, 47 A6S, 47B35; 45EIO,
47A6S, 47B35)
(see: Wiener-Hopf operator)
Cauchy stress
[73Bxx, 73Cxx, 73Dxx, 73040,
76D33; 73Bxx, 73Cxx, 73Dxx, 73040,
76D33)
(see: Acceleration wave)
Cauchy tetrahedron argument in contin-
uumphysics
[73B30, SOA05, SOA97; 73B30,
SOA05, SOA97)
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
Cauchy transform
[I5A66, 30G30, 30035; 15A66,
30030, 30035)
(see: ClilTord analysis)
Cauchy transform see: singular-
cau.mloperator
[47Bxx, 93Axx, 93B2S; 47Bxx,
93Axx, 93B2S)
(see: Abstract Volterra operator)
causality
[73B30, SOA05, SOA97; 73B30,
SOA05, SOA97)
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
causality principle see: Markov-
Cayley
[6SQ40; 6SQ40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
Cayley-Dickson algebra see: normed -;
pseudo-normed -
Cayley graph
[20F32, 57M07; 20F32, 57M07)
(see: Word metric)
Cayley-Hamihon theorem see: muhilinear
form olthe-
Cayley-Menger determinant
[5 I M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX)
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etryofthe)
Cayley numbers see: algebra of -
Cayley octonions see: algebra of -
CD grammar system
[6SQIO, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; 6SQIO,
6SQ45, 6SQ50)
(see: Grammar system)
Cech c/o.,ure operator
[54A05; 54A05)
(see: Closure space)
tech closure space

[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
cell see: Kazhdan-Lusztig -; VoronoT -
cellular co-fibration
[55Pxx; 55Pxx]
(see: Adams-Hilton model)
central element of a partially ordered set
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
central limit theorem for U-statistics
[60Exx, 62Bxx, 62Exx, 62Gxx,
62Hxx; 60Exx, 62Bxx, 62Exx, 62Gxx,
62Hxx]
(see: Hoeffding decomposition)
central path of an optimization prohlem
[9OC05, 90C20, 90C25; 90C05,
90C20,90C2S]
(see: Interior-point metbods in math-
ematical programming)
central perspectivity
[06COS; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
central solution
[30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A571
(see: Nehari extension problem)
central solution of the Caratheodory-
Toeplitz extension problem
[30E05, 47 A57, 93EII; 30E05,
47A57,93Ell]
(see: Caratheodory-Toeplitz exten-
sion problem)
centralizer algebra see: double-
centre for Bn see: non-uniqueness of an
asymptotic -
Centre manifold
(5SFxx, 5SF14; 5SFxx, 5SF14)
(referred to in: Codimension-two bi-
furcations; Hopf bifurcation; Hopf
bifurcation; Saddle-node bifurca-
tion)
(refers to: autonomous system; Bifur-
cation; equilibrium position; Equiv-
alence of dynamical systems; flow
(continuous-time dynamical system);
Jacobi matrix)
centre manifold
[5SFxx, 5SF14; 5SFxx, 58FI41
(see: Centre manifold)
centre manifold theorem
[5SFxx, 5SF14; 5SFxx, 58FI41
(see: Centre manifold)
centre manifold theorem
[5SFI4; 5SF14]
(see: Hopf bifurcation)
centre of a blow-up of affine space
[14B05, 14E15; 14B05, 14EISI
(see: Blow-up algebra)
centre of a compact set
[5IM04; 51M04]
(see: Centroid)
centre of a partially ordered set
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
centre of gravity
[5IM04; 51 M04]
(see: Centroid)
centre of mass
[5IM04; 51M04]
(see: Centroid)
centre-point theorem
[05AIS, 51M25, 55M20; 05AIS,
5IM25,55M20]
(see: Ham-sandwich theorem)
centre-transversal theorem
[05AIS, 51M25, 55M20; OSAIS,
5IM25,55M20]
(see: Ham-sandwich theorem)
Centroid
(5IM04; 51M04)
(referred to in: Blaschke-Santal6 in-
equality; Tetrahedron, elementary
geometry of the)
(refers to: affine geometry; Cheby-
shev centre; Lebesgue measure; Me-
dian (of a triangle); Plane trigonom-
etry)
Centroid of a set of points in Euclidean
space
[5IM04; 51M04]
(see: Centroid)
centroid qf a tetrahedron
[5IM20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
certainty equivalence principle
[93C40, 93021; 93C40, 93D21]
(see: Adaptive stabilization)
Cervonenkis class see: Vapnik--
Cesari integrability see: Burkill--
Cesari integrable function see: Burkill--
Cesari integral see: Burkill--
Cesari quasi-additive function
[26A4S, 26B 15, 28A75, 28B05,
49Q25; 26A45, 26B 15, 2SA 75, 28B05,
49Q25]
(see: Burkill-Cesari integral)
Cesari weak integration see: Burkill--
Cesaro summability see: absolute-
CF family of languages
168Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Trio)
CH
(03E50; 03E50)
(refers to: continuum hypothesis)
chain
[51 B05; 51 B05]
(see: Chain geometry; Chain space)
chain see: affine -; complete -; k- -;
Pfaffian -; XYZ Heisenberg spin -
chain condition see: Jordan-Dedekind-
Chain geometry
(51 B05; 51 B05)
(referred to in: Benz plane; Chain
space; Chain space)
(refers to: affine space; algebra; Alge-
braic algebra; Benz plane; Chain
space; chain space; cross ratio;
equivalence; Extension of a field;
Exterior algebra; field; Geometry;
Grassmann manifold; Incidence
system; incidence system; Mobius
plane; Projective scheme; projective
space; projective straight line; qua-
dric; Rational curve; ring; Veronese
mapping)
chain geometry
[5IB05; 51B05J
(see: Chain geometry)
chain geometry see: affine -; proper -
chain in a closed set
[05B35, 06Bxx; 05B35, 06Bxx]
(see: Jordan-Dedekind space)
chain in a partiallv ordered set
[06A07; 06A07]
(see: Greene-Kleitman theorem)
chain of groups see: continuous-
Chain space
(51 B05; 51 B05)
(referred to in: Benz plane; Chain ge-
ometry; Chain geometry)
(refers to: affine space; Benz plane;
Chain geometry; chain geometry:
equivalence; incidence system; Jor-
dan algebra; quadric; stereographic
projection; Veronese mapping)
chain space
151B05; 51B051
(see: Chain space)
chain space see: affine -; distance in a -;
distant pOints in a -; line in a - ; quadric
model of a -; weak -
chains see: k-norm of a partition of a par-
tially ordered set into -
Chang theorem see: Carleson--
change of coordinates see: Lyapunov-
change problem see: coin--
change property see: sign-
chaos
162MIO; 62MIO]
(see: Canadian lynx series)
chaos see: distributional -; fractal torus
route to -; frequency locking route to -;
homoclinic - ; intermittency route to -;
period-doubling route to -; propagation
of -; quantum -; quasi-periodicity route
to -; ShWnikov homoclinic -
chaos theory
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
chaotic attractor
[S8FI4; 58F14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
chaotic function see: distributionally-
Chaplygin top see: Goryachev--
character see: dominant -; idempotent
-; irreducible - ; linear - ; semi-
virtual-
character belonging to a block
1160xx, 16L30, 2OC20, 20020;
16Dxx, 16L30, 20C20, 20020]
(see: Block)
character for a prime number see: defect of
an irreducible -
character mapping see: motivic Chern -
character of a group
[15A48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
XX, 44AI5, 68QIO, SI-XX, 90C39,
93C30; 15A48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx,
44-XX, 44A15, 68QIO, 81-XX,
90C39,93C30]
(see: Idempotent analysis)
character sum
[05E30, II S20, II S31, 94B35; 05E30,
IIS20, IIS31, 94B35]
(see: Galois ring)
characteristic see: equivalent weights of
a group algebra of positive -; Euler -;
quadratic -; residue -; weight of a
group algebra in positive -
characteristic curve see: operating-
characteristic functional
[60Hxx; 60Hxx]
(see: Wiener space, abstract)
characteristic polynomial
[340xx, 93009; 340xx, 93009]
(see: Kharitonov polynomial theory)
characteristic polynomial of an arrange-
ment of hyperplanes
[05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65;
05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65]
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
characteristic vector field
153C15, 53C57, 58F05; 53C15,
53C57, 58F05]
(see: K -contact flow)
characteristics see: triplet of predictable -
characterization see: Chomsky-
Schutzenberger -; Ehrenfeucht-Fra!ss,;
-; maximum entropy -
characterization of characters see: Brauer-
characterization of completely positive-
definite bounded functions on an Abelian
semi-group see: Ressel-
characterization of eigenvalues see:
Rayleigh-Ritz variational -
characterization of elementary equivalence
see: FraTsse-
characterization of geometricaL mappings
under mild hypotheses
[SIMOS, 5IMIO; 51M05, 5IMIO]
(see: Beckman-Quarles-type theo-
rems)
characterization of integral operators see:
continuity -
characterization of real-closed fields see:
Artin-Schreier -
characterization theorem/or slowly vary-
ing functions
[26AI2; 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
characters see: Brauer characterization of
-; generalized -
Charlier expansion see: Gram--
chart see: logical-
Chazelle triangulation algorithm see:
linear-time -
Chebyshev acceleration
[65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
Chebyshev norm
CHIRAL DISSYMMETRY
[90C29; 90C29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
Chebyshev polynomial
[4IAI7; 41A17]
(see: Markov-Bernstein-type in-
equalities)
Chebyshev series
(42CIO; 42CIO)
(refers to: Chebyshev polynomials)
Chebyshev series see: Fourier--
check matrix see: parity--
check matrix for a code see: parity-
checking see: appearance-
Cheeger-Gromoll splitting theorem
[53C20, 53C42; 53C20, 53C42]
(see: De Sitter space)
chemical reaction see: reaction rate of a
-; steady state of a -
chemical reaction equation
192C45; 92C45J
(see: Michaelis-Menten equation)
chemical reaction parameter
[92C45; 92C45]
(see: Michaelis-Menten equation)
Chen-Fox-Lyndon basis
[05Axx, 17BO I, 20M05; 05Axx,
17BOI,20M05]
(see: Lyndon word)
Chen-Fox-Lyndon theorem
[05Axx, 17BO I, 20M05; 05Axx,
17BOI,20M05]
(see: Lyndon word)
Chen theorem
[IINl3, IIN36; IINI3, IIN36]
(see: Bombieri prime number theo-
rem)
Cherlin-Zi/'ber conjecture
[03C60; 03C60]
(see: Group of finite Morley rank)
Chern character mapping see: motivic-
Chern-Moser-Tanaka invariant
[53A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C251
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
Chernoff coefficient
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exx]
(see: KuUback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
Chernoff distance
[62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62Pxx]
(see: Bhattacbaryya distance)
Chervonenkis class see: Vapnik--
Chervonenkis index see: Vapnik--
Chervonenkis major class see: Vapnik--
Chervonenkis property see: Vapnik--
Chervonenkis subgraph class see: Vapnik-
Chevalley-Warning theorem
[05C55, 05010, II T22, IIT23, IIT24,
IIT71, 14G15, 20KOI, 94B27; 05C55,
05010, IlT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT71,
14G15, 20KOI, 94B27]
(see: Bombieri-Weil bound; Erdos-
Ginzburg-Ziv theorem)
CHEVIE
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Chinese rings puzzle
[05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60;
05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60]
(see: Gray code)
Chiral anomaly
(8IRxx,8ITxx;8IRxx,8ITxx)
(referred to in: Anomalies (in quanti-
zation))
(refers to: Anti-commutative algebra;
geometry; Lie algebra; quantum
field theory)
(hiral asymmetry
[8IRxx, 8lTxx; SIRxx, 8lTxx]
(see: Chiral anomaly)
chiral Dirac operator
[81 Q30, 81 R25, 81 T70; 81 Q30,
8IR25,8IT70]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization))
(hiral dissymmetry
511
CHIRAL DISSYMMETRY
[81 Rxx, 8lTxx; 81Rxx, 81Txx)
(see: Chiral anomaly)
chirality
[81Q30, 81R25, 81T70; 81Q30,
81R25,81T70)
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
choice of a voting procedure see: Laplace
question on the optimal -
Cholesky factorization
[65FIO; 65FIO)
(see: Acceleration methods)
Chomsky grammar
[03005, 68Q50, 68S05; O3D05,
68Q50, 68S05)
(see: Contextual grammar)
Chomsky hierarchy
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05)
(see: AFL operations; Trio)
Chomsky-Schiitzenberger characteriza-
tion
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05)
(see: Trio)
Choquet boundary
(46J20; 46J20)
(refers to: Analytic function; Ba-
nach algebra; Borel set; Boundary
(in the theory of uniform algebras);
Commutative Banach algebra; Com-
pact space; Gel'fand representation;
HausdortT space; isometric mapping;
maximal ideal; maximum-modulus
principle; Metrizable space; Uni-
form algebra; Uniform space)
Choquet boundary
[46]20; 46J20)
(see: Choquet boundary)
Choquet capacity
[28Cxx, 60005; 28Cxx, 60D05)
(see: Choquet-Kendall-Matheron
theorem)
Choquet capacity of infinite order see: al-
ternating -
Choquet-Kendall-Matheron theorem
(28Cxx, 60005; 28Cxx, 60005)
(refers to: hit-or-miss topology; prob-
ability measure; Semi-continuous
function)
chordal graph
[l5-XX, 30E05, 47A57; 15-XX,
30E05, 47 A57)
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion of)
chordal pattern
[15-XX, 30E05, 47A57; 15-XX,
30E05, 47 A57)
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion of)
chordal pattern see: non--
Chorin random vortex method
[60HIO, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05;
60HIO, 6OK35, 65C05, 65U05)
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial differential equations)
Chow group
(14Fxx; 14Fxx)
(refers to: Chow ring)
Chow motive
[11040, 14CI7, 140xx, 19Dxx,
19Exx, 19F27; 11040, 14CI7, 140xx,
19Dxx, 19Exx, 19F27)
(see: Beninson conjectures)
chromo.~ome
[68T05, 90840; 68T05, 90840)
(see: Genetic algorithm)
Church-Rosser property
[13PIO,68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40)
(see: Grlibner basis)
Chvaital theorem
(51M20; 51M20)
(referred to in: Art gallery theorems)
(refers to: Art gallery theorems)
Chwltal watchman theorem
[51M20; 51M20)
(see: Chvaital theorem)
circle see: attaching-
circle in a Benz plane
[51805; 51805)
512
(see: Benz plane)
circle plane
151805; 51805)
(see: Benz plane)
circuit see: Euler -; Hamiltonian -; mean
weight of a -; switching -
circumcentre of a tetrahedron
[51M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX)
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry ofthe)
circum.phere of a tetrahedron
[5 1M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX)
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry ofthe)
Citroen
165Dl7, 68U07; 65Dl7, 68U071
(see: Bezier curve)
CL
103840; 03840)
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
clamp see: current-
dass-I graph
105C05, 05C45, 05C85, 05C99;
05C05, 05C45, 05C85, 05C99)
(see: Halin graph)
class see: 3-terminal recursive -; Berman
-; de Haan function -; H6rmander
-; imaginary -; local formula for the
Pontryagin -; I-'-resolution -; Mal'tsev
projective -; 1(U- - ; 1(- - ; real -;
U1(- - ; u- -; Schwartz -; Vapnik-
Chervonenkis -; Vapnik-Chervonenkis
major -; Vapnik-Chervonenkis sub-
graph -; Vapnik-Cervonenkis -; VC
-; VC major -; VC subgraph
VCM-
class field see: residue-
class function on a graph
[20CI5; 2OC15]
(see: Brauer characterization of
characters)
cla"s in alternative set theory
[03Exx, 03E70; O3Exx, O3E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
class in aHernative set theory see: count-
able -
class Moser-Trudinger inequality see:
exponential- -
class number formula see: Dedekind-
class of algebras see: elementary -; equa-
tional -; wide-sense elementary -
class of geodesic rays see: asymptotic-
class operators see: ideal of trace- -
clas" FN
[03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70)
(see: Alternative set theory)
classical acceleration method
[65FIO; 65FIO)
(see: Acceleration methods)
classical affine Benz plane
[51805; 51805)
(see: Benz plane)
das"jeal Benz plane
[51805; 51805]
(see: Benz plane)
classical Bernstein problem
[53C42, 57R40, 57R42; 53C42,
57R40, 57R42)
(see: Bernstein problem in differen-
tial geometry)
classical Karnaugh map
[038xx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 038xx,
06Exx, 94C 10]
(see: Karnaugh map)
classical Lp-space
[45P05, 46E30, 47855; 45P05, 46E30,
47855]
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
classical mechanics see: MIC-Kepler prob-
lemin -
classical risk model
[600xx, 60035; 6ooxx, 60035]
(see: Risk theory)
classical unital
[05805, 20040, 5IE20; 05805,
20040,51E20)
(see: Unital)
classical Wiener splice
[60Hxx; 60Hxx)
(see: Wiener space, abstract)
dassical Yang-BlIxter equation
[16W30, 17837, 22E60, 53CI5,
58HI5, 81R50; 16W30, 17837,
22E60, 53CI5, 58HI5, 81R501
(see: Poisson Lie group)
classical Yang-Baxter equation see: solu-
tion olthe-
classification of closed simply-connected
topological 4-manifolds
157NI3, 57RIO; 57NI3, 57R101
(see: Casson handle)
classification program see: Elliott-
classification theorem see: Fatou-
Sullivan -
cla,,,,ijiclltion theorem for AF-algebras
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46L80]
(see: AF -algebra)
classifying space of the infinite general
linear group
[19D06; 19D061
(see: Plus-construction)
clause
[68N17; 68NI71
(see: Logic programming)
clause see: Horn-
Clausius-Duhem inequality
(73830, 80A05, 80A97; 73B30,
80A05.80A97)
(refers to: entropy; Lagrange multi-
pliers)
Clausius-Duhem inequlllity
[73830, 80A05, 80A97; 73830,
80A05, 80A97)
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
Clebsch-Gordan coefficients
[22C05, 22DIO, 22E70, 81R05;
22C05, 22DIO, 22E70, 81R05]
(see: Wigner-Eckart theorem)
Clebsch-Gordan coefficients see: general-
ized Wigner- -; Wigner- -
Clifford analysis
(15A66, 30030, 30035; 15A66.
30030, 30035)
(refers to: bilinear form; Cauchy in-
tegral theorem; Cauchy-Riemann
equations; Clifford algebra; confor-
mal mapping; double-layer poten-
tial; Functions of a complex variable,
theory of; fundamental solution;
Hardy spaces; harmonic analysis;
Hilbert transform; Hypercomplex
functions; Laplace operator; Lip-
schitz condition; Quaternion; Weier-
strass theorem)
Clifford theorem
120C05, 2OCIO; 20C05, 20CIOI
(see: Clifford theory)
Clifford theory
(2OC05, 20C 10; 20C05, 20CIO)
(referred to in: Alperin conjecture)
(refers to: Characteristic of a field;
commutative ring; field; finite group;
group algebra; Hall subgroup; lo-
cal ring; normal subgroup; p-group;
Principal ideal ring)
Clifford theory (for group representa-
tions)
120C05, 2OCIO; 20C05, 20CIOI
(see: Clifford theory)
Clifford wavelet see: Haar--
Clifford wavelets
(42C 10; 42C 10)
(refers to: Clifford algebra; Lebesgue
measure; Wavelet analysis)
climbing algorithm see: hilI--
clique
106A06; 06A06]
(see: Fixed-point property)
clique graph
[06A06; 06A06]
(see: Fixed-point property)
dopen set
154D35; 54D351
(see: Banaschewski compactifica-
tion)
closed ,<ee: Existentially-
do,,.d F-term
168N17; 68Nl71
(see: Logic programming)
closed field see: cut in a real -; Real -;
p-adically -
closed fields see: Artin-Schreier charac-
terization of real- -; completeness of the
elementary theory of real -; complete-
ness of the theory of algebraically - ; de-
cidability of the theory of real -; model
completeness of the theory of real -
doudfunction-symbol term
168N17; 68NI71
(see: Logic programming)
closed graph theorem
[46Axx, 46A03. 46A13; 46Axx,
46A03,46A13]
(see: Frechet topology)
closed group see: algebraically-
cloud ideal
[03025, 04A03, 06Dxx, 06Exx;
03025, 04A03, 06Dxx, 06Exxj
(see: BCI-algebra)
closed logical term
103845, 03005. 03015, 06EI5,
06E25; 03845, 03005, 03015, 06E 15,
06E251
(see: Sahlqvist identities)
closed p-valued field see: p-adically-
closed set see: chain in a -; random -
closed simply-connected topological 4-
manifolds see: classification of -
cloud subset of a free magma
117801, 20M05; 17801, 20M051
(see: Lazard set)
closed trio see: substitution--
dO!~ed under concatenation
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
dosed under inter,<ection with regular
languages
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05)
(see: AFL operations)
closed under inverse morphisms
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
closed under Kleene +
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S051
(see: AFL operations)
cloud under morphisms
(68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05)
(,<ee: AFL operations)
cloud under sequential tran.,dueers
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
dosed under union
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
closed valued fields ,<ee: elementary theory
of algebraically -
closed variety see: locally-
closing
[60D05, 68U 10; 60D05, 68U 10]
(see: Mathematical morphology)
dosing lemma
[28Dxx, 58F15; 28Dxx, 58FI51
(see: Pesin theory)
closing operation in mathematical mor-
phology
[548xx, 68UIO; 548xx, 68U 10]
(see: Hit-or-miss topology)
closure see: Korovkin-
closure axioms see: Kuratowski-
closure of a language family
168Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Abstract family of languages)
closure of an ordered field see: real-
closure operation
[54A05; 54A051
(see: Closure space)
closure operation ,<ee: Kuratowski-
closure operator

[03Gxx, 03G 15, 06Exx, 06E 15;
03Gxx,03GI5,06Exx,06EI5]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
closure operator see: Kuratowski -;
Cech -
closure problem for finite sets see: rela-
tion -
Closure space
(54A05; 54A05)
(referred CO in: Jordan-Dedekind
space; Probabilistic metric space)
(refers co: topological space)
closure space
[54A05; 54A05]
(see: Closure space)
closure space see: Cech-
cluster analysis
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
clustering see: percentile-
co-algebra see: group-like element of a
-; Primitive element in a -; primitive
element of a -
co-complete category
[08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, ISFxx;
08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, ISC05, ISFxx]
(see: Jacobson category; Zariski cat-
egory)
co-disjointed pair (~f morphisms
[14Axx, 18Fxx; 14Axx, 18Fxx]
(see: Zariski category)
co-disjointing morphism
[14Axx, 18Fxx; 14Axx, ISFxx]
(see: Zariski category)
eo-disjunetable object
[14Axx, 18Fxx; 14Axx, ISFxx]
(see: Zariski category)
cO-disjunctable object see: direclly
flatly -
co-disjunetable pair of morphisms
[14Axx, 18Fxx; 14Axx, 18Fxx]
(see: Zariski category)
co-di.\junctor
[14Axx, 18Fxx; 14Axx, 18Fxx]
(see: Zariski category)
co-disjunctor
[08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, ISFxx;
08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx]
(see: Jacobson category)
co-equalizer
[08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx;
08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx]
(see: Jacobson category)
co-fibration see: cellular-
co-induction
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 6SQ55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
co-symplectic manifold
[53A45, 53B35, 53C 15. 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C25]
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
co-symplectic manifold see: almost-
co-universal product
[08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, ISC05, 18Fxx;
08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, ISFxx]
(see: Jacobson category; Zariski cat-
egory)
Coarse graining
(28010, 54H20, 58Fxx, 80A05;
280 I 0, 54H20, 58Fxx, 80A05)
(refers to: Boltzmann equation; dy-
namical system; Euler equation;
Markov process; measurable space;
Navier-Stokes equations; Semi-
group of operators)
cobordism ring see: complex -; ori-
ented -
coboundary mapping see: Hochschild-
cochain see: cyclic-
cocharacter
[20G25; 20G25]
(see: Bruhat-Tits building)
cocktail party graph
[05B30; 05B30]
(see: Howell design)
CoCoA
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
code
]5IExx; 5lExx]
(see: Galois geometry)
code see: Algebraic-geometric -; alge-
braic geometry -; Artin-Schreier -; av-
erage length of a -; BCH -; binary -;
binary Golay -; binary reflected Gray -;
BRG -; combinatorial Gray -; cyclic
-; cyclic Gray -; Delsarte-Goethals -;
distance in a - ; dual of a - ; extension of
a -; generating matrix of a -; generator
matrix for a -; generator matrix of a -;
Goethals -; Golay -; Gray -; Ham-
ming -; Huffman -; [n,k] linear -;
linear -; monotone Gray -; Nordstrom-
Robinson -; parity check matrix for a -;
perfect -; perfect e-error-correcting -;
redundancy of a -; Reed-Muller -; re-
flected binary -; ternary Golay -; type
of a -; uniform Gray -; uniquely deci-
pherable D-ary -; weight distribution of
a-
code of order n see: Gray-
code problem see: combinatorial Gray -
code word
]94B25; 94B25]
(see: MacWilliams identities)
codes see: different Huffman -; dual -;
Kerdock and Preparata -
Codimension-two hifurcations
(58FI4; 5SF14)
(refers to: autonomous system; Bi-
furcation; centre manifold; Chaos;
Equivalence of dynamical systems;
homoclinic bifurcations; limit cycle)
('odimension-two hifurcations (~f equilih-
ria
]S8FI4; 5SFI4)
(see: Codimension-two hifurcations)
coding theory
]OSE30, 5lExx, 94B 15, 94B35; 05E30,
51 Exx, 94B 15, 94B35]
(see: Galois geometry; Kerdock and
Preparata codes)
coefficient see: absolute regularity -; (3-
mixing -; Bhattacharyya -; Chernoff
-; diffusion -; dissimilarity -; Gram-
Schmidt -; Hellinger-Bhattacharyya -;
Kakutani -; leading -; Lyapunov -;
Matusita -; periodic autocorrelation -;
periodic correlation -; Racah -; reflec-
tion -; restricted multinomial -; triangle
-; weak Bernoulli ~; Wigner -
co(fjident assignable pair (~fmatrices
]93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55,
93C05,93015)
(see: Pole assignment problem)
coefficient auto-regreSSive model see: ran-
dom -
coefficient of linear growth see: Malthu-
sian -
coefficient system see: example of a -
coefficients see: 3n-j -; Berwald
-; Clebsch-Gordan -; generalized
WCG -; generalized Wigner-Clebsch-
Gordan -; generating function of the
WCG -; Racah, Wigner. 3-j, 6-j,
and 9 - j -; WCG -; Wigner-Clebsch-
Gordan -
coefficients of a non-linear connection
[53C60: 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
coe..fjicients 0/ a pre-Finsler connection
[53C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
coercive Bregman function see: boundary-
-; zone--
coercive functional see: strongly
weakly -
coerciveness see: strong -; weak -
coercivity see: strong-
coercivity inequality
[46E35, 46U9, 47003, 58G03;
46E35, 46L89, 47003, 5SG03]
(see: Hypercontractive semi-group)
coheir (in logic)
]03C45; 03C45]
(see: Forking)
coherent experiment
[28A99, 62B 15, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62B15, 62B20, 62C05]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
cohomology see: absolute -; absolute
Hodge -; Bredon -; BRST -; Cyclic
-; Deligne -; Deligne-BeTiinson -; El-
liptic -; excision for cyclic -; H -unitality
for cyclic -; Hochschild -; motivic -;
periodic cyclic -; Poisson -; stability for
cyclic -
cohomology theory see: equivariant -;
local-
cohomology with K -theory see: pairing of
cyclic -
Coifman-Weiss space of homogeneous
type
[42B30; 42B30]
(see: Hardy spaces)
coin-change problem
[IlH06; IlH06]
(see: Frobenius problem)
Coleman-Noll thermodynamics
[73B30, 80A05, 80A97; 73B30,
80A05, SOA97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
collapse
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
collapse see: elementary-
Collapsibility
(20FD5, 57M2D, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05)
(referred to in: Baker-Beynon dual-
ity)
(refers to: Cell complex; homotopy;
Metric space; piecewise-linear topol-
ogy; Poincare conjecture; Polyhe-
dron, abstract; Retract of a topolog-
ical space; Simple homotopy type;
Simplicial complex; Simplicial set;
triangUlation; Whitehead torsion)
collapsibility see: topological-
Collapsibility of a triangulation
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20FD5,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
collapsible complex
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
Col/atz conjecture
[IlBxx; IIBxx]
(see: Syracuse problem)
Collatz mapping
[IlBxx; IIBxx]
(see: Syracuse problem)
Collatz problem
[IlBxx; IIBxx]
(see: Syracuse problem)
Collatz problem see: Hasse--
collecting semantics see: uncomputable-
collection of sets see: shattering-
collinear lattice elements
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
collineation group
[5IExx, 51N15; 5lExx, 51N15]
(see: Flock)
collision operator see: Fokker-Planck-
Landau -
collision process see: Fokker-Planck-
colouring see: greedy -; t- -
colouring) see: compatible pair (orienta-
tion, -
combinatorial design
[05B05, 05B 15; 05B05, 05B15]
(see: Design with mutually orthogo-
nal resolutions)
combinatorial design see: doubly resolv-
able -; /L-resolvable -; resolvable -
combinatorial designs see: orthogonal-
combinatorial Gray code
COMPACTNESS THEOREM
]05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60;
05C45,68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60]
(see: Gray code)
combinatorial Gray code problem
[05Cxx; 05Cxx]
(see: Acyclic orientation)
combinatorial group theory
[20FD5, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
combinatorial reciprocity
105Cxx; 05Cxx]
(see: Acyclic orientation)
combinatory logic see: conversion rule in
illative -; Illative -; logical constant in
illative -; pure -; term in illative -
communicating grammar system see: par-
allel-
communicating grammars
[68Q 10, 68Q45, 68QSO; 68Q I0,
68Q45,68Q50]
(see: Grammar system)
communication see: WAVE paradigm of -
Commutant lifting theorem
(30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A57)
(referred to in: Nehari extension prob-
lem)
(refers to: Caratheodory interpola-
tion; contraction; H= control the-
ory; Hilbert space; Isometric opera-
tor; Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation)
commutant lifting theorem see: Sz.-Nagy-
Foias -
commutant of a set of operators see: sec-
ond -
commutative BCK-algehra
]03G25, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx;
03G25, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx]
(see: BCK-algebra)
commutative geometry see: non--
commutative Hopf algebra with conjuga-
tion
116W30, 55N20, 55N22; 16W30,
S5N2D,5SN22]
(see: Hopf ring)
commutative idempotent semi-ring
116Y60; 16Y60]
(see: Idempotent semi-ring)
commutative Radon-Nikodym theorem see:
non- -
commutator Hall set see: basic-
commuting with representation operators
see: Schur lemma on operators -
compact cr -Stonean space
[46B20, 47B07; 46B20, 47B07]
(see: Grothendieck space)
compact see: Hypergroups. harmonic anal-
ysis on locally -
compact F -space
146B20, 47B07; 46B20, 47B07]
(see: Grothendieck space)
compact hypergroup see: locally-
compact operator see: weakly-
compact set see: centre of a -
compact space see: harmonic function on
a subset of a locally convex, locally -
compact Stonean space
[46B20, 47B07; 46B20, 47B07]
(see: Grothendieck space)
compactification see: Banaschewski -;
end -; hyperbolic -; toroidal -; visibil-
ity -
compactly generated Banach space see:
weakly -
compactness/or a Calderiin-TfJfplitz op-
erator
[42Cxx, 47B35, 47B38; 42Cxx,
47B35,47B381
(see: Calderon-Toeplitz operator)
compactness of an operator
[45005, 47Bxx; 4500S, 47Bxx]
(see: Abstract Volterra equation)
compactness theorem
[03C05, 03CD7, D3C20; mcos,
03CD7,03C20]
(see: Keisler-Shelah isomorphism
theorem)
513
COMPACTUM
compactum see: Banach-Mazur -; Min-
kowski -; radius of the Banach-Mazur
-;Stone -
company see: insurance-
comparability graph
[05Cxx; 05Cxx]
(see: Acyclic orientation)
comparative retraction
[06A06; 06A06]
(see: Fixed-point property)
comparison experiment see: paired-
comparison model see: Paired-
comparison theorem see: Sturm
Sturm-Picone -
compatibility problem for copulas
[60Exx, 60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20; 60Exx,
60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20]
(see: Copula)
compatible binary relation
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
compatible pair (orientation, colouring)
[05Cxx; 05Cxx]
(see: Acyclic orientation)
complement decomposition see: Schur-
complete see: existentially -; syntacti-
cally -
complete balanced Howell rotation
[05BI5; 05B15]
(see: Room square)
complete Banach laHice see: order--
complete Bell polynomial
[05A19, IIBS3; 05AI9, IIBS3]
(see: Bell polynomial)
complete binary tree
[05A15, 05C05, 20M05; 05AI5,
05C05,20M05]
(see: Binary tree)
complete bracketing of a word
[05A15, 05C05, 20M05; 05AI5,
05C05,20M05]
(see: Binary tree)
complete category see: co--
complete chain
[06F15, 20F60; 06FI5, 20F60]
(see: Convex subgroup of a partially
ordered group)
complete continuity
[46Bxx, 47B07; 46Bxx, 47B07]
(see: Dunford-Pettis property)
complete continuity of an operator
[45005, 47Bxx; 45005, 47Bxx]
(see: Abstract Volterra equation)
complete elementary theory
[03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95;
03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95]
(see: Transfer principle)
complete factorization
[17BOI,20M05; 17BOI, 20M05]
(see: Hall word)
complete factorization of afree monoid
[17BOI,20M05; 17BOI, 20M05]
(see: Lazard set)
complete graph
[05-XX; 05-XX]
(see: Ramsey number)
complete graph
[05C55, 05C70, 05010, 20KO I;
05C55, 05C70, 05010, 20KOl]
(see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem;
One-factorization)
complete idempotent semi-ring see:
boundedly -
complete integral see: Riemann--
complete locally bounded algebra
[46Hxx; 46Hxx]
(see: Frechet algebra)
complete logical formula see: substruc-
ture -
complete maximlll space-like hypersur-
faces in an
[53C20, 53C42; 53C20, 53C42]
(see: Anti-de Sitter space)
complete Riesz space see: Dedekind--
complete space-like submanifolds in a
[53C20, 53C42; 53C20, 53C42]
(see: De Sitter space)
514
complete theory
[03C60, 12JJ 0, 12L 12; 03C60, 12JJ 0,
12L12]
(see: Model theory of valued fields;
p-adically closed field)
complete theory see: model--
complete type
[03C45; O3C45]
(see: Forking)
completely additive measure
[15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
XX, 44AI5, 6SQIO, SI-XX, 90C39,
93C30; 15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx,
44-XX, 44AIS, 6SQIO, SI-XX,
9OC39,93C30]
(see: Idempotent analysis)
completely bracketed word
[I7BOI, 20M05; 17BOI, 20M05]
(see: Hall set; Hall word; Lazard set)
completely bracketed words
[17BOI; I7BOI]
(see: Hall polynomial)
completely controllable pair (if matrices
[93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55,
93C05, 930 IS]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
completely degenerate kernel
[60Fxx, 62Exx; 60Fxx, 62Exx]
(see: U-statistic)
completely dissipative transformation
[28015, 5SF17; 2S015, 58F17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
completely integrable dynamical system
[58F07; 58F07]
(see: Goryachev-Chaplygin top)
completely integrable Hamiltonian system
see: algebraically-
completely integrable system see: alge-
braic -
completely join-irreducible lattice ele-
ment
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
completely monotone sequence
[4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
41Axx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40]
(see: Baskakov operators)
completely optimal solution
[9OC29; 90C29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
completely positive-definite bounded func-
tions on an Abelian semi-group see:
Ressel characterization of -
completely positive-definite function
[60G09; 60G09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
completely reachable pair of matrices
[93B55, 93COS, 930 IS; 93BS5,
93C05, 93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
completely regular growth of entire functions
see: Levin-pfluger theory of -
completeness see: #P- -; model -;
NP- -; strong -; substructure -;
term -
completeness of an elementary theory
[12J20, 14H05; 12120, 14H051
(see: Valued function field)
completeness of an elementary theory see:
model-
completeness of the elementary theory of
real closed fields
[03C3S, 03C60, 03C7S, O3C95;
03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C9S]
(see: Transfer principle)
completeness of the theory of alge-
braically closed fields
[03C3S, 03C60, 03C75, O3C95;
03C35, 03C60, 03C7S, 03C9S1
(see: Transfer principle)
completeness of the theory of real closed
fields see: model-
completeness theorem
[6SNI7; 6SNI7]
(see: Logic programming)
completeness theorem see: computa-
tional-
completion see: Dedekind-
completion of see: Partially specified ma-
trices, -
completion of a partially specified matrix
[IS-XX, 30EOS, 47AS7; IS-XX,
30EOS, 47 AS7]
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion 01)
completion of a Riesz space see: Dedekind- computations see: A priori and a posteriori
completion problem see: contractive -;
minimal inertia -
completion theorem see: Group-
completion theorem in algebraic topology
see: Group-
complex see: collapsible -; Eilenberg-
MacLane G- -; G- -; logarithmic de
Rham --
('omplex algebra (~ra relation structure
[03Gxx, 03G IS, 06Exx, 06E IS;
03Gxx, 03GIS, 06Exx, 06EISI
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
complex alr.:ebra (?f a relational structure
[03Gxx, 03G IS, 06Exx, 06E IS;
03Gxx, 03GJS, 06Exx, 06EISI
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
complex analysis
[47A63; 47A631
(see: Heinz inequality)
complex bounded finitely-additive set func-
tions see: Banach space of -
complex cobordism ring
[S5N22, S5N3S; 5SN22, 55N351
(see: Elliptic genera)
complex discs see: domain without large -
complex distribution see: almost--
complex Hessian
[32C16, S3CIS; 32CI6, S3CISI
(see: CR-manifold)
mmplex Hop.fmllnifold
[53C2S, S3CSS; S3C2S, S3CS51
(see: Hopf manifold)
complex manifold see: Kobayashi-
hyperbolic -
complex numbers see: algebra of -; alge-
bra of hyperbolic -
complex polynomial
112010, 30CIS; 12010, 30CI51
(see: Gauss-Lucas theorem)
complex Riemann/unction
[3SCIS; 3SCIS]
(see: Bergman integral operator)
complex submanifold
[S3C IS, S3C40, S3CS6; S3C IS,
S3C40, S3CS6]
(see: CR-submanifold)
complex variables see: differential equa-
tion, integrable in the sense of -; func-
tional calculus of several -; integrability
in the sense of -
complex variety of algebras
[03Gxx, O3GIS, 06Exx, 06EIS;
O3Gxx, 03G IS, 06Exx, 06E 15 J
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
complexity see: polynomial worst-case -
compliance sampling plans see: Lot-
sensitive -
component see: ergodic -; Fatou -
component of a yoke see: tensorial-
composite number
[20KOI; 20KOl]
(see: Erdiis-Heilbronn problem)
composition
[03Gxx, 03G IS, 06Exx, 06E IS;
03Gxx, 03G IS, 06Exx, 06EIS]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
comprehension schema
103BS3; O3B53]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
computation see: Reliable-
computational accuracy
[6SFxx; 6SFxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
computational completeness theorem
[68NI7; 68Nl7J
(see: Logic programming)
Computational geometry
(S2BSS, 68Q20, 68Q25, 68U05;
S2B55, 68Q20, 68Q2S, 68U05)
(referred to in: Delaunay triangula-
tion; Voronoi diagram)
(refers to: Addition of sets; arrange-
ment of hyperplanes; Delaunay tri-
angulation; graph; paraboloid; poly-
gon; polyhedron; VoronoI diagram)
bounds in matrix -
computed answer substitution
[6SNI7; 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
computer aided design
[6S017, 68U07; 65017, 68U071
(see: Bezier curve)
computer aided geometric design
[4IAIS, 41ASO, 6S005, 6S007,
6S0 10, 6S0 IS, 6SDl7, 6SUOS,
68U07, 68UIO; 41AIS, 41ASO,
6500S, 65007, 65010, 6S0 IS,
6S017, 68UOS, 68U07, 68UIO]
(see: Bezier spline)
computer-aided geometric design
[4IAIS, 41A50, 41A63, 6S005,
65007, 6S010, 6S015, 6S017,
68UOS, 68U07, 68UIO; 41AIS,
41ASO, 41A63, 6S005, 6S007,
6S0lO, 6S015, 6S017, 68UOS,
68U07,68UIO]
(see: Bezier surface)
Computer algebra package
(6SQ40; 68Q40)
(refers to: Buchberger algorithm;
Lisp)
computer algebra system
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
computer animation
16S017, 68U07; 65017, 68U071
(see: Bezier curve)
concatenation see: closed under -
concatenation of words
[OSAxx, 17BOI, 20MOS; OSAxx,
17BOI,20M05]
(see: Hall word; Lyndon word; Shir-
shov basis)
concatenation operation
[OSC45, 68Pxx, 6SRxx, 94B60;
05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60]
(see: Gray code)
concatenation operation for languages
[68Q4S, 68S0S; 68Q4S, 6SS0S]
(see: AFL operations)
concatenation power
[13K05, 14L05, 16W30; 13KOS,
14LOS,16W30]
(see: Leibniz-Hopf algebra)
concordance condition see: self--
concretization junction
[68Q20, 68QS5; 68Q20, 68Q5S1
(see: Analysis of programs)
condition see: admissibility -; Akivis -;
balance -; bundle -; BunyakovskiT
-; Diophantine -; extended Kuhn-
Tucker -; Hormander -; Jordan-
Dedekind chain -; Leibniz -; Miquels
-; mixing -; one-sided Lipschitz -;
Pareto -; Rankine-Hugoniot -; self-
concordance -; Slater regularity -;
small-cancellation -; submultiplicativity
-; thin triangles -
condition number
[6SFxx, 65FIO; 6SFxx, 6SF10]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations; Accelera-
tion methods)
condition number see: spectral-
conditional De Finelli theorem
[60G09; 60009]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
conditional entropy
[60Exx, 62B 10, 94AIS, 94A17;
60Exx, 62BIO, 94AI5, 94A17]
(see: Kullback-Leibler information)
conditional measure
[280xx, S8FIS; 280xx, S8FIS]

(see: Pesin theory)
conditions see: Absorbing boundary
-; Dirichlet -; Dirichlet boundary -;
Karush-Kuhn-Tucker -; Karush-Kuhn-
Tucker optimality -; KKT -; KKT opti-
mal"y -; Kuhn-Tucker -; Lob derivabil-
"v -; Mur boundary -; Neumann -;
Neumann boundary -; non-reflecting
boundary -; radiating boundary -;
triangle -
conditions of the first kind see: boundary-
conditions of the second kind see: bound-
ary -
conductivity see: thermal-
Cone
[6SQ45, 6SS05; 6SQ45, 6SS05]
(see: Abstract family of languages;
Trio)
cone see: isolated positive -; pos"ive -
cone of an I-algebra see: positive-
cone of an I-group see: pos"ive-
cone operator see: normal-
cones see: Hahn-Banach-type extension
theorem for convex -; Hahn-Banach-
type separation theorem for convex -;
locally convex -
confluent of two points in a tree
[53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
conformal anomaly
[SIQ30, SIR25, SIT70; SIQ30,
SIR25, SI170]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
conformal curvature tensor see: Weyl-
conformal deformation
[46E35, 5SGXX; 46E35, 5SGXX]
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
conformal family of probability measures
see: cr--
conformal geometry
[46E35, 5SGXX; 46E35, 5SGXX]
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
conformal invariance
[46E35, 5SGXX; 46E35, 5SGXX]
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
conformal Kahler man~old see: locally-
conformal Kahler metric see: locally-
conformal Laplacian
[53C21; 53C21]
(see: Yamabe problem)
conformal Laplacian
[46E35, 5SGXX; 46E35, 5SGXX]
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
conformal mapping see: pseudo--
Conformal measure
(lIFxx, 2S0xx, 3OCxx, 32Nxx, 5SFxx,
SO-XX; I I Fxx, 2S0xx, 3OCxx, 32Nxx,
5SFxx, SO-XX)
(refers to: discrete group of trans-
formations; Fuchsian group; Mea-
surable mapping; measure space;
Mobius function; Poincare model;
Poisson integral; Probability mea-
sure; Radon-Nikodym theorem)
conformal measure for a junction
[IIFxx, 2S0xx, 3OCxx, 32Nxx, 5SFxx,
SO-XX; I I Fxx, 2S0xx, 3OCxx, 32Nxx,
5SFxx, SO-XX]
(see: Conformal measure)
conformal metric
[30F35; 30F35]
(see: Bers space)
congruence see: Knuth -; Ockham alge-
bra -; plactic -
congruence-simple universal algebra
[OSBxx; OSBxx]
(see: Magari theorem)
congruence subgroup see: principal-
congruence subgroup property
[20020; 20020]
(see: Bianchi group)
conical flock of deficiency one see: par-
tial-
conjecture see: (3"+1)- -; Adams -;
Alperin -; Alperin-McKay -; Alperin
weight -; Andrews-Curtis -; Artin -;
Bateman-Horn -; BaTlinson first
Beilinson~annsen -; Beilinson second
- ; Birch-Swinnerton-Dyer -; Birch-
Tate -; Bombieri-Dwork -; Brauer
k(B)- -; Bunyakovskff -; Catalan-
Dickson -; Cherlin-Zil'ber -; Collalz
-; Dade -; e- -; Eckmann-Ruelle-;
Erdos-Heilbronn -; Erdos-Wintner -;
extended Zeeman -; full Zeeman -;
generalized Fermat -; Gilbert-Pollak
-; Gross -; Halberstam -; Hardy-
Littlewood -; Hedetniemi -; Kirillov-;
Leopoldt -; Lichtenbaum -; Novikov
-; perfect sequence -; PiliaT -; posi-
tive mass -; Schanuel -; Shapiro -;
Stark -; Taniyama-Shimura modular-
ity -; weak Leopoldt -; Witten -;
Zeeman -
conjecture on contact flows see: Wein-
stein -
conjecture on the Euler totient function see:
Carmichael -
conjectures see: BeTiinson -; Weil -
conjugacy problem in a group see: solv-
able -
conjugate duality
[9OC29; 90C29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
conjugate field extensions
[12J20, 13B15; 12J20, 13B15]
(see: Ramification theory of valued
fields)
conjugate-gradient method
[65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
conjugate point
[34CIO; 34CIO]
(see: Oisconcugacy)
conjugate stochastic proce.'s
[62AI5; 62A15]
(see: Dirichlet process)
conjugate Young functions
[41A17, 42B30; 41AI7, 42B30]
(see: Fefferman-Garsia inequality)
conjugation see: commutative Hopf algebra
with -
Conley index
[35K57, 92C20; 35K57, 92C20]
(see: Hodgkin-Huxley system)
connected design of an experiment
[62Jl5; 62Jl5]
(see: Bradley-Terry model)
connected region see: non-simply--
connected topological 4-manifolds see:
classification of closed simply- -
connection see: G- - ; Amari 1- -;
Berwald -; coefficients of a non-linear
-; coefficients of a pre-Finsler -; ex-
pected G- - ; exponential -; flat -; Ga-
lois -; mixture -; observed G- - ; pre-
Finsler -
connection function see: extensive -; re-
ductive -
connection string on a statistical manifold
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx]
(see: Yoke)
Connes-Gysin exact sequence
[16E4O, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SG12;
16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SG12]
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
Connes higher index
[16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SG 12;
16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SG 12]
(see: Cyclic cohomolOgy)
conquer fast Fourier transform algorithm
see: divide-and--
Conradian ro-group
[06FI5; 06F15]
(see: ro-group)
consequence see: explosive logical -;
paraconsistent logical -
consequence relation see: explosive -;
paraconsistent -
conservation of momentum
[S2B40; S2B4O]
(see: Broadwell model)
conservative part of a measure space
[2SDl5, 5SF17; 2SDl5, 5SF17]
CONTEXTUAL GRAMMAR
(see: Hopr alternative) Plus- -; Quillen plus- -; Robinson-
conservative transformation Schensted -; Sz. -Nagy-8hliffer -;
[2S015, 5SF17; 2S015, 5SF17] Weil -; Welch -
(see: Hopf alternative) construction A see: Bolzas-Hammons-
conservativity Kumar-
[2S015, 5SF17; 2S015, 5SFI7] construction B see: BOlzas-Hammons-
(see: Hopf alternative) Kumar-
conserved symmetry constructive definition see: Wh"ehead-
[SIRxx, SIR05; SIRxx, SIR05] contact algorithm
(see: Spectrum generating algebra) [65L60, 65N30, 65Y99; 65L60,
conserved symmetry algebra 65N30, 65Y99]
[SIRxx, SIR05; SIRxx, SIR05] (see: ADINA system)
(see: Spectrum generating algebra) contact Bochner curvature tensor
consistency see: B-- [53A45, 53B35, 53CI5, 53C25;
consistency of a numerical method see: or- 53A45, 53B35, 53CI5, 53C25]
derof - (see: Bochner curvature tensor)
consistency of the Bayesian estimator see: contact Bochner curvature tensor see:
strong - AC--;E--;EK--
consistent w"h a Bregman function see: contact CR-submanifold
zone - [53C25; 53C25]
constant ",-sectional curvature (see: Sasakian manifold)
[53C25; 53C25] contact flow
(see: Sasakian manifold) [53C15, 53C57, 5SF05; 53CI5,
constant see: Bloch -; Bollzmann -; 53C57, 5SF05]
coupling -; Davenport -; degree of a (see: K -contact flow)
predicate -; Erdos-Ginzburg-Ziv -; contact flow see: almost-periodic K- -;
extension of a predicate -; one-sided K--
Lipschilz -; relative acceleration -; contact flows see: Weinstein conjecture
specific-reaction rate -; type-2 - on -
constant field of a valuedjunction field contact form
[l2J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05] [53C15, 53C57, 5SF05; 53CI5,
(see: Valued function field) 53C57, 5SF05]
constant in a normad space see: basis- (see: K -contact flow)
constant in illative combinatory logic see: contact manifold
logical- [53C15, 53C57, 5SF05; 53CI5,
constant reduction 53C57, 5SF05]
[l2J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05] (see: K -contact flow)
(see: Valued function field) contact man~old see: almost -; K - -;
constant reduction of valued function regular -
fields contact metric
[l2J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05] [53C15, 53C57, 5SF05; 53CI5,
(see: Valued function field) 53C57,5SF05]
constant symbol (see: K -contact flow)
[03C07, 6SN17; 03C07, 6SN17] contact metric manifold see: almost-
(see: Logic programming; Structure) contact metric structure
constant wavelet see: piecewise-- [53C25; 53C25]
constants see: method of - (see: Sasakian manifold)
constants of an algebra see: structure- contact metric structure see: almost -;
constellation see: 4-PSK- normal-
constitutive field contact moment mapping
[73B30, SOA05, SOA97; 73B30, [53C15, 53C57, 5SF05; 53CI5,
SOA05, SOA97] 53C57, 5SF05]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality) (see: K -contact flow)
constitutive law contact space
[73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 760xx] [5IB05; 51B05]
(see: Bingham fluid) (see: Chain space)
const"utive relations see: identical restric- contact structure see: almost -; normal
tionon - almost -
Constrained optimization problem contaminant
(9OCxx; 9OCxx) [62F35; 62F35]
(refers to: Discrete programming; (see: Outlier)
Integer programming; Linear pro- content of an integer
gramming; Mathematical program- [2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
ming) 2OCxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70]
constrained optimization problem (see: Racah, Wigner, 3-j, 6-j, and
[9OC30; 9OC30) 9- j coefficients)
(see: Active constraint; Passive con- context-free language
straint) [03005, 6SQ45, 6SQ50, 6SS05;
constraint 03005, 6SQ45, 6SQ50, 6SS05]
[9OCxx; 9OCxx] (see: AFL operations; Contextual
(see: Constrained optimization prob- grammar; Trio)
lem) context-free languages see: family of -;
constraint see: Active -; binary -; Dirac family of non- -
-; inactive -; integrality -; Lie algebra context-free rule see: label of a -
under - ~ Passive - context of a contextual grammar
constraint method see: f - - [03005, 6SQ50, 6SS05; 03005,
constraint on thermodynamical evolution 68Q50, 6SS05]
see: mathematical- (see: Contextual grammar)
constraint qualification context-sensitive language
[9OC30; 9OC30] [03005, 6SQ45, 68Q50, 6SS05;
(see: Karush-Kuhn-Thcker condi- O3D05, 6SQ45, 6SQ50, 68S05]
tions) (see: AFL operations; Contextual
constraints see: Lie algebra under - grammar; Trio)
constructibility axiom see: Godel- context-sensitive languages see: family
construction see: Baas-Sullivan of-
Golomb -; Henkin -; Lempel Contextual grammar
515
CONTEXTUAL GRAMMAR

(03005, 6SQ50, 6SS05; 03005, [4IAI5, 41A50, 41A63, 65005, convergence theorem see: monotone -; coordinates see: extended normal -; Lya-
6SQ50, 6SS05) 65D07, 65010, 65015, 65017, Weierstrass - punov change of -
(refers to: Abstract family of lan- 6SU05, 6SU07, 6SUIO; 41A15, convergence theorem for slowly varying coordinatization theorem
guages; Trio) 41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007, functions see: uniform- 106C05; 06C05J
contextual grammar see: axiom of a -; 65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05, convergence theorem for the Bairstow (see: Arguesian lattice)
context of a -; external -; internal -; 6SU07, 68U I 0] method see: local- Copula
production of a -; selector of a - (see: Bezier surface) convergence theorem for the Newton (60Exx, 6OJxx, 62Gxx, 62H20; 6OExx.
continuity see: complete -; geometric -; control point see: Bazier- method see: local- 60Jxx. 62Gxx, 62H20)
stochastic - control system see: continuous-time time- conversion see: (37)- -; principles of ).-- (refers to: distribution function;
continuity characterization of integral op- invariant linear -; discrete-time time- conversion rule in illative combinatory Kolmogorov-Chapman equation;
erators invariant linear - logic Markov process; probability dis-
[45P05, 46E30, 47B55; 45P05, 46E30, control theory 103B40; 03B401 tribution; Random variable; Rank
47B55] [93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55, (see: Illative combinatory logic) statistic; semi-group; stochastic pro-
(see: Integral representations of lin- 93C05,93015] convex Bo-algebra see: m- cess)
ear operators) (see: Pole assignment problem) multiplicatively- - copula
continuity of an operator see: complete- controltheory see: Accessibility in -; Hoc convex body see: M -position of a -; width [60Exx, 6OJxx, 62Gxx, 62H20; 6OExx.
continuous adjoint see: strongly- -; supervisory - of a- 60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20]
continuous chain of groups controllability matrix convex cones see: Hahn-Banach-type ex- (see: Copula)
[20K20; 20K20] [93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55, tension theorem for -; Hahn-Banach- copulas see: Archimedean -; compatibil-
93C05,93015J type separation theorem for -; locally - ity problem for -
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of Abelian groups) (see: Pole assignment problem) convex F -algebra see: locally pseudo- - Cordes inequality
continuous curve see: OC k - - controllable event convex I-subgroup [47A63; 47A63]
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx, I06FI5, 20F60; 06F15, 20F60J (see: Heinz-Kato inequality)
continuous dual space
[4OH05, 46A45; 40H05, 46A45] 93A30J (see: Convex subgroup of a partially Cordes inequality
(see: Discrete event system) ordered group) [47A63; 47A63]
(see: Kothe-Toeplltz dual)
controllable pair of matrices convex. locally compact space see: har- (see: Lowner-Heinz inequality)
continuous foliation see: C 1_ -
193B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55, monic function on a subset of a locally - core of a partially ordered set
continuous function see: quasi--
93C05,93015] convex manifold see: strictly pseudo- - [06A06; 06A06J
continuous mapping see: upper semi- -
(see: Pole assignment problem) convex programming problem (see: Fixed-point property)
continuous rectifiable curve see: Jordan
controllable pair of matrices see: com- [90CIO. 9OCII, 9OC27; 90CIO, Comer-Gi;bel theorem
length of a-
pletely - 9OCII,90C27] [20K20; 20K20J
continuous stochastic process see:
(see: Lagrangean relaxation) (see: Cotorsion-free group)
stochastically - controlled convergence
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42] convex programming problem see: optimal Corner theorem
continuous symmetry breaking
solution of a - [20K20; 20K20J
[SIR40, SITI7, S2B2S; SIR40, (see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
convex set see: width of a - (see: Cotorsion-free group)
SITI7, S2B2S] Convection equations
convex set along a vector see: width of a - corona theorem see: Carleson-
(see: Renormalization group analy- (76C05, 76E15; 76C05, 76E15)
convex set in a narmed space see: polar of correcting code see: perfect e-error- -
sis) (referred to in: Lorenz equations)
(refers to: Curl; Fourier series;
a- correction factor see: Bartlett-
continuous-time time-invariant linear convex set with respect to Zn see: width correctness relation in program analysis
control system Lorenz equations; stream function;
of a- [68Q20, 6SQ55; 68Q20, 6SQ55J
[93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55, Vector product)
Convex subgroup of a partially ordered (see: Analysis of programs)
93C05,93015] convection-reaction-diffusion equations
group correlation see: aperiodic -; negative -;
(see: Pole assignment problem) [60HIO, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05;
(06FI5, 20F60; 06FI5, 20F60) non-negative -; non-positive -; odd -;
continuous version oj a Bnlwnian motion 60H 10, 6OK35, 65C05, 65U051
(refers to: commutator subgroup; positive -
[60Hxx, 60J65; 60Hxx, 6OJ65] (see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
Convex subgroup; Normal sub- correlation coefficient see: periodic-
(see: Wiener measure) tial differential equations)
group; Normalizer of a subset; 0- correlation function in field theory
continuum hypothesis see: Generalized- convergence see: almost-sure -; B- -;
group; po-group) [8IR40. 81Tl7. 82B2S; 81R40.
continuum physics see: Cauchy tetrahe- controlled -; strong -; weak -
convex subgroup (~f a partially ordered 81T17.82B28J
dron argument in - Convergence, a.s_
group (see: Renormalization group analy-
continuum thermodynamics see: second (60-XX; 60-XX) sis)
[06FI5; 06FI51
lawof- (refers to: Convergence, almost- Correlation inequalities
(see: po-group)
contractible polyhedron certain) (06A1O, 6OE15; 06AIO, 60E15)
mnvex subgroup of an I-group
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05, convergence axiom see: Brelot- (referred to in: Ahlswede-Daykin in-
I06FI5, 20F60; 06F15. 20F60]
57M20, 57Q05] convergence in a Gromov hyperbolic equality; Fishburn-Shepp inequal-
(see: I-group)
(see: Collapsibility) space convex sublattice ity; FKG inequality; Holley inequal-
contraction 153C99; 53C99] [06F25; 06F251 ity)
[03B53; O3B53] (see: Gromov hyperbolic space) (see: I-algebra) (refers to: Ahlswede-Daykin inequal-
(see: Paraconsistent logic) convergence in law convolution ity; Boolean algebra; Correlation;
contraction see: InOnu-Wigner- [SIS20; SIS20J [54E70; 54E70J distributive lattice; Fishburn-Shepp
contraction mapping principle see: Ba- (see: Stochastic limit of quantum the- C<ee: Probabilistic metric space) inequality; FKG inequality; Holley
nach - ory) convolution see: linear -; Moreau- inequality; mathematical expecta-
contraction principle see: Banach- convergence in the hit-or-miss topology Yoshida - tion; Multi-dimensional statistical
contractive completion problem [54Bxx, 6SUIO; 54Bxx, 6SUIOJ convolution algorithm see: Winograd analysis; Order (on a set); partition;
[l5-XX, 30E05, 47A57; 15-XX, (see: Hit-or-miss topology) small- Probability measure; probability
30E05, 47 A57] convergence of a net of operators convolution operator see: generalized- measure)
(see: Partially specified matrices, [41 A35, 41 A36, 41A65, 46-02, 47 A58, Cooley-Tukey fast Fourier transform al- Correlation property for sequences
completion of) 47B3S, 47848, 47B60, 47CIO; 41A35, gorithm (IIB37, II BS3, 94Bxx; IIB37,
contradictory formulas 41A36, 41A65, 46-02, 47A58, 47B38, 165T20; 65T201 II B83, 94Bxx)
[03C45; 03C45] 47B4S, 47B60, 47C 10] (see: Winograd Fourier transform al- (refers to: finite field; homomor-
(see: Forking) (see: Korovkin-type approximation gorithm) phism; Kerdock and Preparata
contrast function theory) cooperate strategy codes)
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx] convergence of a sequence of operators [90AI4, 900xx, 92Bxx; 90A14, correspondence see: Brauer
(see: Yoke) [4IA35, 41 A36, 41 A65, 46-02, 47 A5S, 900xx, 92Bxx] Robinson-Schensted -
control see: adaptive -; direct adap- 47B38, 47B48, 47B60, 47CIO; 41A35, (see: Evolutionarily stable strategy) correspondence principle
tive -; indirect adaptive -; model ref- 41A36, 41A65, 46-02, 47A58, 47B38, mope rating distributed grammar system [15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44-
erence adaptive -; self-tuning adaptive 47B48,47B60, 47CIOJ [6SQIO, 68045, 6SQ50; 6SQIO, XX, 44A 15, 49Lxx, 6OJ35, 6SQ I 0, SI-
-; stochastic - (see: Korovkin-type approximation 68045,68Q501 XX, 9OC39, 93C30; 15A4S, 16Y60,
control net theory) (see: Grammar system) 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44-XX, 44A 15. 49Lxx,
[4IAI5, 41A50, 41A63, 65D05, convergence of geodesics cooperation protocol 6OJ35, 6SQIO, SI-XX, 9OC39, 93C30]
65007, 65010, 65Dl5, 65017, [2S015, 5SF17; 2S015, 58FI7J [68QIO, 6S045, 6SQ50; 6SQIO, (see: Idempotent analysis; Idempo-
6SU05, 6SU07, 6SUIO; 41A15, (see: Hopf alternative) 6SQ45, 6SQ50] tent correspondence principle)
41A50, 41A63, 65D05, 65007, c()nvergence-pre.~erving summability (see: Grammar system) correspondence principle see: tdempo-
65010, 65015, 65017, 6SU05, method cooperative and social phenomena see: tent -
6SU07,6SUlO] [4OC05; 4OC05] Master equations in - correspondence principle for a Caldercln-
(see: Bezler surface) (see: Mazur-Orlicz theorem) ('oordinate domain Toeplitz operator
control net see: Bazier- convergence rate for steepest descent see: [06C05; 06C05/ [42Cxx, 47B35, 47B38; 42Cxx.
control point Kantorovich - (see: Arguesian lattice) 47B35,47B38/

516

(see: Calder6n-Toeplitz operator)
corresponding Grabner basis
[13PIO, 68Q40; 13PIO, 6SQ40J
(see: Griibner basis)
cost of a matching in a graph
[05C70; 05C70J
(see: One-factorization)
Costa C family of logics see: da-
Costas array
(05830; 05830)
(refers to: Field; primitive root)
Costas array (~f order n
[05830; 05830J
(see: Costas array)
Cotorsion-free group
(20K20; 20K20)
(referred to in: Cotorsion group)
(refers to: Abelian group; completion;
cotorsion group; cyclic group; Haus-
dorff space; Ring; topological ring)
c%rsion.j'ree ring
[20K20; 20K20]
(see: Cotorsion-free group)
Cotorsion group
(20Kxx; 20Kxx)
(referred to in: Cotorsion-free group)
(refers to: Abelian group; Compact
group; Cotorsion-free group; Divis-
ible group; Exact sequence; Exten-
sion of a group)
cotorsion group see: adjusted-
cotorsion hull
[20Kxx; 20Kxxj
(see: Cotorsion group)
Couette flow
[82840; 82840]
(see: Broadwell model)
Coulomb potential
[8IVxx; SIVxx]
(see: Hulthen potential)
count see: Borda-
countable class in alternative set theory
[03Exx,03E70; 03Exx, 03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
counterexample see: Entla-
counting see: probabilistic-
couple see: Banach -; Calderon
Calderon-Mityagin -; K -monotone -;
relative Calderon -
couples see: Calderon-
coupling see: weak-
coupling constant
[8IS20; 81S20J
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
Cousin lemma on partitions
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A421
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
covariance extension problem
[15-XX, 30E05, 47A57; IS-XX,
30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion of)
covariant derivative see: horizontal -: ver-
tical-
cover graph
[05Cxx; 05CxxJ
(see: Acyclic orientation)
covered by a set of guards see: polygon-
covering see: Billard method for random -;
o-fine -; Dvoretzky problem for random
-; full -; infinite -; random-
Cox process
[60Gxx, 60G35; 60Gxx, 60G35]
(see: Risk theory)
Cox transformation see: Box--
CR-di/feomorphic manifolds
[32C16, 53C15; 32CI6, 53C15]
(see: CR-manifold)
CRjunction
[32C16, 53C15; 32CI6, 53CI5J
(see: CR-manifold)
CR-manifold
(32C16, 53C15; 32CI6, 53C15)
(referred to in: CR-submanifold)
(relers to: almost-complex structure;
Biholomorphic mapping; Cauchy-
Riemann conditions; diffeomor-
phism; differentiable manifold;
Hessian matrix; Hypersurface; Lie
bracket; tangent bundle)
CR-manifold
[32C16, 53C15; 32CI6, 53CI5J
(see: CR-manifold)
CR-manifolds see: equivalent-
CR-mappinl?
[32C16, 53C15; 32CI6, 5K15]
(see: CR-manifold)
CR-sfrw'ture
[32C16, 53C15; 32CI6, 53CI5J
(see: CR-manifold)
CR-structure see: realizable-
CR-submanifold
(53C 15, 53C40, S3C56; 53C IS,
53C40, 53C56)
(referred to in: Sasakian manifold)
(relers to: almost-complex structure;
CR-manifold; differential geometry;
Hermitian structure; normal bundle;
Riemannian metric; second funda-
mental form)
CR-submanifold
[53C 15, 53C40, 53C56; 53C 15,
53C40, 53C56]
(see: CR-submanifold)
CR-submanifold see: contact-
CRACK
[68Q40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Cramer-Lundberg approximation
[60Gxx, 60G35; 60Gxx, 60G35J
(see: Risk theory)
Cramer-von Mises statistic see: weighted-
credihility
[62Cxx, 62P05; 62Cxx, 62P05j
(see: Credibility theory)
credihilitvfactllr
[62Cxx, 62P05; 62Cxx, 62P05J
Credibility theory)
(see:
credihWty premium
162Cxx, 62POS; 62Cxx, 62P05J
(see: Credibility theory)
credihility premium rate
[62Cxx, 62P05; 62Cxx, 62P05J
(see: Credibility theory)
Credibility theory
(62Cxx, 62POS; 62Cxx, 62P(5)
(refers to: Bayesian approach; ran-
dom varia hie; Risk theory; statistical
decisiou theory)
credibility theory see: greatest accuracy -;
limited fluctuation -
creep see: viscous-
creep materials see: numerical methods
for-
Cremer theorem
[30005, 58FI3, 58F23; 30005, 58FI3,
58F23]
(see: Siegel disc)
criterion see: Akaike information -; Katok-
Burns -; Oetlli-Prager -
criticul ei!{enSpliCe
[58Fxx, 58F14; 58Fxx, 58FI4J
(see: Centre manifold)
('(itical eiMenva/ue
[58Fxx, 58F14; 58Fxx, 58FI4J
(see: Centre manifold)
critical exponent
[53C20, 58F17; 53C20, 58FI7]
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem)
crificlllleflgth in quenching
[35K57, 35K60, 35K65;
35K60, 35K65]
(see: Quenching)
critical point (~f an ordinary) differential
equation
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 5SF07]
(see: Painleve-type equations)
critical size and blow-up (~f the time-
derivative
o-D1MENSIONAL 8ESSEL PROCESS
[35K57, 35K60, 35K65; 35K57, (see: Real closed field)
35K60, 35K651 cut in Prolog
(see: Quenching) [68N 17; 68N I7J
Cf(Jss-validatory approach (see: Logic programming)
[62MI0; 62MIOJ cutout see: random-
(see: Canadian lynx series) cutting value
crossing divisor see: normal- [90CI0; 90CIOJ
crossover (see: Branch-and-bound algorithm)
168T05, 90840; 68T05, 90840] cycle see: Euler -; Eulerian -; Hamilton
(see: Genetic algorithm) -; Hamiltonian -; Hutchinson -
crossover ,~ee: Single-point- cycle mean
Cruse theorem see: Berge-- [69Fxx, 908xx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 908xx,
crystal see: quasi-- 93A30]
CS family of languages (see: Discrete event system)
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05J cyclic cochain
(see: Trio) [16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G 12;
cube see: Banach-Mazur distance to the 16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G 12J
-; Howell -; Kirkman -; n- -; Room (see: Cyclic cohomology)
d-- cyclic code
cubic lattice [05E30, II S20, II S31, 94835; 05E30,
III H56, 94835; II H56, 94835] IIS20, IIS31, 94835J
(see: Octacode) (see: Galois ring)
cubic Schrodinger equation Cyclic cohomology
135Q53, 58F07, 76815; 35Q53, (16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G 12;
58F07,768IS] 16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G 12)
(see: Benjamin-Feir instability) (refers to: algebra; Banach algebra;
cumulant category; Chern character; de Rham
[05AI9, 11883; 05AI9, 1/883] cohomology; exact sequence; field;
(see: Bell polynomial)
Frechet algebra; Frechet topology;
cumulant functi(Jn
functional calculus; functor; Index
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62FxxJ
formulas; K -theory; manifold)
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
cyclic cohomology
tical inference)
[16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G12;
current see: geodesic -; Hall -; integral 16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58GI2J
-; Ohmic- (see: Cyclic cohomology)
current algebra cyclic cohomology see: excision for -; H-
[81RIO, 81T13; 81RIO, 81T13J unitality for -; periodic -; stability for -
(see: Gell-Mann-Dashen algebra) cyclic cohomology with K -theory see: pair-
current clamp ingof -
[35K57, 92C20; 35K57, 92C20J cyclic Gray code
(see: Action potential; Hodgkin- [05C45, 6SPxx, 68Rxx, 94860;
Huxley system) 05C45, 68Pxx, 6SRxx, 94860]
Curry I C L -system (see: Gray code)
[03840; 03B40J cyclic Howell design
(see: Illative combinatory logic) [05830; 05830J
Curtis conjecture .'lee: Andrews-- (see: Howell design)
curvature see: Berwald-Gauss -; con- cydic vector
stant <p-sectional -; <p-sectional -; [93855, 93C05, 93015; 93855,
(HV)- -; pinched negative -; spray -; 93C05,93015J
total- (see: Pole assignment problem)
curvature function of a curve cyclotomic Zp -extension
[53A04; 53A04J
[IIR23, IIR37, IIR42; IIR23,
(see: Tangent indicatrix) IIR37,IIR421
curvature image inequality
(see: Leopoldt conjecture)
[52A40; 52A40]
cylinder function see: Borel -; lifting of a
(see: Blaschke-Santal6 inequality) Borel-
curvature of a hypersuriace in an anti-de Sit- cylinder set
ter space .'lee: mean- [06AIO, 60E15; 06AIO, 60E15]
curvature problem see: prescribed (see:Correlation inequalities)
scalar - cylinder set with base in 7r H
curvature tensor see: A C -contact [60811, 60H05, 60H07; 60811,
Bochner -; Berwald Bochner -; 60H05,60H07]
contact Bochner -; E-contact Bochner (see: Accessible random variable)
-; E K -contact Bochner -; general- cylindric algebra
ized Bochner -; Weyl conformal - [03Gxx, 03G 15, 06Exx, 06E IS;
curve see: Artin-Schreier -; ASN -; 03Gxx, 03G 15, 06Exx, 06E 15 J
average sampling number -; Bernstein- (see: Boolean algebra with operators)
Bazier -; Bazier -; Bitsadze- cylindric algebra
Lavrent'ev normal -; canonical mapping [03845, 03G05, 03G 15, 06E 15,
of a -; curvature function of a -; Fermat 06E25; 03845, 03G05, 03G 15, OoEIS,
-; Frey -; GCk-continuous -; Her- 06E25J
mitian -; Jordan length of a continuous (see: Sahlqvist identities)
rectifiable -; logistic -; normal -; OC cylindrical KdV equation
-; operating characteristic -; spectral [58F07; 58F07]
-; spinodal -; Tate -; Weil - (see: Painleve test)
curve of degree n over an interval see: cylindrical Korteweg-de Vries equation
Bezier - [58F07; 58F07J
35KS7, curved group see: negatively- (see: Painleve test)
curves see: Artin-Schreier- cylindrical Korteweg-de Vries equation .see:
cusp bifurcation generalized -
[58FI4; 58F14]
___ D ___
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
cut Hopf algebra see: merge- -; shuffle-
cut in a real closed field
[03C60, 12JI5, 12L12; 03C60, 12JI5, b-dimensiona/ Bessel process
12L12] [60165; 60J651
517
a-DIMENSIONAL 8ESSEL PROCESS
(see: Bessel processes)
a-jine covering
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42)
(see: Kurzweil-Henslock integral)
a -fine partition
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42)
(see: Kurzweil-Henslock integral)
a-hyperbolic space
[53C99; 53C99)
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
fl-pseudo-Boolean algebra
[038xx, 03845, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 088xx; 038xx, 03845, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 088xx)
(see: Magari algebra)
a -ultrametric inequality
[53C99; 53C99)
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
D-ary code see: uniquely decipherable -
d-cuba see: Room-
d-dimensional Howell design
[05830; 05830)
(see: HoweD design)
D-geodesic
[53C15, 53C40, 53C56; 53C15,
53C40, 53C56)
(see: CR-submanifold)
Dl. -geodesic
[53C15, 53C40, 53C56; 53C15,
53C40, 53C56)
(see: CR-submanifold)
D-homothetic defonnation
[53A45, 53835, 53C15, 53C25;
53A45, 53835, 53C15, 53C25)
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
*-design
[05830; 05830)
(see: HoweD design)
da Costa C family of logics
[03853; 03853)
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
Daboussi theorem see: Ellioll--
Dade conjecture
[19Cxx,2OC20; 19Cxx, 2OC20)
(see: Alperin conjecture)
damping region
[65M05, 65MIO, 86-08; 65M05,
65M 10, 86-08)
(see: Absorbing boundary condi-
tions)
Dantzig theorem on integral solution., of
the transport problem
[90806, 9OB80, 9OC05; 90806,
9OB80, 9OC05)
(see: Assignment problem)
Darcy law
[76S05; 76S05)
(see: Buckley-Leverett equation)
Darling statistic see: Anderson--
Dashen algebra see: Gell-Mann--
data see: Canadian lynx -; Dirichlel -;
inconsistent -; Neumann -
data encoding at a synapse see: local-
data error
[65Fxx; 65Fxx)
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
In matrix computations)
data set see: logistic-type-
Davenport constant
(11Bxx, 20K01; 118xx, 20K01)
(referred to in: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem)
(refers to: AbeUan group; additive
number theory; Algebnic number;
cyclic group; Field; group; p-group)
Davenport constant
[05C55, 05010, 20KOI; 05C55,
05D10,20K01)
(see: Erdiis-Glnzhurg-Ziv theorem)
Davenport theorem see: Cauchy--
Davls---6undy inequality see: Burkholder-
Davis theorem see: Knaster-Tarski- -
Daykin inequality see: Ahlswed&--
de Bruijn-Alladiformula
518
[IIN25; IIN25)
(see: Dickman function)
de Casteljau algorithm
[41A15, 41A50, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO; 41A15, 41A50,
65005, 65007, 65010, 65015,
65017, 68U05, 68U07, 68UIO)
(see: Bezier spline)
de Caste1jau algorithm
[41A15, 41A50, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65010, 65D15, 65D17,
68U05, 68U07, 68UIO; 41A15,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07, 68U 10)
(see: Bezier surface)
De Finetti theorem
(60009; 60009)
(referred to in: Bernoulli measure)
(rekrs to: Invariant measure; joint
distribution; m-dependent process;
probability distribution; probabil-
ity measure; Quantum probability;
Random variable; simplex)
De Finetli theorem
[60009; 60009)
(see: De Finetti theorem)
De Finelli theorem see: cond~ional -; fi-
nite -
De Finelti theorem for m-symmetric ran-
dom variables
[60009; 60009)
(see: De Finetti theorem)
de Haan function class
[26A12, 60070; 26A12, 60070)
(see: De Haan theory)
De Haan theory
(26AI2, 60070; 26A12, 60070)
(referred to in: Karamata theory)
(refers to: de Ia Vallee-Poussin theo-
rem; Karamata theory; Normal dis-
tribution; Weibull distribution)
de Morgan algebra
[06030; 06030)
(see: Ockham algebra)
De Morgan lattice
[03853; 03853)
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
de Morgan law
[06030; 06030)
(see: Ockham algebra)
de Rham complex see: logarithmic-
De Sitter space
(53C20, 53C42; 53C20, 53C42)
(referred to in: Anti-de Sitter space)
(refers to: Anti-de Sitter space; cur-
vature; Differential geometry; mean
curvature; Minkowski space; Ricci
curvature; Riemannian manifold;
second fundamental form; Totally-
geodesic manifold)
de Siller space see: Anti- -; index of an
anti- -; mean curvature of a hypersur-
face in an anti- -; space-like hypersur-
face in an anti- -
de taquin see: Jeu-
de Vries equation see: cylindrical
Korteweg- -; generalized cylindrical
Korteweg- -; mod Hied Kortweg- -
decidability of solution of systems of poly-
nomial equations see: Skolem question
on -
decidability of the elementary theory of
the ring of algebraic integers
[03C60, 11035, IIR58, 12L05,
14025; 03C6O, 11035, IIR58, 12L05,
14025)
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
decidability of the theory of real closed
fields
[03C60, 12115, 12Ll2; 03C6O, 12J15,
12Ll2)
(see: Real closed field)
decimation of an n-periodic sequence see:
s- -
decipherable D-ary code see: uniquely-
decision problem see: statistical-
decomposition see: block -; Hoellding -;
Hopf -; paradoxical -; Schauder -;
Schur complement -; Spinodal -
decomposition field
[12120,13815; 12120, 13815)
(see: Ramification theory of valued
fields)
decomposition field see: absolute-
decomposition group
[12J20, 13815; 12120, I3BI5)
(see: Ramification theory of valued
fields)
decompos~ion 01 an U-statistic see: Ho-
eliding -
decomposition property jor an I-group
[06FI5, 20F6O; 06F15, 20F60]
(see: I-group)
decompos~ion theorem see: atomic -;
Hoellding -
decreasing function on a partially ordered
set see: non--
decreasing mapping on a lallice see: non-
decreasing rearrangement
[46B20; 46B20]
(see: Boyd index)
Dedekind chain condition see: Jordan--
Dedekind class number formula
[11040, 14CI7, 140xx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; 11040, 14CI7, 140xx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: BeHinson conjectures)
Dedekind-complete Riesz space
[46A40; 46A40)
(see: Dedekind completion)
Dedekind completion
(46A40; 46A40)
(refers to: Category of a set; Com-
pletion, MacNeille (of a partially or-
dered set); Extremally-disconnected
space; Hausdorff space; partially or-
dered set; Riesz space)
Dedekind completion of a Rie.<z space
[46A40; 46A40]
(see: Dedekind completion)
Oedekind domain
[93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55,
93C05,93015)
(see: Pole assignment problem)
Dedekind eta-function
(1IF20; IIF20)
(referred to in: Dedekind sum)
(refers to: Analytic function; Dedeklnd
sum; infinite product; modular form;
Modular group; Theta-function;
Uniform convergence)
Dedekind lallice see: Jordan--
Dedekind property see: Jordan--
Dedekind property of a partially ordered set
see: Jordan--
Dedekind ring of integers
[03C60, 11 035, 11 R58, 12L05,
14025; 03C60, 11035, 11R58, 12L05,
14025)
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
Dedekind space see: Jordan--
Dedekind sum
(l1F20; IIF20)
(referred to in: Dedekind eta-
function)
(refers to: Dedekind eta-function;
Fourier transform; Geometry of
numbers; greatest common divisor;
modular group; Quadratic reci-
procity law)
Dedekind sums see: reciproc~y relation
lor-
deep I-density topology
[26AI5; 26A15]
(see: Density topology)
Defect
(lISI5, 12J20; IISI5, 12J20)
(referred to in: Model theory ofvalued
fields; Ramification theory of valued
fields; Valued function field)
(refers to: Extension of a field;
Hensellzation of a valued field; Lau-
rent series; Normal extension; p-
adically closed field; Ramification
theory of valued fields; valuation;
Valued function field)
defect see: block of poshive -; Henselian
-; Leopold! -; small orthogonal~y -;
transcandence -; valued field without
transcendence -; vector space -
Defect group of a block
(l6W20,2OC20; 16W20, 2OC20)
(referred to in: Brauer homomor-
phism)
(refers to: Block; block; Combinato-
rial analysis; commutative ring; fi-
nite group; group; group algebra;
Local ring; Noetherian ring)
defect group of a block
[16W20,2OC20; 16W20, 2OC20]
(see: Defect group of a block)
defect group oj an idempotent
[I6W20,2OC20; 16W20, 2OC20)
(see: Defect group of a block)
defect of a block
[160xx, 16L30, 16W20, 19Cxx,
2OC20, 20020; 160xx, 16L30,
16W20, 19Cxx, 2OC20, 20020)
(see: Alperin conjecture; Block; De-
fect group of a block)
defect oj an irreducible character for a
prime number
[19Cxx,2OC20; 19Cxx, 2OC20)
(see: Alperin conjecture)
defect strategy
[90AI4, 900xx, 92Bxx; 9OA14,
900xx, 92Bxx)
(see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
defect zero see: block of -
defective see: lot tolerance percent -
Defective matrix
(l5AI8, 65Fxx; 15A18, 65Fxx)
(refers to: Eigen vector; linear alge-
bra; matrix)
defective matrix
[15AI8, 65Fxx; 15A18, 65Fxx]
(see: Defective matrix)
defective matrix
[65Fxx; 65Fxx)
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
defective matrix see: non--
defectless field
[IISI5, 12J20, 14H05; IISI5, 12J20,
14H05)
(see: Defect; Valued function field)
deficiency see: ramWication-
deficiency one see: partial conical flock of
-; partial hyperbolic flock of -
definability (in logic)
[03C45; 03C45]
(see: Forking)
definable group
[03C60; 03C6O)
(see: Group of finite Morley rank)
definable set see: parametrically-
defined bilinear functional see: strictly-
defining system for symmetries
[34C20, 35A30, 58D19, 58035;
34C20, 35A30, 58019, 58035]
(see: Lie symmetry analysis)
defin~e algebra element see: pos~ive-­
defin~e bounded functions on an Abalian
semi-group see: Ressel characterization
of completely pos~ive- -
defin~e element in a C· -algebra see: pos-
itive semi- -
definite function see: completely positive-
definite rational function see: integral -;
rationally -
definite rational functions see: Hilbart prob-
lem on the resolution of -
definition see: Whitehead constructive -

definition of a Shimura variety see:
Deligne -
definHion of Hall sets see: Viennot-
deflation
[05845; 05845)
(see: Penrose tiling)
deformation see: conformal D-
homothetic -
deformation of an elastic body
[35J85, 73Cxx; 35J85, 73Cxx)
(see: SignoriDi problem)
deformation theorem see: Federer-
Fleming -
degenerate kernel see: completely-
degenerate recurrence sequence
[11837; 11837)
(see: Skolem-Mahler-Lech theorem)
degree (3 see: entropy of -
degree see: Brouwer -; inertia -
degree n see: standard polynomial of -
degree n over an interval see: Bezier curve
of-
degree of a field extension
[IISI5, 12120; IISI5, 12J20)
(see: Defect)
degree of a polarization
[I4Kxx, 58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07)
(see: Abelian surface)
degree of a predicate constant
[03Cxx; 03Cxx)
(see: Frai'sse characterization of ele-
mentary equivalence)
degree of a U -statistic
[OOFxx, 62Exx; 60Fxx, 62Exx)
(see: U -statistic)
degrees of freedom as noise see: fast-
Dehn surgery
(57M25; 57M25)
(refers to: Handle theory; homeomor-
phism; Knot theory; link; manifold)
Dehn surgery
[57M25; 57M25)
(see: Dehn surgery)
Dehn surgery see: integer-
Dehntwist
[57M25; 57M25)
(see: Dehn surgery)
Delange .,eries
[IIN37; IIN37)
(see: Delange theorem)
Delange theorem
(lIN37; IIN37)
(referred to in: Elliott-Daboussi the-
orem; Halasz mean value theorem;
Wirsing theorems)
(refers to: additive arithmetic func-
tion; Elliott-Daboussi theorem; Eu-
ler product; multiplicative arith-
metic function; semi-norm; Wirsing
theorems)
Delaunay triangulation
(68U05; 68U05)
(referred to in: Computational geom-
etry; VoronoI diagram)
(refers to: computational geometry;
triangulation; Voronoi diagram)
Delaunay triangulation
[68U05; 68U05)
(see: Delaunay triangnlation)
OELiA
[68Q40; 68Q40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
Deligne-BeUinson cohomology
[IIG40, 14CI7, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27)
(see: 8eninson conjectures)
Deligne cohomology
[IIG40, 14CI7, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14CI7, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27)
(see: 8eninson conjectures)
Oeligne definition of a Shimura variety
[lIFxx, IIGI8, 14Mxx, 20Gxx;
IIFxx, IIGI8, 14Mxx, 2OGxx)
(see: Shimura variety)
Delone triangulation
[68U05; 68U05)
(see: Delaunay triangulation)
Oelsarte-Goetbals code
[05E30, 94815, 94835; 05E30,
94815,94835)
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes)
deRa-derivative operator see: Finsler-
dendritic tree
[68T05, 92C20; 68T05, 92C20)
(see: Hebb rule)
denominator problem see: small-
denotation
[03Cxx; 03Cxx)
(see: Frai'sse characterization of ele-
mentary equivalence)
densest sphere packing
[II H56, 94835; II H56, 94835)
(see: Octacode)
density see: Girsanov -; low -; Radon-
Nikodym -
density approximation theorem see:
RoqueUe unit -
density point see: ordinary -; strong -
den.,ity properties of grammatical fami-
lies
[03005, 68Q45, 68Q50; 03005,
68Q45, 68Q50)
(see: Grammar form)
Density topology
(26AI5; 26A15)
(refers to: Approximate continu-
ity; Completely-regular space; Con-
nected space; derivative; Hausdorff
space; Lebesgne measure; Normal
space; Nowhere-dense set; Regular
space; weak topology)
densHy topology see: deep I - -; I - -;
ordinary -; strong -
dependence see: Kendall's measure of -;
non-parametric measures of -; Spear-
man's measure of -
dependence between two arbitrary sUb-a--
fields see: measure of -
dependent edge in an acyclic ~rientation
[05Cxx; 05Cxx)
(see: Acyclic orientation)
dependent intersection of hyperplanes
[05835, 20F36, 20F55, 52830, 57N65;
05835, 20F36, 20F55, 52830, 57N65)
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
dependent model see: state--
dependent sequence of random variables
see: m--
Depth-first search
(05Cxx, 68R 10; 05Cxx, 68R 10)
(referred to in: Logic programming)
(refers to: graph; Graph, connectivity
of a; Graph, planar)
depth-jirst search
[9OC35; 9OC35)
(see: Search algorithm)
depth of a group see: p--
derivability condHions see: Lob-
derivable statement of an Ie L -system
[03840; 03840)
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
derivation of a query relative to a logic
program
[6SN17; 68NI7)
(see: Logic programming)
derivation of a query relative to a logic pro-
gram see: successful-
derivative see: critical size and blOW-Up of
the lime- -; exterior -; Grasmann -;
horizontal covariant -; material time -;
Radon-Nikodym -; vertical covariant -
derivative in Boolean calculus
[06E30; 06E30)
(see: 800lean differential calculus)
derivative operator see: Finsler deRa- -
derivative string on a statistical manifold see:
double -
Oerive
[6SQ40; 68Q40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
derived affine plane
[51805; 51805)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION TO AN ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
(see: Benz plane)
Desarguesian lattice
[06C05; 06C05)
(see: Arguesian lattice)
descent see: Kantorovich convergence rate
for steepest -; steepest -
descent algorHhm see: steepest-
design see: *- -; analogue -; com-
binatorial -; computer aided -; com-
puter aided geometric -; computer-
aided geometriC -; cyclic Howell -;
d-dimensional Howell -; doubly resolv-
able combinatorial -; font -; How-
ell -; /.I-resolvable combinatorial -;
non-sequential -; object-oriented -;
resolvable combinatorial -; Room -;
sequential -
design of an experiment see: connected-
design tbeory
[05805, 05807, 94825; 05805,
05807,94825)
(see: Golay code)
Design with mutually orthogonal reso-
lutions
(05805,05815;05805,05815)
(referred to in: Golay code; Room
square)
(refers to: Block design; Room
square)
designs see: orthogonal combinatorial -
OESIR
[68Q40; 68Q40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
detection in radar or sonar signals see:
frequency-hopping -
determinant see: Cayley-Menger-
determinant variation formula see: Poiyakov-
Onofrilog -
determinants of Toeplitz operators see:
SzegO theorem on -
determining .,ystemfor symmetries
[34C20, 35A30, 58019, 58G35;
34C20, 35A30, 58019, 58G35)
(see: Lie symmetry analysis)
Deuring-Eichler theorem
[55N35; 55N35)
(see: Elliptic cohomology)
developing a starter in an Abelian group
[05C70; 05C70)
(see: One-factorization)
deviation principle see: large-
deviations see: large-
deviatoric stress tensor
[73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 760xx)
(see: Bingham fluid)
dfl-sub.,titution
[03005, 68Q45, 68Q50; 03005,
68Q45, 68Q50)
(see: Grammar form)
dfi-substHution see: interpretation of a differential associated wHh a rooted tree see:
grammar modulo a -
DFS
[05Cxx, 68RIO; 05Cxx, 68RIO)
(see: Depth-first search)
di Bruno formula see: Fail-
diagonal guard
[51M20; 51M20)
(see: Art gallery theorems)
diagonal in an algebra with band struc-
ture
[47A57, 47A68; 47A57, 47A68)
(see: Band method)
diagonal in an algebra with band structure
see: right multiplicative -
diagonal space
[20815; 20815)
(see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
diagonal stability in numerical analysis
[65L06; 65L06)
(see: B-convergence)
diagonal type for a primitive permutation
group action
[20815; 20BI5)
(see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
diagonalizable algebra
[03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, OSBxx)
(see: Magari algebra)
diagonalization lemma
[038xx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 088xx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 08Bxx)
(see: Magari algebra)
diagram
[51E24; 51E24)
(see: Diagram geometry)
diagram see: BraUeli -; Carroll -; Eu-
ler -; logical -; Marquand-Veitch -;
skew -; skew Ferrers -; skew Young
-; VoronoT-
Diagram geometry
(5IE24; 51E24)
(refers to: graph; Incidence system;
polar space; Projective plane; Quad-
rangle)
dialetheism
[03B53; 03B53)
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
dialethism
[03B53; 03853)
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
Dickman function
(llN25; llN25)
(refers to: Euler constant)
Dickson algebra see: normed Cayley- -;
pseudo-normed Cayley- -
Dickson conjecture see: Catalan--
Dickson lemma
[I3PIO, 68Q40; 13PlO, 68Q40)
(see: Grobner basis)
dictator
[90A05, 90AOS, 90A28; 90A05,
9OA08, 90A28)
(see: Arrow impossibility theorem)
diffeomorphic manifolds see: CR--
diffeomorphism see: forward fiRration at a
pOint, associated wHh a - ; non-uniformly
hyperbolic -; non-uniformly partially hy-
perbolic -; symplectic -
diffeomorphism at a point see: backward
spectrum of a -; forward spectrum of
a-
difference operation see: Minkowski set -
difference set see: Abelian -; generalized
Hadamard -; Hadamard -; McFarland
-; mURiplier of an Abelian -; Paley -;
(V,k,A)--
difference sets see: equivalence of -;
equivalent -; isomorphic -; isomor-
phismof -
different Huffman codes
[94A29; 94A29)
(see: Huffman code)
differential see: Kahler-
elementary -
differential calculus see: Boolean -; So-
bolev -
differential equation see: Boolean -; crHi-
cal point of an ordinary -; fixed Singular
point of an ordinary -; linear -; movable
singular point of an ordinary -; P-type
-; Painlev,Hype -; regular point of an
ordinary -; Schwarz -; simiiarHy reduc-
tion of a partial differential equation to an
ordinary -; Skorokhod stochastic -
differential equation, integrable in the
sense of complex variables
[58F07; 58F07)
(see: Painleve test)
differential equation of P type
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 5SF07)
(see: Painleve-type equations)
differential equation of Painleve type
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07)
(see: Painleve-type equations)
differential equation to an ordinary differen-
tial equation see: similarHy reduction of
apartial-
519
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
differential equations see: Knizhnik-
Zamolodchikov -; Lie symmetry group
01 a system 01 -; locally topologically
equivalent autonomous systems 01 ordi-
nary -; locally topologically equivalent
systems 01 ordinary -; Monte-Carlo
methods lor partial -; restriction 01 a
system 01 -; Riquier-Janet theory 01 -;
robust stability 01 a system 01 -; stability
01 a system 01 -; topologically equiv-
alent autonomous systems 01 ordinary
-; topologically equivalent systems 01
ordinary -
differentiallorms see: algebra 01 -
differential Galois theory
[11181,11191; 11181, 11J911
(see: E-function)
differential geometry see: affine isoperi-
metric inequality 01 affine -; Bernstein
problem in -; equivariant -; global -
Differential geometry in statistical in-
ference
(53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx)
(referred to in: Statistical manifold;
Yoke)
(refers to: Affine connection; Christof-
fel symbol; Density of a probability
distribution; differentiable manifold;
differential geometry; Levi-Civita
connection; mathematical expecta-
tion; Maximum-likelihood method;
Probability measure; quantum prob-
ability; Riemannian metric; sam-
pling space; Statistics; Symplectic
structure; Yoke)
differential in Boolean calculus
[06E30; 06E30]
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
differential of a Booleanfunction
[06E30; 06E301
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
differential 01 a Boolean lunction see: kth
partial -; partial -; total -
differential of a variable in Boolean cal-
culus
[06E30; 06E30]
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
differential ofa vector in Boolean calculus
[06E30; 06E30]
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
differential operator see: Green function of
a disconjugate -; integro- -; lifting 01 a
pseudo- -
differential predator-prey model see:
Volterra integro- -
diffgrob2
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
diffusion coefficient
[35H05, 35Q60, 35Q72, 78A35,
82C31, 83-XX; 35H05, 35Q60,
35Q72, 78A35, 82C31, 83-XX]
(see: Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-
Planck system)
diffusion equations see: convection-
reaction- -
diffusion flame
[33K57, 35825, 80A25; 33K57,
35825, 80A25]
(see: Activation energy)
diffusion support theorem see: Stroock-
Varadhan -
digit functions see: significant-
digit law see: lirst -; general -; second
-; signilicant- -
digital image processing
[60D05, 68U10; 60D05, 68UIO]
(see: Mathematical morphology)
digon see: generalized-
digraph
[69Fxx, 908xx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 908xx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
Dijkstra algorithm
[9OC27; 9OC271
(see: Greedy algorithm)
dilation
520
160DOS, 68U 10; 60D05, 68U 10] 108C05, l3Fxx, 14Axx, 18COS, 18Fxx;
(see: Mathematical morphology) 08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18COS, 18Fxxl
dilation see: isometric- (see: Jacobson category)
dilation operator Dirichlet boundary conditions
[46820; 46820] (3SGIS; 3SG15)
(see: Boyd index) (referred 10 in: Neumann boundary
dilemma ...;ee: prisoner- conditions)
Dilworth thijorem (refers 10: Differential equation,
106A07; 06A071 partial, of the second order; First
(see: Greene-Kleitman theorem) boundary value problem; Neumann
dimension see: anomalous -; Krull - boundary conditions; Second bound-
dimension (~f a 8es.\'el process ary value problem; Third boundary
[60J65; 6OJ65] value problem)
(see: Bessel processes) Dirichlet conditions
dimension (~la lattice 135G15; 3SGISj
II I H06, IIHI6, Ilml, IIH46, (see: Dirichlet boundary conditions)
IIH50, SIMI I, 5IMIS, 51M16, Dirichlet dala
SIM20, SIM2S; IIH06, IIHI6, 13SG15; 35GI5j
IIH31, IIH46, IIHSO, 51MII, (see: Dirichlet boundary conditions)
51MI5, SIMI6, 51M20, 51M25] Dirichlet form
(see: LLL basis reduction method) 13SJ85, 73Cxx; 3SJ8S, nCxxl
dimension (?la plm'e (see: Signorini problem)
112J20, 14H05; 12120, 14H05] Dirichlet-form operator
(see: Valued function field) 146E35, 46L89, 47D03, S8G03;
dimensional see: Pythagorean theorem, 46E3S, 46L89, 47D03, 58G031
multi- - (see: Hypercontractive semi-gronp)
D1MSYM Dirichlet kernel
142CIO, 43A75; 42CIO, 43A7S1
168Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Walsh functions)
(see: Computer algebra package)
Dirichlet kernel see: Walsh--
Dinitz-Stinson algorithm
Dirichlet L-series
[05C70; OSC70 1
IIIF20; IIF20J
(see: One-factorization)
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
dioid
of modular forms)
116Y60; 16Y601
Dirichlet pigeon-hole principle
(see: Idempotent semi-ring)
lOS-XX; OS-XX]
Diophantine condition
(see: Ramsey number)
[30DOS, SXF13, SXF23; 30DOS, 58F 13,
Dirichlet process
58F231
(o2A15; 62A15)
(see: Siegel disc)
(reiers 10: Bayesian approach; bino-
Diophantine equations see: Algebraic -;
mial distribution; probability distri-
Gel'lond-Baker method lor -
bution; weak topology)
diploid algebra see: gametic-
Dirichlet process prior distribution
Dirac constraint
162AIS; 62AISJ
[17Dxx, 53A50, 55R05, 70-XX,
(see: Dirichlet process)
70M20; 17Dxx, S3ASO, SSR05, 70-
Dirichlet processes see: mixture of -
XX,70M201
Dirichlet r<'Kulator
(see: Kustaanheimo--Stiefel transfor-
IIIG40, IIR23, IIR37, IIR42,
mation)
14CI7, 14Gxx, 19Dxx, 19Exx, 19F27;
Dirac measure
IIG40, IIR23, IIR37, IIR42, 14C17,
IS4D35; S4D351
14Gxx, 19Dxx, 19Exx, 19F271
(see: Banaschewski compactifica-
(see: Bellinson conjectures; Leopoldt
tion)
conjecture)
Dirac operator .~ee: chiral -; Euclidean -
Dirichlet unit theorem
Dirac structure
IIIR23, IIR37, IIR42; IIR23,
[16WSS, 17856, 17860, 17870,
IIR37,IIR42j
17881, S8A10; 16W5S, 178S6,
(see: Leopoldt conjectnre)
17860,I7870,I7881,5XAI01
disc see: schlicht -; Siegel -
(see: Poisson algebra)
Disconcugacy
direct adaptive control
(34CI0; 34C10)
193C40, 93D21; 93C40, 93D211
(relers 10: de la Vallee-Ponssin
(see: Adaptive stabilization)
multiple-point problem; linear dif-
directfactor morphism ferential operator; norm; Oscil-
108C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx; lating differential equation; Oscil-
08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18COS, 18Fxx 1 lating solution; Riccati equation;
(see: Jacobson category) self-adjoint differential equation;
direct product see: matrix- Sturm-Liouville equation; Sturm
direct summand theorem; Univalent function; Varia-
[16Dxx, 16UO, 20C20, 20D20; tional calcnlus)
16Dxx, 16L30, 20C20, 20D201 disconjugacy see: (m, m ) - -
(see: Block) disconjugate differential operator
directed divergence Green function of a ~
[608 10, 60Exx, 628 I 0, 62Exx, dis('onjuKllte on (/11 interval
94AIS, 94A17; 60810, 60Exx, 62B10, 134C10; 34CI01
62Exx, 94AIS, 94A171 (see: Disconcugacy)
(see: Kullback-Leibler informa- disconnected topological space see: totally
tion; Kullback-Leibler-type distance order- -
measures) discontinuity see: pure-
direction discontinuous group action see: properly-
[4IA05; 41AOSI discontinuous stochastic process see:
(see: Box spline) purely -
direction implicit method see: Alternating- discordant value
162F3S; 62F3S1
direction method (sec: Outlier)
[65FI0; 65FI01 discrete edRe fUflction
(see: Acceleration methods) 120Cxx, 20GOS, 22A2S, 22E70;
directly co-disjunctable ()/~ie('f 20Cxx, 20GOS, 22A2S, 22E70J
(see: Racah, Wigner, :l-j, 6-j, and
9 - j coefficients)
discrete event dynamic system
[69Fxx, 908xx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 908xx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
discrete event dynamical system
106E30; 06E30J
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
Discrete event system
(69Fxx, 908xx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 908xx,
93A30)
(referred to ill: Boolean differential
calculus)
(reiers 10: algebra; alphabet; Auto-
matic control theory; automaton;
Control system; Eigen value; Formal
languages and automata; Markov
process; operations research; Petri
net; queueing theory; Unbiased esti-
mator; Word)
discrete event systemsee: event in a -
discrete-time time-invariant linear ('on-
frol s}'stem
[93855, 93C05, 93D15; 93855,
93C05,93D15]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
discrete velocity gas
[82840; 82840J
(see: Broadwell model)
discrete velocity model
182840; 82840J
(see: Broadwell model)
discrete vertex/unction
120Cxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20G05, 22A2S, 22E701
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3 - j, 6 - j, and
9 - j coefficients)
discrete Wiener-Hopf operator
14SElO, 47A68, 47B3S; 45EIO,
47A68,47835j
(see: Wiener-Hopf operator)
discrete Wiener-Hopi operator see: symbol
ola -
discretization error
[60HIO, 60K3S, 6SC05, 65UOS;
60H 10, 60K35, 65COS, 65U051
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial differential equations)
discriminant
[05835, 20F36, 20FS5, S2830, 57N65;
05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52830, 57N651
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
discriminant function see: Fisher linear -
discriminant (4 a map function
[038xx, 06Exx, 94C10; 038xx,
06Exx, 94CI01
(see: Karnaugh map)
discrimination see: information for -
discriminatory information ,'iee: measure
01 -
discs see: domain without large complex -
di"joint-jinite-letter substitution
[03D05, 68Q45, 68QSO; O3DOS,
68Q45,68Q50]
(see: Grammar form)
di,\joint intersection
I06AIO, 60E15; 06AIO, 60EI5j
(see: Correlation ineqnalities)
."ee: disjoint subset 01 a graph see: edge--
disjointed pair of morphisms see: co--
disjointing morphism see: co--
disjunctable object see: co- -; directly co-
-; Ilatly co- -
disjunctable pair of morphisms see: co--
disjunctor ,'iee: co--
dismantlability
106A06; 06A061
(see: Fixed-point property)
dismantlable set
I06A06; 06A06]
(see: Fixed-point property)
dispersion model see: exponential-
dispersion relation
165MOS, 65M 10, 86-08; 65M05,
65MI0,86-08J

(see: Absorbing boundary condi-
tions)
displacement method see: standard-
dissimilarity coefficient
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
dissipation inequality see: residual-
dissipative orbit
[28015, 58F17; 28015, 58F17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
dissipative part (~f a measure space
[28015, 58F17; 28015, 58F17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
dissipative transformation see: com-
pletely -
dissymmetry see: chiral-
distance
[5IMOS, 51MIO, 83Cxx; 51M05,
5IMIO,83Cxx]
(see: Beckman-Quarles-type theo-
rems; Synge world function)
distance
[46Axx, 46A03, 46A13; 46Axx,
46A03,46AI3]
(see: Frechet topology)
distance see: Banach-Mazur -; Bhat-
tacharyya -; Bregman -; Chernoff -;
Euclidean -; Hamming -; Jeffreys -;
Lee -; pseudo- -; weak -
distance between two distributions ,'·iee:
measure of -; measure of variation- -
distance in a chain space
[51 B05; 51 B05]
(see: Chain space)
distance in Q code
[05B05, 05B07, 94B25; 05BOS,
OSB07,94B25]
(see: Golay code)
distance in the projective line
[SIB05; SIB05]
(see: Chain geometry)
distance measure ol Kullhack-Leihler
type
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B I0, 60Exx,
62Exx]
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
distance measures see: Kullback-Leibler-
type -
distance space
[5IM05, 51M10; 5IMOS, 51M10]
(see: Beckman-Quarles-type theo-
rems)
distance to the cube see: Banach-
Mazur -
distant points in a chain space
[5IBOS; 5IBOS]
(see: Chain space)
distinguished boundary
[32E25, 46) 10; 32E25, 46) 10]
(see: Bergman-Shilov boundary)
distributed grammar system !-ice: cooperat-
ing -
distribution see: almost-complex -; Dirich-
let process prior -; double-exponential
-; exchangeable joint probability -;
Frechet -; Gaussian -; Gumbel -;
holomorphic -; limit -; multivariate
normal -; score of a statistical -;
symmetric joint probability -; tail of a -;
tempered -; totally real -; Watanabe -
distribution function statistic see: empiri-
cal-
distribution in the senSl> (~r Watanabe
[60H05, 60H07, 60)65; 60H05,
60H07,60)651
(see: Brownian functional)
distribution law see: tight-
distribution of a code see: weight-
distributional chaos
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
distributional!.v chaotit'functhm
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
distributions see: finite-dimensional para-
metric family of -; measure of distance
between two -; measure of divergence
between two -; measure of separation
between two -; measure of variation-
distance between two -; space of tem-
pered -
distrihutivity in a lattice
[06AI0, 60E15; OMlO, 60E15]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
Ditters-Scholtens theorem
[13K05, 14L05, 16W30; 13K05,
14L05,16W30]
(see: Leibniz-Hopf algebra)
Oitzian-Totik modulus of smoothness
[4IAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40]
(see: Baskakov operators)
divergence see: directed -; f - -; 1-
-; informational -; J - -; Kullback-
Leibler information -; statistical - ; sym-
metric -
divergence between two distributions see:
measure of-
divergence of geodesic rays see: exponen-
tial-
divergence operator
[60Hxx, 6OH07; 60Hxx, 60H07]
(see: Malliavin calculus)
divergence theorem
]73Cxx; 73Cxx]
Isee: Betti reciprocal theorem)
divergences see: ultraviolet-
divergent triangle graph
[8IQ30, 81R25, 81T70; 81Q30,
8IR25,81T70]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
divide-and-conquer fast Fourier transform
algorithm
[65T20; 65T20]
(see: Winograd Fourier transform al-
gorithm)
divisibility theorem see: Brudnyi-Kruglyak
K--;K--
divisor see: normal crossing -
divisor (~f an arrangement (~f hyperplanes
[05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65;
05B35,20F36,20F55,52B30,S7N65]
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
divisor problem see: Titchmarsh-
divisor redUi'tirm mapping
[12)20, 14H05; 12)20, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
Dixmier symholic calculus
[43AI0, 43A46, 43A62; 43AIO,
43A46,43A621
(see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
sis on locally compact)
Dodge sampling plan
[62N 10; 62N lO]
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
does not fork
[03C4S; 03C4S1
(see: Forking)
Dahl fixed-point transfer
[55RI2; 55R12]
(see: Becker-Gottlieb transfer)
Dold transfer see: Becker-Gottlieb--
domain see: coordinate -; Dedekind -;
extension of a principal ideal -; finite ex-
tension of a principal ideal -; Noetherian
-; Ore -; Poincare -; principal ideal
-; Prufer -; Siegel -; special Lipschitz
-; unrestricted -
domain (~fan interpretation
]03Cxx; O3Cxx]
(see: Fralsse characterization of ele-
mentary equivalence)
domain without large complex discs
[32H20; 32H201
(see: Kobayashi hyperbolicity)
domains see: universal-
dominant character
[14FI7, 14M15, 20010; 14F17,
14MI5,20010]
(see: Kempf vanishing theorem)
dominated experiment see: weakly-
domination of measures
[28A99, 62B 15, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62B 15, 62B20, 62C05]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
door algorithm see: revolving-
Doppler
[05B30; 05B30]
(see: Costas array)
dot ope ration
]05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60;
05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60]
(see: Gray code)
double bifurcation
[S8FI4; 58F14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
double centralizer algebra
[43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035]
(see: Arens multiplication)
double derivative string on a statistical
manifold
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx]
(see: Yoke)
double dual space
[43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035]
(see: Arens multiplication)
double-exponential distribution
[2MI2, 60070; 26A12, 60070]
(see: De Haan theory)
double norm see: integral operator of fi-
nite -
double of a Lie algebra
]8IRxx, 8lTxx; 8lRxx, 8lTxx]
(see: Chiral anomaly)
double of a Lie bialgebra structure
[16W30, 17B37, 22E60, 53C15,
58H15, 81R50; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, 53C15, 58H15, 81R50]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
douhle of a Poisson Lie group
[16W30, 17B37, 22E60, 53C15,
58H15, 81R50; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, 53C15, 58H15, 81R50]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
double-sample acceptance sampling plan
[62NlO; 62NlO]
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
doubling route to chaos see: period--
doubly resolvable combinatorial design
[05B05, 05B 15; 05B05, 05B 15]
(see: Design with mutually orthogo-
nal resolutions)
doubly-stochastic measure
[60Exx, 6OJxx, 620xx, 62H20; 60Exx,
60Jxx, 620xx, 62H20]
(see: Copula)
Douglas algebras
[26A45, 32A35, 32A37, 46Exx;
2M45, 32A35, 32A37, 46Exx]
(see: V MO -space)
Douglas tensor
[53C60; 53C60j
(see: Berwald connection)
dove scenario see: hawk--
down-set in a partially ordered set
[06030; 06030]
(see: Ockham algebra)
dressing actions
[16W30, 17B37, 22E60, 53C15,
58H15, 81R50; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, 53C15, 58H15, 81R50]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
Drinfel 'd-Vladut bound
[12E20, 14H25, 94B27; 12E20,
14H25,94B27]
(see: Artin-Schreier code)
driven see: event -; time -
Drop theorem
[2MI5, 54C30, 54E50; 2M15,
54C30, 54E50]
(see: Ekeland variational principle)
dry friction model see: Bliman-
dual see: n- -; {3- -; -y- -; Kothe-
Toeplitz -
dual codes
OVORETZKYPROBLEM
[94B25; 94B25]
(see: MacWilliams identities)
dual interior-point algorithms see: primal-
dual intuitionistic logic
[03B53; O3B53 j
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
dual of a code
]94B25; 94B25]
(see: MacWilliams identities)
dual of a Lie bialgehra structure
[16W30, 17B37, 22E60, 53C15,
58H15, 81R50; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60,53CI5,S8HIS,8IR50]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
dual Poisson Lie group
[16W30, 17B37, 22E60, 53C15,
58H15, 8IRSO; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, S3C IS, S8H 15, 81 R50]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
dual problem
[90CIO, 90CII, 90C27; 90C10,
90CII,90C27j
(see: Lagrangean relaxation)
dual problem see: partial-
dual space see: continuous -; double -
dual yoke
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx]
(see: Yoke)
duality see: Baker-Beynon -; cate-
gorical -; conjugate -; Lagrange -;
MacWilliams -; Orlicz -; Wolfe -
duality gap
]90CIO, 90CII, 90C27; 9OC10,
90CII,90C27]
(see: Lagrangean relaxation)
duality principle see: Ian ice -
duality theorem see: Fefferman-
duality theorem j(Jr Magari algebras
[03Bxx, O3B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 08Bxx]
(see: Magari algebra)
Dubois Nullstellensatz
[03C60, 12Jl5, 12Ll2; 03C60, 12Jl5,
12Ll2]
(see: Real closed field)
Duhem inequality see: Clausius--
dunce hat
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
Dunford-Pettis property
(46Bxx, 47B07; 46Bxx, 47B07)
(refers to: Banach space; Completely-
continuous operator; Grothendieck
space; Hardy spaces; linear opera-
tor; reflexive space; Strong topology;
uniform convergence; B M 0 -space;
VMO-space)
Ourrmeyer integral modification of the
Bernstein polynomials
[4IAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 4IA27, 41A36, 41A40j
(see: Baskakov operators)
Ourrmeyer modification of the Bernstein
polynomials
[4IAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40]
(see: Bernstein-Baskakov-Kantoro-
vich operator)
Duval factorization algorithrn
[05Axx, 17BO I, 20M05; 05Axx,
17BOI,20M051
(see: Lyndon word)
Duval generation algorithm
[OSAxx, 17BO I, 20M05; 05Axx,
17BOI,20M05]
(see: Lyndon word)
Dvoretzky problem
(60005; 60005)
(referred to in: Billard method;
Fitzsimmons-Fristedt~"hepp the-
orem)
(refers to: Billard method; cover-
ing; Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp
521
OVORETZKYPROBLEM
theorem; Hausdorff dimension; Le-
besgue measure; zero-one law)
Dvoretzky problem
[60005; 60005]
(see: Dvoretzky problem)
Dvoretzky problem for random covering
[60005; 60005]
(see: Dvoretzky problem)
Dvoretzky-Rogers factorization see: pro-
portional-
Dvoretzky-Rogers lemma
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Ovoretzky-Rogers lemma
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Dvoretzky-Rogers theorem
[47B 10; 47B 10]
(see: Absolutely summing operator)
Dvoretzky theorem
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Dwork conjecture see: Bombieri--
Oyck languages
[68Q45, 68805; 68Q45, 68805]
(see: Trio)
dynamic incremental non-linear analysis
system see: automatic-
dynamic system see: discrete event -
dynamic tetrahedron see: iso--
dynamical alternative set theory
[03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
dynamical symmetry (in quantum me-
chanics)
[8IRxx, 81R05; 8lRxx, 81R05]
(see: Spectrum generating algebra)
dynamical system see: algebraically
integrable -; billiard -; completely
integrable -; discrete event -; Ko-
valevskaya integrable -; Kowalewski
integrable -; Liouville integrable -
dynamical system in the plane see: au-
tonomous non·linear -
dynamical systems see: Equivalence of -;
theory of non-uniformly hyperbolic -
dynamical systems with non-uniformly hy-
perbolic behaviour see: theory of
smooth -
dynamics see: Non-linear-
dynamics in the see: symbolic-
Dzharsheishvili theorem
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42J
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
___ E ___
t -constraint method
[9OC29; 9OC29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
c-conjecture
[IID41, 11005, 14H25, 14H52;
IID41, 11005, 14H25, 14H52]
(see: Fermat last theorem)
E-expansion in field theory
[8 I R40, 81Tt7, 82B28; 81R40,
8ITI7,82B28]
(see: Renormalization group analy-
sis)
E -contact Bochner curvature tensor
[53A45, 53B35, 53C15, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C15, 53C25]
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
e-error-correcting code see: perfect-
E-function
(lU81, IU91; IU81, IU9!)
(refers to: Algebraic independence;
Algebraic number; Field; G-
function; Galois differential group;
522
Hypergeometric function; Norm on
a field; Taylor series)
Es-Iattice
IIIH56, 94B35; II H56, 94B35]
(see: Octacode)
E-space
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
Eckart theorem see: Wigner--
Eckmann-Ruelle conjecture
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
eeo-grammar system
168QIO, 68Q45, 68Q50; 68QIO,
68Q45,68Q50J
(see: Grammar system)
EDF statistic
[62Fxx, 620xx, 62030; 62Fxx,
620xx, 62030J
(see: Anderson-Darling statistic)
edge-disjoint subset of a graph
[05C70; 05C70J
(see: One-factorization)
edge function see: discrete-
edge guard
[5IM20; 51M20J
(see: Art gallery theorems)
edge in an acyclic orientation see: depen-
dent -
edge of a tetrahedron
[5IM20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
edge of an arrangement of hyperplanes
[05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65;
05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65J
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
edge theorem
[340xx, 93009; 340xx, 93009J
(see: Kharitonov polynomial theory)
edge-touching sphere
[5IM20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XXJ
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
edges of a tetrahedron see: opposite-
EOM-PVF
[62E20; 62E20J
(see: Box-Cox transformation)
effect see: Bohrn-Aharonov-
effective see: numerically-
effective Noetherian ring
[13PIO, 68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q401
(see: Buchberger algorithm)
effective ring
[68Q40; 68Q40J
(see: Computer algebra package)
effective viscosity
[73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 760xxJ
(see: Bingham fluid)
effects model see: random-
efficiency see: asymptotic Bahadur -; Ba-
hadur -
efficiency of the Bayesian estimator see:
asymptotic -
e.fficient estimation
[62F35; 62F35]
(see: Outlier)
efficient estimation
[62FI2, 62020; 62F12, 62020]
(see: Asymptotic optimality)
efficient solution
[90C29; 90C29]
(see: MUlti-objective optimization)
efficient statistic see: Bahadur-
Effros-Handelman-Shen theorem
119Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46L80]
(see: AF-algebra)
Egervary theorem see: K6nig--
egg-like Benz plane
[5IB05; 51B05]
(see: Benz plane)
EGZtheorem
[05C55, 05010, 20KOI; 05C55,
05010,20KOIJ
(see: Erdos-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem)
EGZ theorem see: Weidong generalization
of the -
EHP spectral sequence
(55Q40; 55Q40)
(refers to: Exact sequence; fibra-
tion; homomorphism; spectral se-
quence; Spheres, homotopy groups
of the; Stable homotopy group; vec-
tor space)
EHP spectral sequence see: Toda version
of the -
Ehrenfeucht-Fra'isse characterization
[03Cxx; 03CxxJ
(see: Fralsse characterization of ele-
mentary equivalence)
Ehrenfeucht game
103Cxx; 03Cxx]
(see: Fralsse characterization of ele-
mentaryequivalence)
Eichler theorem see: Deuring--
eigenspace see: critical -; stable leading
-; unstable leading -
eigenvalue see: Anti- ~; critical ~;
focus leading -; index of an -; resonant
-; saddle-focus leading -; saddle lead-
ing -; stable leading -; unstable lead-
ing -
eigenvalue bounds for a Calderon-
Toeplitz operator
[42Cxx, 47B35, 47B38; 42Cxx,
47B35,47B38]
(see: Calderon-Toeplitz operator)
eigenvalue-eigenvector problem
[651"10; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
eigenvalue problem
[73Bxx, 13Cxx, 730xx. 73040,
76033; 73Bxx, 13Cxx, 73Dxx, 73040,
76033J
(see: Acceleration wave)
eigenvalues see: non-resonant
Rayleigh-Ritz variational characteriza-
tion of ~; resonant -
eigenvector see: anti--
eigenvector problem see: eigenvalue--
eigenvectors see: adjoint-
Eilenberg-MacLane G-complex
155N25; 55N25]
(see: Bredon cohomology)
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox
181015, 8lPxx; 81015, 8lPxx]
(see: Bell inequalities)
Eisenstein series
[IIF20; II F20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
f.l'K -contact Bochner curvature tensor
153A45, 53B35, 53C15, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C25 J
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
Ekeland principle
[26AI5, 54C30, 54E50; 26A15,
54C30, 54E50]
(see: Ekeland variational principle)
Ekeland variational principle
(26A 15, 54C30, 54E50; 26A 15,
54C30, 54E50)
(refers to: Banach space; Compact-
ness; Complete metric space; com-
plete metric space; Completeness (in
topology); convex analysis; Convex
function (of a real variable); Hahn-
Banach theorem; semi-continuous
function)
Ekeland variational principle
[52A07; 52A07]
(see: Brl/ndsted-Rockafellar theo-
rem)
elastic body see: deformation of an -;
strain in an -
elastic modulus of a plate
[3IA30, 31B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
13KI5; 31A30, 31B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
13KI5J
(see: Von Karman equations)
elasticity see: non-linear-
elasticity theory see: second-order-
elasto-plastic materials see: numerical
methods for -
elasto-plasticity see: Besseling model of -
elation type see: Baer group, maximal of -
element see: Casimir -; completely join-
irreducible lattice -; Hall -; length of
a group -; positive-definite algebra -;
prime -; totally p-adic field -
element Boolean algebra see: two--
element in a C' -algebra see: positive
semi-definite -
element in a co-algebra see: Primitive-
element in a modular lattice see: indepen-
dent -
element in C (A) see: positive-
element in mathematical morphology see:
structuring -
element of a co-algebra see: group-like -;
primitive -
element of a partially ordered set see: cen-
tral -; neutral -
element of a tensor operator see: reduced
focus- matrix -
elementarily equivalent interpretations
[03Cxx; 03CxxJ
(see: Fralsse characterization of ele-
mentary equivalence)
elementary Abelian p-group
[20C20, 200xx; 2OC20, 200xx]
(see: p.rank)
elementary class l!f algebras
[03C05, 03C07, 03C20; 03C05,
03C07,03C20J
(see: Keisler-Shelah isomorphism
theorem)
elementary class of algebras see: wide-
sense -
elementary {'ollapse
120F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
elementary differential associated with a
rooted tree
[65Lxx; 65LxxJ
(see: Butcher series)
elementary equivalence
[03C05, 03C07, 03C20; 03C05,
03C07,03C20]
(see: Keisler-Shelah isomorphism
theorem)
elementary equivalence see: Fra'isse char-
acterization of -
elementary extension
[03C60, 12110, 12L12; 03C60, 1211 0,
12L12]
(see: Model theory of valued fields)
elementary finite group
[20CI5; 20CI5J
(see: Brauer characterization of
characters)
elementary geometry of the see: Tetrahe-
dron, -
elementary group see: p--
elementary hyperbolic group
[20F32; 20F32]
(see: Hyperbolic group)
elementary sentence
[03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95;
03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95]
(see: Transfer principle)
elementary substructure
[03C07; 03C07]
(see: Structure)
elementary theory see: complete -; com-
pleteness of an -; model completeness
of an -
elementary theory of algebraically closed
valued fields
[03C60, 11035, IIR58, 12L05,
14025; 03C60, 11035, llR58, 12L05,
14025]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
elementary theory of fields
[03C60, 12J 10, 12L12; 03C60, 12110,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)

elementary theory of real closed fields see:
completeness of the -
elementary theory of the p-adic numbers
[03C60, 12110, 12L12; 03C60, 12110,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)
elementary theory of the ring of algebraic
integers
[03C60, IIG3S, llRS8, 12LOS,
14G2S; 03C60, llG3S. llRS8, 12LOS,
14G2S]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
elementary theory of the ring of algebraic
integers see: decidability of the -
elementary theory of Z
[03C60, llG3S, II RS8, 12LOS,
14G2S; 03C60, llG3S. IIRS8, 12LOS.
14G2S]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
elementary variety of algebras
[03Gxx, 03GIS, 06Exx, 06EIS;
03Gxx, 03G IS, 06Exx, 06E IS]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
elementary word
[13KOS, 14LOS, 16W30; 13KOS,
14LOS, 16W30]
(see: Leibniz-Hopf algebra)
elements see: collinear lattice -; Lie alge-
bra of primitive -
elements in an I-group see: orthogonal-
elements of a partially ordered set see: in-
comparable -
ELIAS
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
elimination see: Gauss-
elimination method see: Gauss-
Elimination of quantifiers
(03CIO, 03C9S; 03CIO, 03C9S)
(referred to in: Algebraic Diophantine
equations; Model theory of the real
exponential function; Model theory
of valued fields; Model theory of
valued fields; Real closed field; Real
closed field; Structure; p-adically
closed field; p-adically closed field)
(refers to: elementary theory; elim-
ination theory; Model theory;
Real closed field; resultant; Semi-
algebraic set; Structure; Sturm the-
orem)
elimination of quantifiers see: relative-
elimination ordering
[13PIO, 68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40]
(see: Buchberger algorithm)
elimination process see: Lazard-
Elliot identity see: Biedenharn--
Elliott classification program
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx.
46Lxx, 46L80]
(see: AF -algebra)
Elliott-Daboussi theorem
(lIN37; IIN37)
(referred to in: Delange theorem;
Wirsing theorems)
(refers to: Delange theorem; Dirichlet
character; multiplicative arithmetic
function; semi-norm)
elliptic Calogero--Moser-Krichever sys-
tem
[14020, 14H40, 14HS2, 14K2S,
22E67, 33EOS, 34LOS, 3SQS3, S8F07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14HS2,
14K2S, 22E67, 33EOS. 34LOS, 3SQS3,
S8F07, 70H20]
(see: Calogero--Moser-Krichever
system)
Elliptic cohomology
(SSN3S; SSN3S)
(refers to: cobordism; cohomology;
elliptic curve; Elliptic genera; formal
group; K -theory; Legendre polyno-
mials; Modul\lr form)
elliptic equation see: hyper- -; super- -
elliptic flock
ISIExx. SIN IS; SIExx, SINIS]
(see: Flock)
Elliptic genera
(SSN22, 5SN35; 5SN22, S5N35)
(referred to in: Elliptic cohomology)
(refers to: Abel theorem; Alge-
braically closed field; cobordism;
Elliptic curve; elliptic integral; for-
mal group; Jacobi elliptic functions;
Lie group; local field; manifold;
meromorphic function; modular
form; perfect field; Principal G-
object; theta-function; valuation)
elliptic genus
[SSN22, 5SN3S; 5SN22, 5SN35]
(see: Elliptic genera)
elliptic genus see: level-2-
elliptic homology
[SSN35; 55N35]
(see: Elliptic cohomology)
elliptic hypercomplex number
[16Sxx, I7Axx. I7Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005.
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
elliptic isometry of hyperbolic spaces
[53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
elliptic Liouville equation
[3SAxx, 3SA30, 35L05, 58F07, 58F37;
3SAxx, 3SA30, 35L05, 58F07, S8F37]
(see: Liouville equation)
elliptic material see: strongly-
elliptic operator see: boundary value prob-
lemforan -
elliptic scroll
[14Kxx, 58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07]
(see: Abelian surface)
elliptic variational inequality
[35J85, 73Cxx; 35J85, 73Cxx]
(see: Signorini problem)
embedding see: Bers -; Frink -
empirical Bayes theory see: Robbins-
empirical distribution function statistic
[62Fxx, 62Gxx. 62G30; 62Fxx,
62Gxx, 62G30]
(see: Anderson-Darling statistic)
empirical measure
[05A05, 60B 12; 05A05, 60B 12]
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
Empirical process
(60B 10, 60Exx, 60FOS. 62Exx; 60B 10,
60Exx, 60F05, 62Exx)
(referred to in: Vapnik-Chervonenkis
class)
(refers to: Binomial distribution;
Central limit theorem; central limit
theorem; Convergence in distribu-
tion; Empirical distribution; en-
tropy; Gaussian process; Law of
the iterated logarithm; measurable
space; Non-parametric methods
in statistics; probability measure;
sample; stochastic process; Vapnik-
Chervonenkis class; Weak topology)
empirical process indexed by functions
[60B 10, 60Exx, 60F05, 62Exx; 60B 10.
60Exx. 60F05, 62Exx]
(see: Empirical process)
empirical process indexed by sets
[60B 10, 60Exx, 60F05, 62Exx; 60B 10,
60Exx, 60F05, 62Exx]
(see: Empirical process)
empty apartment
[20G2S; 20G2S]
(see: Bruhat-Tits building)
empty sphere property
[68UOS; 68UOS]
(see: Delaunay triangulation)
encoding at a synapse see: local data -
end compactification
[53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
endomorphism see: lattice-
energy see: Activation -; Helmholtz free
-; internal -
Enfto counterexample
[42CIO, 43A75; 42CIO, 43A75]
(see: Walsh series)
Enfto example
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Enllo's example of a space without the ap-
proximation property see: Szarek finite-
dimensional analogue of -
engineering stress
[73B30. 80AOS. 80A97; 73B30,
80A05, 80A97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
Enskog equation see: Vlasov--
Enskog system see: Vlasov--
entailment
[03B53; 03B53]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
entered Karnaugh map see: variable--
entered variable
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94C 10]
(see: Karnaugh map)
entier
[9OC 10; 90C 10]
(see: Branch-and-bound algorithm)
entire functions see: Levin-Pfluger theory
of completely regular growth of -
entropy see: conditional -; Kolmogorov-
Sinai - ; relative -; relative operator - ;
Shannon -; source -; specific -; topo-
logical-
entropy characterization see: maximum-
entropy formula see: Pesin-
entropy integral
[30E05, 47A57, 47A68, 93EI1;
30E05, 47A57, 47 A68, 93EII]
(see: Band method; Caratheodory-
Toeplitz extension problem; Nehari
extension problem)
entropy of degree i3
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exx]
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
entropy principle see: maximum-
entropy solution see: maximum-
enumerable language see: recursively-
enumerable languages see: family of re-
cursively -; family of recursively -
enumerator see: weight-
enveloping algebra see: von Neumann -
epigraph
[26A 15, 46A22, S2A07, S4C30,
54E50; 26A15, 46A22, 52A07, 54C30,
54E50]
(see: Bishop--Phelps theorem;
Brllndsted-Rockafellar theorem;
Ekeland variational principle)
epigraph
[9OC30; 90C30]
(see: Proximal point methods in
mathematical programming)
epigraph topology
[26A15, 54C30, 54E50; 26A15.
54C30, 54E50]
(see: Ekeland variational principle)
equality see: i371--
equalizer see: co--
equation see: Abstract Volterra -; acous-
tic wave - ; Bellman - ; Bitsadze-
Lavrent'ev -; Boolean -; Boolean
differential -; Boussinesq -; Buckley-
Leverett -; chemical reaction -; clas-
sical Yang-Baxter - ; critical point
of an ordinary differential -; cubic
Schr6dinger -; cylindrical KdV -; cylin-
drical Korteweg--de Vries -; elliptic
Liouville -; Fermat -; fixed singular
point of an ordinary differential -; fun-
damental solution of a Markov-Hurwitz
-; generalized cylindrical Korteweg--de
Vries -; generalized stationary Bellman
-; Hamilton-Jacobi -; homogeneous
Bellman -; Hurwitz -; Hutchinson -;
hyper-elliptic -; linear differential
EQUILIBRIUM
Liouville -; MacWilliams -; Markoff-
Hurwitz -; Markov -; Markov-Hurwitz
-; master -; Michaelis-Menten -;
mKdV -; modified KdV -; modified
Kortweg-de Vries -; modified Yang-
Baxter -; modular -; movable singular
pOint of an ordinary differential -; non-
linear Schr6dinger -; one-way wave
-; P-type differential -; Painleve-type
differential -; paraxial one-way wave -;
regular point of an ordinary differential
-; S -unit -; Schwarz differential -;
similarity reduction of a partial differen-
tial equation to an ordinary differential
Skorokhod stochastic differential
-; soliton -; solution of the classical
Yang-Baxter -; solution of the gen-
eralized Yang-Baxter -; super-elliptic
-; Sylvester -; Thue -; Tijdeman
theorem on the Catalan -; viscous
Burgers -; Vlasov-Enskog -; Vlasov-
Fokker-Planck -; Vlasov-Maxwell -;
vorticity -
equation for Bessel polynomials see:
weight -
equation for the hydrogen atom see: ra-
dial-
equation, integrable in the sense of complex
variables see: differential-
equation of A-stability see: test-
equation of P type see: differential-
equation of Painleve type see: differen-
tial-
equation over function fields see: Fermat-
equation to an ordinary differential equation
see: similarity reduction of a partial dif-
ferential-
equational cla.. s of algebras
[03C05, 03C07, 03C20; 03C05,
03C07, 03C20]
(see: Keisler-Shelah isomorphism
theorem)
equational class of algebras
[06D30; 06030]
(see: Ockham algebra)
equations see: Algebraic Diophantine
- ; CaUChy-Riemann -; Convection
convection-reaction-diffusion -;
FitzHugh-Nagumo -; Gel'fond-Baker
method for Diophantine -; iterative
solution method for systems of linear
-; Knizhnik-Zamolodchikov differential
-; Lie symmetry group of a system of
differential -; locally topologically equiv-
alent autonomous systems of ordinary
differential -; locally topologically equiv-
alent systems of ordinary differential -;
Lorenz -; Monte-Carlo methods for
partial differential -; Painleve-type -;
restriction of a system of differential -;
Riquier-Janet theory of differential -; ro-
bust stability of a system of differential -;
Seiberg-Witten -; Skolem question on
decidability of solution of systems of poly-
nomial -; solution of a sparse system
of -; stability of a system of differential
-; topologically equivalent autonomous
systems of ordinary differential -; topo-
logically equivalent systems of ordinary
differential -; Von Karman -
equations for plates see: Von Karman -
equations in cooperative and social phe-
nomena see: Master-
equi-barycentre
[5IM04; 51M04]
(see: Centroid)
equi-partition-of-mass theorem
[05A18. 51M25. 55M20; 05AI8,
51M25,55M20]
(see: Ham-sandwich theorem)
equilibria see: codimension-two bifurca-
tions of-
equilibrium see: asymptotically stable -;
fold -; Hopf -; hyperbolic -; Nash -;
non-hyperbolic -; saddle-node -; ther-
mal-
523
EQUIVALENCE
equivalence see: elementary -; FraIssa
characterization of elementary -; in dis-
cernibility -; local topological -; plactic
-; topological -
equivalence in an affine space
[20025; 20025)
(see: Bruhat-Tits building)
equivalence of difference sets
[05B 10, II B 13, 20KO I; 05B 10,
IIBI3,20KOI)
(see: Abelian ditTerence set)
Equivalence of dynamical systems
(34C20, 58Fxx; 34C20, 58Fxx)
(referred to in: Centre manifold;
Codimension-two bifurcations; Hopf
bifurcation; Saddle-node bifurca-
tion)
(refers to: Autonomous system; Flow
(continuous-time dynamical system);
homeomorphism)
equivalence of graphs
[05CI5; 05CI5)
(see: Hedetniemi conjecture)
equivalence principle see: certainty-
equivalence principle for random walks
[05A 19, 60J 15, 60K05; 05A 19, 60J 15,
60K05]
(see: Andersen theorem)
equivalence principle in statistics
[05A19, 60Jl5, 60K05; 05AI9, 60J 15,
60K05]
(see: Andersen theorem)
equivalent autonomous systems of ordinary
differential equations see: locally topo-
logically -; topologically -
equivalent CR-manifolds
[32C16, 53C15; 32CI6, 53CI51
(see: CR-manifold)
equivalent difference sets
[05B 10, II B 13, 20KO I; 05B I0,
IIBI3,20KOI)
(see: Abelian ditTerence set)
equivalent grammars see: form-
strongly form- -
equivalent graphs
105C15; 05CI5)
(see: Hedetniemi conjecture)
equivalent interpretations
103Cxx; O3Cxx]
(see: Frai'sse characterization of ele-
mentary equivalence)
equivalent interpretations see: elementar-
ily -
equivalent points in an affine space
[20025; 20025)
(see: Bruhat-Tits building)
equivalent representations
181Txx; 8lTxx]
(see: Bohm-Aharonov etTect)
equivalent systems of ordinary differential
equations see: locally topologically -;
topologically -
equivalent trees
[65Lxx; 65Lxx]
(see: Butcher series)
equivalent weights of a group algebra of
positive characteristic
119Cxx,20C20; 19Cxx, 20C20]
(see: Alperin conjecture)
equivariant cohomology theory
[55N25; 55N25]
(see: Bredon cohomology)
equivariant differential geometry
[53C42, 57R40, 57R42; 53C42,
57R40, 57R42)
(see: Bernstein problem in ditTeren-
tial geometry)
erasing morphism operation for languages
see: non--
Erdjjs~Ginzburg-Ziv constant
[05C55, 05D I0, 20KO I; 05C55,
05DIO,20KOI)
(see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem)
Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem
(05C55, 05D 10, 20KO I; 05C55,
05DIO,20KOI)
524
(refers to: Abelian group; cyclic
group; Davenport constant; Dirich-
let principle; Erdiis-Heilbronn prob-
lem; Fermat little theorem; Graph
theory; Ramsey theorem)
Erdos-Heilbrann conjecture
105C55, 05DIO, 20KOI; 05CSS,
05D 10, 20KO I]
(see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem)
Erdiis-Heilbronn problem
(20KOI; 20KOI)
(referred to in: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem)
(refers to: Abeliau group; linear alge-
bra; Prime number; prime number)
Erdiis-Kac theorem
[IIK65, IIN37; IIK65, IIN371
(see: Hardy-Ramanujan theorem)
Erdiis-Wintner ('onjel'ture
IIIA25, IIN37, IIN56; IIA2S,
IIN37,IIN561
(see: Halasz mean value theorem;
Wirsing theorems)
ergodic component
128015, 58F17; 28DI5, S8FI71
(see: Hopf alternative)
ergodic geodesic How
[S3C20, 58F17; 53C20, 58F171
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem)
ergodic group action
[53C20, 58F17; 53C20, 58FI71
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem)
ergodic semi·group of operators
strongly -
ergodic theorem see: ratio-
ergodic tran.\jormation
128DI5, 58F17; 28DI5, 5XFI71
(see: Hopf alternative)
Erlang loss model
[60K25, 68M20; 60K25, 68M201
(see: Performance analysis)
erosion
[60D05, 68U10; 60D05, 6XUI01
(see: Mathematical morphology)
error . . ee: data -; discretization - ; inner·
product -; rounding -; statistical -:
truncation -
error-correcting code see: perfect ('- -
error in a feedfofl'Vard network
[62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68TH);
62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 6RTI01
(see: Neural network)
error in h~t()rmali(}n theory
[60B I 0, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exxl
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
error rate see: Kantorovich-
Ershov principle see: Ax-Koch en- -
essential smoothness
[52Axx, 90Cxx, 90C05, 90C2S;
52Axx, 90Cxx, 90C05, 90C25 I
(see: Bregman function)
estimate see: a priori -; Bourgain~ Szarek
-; Milman low M* --
estimates see: Gurarii-Kadec-Macaev-
estimating functions see: Asymptotic opti-
malityof -
estimation see: accommodative -; effi-
cient -; robust -
estimator see: asymptotic efficiency of the
Bayesian -; Best linear unbiased -; lin-
ear unbiased -; maximum-likelihood -;
strong consistency of the Bayesian -
eta-function see: Dedekind-
etale homotopy
119L20,55Q20; 19L20, 55Q201
(see: Adams conjecture)
Euclid parallel axiom
[5IB05; 51B05)
(see: Chain space)
Euclidean Bianchi group
[20020; 20020)
(see: Bianchi group)
Euclidean Cauchy-Riemann operator
115A66, 30030, 30035; 15A66,
30030, 30035)
(see: ClitTord analysis)
Euclidean IJira(' operator
115A66, 30030, 30035; 15A66,
30030, 3003S]
(see: ClitTord analysis)
Euclidean distance
151M05, 51M 10; 51M05, 51M10]
(see: Beckman-Quarles-type theo-
rems)
Euclidean Kripke frame
[03B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E2S;
O3B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E251
(see: Sahlqvist theorem)
Euclidean motion
151M05, 51M 10; SIM05, SIMIOI
(see: Beckman-Quarles-type theo-
rems)
Euclidean sections see: theorem on volume
ratio and -
Euclidean space see: Centroid of a set of
points in -
Euclidicit\'
[03B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E2S;
03B45, 03005_ 06Exx, 06E25]
(see: Sahlqvist theorem)
Euler addition j'!fmula
[SSN22, 55N3S; 55N22, 55N351
(see: Elliptic genera)
Euler hase-b pseudo-prime
[II A51, II N25, II Y II; II A51,
IIN25,IIYIII
(sec: Pseudo-prime)
.'·jet.::
Euler characteristic
[5HF99, SHOIO; 58F99, SHOIOI
(see: Poincare-Hopf theorem)
Euler circuit
[OSC45; OSC4S1
(see: Euler tour)
Euler (vele
[OSC45; 05C4S1
(see: Euler tour)
Euler diagram
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C I0; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94CIOI
(see: Karnaugh map)
Eulerformal group law
15SN22, 5SN35; 55N22, SSN351
(see: Elliptic genera)
Euler notation for a tetrahedron
[51 M20, S2-XX; 51M20, 52-XXI
(sec: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
Euler scheme
[60H 10, 60K35, 6SCOS, 6SUOS;
60H I0, 6OK35, 65C05, 65U05 J
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial ditTerential equations)
Euler summability sec: absolute-
Euler lOp
[5Xf07; SXF071
(see: Kowalewski top)
Euler totien!
[IIAxx; IIAxxl
(sec: Totient function)
t:uler totientfun(,ti(J11
IIIAxx; IIAxx]
(.,ee: Totient function)
Euler totient function
IIINI3, IIN36; IINI3, IIN36]
(.,ee: Bombieri prime number theo-
rem)
Euler totient function see: Carmichael con-
jecture on the -: Lehmer problem on
the -
Euler tour
(05C4S; 05C4S)
(reters to: Classical combinatorial
problems; Graph circuit)
Euler witness
III A51, II N25, II Y II; II ASI,
IIN25,IIYII]
(see: Pseudo-prime)
Eulerian cycle
IOSC45; 05C45]
(see: Euler tour)
evaluation function
[43Axx, 46Hxx, 47D27, 4703S;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47D27, 47D35]
(see: Arens multiplication)
event see: controllable -: uncontrol-
lable -
event driven
169Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
event dynamic system see: discrete-
event dynamical system see: discrete-
event function see.' feasible-
event graph
169Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30)
(see: Discrete event system)
event graph see: timed-
event in a discrete event system
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30)
(see: Discrete event system)
event system see: Discrete -; event in a
discrete -
events see: exchangeable random -
eventual stability
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q551
(see: Analysis of programs)
eventually periodic aliquot sequence
[II B37; II B37]
(see: Aliquot sequence)
eventually strict Lyapunov function
[28Dxx, 58F15; 28Dxx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
everywhere see: good reduction -
evolution see: mathematical constraint on
thermodynamical -
evolution problem
160HIO, 60K35, 65C05, 65UOS;
60H I0, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05]
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial ditTerential equations)
Evolutionarily stable strategy
(90A14, 90Dxx, 92Bxx; 90AI4,
90Dxx, 92Bxx)
(refers to: Games, theory of; Nash
theorem (in game theory); Strategy
(in game theory); Two-person zero-
sum game)
evolutionarily stable strategy
[90AI4, 90Dxx, 92Bxx; 90AI4,
90Dxx, 92Bxx]
(see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
evolutionari(v stable with respect to a
,\'trategy
[90AI4, 90Dxx, 92Bxx; 90AI4,
90Dxx, 92Bxx]
(see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
evolutionary quadratic operator
117D92, 92D10; 17D92, 92DIO)
(see: Bernstein algebra)
exact functor theorem see: Landweber-
exact Gerstenhaber algehra
[16W55, 17B56, 17B60, 17B70,
17B81, 58A10; 16W5S, 17B56,
17B60, 17B70, 17B81, 58A10]
(see: Poisson algebra)
exact sequence see: Connes-Gysin-
exact slope see: Bahadur-
example see: Enflo-
example (~f a coefficient system
[55N25; 55N25]
(see: Bredon cohomology)
example of a reflexive space not having
the Banach-Saks property see: Baern-
stein -
example of a space without the approxi-
mation property see: Szarek finite-
dimensional analogue of Entia's -
examples o{l-groups
I06FI5, 20F60; 06FI5, 20F601
(see: {-group)
exchange property
105B35, 06Bxx; 05B35, 06Bxx I
(see: Jordan-Dedekind space)
exchange property see: weak-
exchangeable increment pnwess
160009; 60009]

(see: De Finetti theorem)
exchangeable joint probabilitv distribu-
tion
[60G09; 60G09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
exchangeable random events
[280xx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K3S;
280xx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35]
(see: Bernoulli measure)
exchangeable sequence (~f random vari·
abies
[60G09; 60G09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
excision/or cyclic cohomology
[16E40, 46L8S, SSN3S, S8G12;
16E40, 46L8S, SSN3S, S8G 12]
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
exciting threshold auto-regressive model
see: self--
exclusion see: method of inclusion-and- -
exclusion method see: inclusion-and--
exclusion principle see: Sylvester inclusion-
and- -
excursion see: Bernoulli ~; Brownian -
excursion process see: Brownian-
exhaustive graph
[OSCxx; OSCxx]
(see: Acyclic orientation)
existence theorem see: Rumely-
existential sentence with parameters
[03CSO, 03C9S; O3CSO, 03C9S]
(see: Existentially closed)
Existentially closed
(03CSO, 03C9S; 03CSO, 03C9S)
(referred to in: Model theory of valued
fields; Robinson test; Valued func-
tion field)
(refers to: Algebraically closed field;
closed formula; Elementary the-
ory; field; Hilbert theorem; Model
(in logic); Model theory; p-adically
closed field; Real closed field; real
closed field; Structure)
existentially complete
[03CSO, 03C9S; O3C50, 03C9S]
(see: Existentially closed)
exotic spheres
[81 Q30, 81 R2S, 8IT70; 81 Q30,
8IR2S,81T70]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
expansion see: Fourier -; Gram-Charlier
-; invariant Taylor -; Laurent -; Series
-; Taylor -; thermal-
expansion for a singular perturbation prob-
lem see: outer -; regular -
expansion in field theory see: E--
expansion of a structure
[03C07; 03C07]
(see: Structure)
expected a-connection
[S3Cxx, 62Fxx; S3Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
expected a-geometry
[S3Cxx, 62Axx; S3Cxx, 62Axx]
(see: Yoke)
expected geometry
[S3Cxx, 62Fxx; S3Cxx, 62Fxx I
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
expected information
[S3Cxx, 62Fxx; S3Cxx, 62Fxx I
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
expected likelihood yoke
[S3Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx I
(see: Yoke)
expected skewness tensor
[S3Cxx, 62Fxx; S3Cxx, 62Fxxl
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
experiment see: coherent -; connected
design of an -; paired comparison -;
undominated -; weakly dominated -;
L-space of a statistical -
explosion model see: thermal-
explosive consequence relation
[03BS3; O3BS31
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
explosive hWical consequence
[03B53; O3BS31
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
exponent see: backward upper Lyapunov
-; critical -; forward multiplicity of a Lya-
punov -; forward upper Lyapunov -;
Lundberg -
exponent at a point see: value of a forward
upper Lyapunov -
exponent of a reflection group
[05B3S, 20F36, 20FSS, S2B30, S7N6S;
05835,20F36,20FSS, S2B30, S7N6S]
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
exponent of an arrangement of hyper-
planes
[05835, 20F36, 20FS5, S2B30, S7N65;
OSB3S,20F36,20F55,S2830,S7N6S]
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
exponential auto-regressive model
[62MIO; 62MIO]
(see: Canadian lynx series)
exponential-class Moser-Trudinger in-
equality
[46E3S, S8GXX; 46E35, 58GXX]
(see: Moser-Trndinger inequality)
exponential connection
153Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
exponential dispersion model
[62E20; 62E20 I
(see: Box-Cox transformation)
exponential distribution see: double--
exponential divergence (~lgeodesic rays
[S3C99; 53C991
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
exponential function see: Model theory of
the real-
exponential model
[S3Cxx, 62Fxx; S3Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
exponential multipliers method see: Bert-
sekas -
exponential polynomial
111837; IIB371
(see: Skolem-Mahler-Lech theorem)
exp(mential topology
154Bxx, 68UIO; S4Bxx, 68U10]
(see: Hit-or-miss topology)
expression swell see: intermediate-
expressions see: substitutivity of synony-
mous -
exsphere of' the first kind
ISIM20, S2-XX; SIM20, S2-XXI
(.see: Tetrabedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
exsphere of'the second kind
151M20, 52-XX; SIM20, S2-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
extended f{ -system
[68S05, 92020; 68S0S, 92020]
(see: Splicing operation)
extended irreversible thermodynamics
[73830, SOAOS, 80A97; 73B30,
SOA05, SOA97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
extended Kuhn-Tucker condition
[90C29; 90C29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
extended normal coordinates
[S3Cxx, 62Axx; S3Cxx, 62Axxl
(see: Yoke)
extended-real-valued function see: proper-
extended regularly varying function
[26A 12; 26A 12]
(see: Karamata theory)
extended version of the Riemann hypoth-
esis
[IIA51, IIN25, IIYII; IIASI,
IIN2S,IIYII]
(see: Pseudo-prime)
extended Zeeman conjecture
FACTORIZABLE MULTI-PARTICLE SCATTERING MATRIX
[20FOS, 57M20, S7QOS; 20FOS, extremization principle see: Phelps-
S7M20, 57Q05] Eymard algebra see: Fourier--
(see: Collapsibility)
extension see: a-saturated -; Abel-
ian -; algebraically maximal field -;
band -; cyclotomic Z p - - ; degree of
a field -; elementary -; hyper-quasi- ___ F ___
-; immediate -; maximal immediate -;
non-forking -; R-positive -; saturated
-; strong -; tame -; tamely ramified 'P-rank see: Morley-
field -; Tate-Oort Galois -; weak -; r.p-section
Yoneda -; Zp-- [S3C2S; S3C2S]
extension of a Boolean algebra see: canon- (see: Sasakian manifold)
ical -; periect - 'P-sectional curvature
extension of a code [S3C2S; 53C2S]
[05BOS, OSB07, 94B2S; OSB05, (see: Sasakian manifold)
OSB07,94B2SI tp-sectional curvature see: constant-
(see: Golay code) F see: algebra of type -
extension of a Hopf order see: Galois- F see: generator of the family -
extension (~la local ring I-algebra
[20COS, 20C10; 20COS, 20CIO] (46E05, 46Jxx; 46EOS, 46Jxx)
(see: Clifford theory) (refers to: algebra; Continuous func-
extension of a local ring see: finite- tions, space of; lattice; linear oper-
extension of a partially ordered set see: lin- ator; Riesz space; topological space;
ear- vector space)
extension ofa predicate constant F-algebra
[03Cxx; mCxx] [46Hxx; 46Hxxl
(see: Fra'sse characterization of ele- (see: Frechet algebra)
mentary equivalence) F -algebra see: locally pseUdo-convex -
extension (~r a principal ideal domain I-algebra
[2OCOS, 20CIO; 20COS, 20CIO] [46EOS, 46Jxx; 46EOS, 46Jxxl
(see: Clifford theory) (see: I-algebra)
extension of a principal ideal domain see: I-algebra see: Archimedean semi-
finite - prime-
extension of the Caratheodory-Toeplitz ex-
I -divergence
tension problem see: band- [60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
extension problem see: band exten- 62Exx]
sion of the Caratheodory-Toeplitz -;
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
Caratheodory-Schur -; Caratheodory-
measures)
Toeplitz -; central solution of the
I -divergence
Caratheodory-Toeplitz -; covariance
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
-; Nehari -; suboptimal Nehari -;
62Exx]
superoptimal Nehari -
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
extension theorem for convex cones see:
measures)
Hahn-Banach-type -
F-norm
extensionality
[46Axx, 46A03, 46A 13; 46Axx,
[03B53; 03BS3]
46A03,46AI3]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
(see: Frechet topology)
extensionality rule
F -semi-norm
[03B40; 03B401
[46Axx, 46A03, 46A13; 46Axx,
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
46A03, 46A 13 I
extensions see: conjugate field -; HNN-
(see: Frechet topology)
F-space
extensions of valuations see: fundamental
[46Axx, 46A03, 46A 13; 46Axx,
inequality for -
46A03,46AI31
extensive connection function
(see: Frechet topology)
[68Q20, 68QSS; 68Q20, 68QSS]
F -space see: compact-
(see: Analysis of programs)
F-term
extensive operator
[68NI7; 68NI71
[6000S, 68U10; 6000S, 68U10]
(see: Logic programming)
(see: Mathematical morphology)
F-term see: closed-
extensive operator see: anti--
FA for groups see: property-
extensive state variable
[73B30, 80AOS, 80A97; 73B30, Faa di Brunoformula
80AOS, 80A97] [OSAI9, IIB83; OSAI9, IIB831
(see: Bell polynomial)
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
exterior algebra face of a building
[16WSS, 17BS6, 17B60, 17B70, [20G2S; 20G2S]
17B81, S8AIO; 16WS5, 17B56, (see: Bruhat-Tits building)
17B60, I7B70, 17B81, 58A 10] fllee of (I hypergraph
(see: Poisson algebra) [OS-XX; OS-XX]
exterior calculus see: Cartan's- (see: Ramsey number)
exterior derivative factor see: Bartlett correction -; credibility
[8IQ30, 81R25, 81T70; 81Q30, -; form- -; Gibbs -; One- -; prime
8IR2S,8IT70] -; Wilkinson -; Wilkinson 1/ S i -
(see: Anomalies (in quantization» factor fast Fourier transform see: Good-
external contextual grammar Thomas prime- -
[0300S, 68QSO, 68S0S; 0300S, factor in a graph see: one--
68QSO, 68S0S] factor morphism see: direct-
(see: Contextual grammar) factor of a graph see: near-one- -; One- -
extremal point factor of a word see: proper right -
[60G09; 60G09] factorial see: falling-
(see: De Finetti theorem) factorizable multi-particle scattering ma-
extreme points see: set of - trix
extreme value theory [S8F07, 81T10, 81T20, 83C47; 58F07,
[26AI2, 60G70; 26A12, 60G70] 81T10, 81T20, 83C47]
(see: De Haan theory) (see: Massive Thirring model)
S25
FACTORIZATION
factorization see: Cholesky -; complete
-; incomplete -; left spectral -; left
standard -; Lyndon -; Mammana -;
One- -; perfect one- -; Polya -; pro-
portional Dvoretzky-Rogers -; random
orthogonal -; right spectral -; right
standard -; spectral -; Wiener-Hopf -
factorization algorithm see: Duval-
factorization of a free monoid see: com-
plete -
factorization of a graph
[05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factorization)
factorization of a graph see: near-one- -;
One--
factorization of integer polynomials see:
polynomial-time -
factorization problem see: Hurwitz-
factorizations see: isomorphic one- -; iso-
morphism of one- -
factors of an integer) see: Hardy-
Ramanujan theorem (on the normal
number of prime -
failure see: time to -
failure field
[6SQ42, 6SS05; 6SQ42, 6SS05]
(see: Regulated rewriting)
fake 3-dimensional sphere
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
FAL
[6SQ45, 6SS05; 6SQ45, 6SS05]
(see: Abstract family of languages)
falling factorial
[05A19, IIBS3; 05AI9, IIBS3]
(see: Lah number)
families see: density properties of gram-
matical-
families index theorem
[SI Q30, SI R25, SI T70; SI Q30,
SIR25, SIT70]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization))
family see: closure of a language -; gram-
mar -; grammatical -; grammatical lan-
guage -; Moore -; Sperner -
family :F see: generator of the -
family of context-free laoguages
[6SQ42, 6SS05; 6SQ42, 6SS05]
(see: Regulated rewriting)
family of context-sensitive laoguages
[6SQ42, 6SS05; 6SQ42, 6SS05]
(see: Regulated rewriting)
family of distributions see: finite-
dimensional parametric -
family of finite languages
[6SS05, 92020; 6SS05, 92020]
(see: Splicing operation)
family of hypercontractive inequalities see:
Nelson -
family of languages
[6SQ45, 6SS05; 6SQ45, 6SS05]
(see: Abstract family of languages)
family of languages see: Abstract -; anti-
AFL -; CF -; CS -; ICC (F) -;
RE -; REG-
family of logics see: da Costa C -
family of non-context-free languages
[6SQIO, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; 6SQIO,
6SQ45, 6SQ50]
(see: Grammar system)
family of periodic sequences see: asymp-
totically optimal -
family of polynomials see: robustly stable -
family of probability measures see: a-
conformal-
family of recursively enumerable lan-
guages
[6SQ42, 6SS05, 92020; 6SQ42,
6SS05, 92020]
(see: Regulated rewriting; Splicing
operation)
family of recursively enumerable lan-
guages
[6SQIO, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; 6SQIO,
6SQ45, 6SQ50]
(see: Grammar system)
526
family of regular languages
[03005, 6SQ45, 68Q50, 68S05,
92020; 03005, 68Q45, 68Q50, 68S05,
92020]
(see: Grammar form; Splicing oper-
ation)
family of special functions see: addition
formula for a -
Faris additivity theorem see: Segal--
Faris semi-boundedness theorem see:
Federbush- -
fast degrees of freedom as noise
[SI S20; SI S20]
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
fast Fourier transform see: Good-Thomas
prime-factor -
fast Fourier transform algorithm see:
Cooley-Tukey -; divide-and-conquer
-; Winograd -
fathomed subproblem
[90CIO; 9OClOJ
(see: Branch-and-bound algorithm)
Fatou component
[32H20; 32H20J
(see: Kobayashi hyperbolicity)
Fatou-Sullivan classification theorem
[30005, 58F13, 58F23; 30005, 58F13,
5SF23]
(see: Siegel disc)
FC-property
[93B5S, 93C05, 930 IS; 93855,
93C05,93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
FC-ring
[93BSS, 93COS, 9301S; 938S5,
93COS, 93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
FOE
[03853; 03853]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
feasible event function
[69Fxx, 908xx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
feasible set
[90Cxx; 90Cxx]
(see: Constrained optimization prob-
lem)
feasible set <!fa linear programming proh-
lem
[90CIO; 9OCIO]
(see: Branch-and-bound algorithm)
feasible solution
[90C30; 9OC30]
(see: Karush-Kuhn-Tucker condi-
tions)
Federbush-Faris semi -boundedness theo-
rem
[46E35, 46LS9, 47003, 58G03;
46E3S, 46L89, 47003, 58G03 J
(see: Hypercontractive semi-group)
Federer-Fleming deformation theorem
(28Cxx, 58AIO, S8A2S, 58C3S;
2SCxx, 5SAIO, 5SA25, 5SC3S)
(refers to: DilTerential form; Homoth-
ety; Mass and co-mass; Plateau prob-
lem)
Federer spectral sequence
(55T99; 5ST99)
(refers to: Connected space; continu-
ous mapping; Homotopy group; Sin-
gular homology; spectral sequence)
Federer spectral sequence see: Barratt--
feedback see: state-
feedback matrix
[93B55, 93COS, 93015; 938S5,
93C05,93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
feedback shift register see: linear-
feedback system
[93C40, 93021; 93C40, 93021]
(see: Adaptive stabilization)
feedforward network see: error in a -
Fefferman duality theorem
[26A45, 32A37, 46Exx; 26A45,
32A37,46Exx]
(see: BMO -space)
FelTerman-Garsia inequality
(4IA17, 42B30; 41AI7, 42B30)
(refers to: Burkholder-Davis-Gundy
inequality; Dual functions; Duality;
Functional analysis; Hardy spaces;
Lebesgue integral; BMO -space)
Fefferman-Stein theorem
[42B30; 42B30]
(see: Hardy spaces)
Fefferman theorem
[42830; 42B301
(see: Hardy spaces)
Fair instability see: Benjamin--
Flljer interpolation see: Hermite--
Fejer-Riesz theorem
(42AOS, 47 A56; 42A05, 47A56)
(refers to: Complex number; entire
function; Hardy classes; Lebesgue
measure; trigonometric polynomial)
Fejer-Riesz theorem
[42A05, 47A56; 42A05, 47A561
(see: Fejer-Riesz theorem)
Fejllr-Riesz theorem see: operator-
FELIX
[6SQ40; 68Q40J
(see: Computer algebra package)
Fermat conjecture see: generalized-
Fermat curve
[IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14CI7, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F271
(see: Bellinson conjectures)
Fermat equation
(11041; 11041)
(refers to: Diophantine equations;
Fermat great theorem; Fermat last
theorem)
Fermat equation overfunctionfields
[11041; 11D4IJ
(see: Fermat equation)
Fermat last theorem
(11041, IIG05, 14H25, 14HS2;
IID41, I I G05, 14H2S, 14H52)
(referred to in: Fermat equation)
(refers to: algebraic number theory;
Bernoulli numbers; elliptic curve;
Pythagoras theorem)
Fermat last theorem, first case
[IID4I, IIGOS, 14H25, 14HS2;
11041, I IGOS, 14H2S, 14H52]
(see: Fermat last theorem)
Fermat last theorem, second case
[IID4I, IIGOS, 14H2S, 14H52;
IID41, IIGOS, 14H2S, 14HS2]
(see: Fermat last theorem)
Fermat quotients
[IID4I, IIGOS, 14H25, 14H52;
IID41, IIG05, 14H2S, 14H52]
(see: Fermat last theorem)
Fermat witness
[IIASI, IIN25, IIYII; IIA51,
IIN25,IIYII]
(see: Pseudo-prime)
Fermi-Pasta-Ulam-type recurrence
[35Q53, 58F07, 76B IS; 35Q53,
5SF07,76B15J
(see: Benjamin-Feir instability)
Ferrers diagram see: skew-
ferromagnetic hysteresis see: Preisach-
Giltay model of -
Feuerbach sphere of the first kind
[51M20, S2-XX; SIM20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
Feuerbach sphere of the second kind
[SIM20, S2-XX; SIM20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
FFT algorithm see: Winograd -; Winograd
large -
fibering see: Boothby-Wang-
fibration see: cellular co- -; James -;
Toda -
fib red manifold see: Seifert-
field see: Abelian number -; absolute de-
composition -; absolute inertia -; ab-
solute ramification -; algebraic number
-; characteristic vector - ; constant field
of a valued function -; constitutive -;
cut in a real closed -; decomposition
-; defeclless -; failure -; finitely rami-
fied -; formally real -; Hamiltonian vec-
tor -; Henselian -; Henselization of a
valued -; idempotent semi- -; inertia
-; Kaplansky -; large -; master -;
maximal valued -; Nijenhuis tensor -;
normal form of a vector - ~ number -;
p-adically closed p-valued -; p-rank of
a p-valued -; p-valued -; place of a
function -; prolonged vector -; ramifi-
cation -; Real closed -; real-closed -;
real closure of an ordered -; Reeb -;
residue -; residue class -; score as a
vector -; semi- -; stable -; success
-; tame -; tensor -; valued -; Valued
function -; p-adically closed -
field anomaly see: quantum-
field element see: totally p-adic -
field extension see: algebraically maximal
-; degree of a -; tamely ramified -
field extensions see: conjugate-
field for a group see: splitting-
field (in physics)
[SI R40, SI T 17, S2B28; SI R40,
SITt7, S2B2S]
(see: Renormalization group analy-
sis)
field interaction see: mean-
field model see: generalized mean -;
mean -
field of a Shimura variety see: reflex-
field of a valued function field see: con-
stant -
field of algebraic numbers
[03C60, II G35, II R5S, 12L05,
14025; 03C60, 11035, IIR5S, 12L05,
14025]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
field of real numbers
[12F05, 12115; 12F05, 12115]
(see: Artin-Schreier theory)
field plane see: near--
field theory see: asymptotically free -;
correlation function in - ~ E-9xpansion in
-;free -
field type interaction see: mean-
field without transcendence defect see: val-
ued -
fields see: Absolute regularity of stochastic
processes and -; Artin-Schreiercharac-
terization of real-closed - ; completeness
of the elementary theory of real closed
-; completeness of the theory of alge-
braically closed -; constant reduction of
valued function -; decidability of the the-
ory of real closed -; elementary theory
of -; elementary theory of algebraically
closed valued -; Fermat equation over
function -; formally p-adic -; genus
inequality for valued function -; inde-
pendence theorem for valued function -;
language of -; measure of dependence
between two arbitrary sub-IT - -; model
completeness of the theory of real closed
-; Model theory of valued -; Ramifi-
cation theory of valued -; space of -;
stability theorem for valued function -
figure in alternative set theory
[03Exx,03E70;03Exx,03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
Fike theorem see: Bauer--
fillings see: Littlewood-Richardson-
filter see: alternating sequential -
filtered Lie algebra see: reductively-
filtering theory
[30E05, 47A57, 93EII; 30E05,
47A57,93EII]
(see: Caratheodory-Toeplitz exten-
sion problem)
filtering theory see: Kalman linear -

filtration
[55Q40; SSQ40]
(see: EHP spectral sequence)
filtration see: 1<--
filtration at a point, associated with a diffeo-
morphism see: forward-
finder see: legal assignment -
fine covering see: 0--
fine partition see: 8--
Finelli theorem see: conditional De -; De
-; finite De -
Finelli theorem for m-symmetric random
variables see: De-
finite algebra see: representation- -; uni-
formly hyper- -
finite Benz plane
[SIBOS; SIBOS]
(see: Benz plane)
finite Benz plane see: order of a -
finite De Finetti theorem
[60G09; 6OG09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
finite-dimensional algebra see: approxi-
mately -
finite-dimensional analogue of Enflo's exam-
ple of a space without the approximation
property see: Szarek-
finite-dimensional parametric family of
distributions
[62AIS; 62AIS]
(see: Dirichlet process)
finite double norm see: integral operator
of -
finite extension of a local ring
[2OCOS, 20C10; 20COS, 2OCIO]
(see: Clifford theory)
finite extension of a principal ideal do-
main
[2OCOS, 20C 10; 2OCOS, 20C 10]
(see: Clifford theory)
finite group see: elementary-
finite groups see: Modular representation
theory of-
finite height see: lattice of -
finite language
[0300S, 68QSO, 68S0S; 03005,
68QSO, 68S0S]
(see: Contextual grammar)
finite languages see: family of -
finite-letter substitution see: disjoint--
finite measure see: semi--
finite Morley rank
[03C4S; 03C4S]
(see: Morley rank)
finite Morley rank see: Group of -
finite representation type see: Algebra of -
finite satisfiability
[03Cxx; 03Cxx]
(see: Henkin construction)
finite sets see: relation closure problem
for-
finite subgroup see: locally-
finite subset property
[28A99, 62B IS, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62BIS, 62B20, 62COSI
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
finitely-additive set functions see: Banach
space of complex bounded -
finitely-generated group see: growth func-
tion of a-
finitely presentable object
[08COS, 13Fxx, 14Axx, ISC05, 18Fxx;
OSCOS, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18COS, 18Fxx]
(see: Jacobson category)
finitely presentable Riesz space
[06F20; 06F20]
(see: Baker-Beynon duality)
finitely ramified field
[03C60, 12110, 12L12; 03C60, 12110,
12L12]
(see: p-adically dosed field)
finiteness theorem see: Grauert-Remmert
-; Khovanskii -
finiteness theorem for a-minimal struc-
tures
I03C4S, 03C60, 06F2S, 06F99, 12115;
03C4S, 03C60, 06F2S, 06F99, 1211S]
(see: a-minimal)
Finsler connection see: coefficients of a
pre- -; pre- -
Fins{er delta-derivative operator
153C60; S3C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
Finsler space
153C60; S3C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
first Arens product
143Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035]
(see: Arens multiplication)
first case see: Fermat last theorem, -
first conjecture see: BeHinson-
first digit law
160Axx, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60Axx,
60Exx, 62Exx]
(see: Benford law)
.first-di/iit law
160Axx, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60Axx,
60Exx, 62Exx]
(see: Benford law)
first incompleteness theorem see: Godel-
first initial-boundary value problem
13SK57, 3SK60, 3SK6S; 35KS7,
35K60, 35K6S]
(see: Quenching)
first kind see: boundary conditions of the
-; boundary value problem of the -; ex-
sphere of the -; Feuerbach sphere of
the -
.first law of thermodynamics
[73B30, 80AOS, 80A97; 73B30,
80AOS, SOA97]
(see: C1ausius-Duhem inequality)
first main theorem see: Brauer-
first-order Bernstein algebra
117092,92010; 17092,92010]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
first search see: breadth- -; Depth- -
first theorem see: Korovkin-
Fishburn-Shepp inequality
(06A06, 60EIS; 06A06, 60E15)
(referred to in: Ahlswede-Daykin in-
equality; Correlation inequalities;
FKG inequality; Holley inequality)
(refers to: Ahlswede-Daykin inequal-
ity; Correlation inequalities; FKG
inequality; Holley inequality; par-
tially ordered set; probability)
Fisher in/ormation
IS3Cxx, 62Fxx; S3Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
Fisher information see: generalized-
Fi.\'her in/ormation matrix
IS3Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx,
62Axx, 62Fxx]
(see: Statistical manifold)
Fisher linear discriminant function
162H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62Pxx]
(see: Bhattacharyya distance)
FitzHugh-Nagumo equations
[35KS7, 92C20; 35KS7, 92C20]
(see: Hodgkin-Huxley system)
Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp theorem
(31 Cxx, 6000S, 60G60, 6014S; 31 Cxx,
6000S, 60G60, 6014S)
(referred to in: Billard method;
Dvoretzky problem)
(refers to: Billard method; Dvoretzky
problem; Lebesgue measure; Poisson
process; potential theory)
fixed point see: greatest -; least -
fixed point "f a polynomial
r03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B4S, 03C62,
03Exx,06Exx,06E2S,08Bxx]
(see: Magari algebra)
Fixed-point property
(06A06; 06A06)
(refers to: Algebraic topology; Com-
plete lattice; complex; fixed point;
graph; lattice; Ordered set; Partially
ordered set; simplex; simplicial com-
plex)
Fixed-point property for (partially) or-
dered sets
[06A06; 06A06]
(see: Fixed-point property)
fixed-point theorem
[03Bxx, 03B4S, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E2S, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx,06E2S, 08Bxx]
(see: Magari algebra)
fixed-point theorem see: Borsuk -; Kirk-
Caristi -; Ryll-Nardzewski -
fixed-point transfer see: Dold-
fixed sample optimal
162FI2, 62G20; 62FI2, 62G20]
(see: Asymptotic optimality)
fixed sample optimality
[62F12, 62G20; 62FI2, 62G20]
(see: Asymptotic optimality)
.fixed singular point of an ordinary differ-
ential equation
134A20, 34A2S, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 5SF07]
(see: Painleve-type equations)
FK-space
(46A04, 46A4S, 46B4S; 46A04,
46A4S, 46B4S)
(referred to in: Kiithe-Toeplitz dual)
(refers to: Banach space; Frechet
space; Linear functional)
FKG inequality
(06A06, 60EIS; 06A06, 60EIS)
(referred to in: Ahlswede-Daykin in-
equality; Correlation inequalities;
Fishburn-Shepp inequality; Holley
inequality)
(refers to: Ahlswede-Daykin inequal-
ity; Boolean algebra; correlation
inequalities; distributive lattice;
Fishburn-Shepp inequality; Holley
inequality; mathematical expecta-
tion; partially ordered set; probabil-
ity measure)
flag in a geometry
ISIE24; SIE24]
(see: Diagram geometry)
flag-transitive geometry
ISIE24; SIE24]
(see: Diagram geometry)
flag variety see: generalized-
flame see: diffusion-
flat connection
[8ITxx; 8lTxx]
(see: Bohm-Aharonov effect)
flatly co-disjunctable object
[14Axx, 18Fxx; 14Axx, 18Fxx]
(see: Zariski category)
Flatness theorem
(IIH06; IIH06)
(refers to: convex set; Frobenius prob-
lem)
Flatness theorem (in the geometry ofnum-
bers)
I II H06; IIH06]
(see: Flatness theorem)
Fleming deformation theorem see: Federer-
flexural rigidity
[31A30, 31 B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73K IS; 31A30, 31 B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73KIS]
(see: Von Karman equations)
Flock
(SIExx, SINIS; SIExx, SINIS)
(referred to in: Baer group)
(refers to: Conic; field; finite field;
group; projective space; Quadran-
gle; Quadric)
flock
[5lExx, 5INIS; SIExx, SINIS]
(see: Flock)
flock see: elliptic -; hyperbolic -; linear
-; partial -; quadratic -
Flock of a quadric set
[SIExx, SIN IS; 51Exx, 51NISI
(see: Flock)
FOLIATION
flock of deficiency one see: partial conical
-; partial hyperbolic -
flow see: almost-periodic K -contact -;
contact -; Couette -; ergodic geodesic
-; fluid -; Manakov geodesic
Rayleigh -; K -contact -
flow (action of the real number set)
[2S01S, S8F17; 2S0lS, 58F17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
flow function
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q5S]
(see: Analysis of programs)
flow paradox see: squeeze-
flows see: Weinstein conjecture on con-
tact -
fluctuation credibility theory see: limited-
fluctuations
[60H 10, 60K3S, 6SCOS, 65UOS;
60HIO, 60K3S, 65COS, 6SUOS]
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial differential equations)
fluid see: Bingham-
fluid flow
[76S05; 76S0S]
(see: Buckley-Leverett equation)
fluids see: Rayleigh-Taylor instability of
superposed -
flux see: heat-
flux function
[76S05; 76S0S]
(see: Buckley-Leverett equation)
F N see: class-
Foata basis see: Spitzer--
Foata transform
[05Axx, 17BOI, 20MOS; OSAxx,
17BOI,20M05]
(see: Lyndon word)
focal boundary value problem
[34CIO; 34C10]
(see: Disconcugacy)
Fock representation
[8lRxx, 8IROS; SIRxx, 81R05]
(see: Spectrum generating algebra)
focus see: focus- -; saddle- -
focus-focus
[S8FI4; S8FI41
(see: Homodinic bifurcations)
focus-focus leading eigenvalue
[S8FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homodinic bifurcations)
focus leading eigenvalue see: focus- -;
saddle- -
Foias commutant lifting theorem see: Sz.-
Nagy- -
Fokker-Planck collision process
[3SH05, 3SQ60, 3SQ72, 78A3S,
82C31, 83-XX; 3SHOS, 35Q60,
3SQ72, 7SA3S, S2C31, S3-XX]
(see: Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-
Planck system)
Fokker-Planck equation see: Vlasov--
Fokker-Planck-Landau colli.<;ion opera-
tor
[3SH05, 3SQ60, 35Q72, 78A35,
82C31, 83-XX; 3SH05, 3SQ60,
35Q72, 78A3S, 82C31, 83-XX]
(see: Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-
Planck system)
Fokker-Planck system see: Vlasov-
Poisson- -
fold bifurcation
135A47, S8F14; 3SA47, S8FI41
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations;
Saddle-node bifurcation)
fold bifurcation
ISSFI4; 58F14]
(see: Homodinic bifurcations)
fold equilibrium
IS8FI4; S8F14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
fold-Hopf bifurcation
[S8FI4; S8F14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
foliation see: C 1. _; C 1 -continuous _;
holonomy-invariant transverse metric for
a -; Reinhart-Molino Riemannian -
S27
FOLIATION IN THE SENSE OF REINHART-MOLINO
foliation in the sense of Reinhart-Molino
see: Riemannian-
following method see: path--
Fblner property
[43AIO, 43A46, 43A62; 43AIO,
43A46,43A62]
(see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
sis on locally compact)
Fomin theorem see: Baer--
font design
[65017, 6SU07; 65017, 6SU07]
(see: Bezier curve)
foot of an altitude of a tetrahedron
[5IM20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
(for group representations) see: Clifford
theory -
forcing
[03E05, 05C05, 54H05; 03E05,
05C05, 54H05]
(see: Aronszajn tree)
Ford algorithm
[16Y60, 49Lxx, 90C39~ 16Y60,
49Lxx, 9OC39]
(see: Idempotent algorithm)
forgetful homomorphism
[55N22, 55N35; 55N22, 55N35]
(see: Elliptic genera)
fork see: does not -
Forking
(03C45; 03C45)
(refers to: algebraic independence;
Formal language; Model (in logic);
Model theory; stability theory;
Types, theory of; Ultrafilter)
forking extension see: non~­
Forking (in logic)
[03C45; 03C45]
(see: Forking)
FORM
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
form see: axis intercept -; Birkhoff-
Gustavson normal -; Birkhoff normal
-; bounded holomorphic automorphic
-; contact -; Dirichlet -; formal normal
-; fundamental 2- -; Grammar -; holo-
morphic automorphic -; Lee -; Levi
-; Lyapunov block -; normal -; p-
integrable holomorphic automorphic -;
Sasakian space -; stochastic bilinear
-; Trench canonical -; truncated nor-
mal -; weight of an automorphic -
form-equivalent grammars
[03005, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; 03005,
6SQ45, 6SQ50]
(see: Grammar form)
form-equivalent grammars see: strongly-
form-factor
[5SF07, SITlO, SIT20, S3C47; 5SF07,
SITIO,SIT20,S3C47]
(see: Massive Thlrring model)
form grammar
[03005, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; 03005,
6SQ45,6SQ50]
(see: Grammar form)
form network see: product--
form of a Hamiltonian see: normal-
form of a polynomial see: reduced-
form of aU-statistic see: Hoeffding-
form of a vector field see: normal-
form of the Cayley-Hamilton theorem see:
multilinear -
form of the Korovkin theorem see: quanti-
tative -
form of weight -2q for a group see: auto-
morphic -
form operator see: Dirichlet--
formal genetics
[17092,92010; 17092,92010]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
formal group law see: Euler-
formal integral for a Hamiltonian system
[5SF36; 5SF36]
(see: Birkhoft' normal form)
formal normal form
52S
15SF36; 5SF361
(see: Birkhoft' normal form)
formalism see: Ruelle thermodynamic -
formalized Liib theorem
[03Bxx, O3B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, OSBxx; 03Bxx, O3B45, 03C62,
O3Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, OSBxx)
(see: Magari algebra)
formally p-adic fields
103C60, 12JlO, 12Ll2; 03C60, 12J 10,
12Ll2)
(see: p-adically closed field)
formally real field
112F05, 12115; l2F05, 12Jl51
(see: Artin-Schreier theory)
forms see: algebra of differential -; auto-
morphic invariant in the theory of modu-
lar -; Gamma-invariant in the theory of
modular -
formula see: adaptive quadrature -;
Barndorff-Nielsen p* -; Calderon repro-
ducing -; canonical modal -; Cauchy
-; Cauchy integral -; de Bruijn-Alladi
-; Dedekind class number -; Euler ad-
dition -; Faa di Bruno -; Gell-Mann -;
Gell-Mann-Okubo -; incidence of a logi-
cal -; non-adaptive quadrature -; Pesin
entropy -; Polyakov-onofri log determi-
nant variation -; product -; reduction
-; s-stage Runge-Kutta -; Sahlqvist
-; Selberg trace -; substructure com-
plete logical -; Witt -
formula for a family of special functions see:
addition -
formula for the area of a triangle see:
Heron -
formula for the number of representations of
an integer see: Hardy-Littlewood-
formula for the Pontryagin class see: lo-
cal-
formula manipulation see: mathematical-
formula of modal logic see: negative -;
positive -
formulas ,see: contradictory -; Sahlqvist
-; Weierstrass theorem on addition -
FORTRAN
[68NI5; 6SNI5)
(see: APL)
Fortuin-Kasteleyn-Ginihre inequality
[06A06, 06AIO, 60E15; 06A06,
06AIO,60EI5)
(see: Correlation inequalities; FKG
inequality)
forward filtration at a point, associated
with a diffeomorphism
[280xx, 5SF15; 2S0xx, 58FI5)
(see: Pesin theory)
forward multiplicity (~f a Lyapunov expo-
nent
[2S0xx, 58F15; 2S0xx, 58FI51
(see: Pesin theory)
forward spectrum of a diffeomorphism at
a point
12S0xx, 5SF15; 2S0xx, 5SFI51
(see: Pesin theory)
forward upper Lyapunov exponent
[2S0xx, 5SF15; 2S0xx, 5SFI5)
(see: Pesin theory)
four:functions inequality
[06A06, 60E15; 06A06, 60E15]
(see: Ahlswede-Daykiu inequality)
four-generator four-relator group see: Hig-
man -
four-relator group see: Higman four-
generator -
Fourier-Chebyshev series
[42CIO; 42CIO]
(see: Chebyshev series)
Fourier expansion
[26-XX, 30Bxx, 42Axx; 26-XX,
30Bxx,42Axx]
(see: Series expansion)
Fourier-Eymard algebra
[43A 10, 43A46, 43A62; 43A 10,
43A46,43A62]
(see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
sis on locally compact)
Pourier-Hermite polynomials
[60Hxx, 60J65; 60Hxx, 60J65]
(see: Wiener measure)
Fourier-Jacobi series
[IIFxx, 11018, 14Mxx, 200xx;
IIFxx, 11018, 14Mxx, 200xxl
(see: Shimura variety)
Fourier series see: Walsh--
Fourier transform see: Good-Thomas
prime-factor fast -
Fourier transform algorithm see: Cooley-
Tukey fast - ; divide-and-conquerfast -;
Winograd -; Winograd fast -; Winograd
large -
Fox-Lyndon basis see: Chen--
Fox-Lyndon theorem see: Chen--
fractal torus route to chaos
158F13; 581'131
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac-
tion)
fractional-integral inequality see: logarith-
mic -
fractions see: algebra of -
Frai'sse characterization see: Ehrenfeucht-
Fra'sse characterization of elementary
equivalence
(03Cxx; O3Cxx)
(refers to: enumeration; formal lan-
guage)
frame see: Berwald -; canonical -: Eu-
clidean Kripke -; large partial 3- -; n-
-; Room-
framed link
157M25; 57M25]
(see: Dehn surgery)
framed links see: Kirby calculus for -
frames see: L 2 - -
framing
157M25; 57M25]
(see: Dehn surgery)
Frankel set theory see: Zermelo--
Frechet algebra
(46Hxx; 46Hxx)
(re!erred to in: Cyclic cohomology)
(refers to: Banach algebra; Frechet
topology; norm; Semi-norm; topo-
logical algebra)
Frh'het distribution
[26A 12,60070; 26A 12, 60070]
(see: De Haan theory)
Freche, space
146Axx, 46A03, 46A 13; 46Axx,
46A03,46AI3)
(see: Frechet topology)
Frechet topology
(46Axx, 46A03, 46A13; 46Axx,
46A03, 46A 13)
(referred to ill: Cyclic cohomology;
Frechet algebra; Mazur-Orlicz the-
orem)
(refer,s to: Banach space; Banach-
Steinhaus theorem; Completion;
Continuous function; Frechet space;
linear operator; Mazur-Orlicz the-
orem; topological structure (topol-
ogy); topological vector space)
Frechet V -space
[54A05; 54A051
(see: Closure space)
free arrangement (~lhyperplanes
[05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65;
05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65)
esee: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
free associative algebra
[16S30, 16W30, 17835; 16S30,
16W30, 17B351
(see: Primitive element in a co-
algebra)
free boundary value problem
135J85, 73Cxx; 35J85, 73Cxx]
(see: Signorini problem)
free energy see: Helmholtz-
free field theory
[BIR40, SITI7, B2B2B; SIR40,
SITI7, S2B28]
(see: Renormalization group analy-
sis)
free field theory see: asymptotically-
free group see: almost- -; Cotorsion- -;
/'0- - ; ~1- - ; strongly ~1--
tree group on llvo gellerators
143A07, 43A15, 46A22, 46Exx,
51M20, 51M25; 43A07, 43A15,
46A22, 46Exx, 51 M20, 51 M25)
(see: Banach limit)
free language see: context--
free languages see: family of context- -;
family of non-context- -
free Magari algebra
[03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, OSBxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx,06Exx,06E25,08Bxx)
(see: Magari algebra)
Free magma
(OBAxx, 17BO I, 20N02; OSAxx,
17BO I, 20N02)
(referred to in: Binary tree; Hall set;
Lazard set; Magma)
(refers to: binary relation; Binary
tree; Hall set; magma; Union of sets)
free magma .'iee: closed subset of a -
free measure
[60009; 60009]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
free monoid see: complete factorization of
a-
free Riesz space
[06F20; 06F20J
(see: Baker-Beynon duality)
free ring see: cotorsion--
free rule see: label of a context- -
Freedman handle
[57NI3, 57RIO; 57N13, 57RIOI
(see: Casson handle)
Freedman theorem
[57NI3, 57RIO; 57N13, 57RlO)
(see: Casson handle)
freedom as noise see: fast degrees of -
frequency see: carrier-
frequency function see: Polya-
frequency-hopping detection in radar or
sonar signals
[05B30; 05B30]
(see: Costas array)
frequency locking route to chaos
[58FI3; 5SF13]
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac-
tion)
frequency sequence see: P6lya-
Fresnel-Hadamard theorem
[73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033; 73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033)
(see: Acceleration wave)
Frey curve
[11041, 11005, 14H25, 14H52;
11041,11005, 14H25, 14H52]
(see: Fermat last theorem)
friction model see: Bliman dry
Sorinedry -
Friedrich theorem
[17BOI, 17B35; 17BOI, 17B35)
(see: Lie polynomial)
Friedrichs-van Hove scaling
181S20; 81S201
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
Frink embedding
[06C05; 06C051
(see: Arguesian lattice)
Fristedt-Shepptheorem see: Fitzsimmons-
fro see: Aliquot sequence starting -
Frobenius action
111040, 14C17, 140xx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; 11040, 14C17, 140xx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F271
(see: Bellinson conjectures)
Frobenius method
114F17, 14M15, 20010; 14F17,
14M15,20010J
(see: Kempf vanishing theorem)

Frobenius-norm method
[6SFIO; 6SFIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
Frobenius-Perron operator
[IIFxx, 280xx, 30Cxx, 32Nxx, 58Fxx,
80-XX; II Fxx, 280xx, 30Cxx, 32Nxx,
S8Fxx, 80-XX]
(see: Conformal measure)
Frobenius problem
(II H06; II H06)
(referred to in: Flatness theorem)
(refers to: geometry of numbers)
Frobenius splitting
[14F17, 14MIS, 20GIO; 14F17,
14MIS,20GIO]
(see: Kempf vanishing theorem)
Frobenius theory of non-negative matrices
see: Perron- ~ -; quasi-additive -; quasi-continuous
front see: shock-
front in graph search see: wave-
Frucht theorem
(OSC2S, 20F29, 20F32; OSC25, 20F29,
20F32)
(refers to: automorphism; graph;
Graph automorphism; group)
Frueh! theorem
[OSC25, 20F29, 20F32; 05C25, 20F29,
20F32]
(see: Frucht theorem)
Fujii-Furuta-Kamei theorem
[47A63; 47A63]
(see: Furuta inequality)
FullAFL
[68Q45, 68S0S; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Abstract family of languages;
AFL operations; Trio)
full covering
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42]
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
full semi-AFL
[68Q4S, 68S0S; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Trio)
full trio
[68Q4S, 68S0S; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Abstract family of languages;
Trio)
full Zeeman conjecture
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20FOS,
57M20, 57QOS]
(see: Collapsibility)
fully orderable group
[06F15, 06F20; 06F15, 06F20]
(see: a-group)
function see: abstraction -; acceler-
ation -; ambiguity -; analysis -;
automorphic Green -; automorphic
L- -; Baker -; Baker-Akhiezer -;
Bloch -; Boolean -; Borel cylinder -;
boundary-coercive Bregman -; Breg-
man -; Bukhstab -; Burkill-Cesari
integrable -; Burkill integrable rectangle
-; Carmichael conjecture on the Eu-
ler totient -; Cesari quasi-additive -;
completely positive-definite -; complex
Riemann -; concretization -; conformal
measure for a -; contrast -; CR- -;
cumulant -; Oedekind eta- -; Dickman
-; differential of a Boolean -; discrete
edge -; discrete vertex -; discriminant
of a map -; distribution ally chaotic -:
Euler totient -; evaluation -: eventually
strict Lyapunov -; extended regularly
varying -; extensive connection -;
feasible event -; Fisher linear discrim-
inant -; flow -; flux -; generalized
hypergeometric -: Green -: Green's
-; H oo _ - ; incompletely-specified
switching - ~ index of regular variation
of a -; integrable interval -; integral
definite rational -; Jordan totient -;
K-H-integrable -; kernel -: kth partial
differential of a Boolean -; Kurzweil-
Henstock-integrable -; Lagrange -;
Lagrangean -: Lagrangian -; Lehmer
problem on the Euler totient -; lifting of
a Borel cylinder -; linear acceleration
-: Lipschitz -: log-likelihood -: log-
supermodular -; logarithmic barrier -;
mean value of an arithmetic - ~ mean
value of an arithmetical -; mesh -;
minimization of a switching -; Model
theory of the real exponential -; mono-
genic -; non-tangential maximal -;
normal analytic -: O-regularly varying
-: BMO -norm of a -: operator-
monotone -; order-preserving operator
-; outer -; outer operator-valued - ;
p-adic <: - -; partial -; partial differential
of a Boolean -; Pick -; Poincare series
of a holomorphic -: P61ya frequency
-; power-type acceleration -; power
variance -; probability generating -;
profile -: proper extended-real-valued
-: radial maximal -; rationally definite
rational -; reductive connection --; reg-
ular -; regular variation of a -: regularly
varying -; restricted real-analytic -:
Schur -; semi-algebraic - ; set invariant
under a -: sigmoidal -; skew Schur
-: slowly oscillating -: slowly varying
measurable -; Stream - ; stress -;
subgraph of a -: switching -; Synge
world -; theta-series of a holomorphic
-; total differential of a Boolean -;
totally positive -; Totient -; triangle
-: uniformly summable multiplicative
-; uniqueness property of a regular -;
world -; zone-coercive Bregman -;
zone consistent with a Bregman -; zone
of a Bregman -: E- -: G--
function aLgebra
[46110: 46110]
(see: Banach function algebra)
function algebra see: Banach -: boundary
for a -; boundary for a subset of a -
function class see: de Haan -
function field see: constant field of a valued
-: place of a -: Valued-
function fields see: constant reduction
of valued -: Fermat equation over -;
genus inequality for valued -; indepen-
dence theorem for valued -; stability the-
orem for valued -
function having the uniqueness property
see: regular-
function in field theory see: correlation-
function of a curve see: curvature-
function of a disconjugate differential opera-
tor see: Green-
function of a finitely-generated group see:
growth -
function of a group see: growth-
function of a sequence of measures see:
generating -
function of a Shimura variety see: zeta--
function of a weighted algebra see:
weight -
function "f bounded mean oscillation
]26A45, 32A37, 42B30, 46Exx;
26A45, 32A37, 42B30, 46Exx]
(see: Hardy spaces; B M 0 -space)
function of the third kind see: modified
Bessel -
function of the WCG coefficients see: gen-
erating -
function (~r vanishing mean oscillation
[26A45, 32A35, 32A37, 46Exx;
26A45, 32A35, 32A37, 46Exx]
(see: V MO -space)
function on a graph see: class-
function on a partially ordered set see: log-
supermodular -; non-decreasing -
function on a subset of a locally convex, lo-
cally compact space see: harmonic-
function on the projective line see: ratio-
nal-
function over a set see: mean of a -
function sequence see: bent-
function space see: Banach -: idempotent
-; rearrangement-invariant-
function spaces see: Rudin-Carleson the-
orem for -: Urysohn theorem for -
GALOIS EXTENSION OF A HOPF OROER
function statistic see: empirical distribu-
tion -
function symbol
[03C07, 68N17; 03C07, 68N17]
(see: Logic programming; Structure)
function symbol see: arity of a -
function-symbol term
[68NI7: 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
function-symbol term see: closed-
function system see: attractorof an iterated
-; hyperbolic iterated -; invariant set
of an iterated -: Iterated -; recurrent
iterated -
function system with probabilities see: iter-
ated -
functional see: Brownian -; characteristic
-; generalized Brownian -; Littlewood-
Paley -; Peetre K - -: skeleton of a
Brownian -; strictly defined bilinear -;
strictly negative -; strictly positive -;
strongly coercive -; support -; sym-
metric bilinear -; tracial -; von Mises
-; weakly coercive -; Yamabe -
functional calculus see: holomorphic-
functional calculus of several complex
variables
[46Hxx; 46Hxx]
(see: Frechet algebra)
functions see: addition formula for a fam-
ily of special -; Addition theorems in
the theory of special -: Asymptotic op-
timality of estimating -; Banach space
of complex bounded finitely-additive set
-; characterization theorem for slowly
varying -; conjugate Young -: empirical
process indexed by -; Hilbert problem
on the resolution of definite rational -:
Levin-Pfluger theory of completely reg-
ular growth of entire -: Meijer G - -;
Novoselov theory of integration of arith-
metic -; q-special -; representation
theorem for slowly varying -: significant
digit -: symmetric rearrangement of -;
uniform convergence theorem for slowly
varying -; Walsh -
functions inequality see: four--
functions of bounded mean oscillation see:
space of-
functions of vanishing mean oscillation see:
space of-
functions on a homogeneous group see:
real Hardy space of -
functions on a nilpotent Lie group see: real
Hardy space of -
functions on an Abelian semi-group see:
Ressel characterization of completely
positive-definite bounded -
functor see: Betti realization -; interpola-
tion -; Mackey -
functor theorem see: Landweber exact -
fundamental2-form
[S3C25; 53C2S]
(see: Sasakian manifold)
fundamental inequality for extensions of
valuations
]11SIS, 12J20: IIS15, 12J20]
(see: Defect)
fundamental morphism
]5IBOS; S180S]
(see: Chain geometry)
fundamental solution of a Markov-
Hurwitz equation
[11041,11072; 11041, IlD72]
(see: Hurwitz equation)
fundamental theorem of algebra
[42A05, 47A56; 42A05, 47AS6]
(see: Fejer-Riesz theorem)
funnel-type strange attractor
]58FI3: 58F13]
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac-
tion)
Furuta inequality
(47A63: 47A63)
(referred to in: Heinz-Kato--Furuta
inequality; Liiwner-Heinz inequal-
ity)
(refers to: Heinz-Kato inequality:
Hilbert space; linear operator;
Liiwner-Heinz inequality; Radon-
Nikodym theorem)
Furuta inequality
[47A63: 47A63]
(see: Furuta inequality)
Furuta inequality see: grand -; Heinz-
Kato- -
Furuta-Kamei theorem see: Fujii--
___ G___
"I see: language generated by -
"I-dual
[40HOS, 46A45; 40H05, 46A45]
(see: Kiithe-Toeplitz dual)
r -invariant
[IIF20, 20K20: IIF20, 20K20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the the-
ory of Abelian groups; Gamma-
invariant in the theory of modular
forms)
"I-perfect subset
[40H05, 46A45: 40HOS, 46A45]
(see: Kiithe-Toeplitz dual)
"I-spline
[4IAIS, 41A50, 6S005, 65007,
65010, 6S0 15, 65017, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO: 41A15, 41A50,
65005, 65007, 650 I0, 650 IS,
6S017, 68U05, 68U07, 68UIO]
(see: Bezier spline)
G-algebra
[16W20,20C20: 16W20, 20C20]
(see: Defect group of a block)
G-algebra
[20C20: 20C20]
(see: Brauer homomorphism)
G-bundle see: principal-
G-complex
[55N25: 55N25 [
(see: Bredon cohomology)
G -complex see: Eilenberg-MacLane-
G-function
(IIGxx, IIJ81: IIGxx, IIJSI)
(refers to: algebraic geometry; Al-
gebraic number: E-function: Field;
Hypergeometric function: Linear
differential operator: Meijer G-
functions: Norm on a field; power
series; Taylor series)
G -functions see: Meijer-
G -invariant module
[20C05, 20CIO: 20C05, 20CID]
(see: Clifford theory)
GJ-set
[46Hxx, 46J20; 46Hxx, 46J20]
(see: Choquet boundary: Frechet al-
gebra)
Gabrielov theorem
[03C45, 03C60, 06F25, 06F99, 12115:
03C4S, 03C60, 06F2S, 06F99, 12J IS]
(see: a-minimal)
Gain scheduling
[93C40, 93021; 93C40, 93021]
(see: Adaptive stabilization)
Galerkin approximation
(41 A65, 65N30: 41 A65, 65N30)
(refers to: Galerkin method)
Gallai-Roy theorem
[OSCxx: OSCxx]
(see: Acyclic orientation)
gallery theorems see: Art-
Galois
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Galois connection
[68Q20, 68QSS; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
Galois extension see: Tate-Oort-
Galois extension of a Hopf order
529
GALOIS EXTENSION OF A HOPF OROER
[IIR54, I3B05, 16W30; IIR54,
13B05, 16W30)
(see: Hopf orders, applications of)
Galois geometry
(5IExx; 5lExx)
(refers to: Algebraic geometry; Al-
gebraic variety; Analytic geometry;
Block design; Coding and decoding;
conic; cryptograpby; finite field; Ga-
lois field; Goppa code; mathematical
statistics)
Galois group see: absolute-
Galois group of the p-adic numbers
[03C60, 12110, 12L12; 03C60, 12110,
12L12)
(see: p-adically closed field)
Galois ring
(05E30, IIS20, IIS31, 94B35; 05E30,
IIS20, IIS31, 94B35)
(referred to in: Kerdock and Preparata
codes)
(refers to: Finite field; Galois exten-
sion; local field; polynomial; Witt
ring)
Galois theory see: differential-
game see: Ehrenfeucht-
gametic diploid algebra
[17092,92010; 17092,92010)
(see: Bernstein algebra)
Gamma-invariant in the theory of
Abelian groups
(20K20; 20K20)
(refers to: Abelian group; Boolean al-
gebra; Cardinal number; Free Abel-
ian group; Glidel constructive set;
Suslln bypothesis; Whitebead prob-
lem)
Gamma-invariant in the theory of mod-
ularforms
(II F20; 1IF20)
(refers to: algebraic equation; alge-
braic geometry; algebraic number
theory; automorphic function; class
field theory; conformal mapping;
Dirichlet L-function; elliptic in-
tegral; fractional-linear mapping;
Fuchsian group; fundamental do-
main; Kronecker theorem; math-
ematical physics; modular group;
Scbwarz dUferential; Scbwarz equa-
tion; Simple finite group)
gamma-invariant in the theory ojmodular
jorms
[11F20; 11F20)
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
gamma modular invariant
[11F20; 11F20)
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
GANITH
[68Q40; 68Q40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
GAP
[68Q40; 68Q40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
gap see: duality-
gap theorem see: Rothaus-Simon spec-
tral-
Gamier system
[14Kxx,58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07)
(see: Abelian surface)
Garsla inequality see: Fefferman--
gas see: discrete velocity -
gauge
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42)
(see: KurzweiI-Henstock integral)
gauge integral
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42)
(see: KurzweiI-Henstock integral)
gauge transformation
[81Q30, 81R25, 8ITIO; 81Q30,
81R25,81TIO)
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
Gauss curvature see: Berwald--
Gauss elimination
[65FIO; 65FIO)
530
(see: Acceleration methods)
Gauss elimination method
[16Y60, 49Lxx, 9OC39; 16Y60,
49Lxx, 9OC39)
(see: Idempotent algorithm)
Gauss kernel
(35K05, 41A35, 6OJ35; 35K05,
4IA35,60J35)
(refers to: Brownian motion; funda-
mental solution; beat equation; Mar-
kov process)
Gauss kernel see: n-dimensional -; semi-
group property of the -
Gauss-Lucas theorem
(12010, 3OC15; 12010, 30C15)
Gauss-Markov theorem
[62J05; 62105)
(see: Best linear unbiased estimator)
Gauss-Seidel method
[16Y60, 49Lxx, 9OC39; 16Y60,
49Lxx, 9OC39)
(see: Idempotent algorithm)
Gauss theorem
[12010, 30C15; 12010, 3OCl5)
(see: Gauss-Lucas theorem)
Gaus.,-Weier.,trass singular integral
[35K05, 41 A35, 60J35; 35KOS,
41A35,60J35)
(see: Gauss kernel)
Gaussian distribution
[60J30; 60J30)
(see: Additive stochastic process)
Gaussian measure
[60BII, 60H05, 60H07; 60BII,
6OH05, 60H07)
(see: Accessible random variable)
Gaussian measure
[60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 6OH07)
(see: Malliavin calculus; Wiener
space, abstract)
GB
[68Q40; 68Q40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
G C k -continuous curve
[41A15, 41A50, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5, 41A50,
65005, 65007, 65010, 65015,
65017, 68U05, 68U07, 68U10)
(see: Bezier spline)
GCH
[04A30; 04A30]
(see: Generalized continuum bypoth-
esis)
Gell-Mann-Dashen algebra
(81RIO, 81T13; 81RIO, 81TI3)
(refers to: Gauge transformation;
Generalized functions, space of; Lie
algebra; quantum field theory)
Gell-Mann formula
(l7Bxx, 81R05; 17Bxx, 81R05)
(refers to: Lie algebra; universal en-
veloping algebra)
Gell-Mann matrices
(l7B45, 81R05; 17B45,8IR05)
(referred to in: Gell-Mann-Okubo
formula)
(refers to: Lie algebra)
Gell-Mann-Okubo formula
(81R05, 81V25; 81R05, 81V25)
(refers to: Gell-Mann matrices; Lie
algebra; universal enveloping alge-
bra)
Gel'fand-Mazur-type theorem for Bo-
algebras
[46Hxx; 46Hxx)
(see: Frecbet algebra)
Gel'fand-Mazur-type theorem for LB-
algebras
[46Hxx; 46Hxx)
(see: Frecbet algebra)
Gel' fand radical
[43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035)
(see: Arens multiplication)
Gel'fond-Baker method
(11041, 11061, 11J86; 11041,
11061,11J86)
(refers to: Diopbantine approxima-
tions; Diophantine equations; field;
Ideal; Linear form in logarithms;
Prime ideal)
Gel'Jond-Baker method jor Diophantine
equations
[11041, 11061, 11J86; 11041,
11061,11186]
(see: Gel'fond-Baker method)
gene
[68T05, 90B40; 68T05, 90B40]
(see: Genetic algorithm)
genera see: Elliptic-
general digit law
[60Axx, 6OExx, 62Exx; 60Axx,
6OExx, 62Exx]
(see: Benford law)
general linear group see: classifying space
of the infinite -
general mathematical programming
problem
[9OCIO, 9OCII, 90C27, 90C30;
9OClO, 9OCII, 90C27, 9OC30]
(see: Karush-Kuhn-Tucker condi-
tions; Lagrangean relaxation)
general position see: arrangement of hy-
perplanes in -
general position in space see: points in -
general-purpose system see: share library
of the -
general unifier see: most-
generalization of the EGZ theorem see:
Weidong -
generalized Bernstein algebra
[17092,92010; 17092,92010]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
generalized Bochner curvature tensor
[53A45, 53B35, 53CI5, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C25]
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
generalized Brownian junctional
[60H05, 60H07, 6OJ65; 6OH05,
60H07,60165]
(see: Brownian functional)
generalized Carleman operators
[47B38; 47B38]
(see: Carleman operator)
generalized Casson handle
[57N 13, 57R 10; 57N 13, 57R 10]
(see: Casson bandle)
generalized characters
[20CI5; 2OCIS]
(see: Brauer cbaracterization of
characters)
Generalized continuum hypotbesis
(04A30; 04A30)
(refers to: Continuum bypothesis)
generalized convolution operator
[33C 10, 35Sxx, 47B38; 33C 10, 35Sxx,
47B38]
(see: Bessel potential operator)
generalized cylindrical Korteweg-<le
Vries equation
[58F07; 58F07]
(see: Painieve test)
generalized digon
[5IE24; 51E24]
(see: Diagram geometry)
generalized Fermat conjecture
[11041; 11041]
(see: Fermat equation)
generalized Fisher information
[62F12, 62G20; 62FI2, 62G20]
(see: Asymptotic optimality)
generalizedjiag variety
[14F17, 14MI5, 20010; 14FI7,
14M15,2OOIO]
(see: Kempf vanisbing theorem)
generalized Hadamard difference set
[05BIO, IIBI3, 20KOI; 05BIO,
IIBI3,20KOl]
(see: Abelian difference set)
generalized hairpin
[60Exx, 60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20; 60Exx,
60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20]
(see: Copula)
generalized Hopj bifurcation
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
generalized Hopj manifold
[53C25, 53C55; 53C25, 53C55]
(see: Hopf manifold)
generalized hypergeometricjunction
[33C45; 33C45)
(see: Brafman polynomials)
generalized mean field model
[60G09; 60009]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
generalized power sum
[IIB37; IIB37]
(see: Skolem-Mahler-Lecb theorem)
generalized quadrangle
[5lExx, 51N15; 51Exx, 51N15]
(see: Flock)
generalized Riemann integral
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42]
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
generalized Room square
[05B05, 05B15; 05B05, 05B15]
(see: Design with mutually orthogo-
nal resolutions)
generalized sequential machine
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
generalized stationary Bellman equation
[16Y60, 49Lxx, 9OC39; 16Y60,
49Lxx, 9OC39]
(see: Idempotent algorithm)
generalized WCG coefficient.,
[2OCxx, 20005, 22A25, 22870;
2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racab, Wigner, 3-j, 6-j, and
9 - j coefficients)
generalized Wigner-Clebsch-Gordan co-
efficients
[2OCxx, 20005, 22A25, 22870;
20Cxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70)
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3-j, 6-j,and
9-j coefficients)
generalized Yang-Baxter equation see: so-
lution of the -
generated acyclic group see: torsion--
generated Banach space see: weakly com-
pactly -
generated by "y see: language-
generated by a subset see: subsystem of
an interpretation. -
generated by the hH-or-miss topology see:
Borel u-algebra -
generated group see: growth function of a
finitely- -
generated space see: pseudo-metrically
-; transformation -
generating algebra see: Spectrum-
generating function see: probabilHy-
generatingjunction 'if a sequence ojmea-
.tures
[60B 10, 608xx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 608xx,
628xx]
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
generating function of the WCG coeffi-
cients
[2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22870;
2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22870]
(see: Racab, Wigner, 3-j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
generating matrix of a code
[94B25; 94B25)
(see: MacWilliams identities)
generation
[2OCxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22870]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3-j, 6-j, and
9- j coefficients)
generation algorithm see: Duval-
generator four-relator group see: Higman
four- -
generator in a Benz plane
[5IB05; 51B05)
(see: Benz plane)
generator matrix for a code

[05E30, 94815, 94835; 05E30,
94815,94835J
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes)
generator matrix of a code
[94825; 94825]
(see: MacWilliams identities)
generator matrix of a code
[I lH56, 94835; IIH56, 94835]
(see: Octacode)
generator of the family F
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Trio)
generators see: free group on two -
generous-tit-for-tat
[90AI4, 900xx, 928xx; 90A14,
900xx, 928xx]
(see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
Genetic algorithm
(68T05, 90840; 68T05, 90840)
(referred to in: Walsh series)
genetic algorithms see: partition in
schemata in -
genetics see: formal-
genus see: elliptic -; Hirzebruch -; level-
2 elliptic-
genus inequality for valued function fields
[12J20, 14H05; 12120, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
genus zero see: group of -
geo-minimal surface area inequality see:
Petty -
geodesic
[53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
geodesic see: D- -; D-'-- -; mixed-;
proper -
geodesic current
[28015, 58F17; 28015, 58F17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
geodesic flow see: ergodic -; Manakov -
geodesic motion
[14020, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 58F07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
58F07, 70H20]
(see: Calogero--Moser-Krichever
system)
geodesic rays see: asymptotic class of -;
exponential divergence of -
geodesic space
[53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
geodesics see: convergence of -
geometric algebra
[15A66, 30G30, 30G35; 15A66,
30G30, 30G35J
(see: Clifford analysis)
geometric analysis
[46E35, 58GXX; 46E35, 58GXX]
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
geometric code see: Algebraic--
geometric continuity
[4IAI5, 41A50, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO; 41A15, 41A50,
65005, 65007, 65010, 65015,
65017, 68U05, 68U07, 68UIOJ
(see: Bezier spline)
geometric design see: computer aided -;
computer-aided -
geometric measure theory
[53C42, 57R40, 57R42; 53C42,
57R40, 57R42]
(see: Bernstein problem in differen-
tial geometry)
geometric series
[IIGxx, IlJ81; IIGxx, IlJ81]
(see: G-function)
geometrical mappings under mild hypothe-
ses see: characterization of -
geometry see: adjunction mapping in
algebraic -; affine chain -; affine
isoperimetric inequality of affine differen-
tial -; Bernstein problem in differential
-; Berwald -; Burau -; Cartesian -;
Chain -; Computational -; conformal
Diagram -; equivariant differen-
tial -; expected a- -; expected -;
flag in a -; flag-transitive -; Galois
-; global differential -; Kiihlerian -;
Laguerre-Lie -; locally Minkowski -;
Minkowski -; Minkowsky -; Mobius -;
non-commutative -; observed 0:- - ;
observed -; proper chain -; rank of a
residue in a -; residue in a -; Sasakian
-; subspace of a lattice -; type of a
residue in a -
geometry code see: algebraic-
geometry in statistical inference see: Dif-
ferential-
geometry of numbers) see: Flatness theo-
rem (in the-
geometry of rank n
[5IE24; 51E24]
(see: Diagram geometry)
geometry of the
[468xx, 46820, 52A21; 468xx,
46820, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
geometry of the see: Tetrahedron, elemen-
tary -
geometry of the triangle
[5 I M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XXJ
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
Gerstenhaber algebra
[16W55, 17856, 17860, 17870,
17881, 58AIO; 16W55, 17856,
17860,17870,17881,58AIO]
(see: Poisson algebra)
Gerstenhaber algebra see: exact-
Gerstenhaber algebra structure see:
graded -
Gibbs factor
[60G09; 60G09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
Gilbert-Pollak conjecture
[05C35, 51M16; 05C35, 51M16]
(see: Steiner tree problem)
Gilbert-Varshamov bound
[12E20, 14H25, 94827; 12E20,
14H25,94827J
(see: Artin-Schreier code)
Gillet-Soule arithmetic intersection pair-
ing
[IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Beninson conjectures)
Giltay hystereSis see: Preisach--
Giltay model of ferromagnetic hysteresis
see: Preisach--
Giltay model of magnetism see: Preisach-
Ginibre inequality see: Fortuin-Kasteleyn-
Ginzburg-Ziv constant see: Erdos--
Ginzburg-Ziv theorem see: Erd6s--
Girsanov density
[60H07, 60HIO, 60H20; 60H07,
60HIO,60H20]
(see: Skorokhod stochastic differen-
tial equation)
Girsanov theorem
[60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H07]
(see: Malliavin calculus)
girth of a graph
[05Cxx; 05Cxx]
(see: Acyclic orientation)
Glimm algebra
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx,46L80]
(see: AF-algebra)
Glivenko-Cantelli-type theorems
[60810, 60Exx, 60F05, 62Exx; 608 10,
60Exx, 60F05, 62Exx]
(see: Empirical process)
global anomalies
[8IQ30, 81R25, 81T70; 81Q30,
8IR25,81T70]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization))
global differential geometry
[53C42, 57R40, 57R42; 53C42,
57R40, 57R42]
(see: Bernstein problem in differen-
tial geometry)
global prinCiple see: Hasse local- -
global stable manifold
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
global unstable manifold
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
glueing
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
Gluskin space
[468xx, 46820, 52A21; 468xx,
46820, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Gluskin theorem
[468xx, 46820, 52A21; 468xx,
46820, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
GMRES
[65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
Gobel-Shelah theorem
[20K20; 20K20]
(see: Cotorsion-free group)
Giibel-Shelah theorem
[20K20; 20K20]
(see: Cotorsion-free group)
Gobel theorem see: Corner--
GOOel constructibility axiom
[03Exx, 04-XX, 20K20; 03Exx, 04-
XX,20K20]
(see: Whitehead problem)
GIMel first incompleteness theorem
[038xx, 03845, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 088xx; 038xx, 03845, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 088xx]
(see: Magari algebra)
Godel number
[038xx, 03845, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 088xx; 038xx, 03845, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 088xx]
(see: Magari algehra)
GOOelization
[03840; 03840]
(see: Illative comhinatory logic)
Godement theory see: Plancherel--
Goethals code
[05E30, 94815, 94835; 05E30,
94815,94835]
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes)
Goethals code see: Delsarte--
Goffman theorem see: Bradford--
Golay code
(05805, 05807, 94825; 05805,
05807,94825)
(refers to: Block design; Border-
ing method; Design with mutu-
ally orthogonal resolutions; Error-
correcting code; Mathieu group;
Steiner system)
Golay code see: binary -; ternary -
Gold sequence
[11837, 11883, 948xx; 11837,
11883,948xx]
(see: Correlation property for se-
quences)
golden number
[05845; 05845]
(see: Penrose tiling)
Goldstone boson
[8IR40, 8IT17, 82828; 81R40,
8ITl7,82828]
(see: Renormalization group analy-
sis)
Golomb construction
[05830; 05830]
(see: Costas array)
good reduction
[12J20, 14H05; 12120, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
good reduction everywhere
GRAMMAR FORM
[03C60, llG35, IIR58, 12L05,
14G25; 03C60, IIG35, IIR58, 12L05,
14G25]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
Good-Thomas prime-factor fast Fourier
transform
[65T20; 65T20]
(see: Winograd Fourier transform al-
gorithm)
Gordan coefficients see: Clebsch- -; gen-
eralized Wigner-Clebsch- -; Wigner-
Clebsch- -
Gordon model see: quantum sine- -
Goryachev-Chaplygin top
(58F07; 58F07)
(referred to in: Kowalewski top)
(refers to: hyper-elliptic curve;
Hyper-elliptic integral; Jacobi va-
riety; Kowalewski top; Plane real
algebraic curve)
Gottlieb-Dold transfer see: Becker--
Gottlieb transfer see: Becker--
Goursat problem see: Cauchy--
graded Gerstenhaber algebra structure
[16W55, 17856, 17860, 17870,
17881, 58A 10; 16W55, 17856,
17860, 17870, 17881, 58A I0]
(see: Poisson algebra)
graded Poisson algebra
[16W55, 17856, 17860, 17870,
17881, 58AIO; 16W55, 17856,
17860, 17870, 17881,58AIO]
(see: Poisson algebra)
graded Poisson algebra structure
[16W55, 17856, 17860, 17870,
17881, 58AIO; 16W55, 17856,
17860, 17870, 17881, 58A 10]
(see: Poisson algebra)
graded version of the Leibniz rule
[16W55, 17856, 17860, 17870,
17881, 58AIO; 16W55, 17856,
17860, 17870, 17881,58AlOj
(see: Poisson algebra)
gradient method
[65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
gradient method see: conjugate--
gradient vector
[9OC30; 9OC30]
(see: Karush-Kuhn-Thcker condi-
tions)
graining see: Coarse-
Grarn-Charlier expansion
[62E20; 62E20]
(see: Box-Cox transformation)
Gram-Schmidt coefficient
[IIH06, IlH16, llH31, IIH46,
IIH50, 51Mll, 51M15, 51M16,
51M20, 51M25; II H06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIH50, 51Mll,
51M15, 51M16, 51M20, 51M25]
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization
[II H06, IIHI6, IIH31, IIH46,
IIH50, 5IMII, 51M15, 51M16,
51M20, 51M25; IIH06, IlH16,
IlH31, IIH46, IIH50, 5IMII,
51M15, 51M16, 51M20, 51M25]
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
grammar
[03005, 68Q45, 68Q50; 03005,
68Q45, 68Q50J
(see: Grammar form)
grammar see: axiom of a contextual -;
Chomsky -; context of a contextual -;
Contextual -; external contextual -;
form -; image -; internal contextual -;
interpretation -; master -; production
of a contextual -; programmed -; se-
lector of a contextual -
grammar family
[03005, 68Q45, 68Q50; 03005,
68Q45, 68Q50]
(see: Grammar form)
Grammar form
531
GRAMMAR FORM
(03005, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; O3D05,
6SQ45, 6SQ50)
(referred to in: Abstract family oftan-
guages)
(refers to: Abstract family of lan-
guages; Formal lanpages and au-
tomata; Grammar system; graph
colouring; L-systems)
grammar form
[03D05, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; 03005,
6SQ45, 6SQ50)
(see: Grammar form)
grammar modulo a dfl-substitution see: in-
terpretation of a -
Grammar system
(6SQIO, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; 6SQIO,
6SQ45, 6SQ50)
(referred to in: Grammar form)
(refers to: Formal languages and au-
tomata)
grammar system see: CD -; cooperating
distributed -; eco- -; parallel -; par-
allel communicating -; PC -; sequen-
tial-
grammars see: communicating -; form-
equivalent -; strongly form-equivalent -
grammatical families see: density proper-
ties of -
grammatical family
[03005, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; 03005,
6SQ45, 6SQ50)
(see: Grammar form)
grammatical language family
[03005, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; 03005,
6SQ45, 6SQ50)
(see: Grammar form)
grand Furuta inequality
[47A63; 47A63)
(see: Furuta inequality)
GRAPE
[6SQ40; 6SQ40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
graph see: acyclic orientation -; bieriti-
cal -; bridge in a -; Cayley -; chordal
-; class-! -; class function on a -;
clique -; cocktail party - ; comparabil~y
-; complete -; cosl of a matching in a
-; cover - ; divergent triangle -; edge-
disjoint subset of a -; event -; exhaus-
tive -; factorization of a -; girth of a
-; Grotzsch -; Halin -; k- -; match-
ing in a -; monochromatic -; muHiplica-
tive -; near-one-factor of a -; near-one-
factorization of a -; one-factor in a -;
One-factor of a -; One-factorization of a
-; orientation of a -; pancyclic -; per-
fectly orderable -; precedence -; reg-
ular -; Search algor~hm on a -; span-
ning matching in a -; timed event -;
transitive orientation on a -
graph homomorphism
[05CI5; 05CI5)
(see: Hedetniemi col\iecture)
graph 'if the addition operation
[6SNI7; 6SNI7)
(see: Logic programming)
graph search
[9OC35; 9OC35)
(see: Search algorithm)
graph search see: wave front in -
graph sieve
[6OC05; 6OC05]
(see: Bonferroni-type inequalities)
graph theorem see: closed-
graphical regular representation
[05C25, 20F29, 20F32; 05C25, 20F29,
20F32]
(see: Frucht theorem)
graphs see: equivalence of -; equiva-
lent-
Grasmann derivative
[20KOI; 20KOI)
(see: Erdiis-Heilbronn problem)
Grassmann package
[6SQ40; 6SQ40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
Grassmann variety
532
[5IExx; 51Exx)
(see: Galois geometry)
Grassmannian
[52A40; 52A40]
(see: Blaschke-Santal6 inequality)
Grauert-Remmert finiteness theorem
[12120, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
gravitational anomaly
[SIQ30, SIR25, SIT70; SIQ30,
SIR25, SIT70)
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
gravity
[76C05, 76E15; 76C05, 76EI5)
(see: Convection equations)
gravity see: centre of -
Gray code
(05C45, 6SPxx, 6SRxx, 94B60;
05C45, 6SPxx, 6SRxx, 94B60)
(referred to in: Acyclic orientation;
Kamaugh map; Octacode)
(refers to: Combination; Graph;
graph; Graph circuit; Permutation)
Gray code see: binary rellected -; combi-
natorial -; cyclic -; monotone -; uni-
form-
Gray code '!f order n
[05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60;
05C45, 6SPxx, 6SRxx, 94B60)
(see: Gray code)
Gray code problem see: combinatorial-
Gray mapping
[05E30, 94B 15, 94B35; 05E30,
94B 15, 94B35]
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes)
Gray mapping
[IIH56, 94B35; IIH56, 94B35]
(see: Octacode)
GRB
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
greatest accuracy credibility theory
[62Cxx, 62P05; 62Cxx, 62P05]
(see: Credibility theory)
greatest fixed point
[6SQ20, 6SQ55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
greedoid
[90C27; 9OC27)
(see: Greedy algorithm)
Greedy algorithm
(9OC27; 9OC27)
(refers to: Matroid; network; set func-
tion)
greedy colouring
[05Cxx; 05Cxx)
(see: Acyclic orientation)
Green function
[53C20, 58F17; 53C20, 58F17]
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem)
Green function see: automorphic-
Green function of a disconjugate differen-
tial operator
[34C 10; 34C 10)
(see: Disconcugacy)
Green indecomposable theorem
[2OC05, 2OCIO; 2OC05, 20CIO]
(see: ClitTord theory)
Greene--Kleitman theorem
(06A07; 06A07)
(refers 10: graph; partially ordered
set)
Greene theorem
[06A07; 06A07]
(see: Greene--Kleitman theorem)
Green's function
[46E35, 58GXX; 46E35, 58GXX]
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
Greither order
[16534, 16W30; 16534, 16W30]
(see: Hopf order)
Greither order
[IIR54, 13B05, 16W30; IIR54,
13B05,I6W30)
(see: Hopf orders, applications of)
Griibner basis
(l3PIO,6SQ40; 13PIO, 68Q40)
(referred to in: Lie symmetry analysis)
(refers to: algebraic geometry;
Hilbert theorem; ideal; least com-
mon multiple)
Gri;bner ba"is
[13PIO, 68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40]
(see: Buchberger algorithm; Griihner
hasis)
Grabner basis see: corresponding-
GROEBNER
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algehra package)
Gromoll splitting theorem see: Cheeger--
Gromov see: Hyperbolic group in the sense
of -; hyperbolic space in the sense 01 -
Gromov hyperbolic group
[20F32; 20F32)
(see: Hyperbolic group)
Gromov hyperbolic space
(53C99; 53C99)
(referred to in: Hopf alternative; Hy-
perbolic group)
(refers to: Geodesic manifold; Hyper-
bolic group; metric; metric space)
Gromov hyperbolic space
]53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
Gromov hyperbolic space see: asymptotic
ray in a -; convergence in a -; hyper-
bolic boundary of a -
Gromov product
]53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperholic space)
Gross conjecture
]IIG40, 14CI7, 14Gxx, 19Dxx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
19Dxx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Beninson conjectures)
Grothendieck motive
[IIG40, 14CI7, 14Gxx, 19Dxx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14CI7, 14Gxx,
19Dxx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Beninson col\iectures)
Grothendieck space
(46B20, 47B07; 46B20, 47B07)
(referred to in: Dunford-Pettis prop-
erty)
(refers to: Banach space; Hausdorff
space; linear operator; Reflexive
space; Semi-group of operators;
Separable space)
Grothendieck theorem
]47B 10; 47B 10]
(see: Absolutely summing operator)
Grotzsch graph
]05Cxx; 05Cxx)
(see: Acyclic orientation)
gnJund state
]90Cxx; 9OCxx]
(see: Simulated annealing)
group see: absolute Galois -; Acyclic
-; adjusted cotorsion -; algebraically
closed -; almost-free -; almost-simple
-; Archimedean i- -; Archimedean ro-
-; Asymptotic invariant of a -; auto-
morphic form of weight -2q for a -;
B,- -; B2- -; Baer -; Bianchi -;
Binate -: Butler -: character of a -;
Chow -; classifying space of the infinite
general linear -; collineation -; Conra-
dian ro- -; Convex subgroup of a par-
tially ordered -; convex subgroup of an
i- -; Cotorsion -; Cotorsion-free -;
decomposition -; decomposition prop-
erty for an i- -; definable -; developing
a starter in an Abelian -; double of a
Poisson Lie -; dual Poisson Lie -; el-
ementary Abelian p- -; elementary li-
nite -; elementary hyperbolic -; Eu-
clidean Bianchi -; exponent of a reflec-
tion -; fully orderable -; Gromov hyper-
bolic -; growth function 01 a -; growth
function 01 a finitely-generated -; higher
ramification -; Higman -; Higman four-
generator four-relator -; homogeneous
-; Hyperbolic -; inertia -; "'-free -;
~,-free -; Kleinian -; i-ideal in an i-
-; lattice-ordered -; Milnor K - -; neg-
atively curved -; normal p-rank of a -;
orthogonal elements in an i- -; p-depth
01 a -; p-elementary -; p-prime -;
partially ordered -; patterned starter in
an Abelian -; Picard -; Poisson Lie -;
polar in an i- -; polar set in an i- -;
positive cone of an i- -; primitive permu-
tation -; pseudo-mitotic -; ramification
-; real Hardy space of functions on a ho-
mogeneous -; real Hardy space of func-
tions on a nilpotent Lie -; renormaliza-
tion -; representable -; right-ordered
-; sectional p-rank of a -; separable
Abelian -; slender Abelian -; socle of
a primitive permutation -; solvable con-
jugacy problem in a -; solvable word
problem in a -; splitting field for a -;
stable -; starter in an Abelian -; state
on an ordered Abelian -; strongly ~, -
free -; torsion-generated acyclic -; to-
tally ordered -; track -; unitary uni-
modular -; unperforated ordered Abel-
ian -; value -; Virasoro -; Whitehead
-; word-hyperbolic -; Z- -; i- -; 0-
-; po- -; ro--
group action see: affine type for a prim-
itive permutation -; almost-simple type
for a primitive permutation -; diagonal
type for a primrtive permutation -; er-
godic -; holomorphic simple type for a
primitive permutation -; properly discon-
tinuous -; twisted wreath product type
for a primitive permutation -; type for a
primitive permutation -
group algebra see: Modular -; non-
modular -
group algebra in positive characteristic see:
weightofa -
group algebra of posrtive characteristic see:
equivalent weights of a -
group analysis see: Renormalization-
Group completion theorem
(l9Dxx, 19Lxx, 55R35; 19Dxx.
19Lxx, 55R35)
(refers to: K -theory; monoid)
Gmup completion theorem in algebraic
topology
]19Dxx, 19Lxx, 55R35; 19Dxx,
19Lxx, 55R35]
(see: Group completion theorem)
group element see: length of a -
group in the sense of Gromov see: Hyper-
bolic -
group law see: Euler formal -
group-like element of a co-algebra
[16530, 16W30, 17B35; 16530,
16W30,17B35]
(see: Primitive element in a co-
algehra)
group, maximal of elation type see: Baer-
group, maximal of homology type see:
Baer-
group measure algebra
[43AIO, 43A46, 43A62; 43AlO,
43A46,43A62]
(see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
sis on locally compact)
group of a block see: Defect-
group of a system of differential equations
see: Lie symmetry -
group of an idempotent see: defect-
Group of finite Morley rank
(03C60; 03C60)
(referred to in: Morley rank)
(refers 10: Algebraic group; Cate-
goricity in cardinality; group; Model
theory; Morley rank; simple group;
structure)
group 'if genu" zero
[11F20; IIF20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
group of Richman type see: Butler-
group olthe p-adic numbers "ee: Galois-
group on two generators see: free-
group presentation see: balanced-

group representation see: induction of a
-; restriction of a -
group representations) see: Clifford theory
(for-
group scheme see: resolved-
group theory see: combinatorial-
group theory) see: p-rank (in -
groups see: Borel theorem for algebraic
-; continuous chain of -; examples of
1- -; Gamma-invariant in the theory of
Abelian -; higher K - -; language of
-; Modular representation theory of finite
-; property FA for -; variety of normal-
valued 1- -; variety of representable 1- -
growth see: Malthusian coefficient of linear
-; normal order of -
growth function of a finitely-generated
group
[20F32, 57M07; 20F32, 57M071
(see: Word metric)
growth Junction of a group
[20F32; 20F32]
(see: Hyperbolic group)
growth of entire functions see: Levin-
pfluger theory of completely regular -
GRTensorII
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Grzegorczyk algebra
[03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 08Bxx I
(see: Magari algebra)
Grzegorczyk system
[03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, O3Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, O3B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25. 08Bxxl
(see: Magari algebra)
gsm
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
guard
[5IM20; 51M20]
(see: Art gallery theorems)
guard see: diagonal -; edge -; point -;
sight of a -; vertex -
guards see: polygon covered by a set of -
GUAVE
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Gumbel distribution
[26A12, 6OG70; 26A12, 6OG70]
(see: De Haan theory)
Gundy inequality see: Burkholder-Davis-
Gurarii-Kadec-Macaevestimates
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Gustavson normal form see: Birkhoff--
Gysin exact sequence see: Connes--
___ H ___
H OO control theory
[30E05, 47 A57, 93B36; 30E05,
47A57,93B36]
(see: Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation)
H oo -function
[30E05, 47 A57, 93B36; 30E05,
47A57,93B36]
(see: Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation)
H-integrability see: K--
H-integrable function see: K--
H integral see: K--
H oo interpolation
[30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Commutant lifting theorem)
H-scheme
[68S05, 92020; 68S05, 92020]
(see: Splicing operation)
H -scheme see: underlying-
H -system see: extended-
HP theory see: real-variable-
H -unitalityfor cyclic cohomology
[16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G 12;
16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G 12]
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
Haan function class see: de-
Haan theory see: De-
Haar-Clifford wavelet
[42CIO; 42CIO]
(see: Clifford wavelets)
Hadamard difference set
[05B 10, 11 B 13, 20KO I ; 05B 10,
lIBI3,20KOI]
(see: Abelian difference set)
Hadamard difference set see: general-
ized -
Hadamard lemma
[73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033; 73Bxx, 73Cxx, 730xx, 73040,
76033]
(see: Acceleration wave)
Hadamard manifold see: Cartan--
Hadamard theorem see: Fresnel--
Hahn-Banach-type extension theorem for
convex cones
[4IA35, 41A36, 41A65; 41A35,
4IA36,4IA65]
(see: Abstract approximation theory)
Hahn-Banach-type separation theorem
for convex cones
[4IA35, 41A36, 41A65; 41A35,
4IA36,4IA65]
(see: Abstract approximation theory)
hairpin
[6OExx, 6OJxx, 62Gxx, 62H20; 6OExx,
6OJxx, 62Gxx, 62H20]
(see: Copula)
hairpin see: generalized-
Halasz mean value theorem
(lIA25, lIN37, lIN56; lIA25,
lIN37,lIN56)
(referred to in: Wirsing theorems)
(refers to: Arithmetic function; Con-
tour integration, method of; de la
Valli!e-Poussin theorem; Delange
theorem; Multiplicative arithmetic
function; Wirsing theorems)
Haldsz theorem with remainder term
111 A25, 11 N37, 11 N56; 11 A25,
lIN37, lIN56]
(see: Halasz mean value theorem)
Halberstam conjecture
[lIN13, lIN36; lIN13, lIN36]
(see: Bombieri prime number theo-
rem)
halfrhomb
[05B45; 05B45]
(see: Penrose tiling)
Halingraph
(05C05, 05C45, 05C85, 05C99;
05C05, 05C45, 05C85, 05C99)
(refers to: Complexity theory; cycle;
Graph, bipartite; Graph, connectiv-
ity of a; Graph imbedding; Graph,
planar; one-factor; tree)
Halin graph
[05C05, 05C45, 05C85, 05C99;
05C05, 05C45, 05C85, 05C99]
(see: Halin graph)
Hall basis
[17BOI; 17BOI]
(see: Hall polynomial)
Hall current
[33A30, 33A40, 35L05, 35LlO,
35N 10, 76W05, 85A35, 86A25;
33A30, 33A40, 35L05, 35LIO, 35NIO,
76W05, 85A35, 86A251
(see: Alfven waves)
Hall element
[17BOI, 20M05; 17BOI, 20M05]
(see: Hall word)
Hall polynomial
(17B01; 17BOI)
(referred to in: Hall set; Hall word)
(refers to: Basic commutator; Binary
tree; Hall set; Hall word; Lie algebra,
free; Lie polynomial; polynomial)
Hall set
(17BOI; 17BOI)
(referred to in: Free magma; Hall
polynomial; Hall word; Lazard set;
Lie polynomial; Lyndon word; Shir-
shov basis)
(refers to: Associative rings and al-
gebras; Basic commutator; Binary
tree; free magma; Hall polynomial;
Hall word; Lazard set; Lie algebra,
free; Lyndon word)
Hall set see: basic commutator -
Hall sets see: Viennot definition of -
Hall word
(17BOI, 20M05; 17BOI, 20M05)
(referred to in: Hall polynomial; Hall
set; Lazard set; Lyndon word; Shir-
shov basis)
(refers to: alphabet; Binary tree;
Hall polynomial; Hall set; Lazard
set; Lyndon word; Order (on a set);
word)
Ham-sandwich theorem
(05AI8, 51M25, 55M20; 05A18,
5IM25,55M20)
(refers to: Antipodes; Comitant; con-
tinuous mapping; Lebesgue mea-
sure; measurable set)
Hamilton cycle
[05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60;
05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60]
(see: Gray code)
Hamilton-Jacobi equation
[15A48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
XX, 44A 15, 49Lxx, 60135, 68Q 10, 81-
XX, 9OC39, 93C30; 15A48, 16Y60,
19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-XX, 44AI5, 49Lxx,
60135, 68QIO, 81-XX, 90C39, 93C30]
(see: Idempotent algorithm; Idempo-
tent analysis; Idempotent correspon-
dence principle; Idempotent super-
position principle)
HamiHon numbers see: algebra of -
Hamilton path
[05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B6O;
05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B6O]
(see: Gray code)
Hamilton quaternions see: algebra of -
Hamilton theorem see: multilinear form of
the Cayley- -
Hamiltonian
[8IS20; 81S20]
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
HamiHonian see: interaction picture -;
normal form of a -
Hamiltonian circuit
[05C45; 05C45]
(see: Hamiltonian tour)
Hamiltonian cycle
[05C45; 05C45]
(see: Hamiltonian tour)
Hamiltonian system see: algebraically com-
pletely integrable -; formal integral for
a-
Hamiltonian tour
(05C45; 05C45)
(referred to in: One-factorization)
(refers to: Classical combinatorial
problems; Graph circuit)
Hamiltonian vector field
[58F36; 58F36]
(see: Birkhoff normal form)
Hamming code
[05E30, IIH56, 94B15, 94B35;
05E30, IIH56, 94B15, 94B35]
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes;
Octacode)
Hamming distance
[05E30, 94B 15, 94B35; 05E30,
94B 15, 94B35]
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes)
Hammons-Kumar construction A see:
Botzas- -
Hammons-Kumar construction B see:
Botzas- -
Handelman-5hen theorem see: Effros--
HARRISON STRUCTURE THEOREM
handle see: Casson -; Freedman -; gen-
eralized Casson -; kinky -
Hankel matrix
[30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Nehari extension problem)
Hankel operator
[30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Commutant lifting theorem)
Hanoi puzzle see: towers of -
hard see: NP--
Hardy-Littlewood conjecture
[lIN05, IIP45; IIN05, lIP45]
(see: Bateman-Horn conjecture)
Hardy-Littlewood formula for the num-
ber of representations of an integer
[lIN13, IIN36; IINI3, IIN36]
(see: Bombieri prime number theo-
rem)
Hardy-Littlewood-Karamata theorem
[26A12; 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
Hardy-Littlewood operator
[46B20; 46B20]
(see: Boyd index)
Hardy-Littlewood-Ramanujan methods
[1IT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT71, 14G15,
94B27; IIT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT71,
14GI5,94B27]
(see: Bombieri-Weil bound)
Hardy-Littlewood-Sobolev inequality
[46E35, 58GXX; 46E35, 58GXX]
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
Hardy problem
[03C60, 12110, 12115; 03C60, 12110,
12115]
(see: Model theory of the real expo-
nential function)
Hardy-Ramanujan theorem
(lIK65, IIN37; IIK65, IIN37)
(refers to: Additive arithmetic func-
tion; Normal distribution; Number
theory, probabilistic methods in)
Hardy-Ramanujan theorem (on the nor-
mal number of prime factors '!f an in-
teger)
[IlK65, IIN37; lIK65, IIN37]
(see: Hardy-Ramanujan theorem)
Hardy space
[46Bxx, 47B07; 46Bxx, 47B07J
(see: Dunford-Pettis property)
Hardy space of functions on a homogeneous
group see: real-
Hardy space of functions on a nilpotent Lie
group see: real-
Hardy spaces
(42B30; 42B30)
(referred to in: Caratheodory interpo-
lation; Clifford analysis; Dunford-
Pettis property; Fefferman-Garsia
inequality; V M 0 -space; B M 0 -
space)
(refers to: Banach space; Calder6n-
Zygmund operator; Cauchy-
Riemann equations; convolution
of functions; Generalized functions,
space of; Hardy classes; harmonic
analysis; harmonic function; Lie
group, nilpotent; Singular integral;
topological vector space; BMO-
space)
harmonic analysis on locally compact see:
Hypergroups, -
harmonicJunction on a subset of a locally
convex, locally compact space
[31005; 31005]
(see: Brelot harmonic space)
harmonic invariant mea..,ure
[53C20, 58F17; 53C20, 58F17]
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem)
harmonic space see: Brelot-
harmonic structure see: base axiom for a
Brelot -; Brelot -
Harris inequality
1280xx, 6OFxx, 6OG09, 6OK35;
280xx, 60Fxx, 6OG09, 60K35]
(see: Bernoulli measure)
Harrison structure theorem
533
HARRISON STRUCTURE THEOREM
[20Kxx; 20Kxx]
(see: Cotorsion group)
Hasse algorithm
[IIBxx; IIBxx]
(see: Syracuse problem)
Hasse-Collatz problem
[IIBxx; IIBxx]
(see: Syracuse problem)
Hasse local-global principle
[03C60, IIG35, IIR5S, 12L05,
14G25; 03C60, 1IG35, IIR5S, 12L05,
14G25]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
Hasse-Weil theorem
[12E20, 14H25, 94B27; 12E20,
14H25,94B27]
(see: Artin-Schreier code)
hat see: dunce-
Hausdorff metric
[54Bxx, 6SUIO; 54Bxx, 6SUIO]
(see: Hit-or-miss topology)
hawk-dove scenario
[90A14, 900xx, 92Bxx; 90AI4,
900xx, 92Bxx]
(see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
heatflux
[73B30, SOA05, S0A97; 73B30,
SOA05, SOA97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
Hebb rule
(6ST05, 92C20; 6ST05, 92C20)
(referred to in: Neural network)
Hebbian learning
[6ST05, 92C20; 6ST05, 92C20]
(see: Hebb rule)
Hedetniemi conjecture
(05CI5; 05C15)
(refers to: distributive lattice; Graph;
Graph colouring; topos)
height see: lattice of finite -; projective -
height of a tetrahedron
[51M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
Heilbronn conjecture see: Erdos--
Heilbronn problem see: Erdos--
Heiles system see: Henon--
Heinz Inequality
(47A63; 47A63)
(referred to in: Heinz-Kato-Furuta
inequality; Helnz-Kato inequality)
(refers to: Heinz-Kato-Furuta in-
equality; Heinz-Kato inequality;
Hilbert space; linear operator)
Heinz inequality see: Lowner--
Heinz-Kato-Furuta inequality
(47A63; 47A63)
(referred to in: Heinz inequality)
(refers to: Furuta inequality; Heinz
inequality; Heinz-Kato Inequality;
Hilbert space; linear operator)
Heinz-Kata-Furuta inequality
[47 A63; 47 A63]
(see: Heinz-Kato-Furuta inequality)
Heinz-Kato inequality
(47 A63; 47 A63)
(referred to in: Furuta inequality;
Heinz inequality; Helnz-Kato-
Furuta inequality; Lowner-Heinz
Inequality)
(refers to: Cauchy inequality; Heinz
inequality; Hilbert space; linear op-
erator; Lowner-Heinz inequality;
polar decomposition)
Heinz-Kato inequality
[47 A63; 47 A63]
(see: Helnz-Kato inequality)
heir (in logic)
[03C45; 03C45]
(see: Forking)
Heisenberg spin chain see: XYZ-
Hellinger-Bhattacharyya coefficient
[6OB 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exx]
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
534
Helmholtzfree energy
[73B30, SOA05, SOA97; 73B30,
SOA05, SOA97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
Henkin construction
(03Cxx; 03Cxx)
(refers to: Completeness (in logic);
equivalence; interpretation; Model
(in logic); Model theory; Ultrafilter)
Henkin-Keisler model
[03Cxx; 03Cxx]
(see: Henkin construction)
Henkin model
[03Cxx; 03Cxx]
(see: Henkin construction)
Henon-Heiles system
[14Kxx, 5SF07; 14Kxx, 5SF07]
(see: Abelian surface)
Henselian
(l2JlO, 12J20, 13J15; 12JIO, 12120,
13Jl5)
(referred to in: Model theory of val-
ued fields; Valued function field; p-
adically closed field)
(refers to: Archimedean group;
field; Hensel lemma; Hensel ring;
Hensellzation of a valued field; im-
plicit function; model theory of
valued fields; Ramification theory
of valued fields; Topological field;
valuation)
Henselian defect
[IISI5, 12120; IISI5, 12J20]
(see: Defect)
Henselian defect
[12J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
Henselianfield
[12JIO, 12J20, 13Jl5; l2JlO, 12120,
13Jl5]
(see: Henselian)
Henselian field
[03C60, 1211 0, 12Ll2; 03C60, 1211 0,
12Ll2]
(see: Model theory of valued fields)
Henselian valuation
[12JIO, 12120, 13115; 12110, 12J20,
13115]
(see: Henselian)
Henselian valuation see: p--
Henselization
[12120, 13B15; 12120, 13B15]
(see: Ramification theory of valued
fields)
Henselization of a valued field
(I 2J 10, 12120, 13B40, 13Jl5; l2JlO,
12J20, 13B40, 13Jl5)
(referred to in: Defect; Henselian;
Model theory of valued fields; Ram-
ification theory of valued fields;
Valued function field)
(refers to: field; Hensel lemma; Ram-
ification theory of valued fields; val-
uation)
Henstock-integrability see: Kurzweil--
Henstock-integrablefunction see: Kurzweil-
Henstock integral see: Kurzweil--
Henstock lemma see: Saks--
Herbrand model
[6SN 17; 6SN 17]
(see: Logic programming)
Herbrand model see: least-
Herbrand universe
[6SN17; 6SN17]
(see: Logic programming)
Herman ring
[30005, 5SFI3, 5SF23; 30005, 5SFI3,
5SF23]
(see: Siegel disc)
Hermite-Fejer interpolation
[30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Commutant lifting theorem)
Hermite polynomials see: Fourier--
Hermitian arc
[5IE20; 51E20]
(see: Buekenhout-Metz unital)
Hermitian curve
[12E20, 14H25, 94B27; 12E20,
14H25,94B27]
(see: Artin-Schreier code)
Hermitian manifold see: almost-
Hermitian unital
[05B05, 20G40, 51 E20; 05B05,
20G40, 51 E20]
(see: Unital)
Hemnformulafor the area of a triangle
f51M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
Hessian see: complex-
Hessian matrix
(26Bxx; 26Bxx)
(referred to in: CR-manifold)
(refers to: Hessian of a function)
Hewitt-Savage lemma
[60G09; 60G09]
(see: De Finelli theorem)
Heyman lemma
[93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55,
93C05, 93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
Hiai inequality see: Ando--
hidden-variable theory see: local-
hierarchical model see: Bayesian-
hierarchy see: Chomsky-
hierarchy of sets see: Borel-
higher algebraic K -theory
[190xx, 20Jxx; 190xx, 2OJxx]
(see: Acyclic group)
higher index see: Cannes -; MOSCQvici -
higher K -groups
[19006; 19006]
(see: Plus-construction)
higher ramification group
[12J20, 13B15; 12120,13BI5]
(see: Ramification theory of valued
fields)
Higman four-generator four-relator
group
[190xx, 20Jxx; 190xx, 20Jxx]
(see: Acyclic group)
Higman group
[190xx,20Jxx; 190xx, 20Jxx]
(see: Acyclic group)
Hilbert 10th problem
[03C60, II G35, II R58, 12L05,
14G25; 03C60, IIG35, IIR5S, 12L05,
14G25]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
Hilbert 10th problem
[03C60, 1211 0, 12Ll2; 03C60, 12J 10,
12L12]
(see: Model theory of valued fields)
Hilbert 17th problem see: p-adic-
Hilbert basis theorem
[13PIO,6SQ40; 13PIO, 68Q40]
(see: Griibner basis)
Hilbert-Bernays standard provability
predicate
[038xx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, OSBxx]
(see: Magari algebra)
Hilbert Nullstellensatz
[03C50, 03C95; 03C50, 03C951
(see: Existentially closed)
Hilbert Nullstellensatz see: p-adic-
Hilbert problem 10
[03C60, II G35, II R5S, 12L05,
14G25; 03C60, IIG35, IIR58, 12L05,
14G251
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
Hilbert problem 7
[11041, 11061, 11186; 11041,
11061,II1S6]
(see: Gel'fond-Baker method)
Hilbert problem on the resolution of defi-
nite rational functions
[12F05, 12115; 12F05, 12115]
(see: Artin-Schreier theory)
Hilbert-Schmidt tensor product
[60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H07]
(see: Malliavin calculus)
Hilbert seventh problem
[11041, 11061, 11186; 11041,
11061,II1S6]
(see: Gel'fond-Baker method)
Hilbert tenth problem
[03C60, IIG35, IIR5S, 12L05,
14G25; 03C60, IIG35, IIR5S, 12L05,
14G25]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
Hildebrand theorem
[IIN37; IIN37]
(see: Wirsing theorems)
hill-climbing algorithm
f05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factorization)
Hille-Tamarkin operator
(47B3S; 47B3S)
(refers to: Hilbert-Schmidt operator;
integral operator)
Hilton model see: Adams--
Hinz-Bombieri multi-dimensional prime
number theorem
[IINl3, IIN36; IINI3, IIN36]
(see: Bombieri prime number theo-
rem)
Hirzebruch genus
[55N22, 55N35; 55N22, 55N35]
(see: Elliptic genera)
Hirzebruch genus
[55N22, 55N35; 55N22, 55N35]
(see: Elliptic genera)
Hirzebruch-type spectral sequence see:
Atiyah- -
Hit-or-miss topology
(54Bxx, 6SU 10; 54Bxx, 6SU I0)
(referred to in: Choquet-Kendall-
Matheron theorem)
(refers to: base; Locally compact
space; Mathematical morphology;
mathematical morphology; Met-
ric space; Metrizable space; Semi-
continuous mapping; topological
space; topological structure (topol-
ogy»)
hit-or-miss topology
[54Bxx, 6SU 10; 54Bxx, 68U 10]
(see: Hit-or-miss topology)
hit-or-miss topology see: Borel C7-algebra
generated by the -; convergence in
the -
Hitchin system
[14020, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 5SF07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
5SF07,70H20]
(see: Calogero-Moser-Krichever
system)
HNN-extensions
[20E06, 20E07, 20Jxx; 20E06, 20E07,
20Jxx]
(see: Binate group)
Hochschild coboundary mapping
[16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SG 12;
16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SG 12]
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
Hochschild cohomology
[16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SG 12;
16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SG 12]
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
Hochschild cohomology
fl6W55, 17B56, 17B60, 17B70,
17BSI, 5SAIO; 16W55, 17B56,
17B60, 17B70, 17BSI, 5SAIO]
(see: Poisson algebra)
Hodge cohomology see: absolute-
Hodge type see: Shimura variety of -
Hodgkin-Huxley system
(35K57, 92C20; 35K57, 92C20)
(referred to in: Action potential)

(refers to: Action potential; au-
tonomous system; Homoclinic bifur-
cations; Homoclinic point; Hopf bi-
furcation; Reaction-dilTusion equa-
tion)
HoelTding decomposition
(60Exx, 62Bxx, 62Exx, 62Gxx,
62Hxx; 60Exx, 62Bxx, 62Exx, 62Gxx,
62Hxx)
(referred to in: U -statistic)
(refers to: Banach space; Central
limit theorem; measurable space;
Random variable; U-statistic)
Hoeffding decomposition ofan V-statistic
[60Exx, 62Bxx, 62Exx, 62Gxx,
62Hxx; 6OExx, 62Bxx, 62Exx, 62Gxx,
62Hxx)
(see: HoelTding decomposition)
Hoeffding decomposition theorem
[60Exx, 62Bxx, 62Exx, 62Gxx,
62Hxx; 60Exx, 62Bxx, 62Exx, 62Gxx,
62Hxx)
(see: HoeITding decomposition)
Hoeffding Jorm of aU-statistic
[60Fxx, 62Exx; 60Fxx, 62Exx)
(see: U-statistic)
hole principle see: Dirichlet pigeon- -
Holley inequality
(06A06, 60E15; O6A06, 60E15)
(referred to in: Ahlswede-Daykin in-
equality; Correlation inequalities;
Fishbum-Shepp inequality; FKG
inequality)
(refers to: Ahlswede-Daykin inequal-
ity; Correlation inequalities; dis-
tributive lattice; Fishburn-Shepp
inequality; FKG inequality)
holomorphic automorphic fonn
[11 Fxx, I1G1S, 14Mxx, 20Gxx;
I1Fxx, I1GIS, 14Mxx, 20Gxx)
(see: Shimura variety)
holomorphic automorphic form see:
bounded -; p-integrable -
holomorphic distribution
[53CI5, 53C40, 53C56; 53C15,
53C40, 53C56)
(see: CR-submanifold)
holomorphic function see: Poincare series
of a -; theta-series of a -
holomorphic functional calculus
[46Hxx; 46Hxx)
(see: Friehet algebra)
holomorphic simple type Jor a primitive
permutation group action
[20BI5; 20B 15)
(see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
holomorphic submanifold
[53CI5, 53C40, 53C56; 53C15,
53C40, 53C56)
(see: CR-submanifold)
holonomy
[SlTxx; SlTxx)
(see: Bohm-Aharonov elTect)
holonomy-invariant transverse metric for
a foliation
[53CI5, 53C57, 5SF05; 53C15,
53C57,5SF05)
(see: K -contact flow)
homoclinic bifurcation see: non-
transversal -
Homoclinic bifurcations
(5SFI4; 5SF14)
(referred to in: Codimension-two bi-
furcations; Hodgkin-Huxley system)
(refers to: autonomous system; bi-
furcation; flow (continuous-time
dynamical system); limit cycle;
Poincare return map; Saddle node)
homoclinic chaos
[5SFI3; 5SFI3)
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac-
tion)
homoclinic chaos see: Shil'nikov-
homoclinic manifold
[35Q53, 5SF07, 76B 15; 35Q53,
5SF07,76B15)
(see: Benjamin-Feir instability)
homoc/inic orbit
[5SFI4; 5SFI4)
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
homoclinic orbit
[5SFI3; 5SFI3)
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac-
tion)
homoclinic structure see: Poincare-
homogeneous additive .,tochastic process
[60130; 60130)
(see: Additive stochastic process)
homogeneous Bellman equation
[15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44-
XX, 44AI5, 6SQIO, SI-XX, 90C39,
93C30; 15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx,2SCxx,
44-XX, 44AI5, 6SQIO, SI-XX,
9OC39,93C30)
(see: Idempotent analysis)
homogeneous group
[42B30; 42B30)
(see: Hardy spaces)
homogeneous group see: real Hardy space
of functions on a -
homogeneous norm see: p--
homogeneous plate see: non--
homogeneous space problem
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21)
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
homogeneous type see: Coifman-Weiss
space of-
homology see: elliptic-
homology type see: Baer group, maximal
of-
homomorphism see: Brauer -; forgetful
-; graph -; Hurewicz -; J - -; Jordan
-; 1- -; order-
homomorphism theorem
[06FI5; O6FI5)
(see: po-group)
homothetic deformation see: D--
homotopy see: etale-
Homotopy invariance
[16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SGl2;
16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SGI2)
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
homotopy of spheres see: stem in the the-
oryof -
homotopy type see: simple-
Hopf algebra see: Leibniz- -; merge-cut
-; Poisson- -; shuffle-cut -
Hopf algebra with conjugation see: com-
mutative -
Hopf alternative
(2S015, 5SF17; 2SDl5, 5SF17)
(referred to in: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan
theorem)
(refers to: BirkholT ergodic theorem;
Ergodicity; fundamental group;
geodesic flow; Gromov hyperbolic
space; group; Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan
theorem; Invariant measure; mea-
sure; Ornstein-Chacon ergodic the-
orem; Poincare return theorem;
Riemannian manifold; transforma-
tion; universal covering)
Hopf bifurcation
(5SFI4; 5SF14)
(referred to in: Hodgkin-Huxley sys-
tem; Hysteresis)
(refers to: autonomous system; Cen-
tre manifold; centre manifold; equi-
librium position; Equivalence of
dynamical systems; inner product;
limit cycle; Multilinear mapping)
HopJ bifurcation
[5SFI4; 5SFI4)
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations;
Hopf bifurcation)
Hopf bifurcation see: Andronov- -; fold-
-; generalized -; Hopf- -; subcr~ical
-; supercritical -; zero- -
HopJ decomposition
[2S015, 5SF17; 2S015, 5SF17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
HopJ equilibrium
[58FI4; 58FI4)
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
Hopf factorization see: Wiener--
HopJ-HopJ bifurcation
[58FI4; 5SFI4)
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
Hopf integral operator see: symbol of a
Wiener- -; Wiener- -
HopJ invariant
[55Q40; 55Q40)
(see: EHP spectral sequence)
Hopf manifold
(53C25, 53C55; 53C25, 53C55)
(refers to: Betti number; Complex
manifold; complex torus; cyclic
group; dilTerentiable manifold; Her-
mitian metric; Kiihler metric; Levi-
Civita connection)
Hopf manifold see: complex -; general-
ized -; quaternion -; real -
Hopf operator see: discrete Wiener- -;
symbol of a discrete Wiener- -; Wiener-
Hopforder
(16S34, 16W30; 16S34, 16W30)
(referred to in: Hopf orders, applica-
tions of)
(refers to: Abelian group; Cross prod-
uct; Extension of a field; finite group;
Group algebra; Hopf algebra; Hopf
orders, applications of; Norm on a
field; p-adic number; p-group)
Hopf order see: Galois extension of a -;
R--
Hopf orders, applications of
(lIR54, 13B05, 16W30; IIR54,
13B05,16W30)
(referred to in: Hopf order)
(refers to: cohomology; exact se-
quence; Extension of a field; Galois
extension; group scheme; Hopf or-
der; Kummer extension; Norm on a
field; p-adic number)
Hopfring
(l6W30, 55N20, 55N22; 16W30,
55N20, 55N22)
(refers to: Abelian group; category;
Co-algebra; cohomology; ring)
Hopf theorem see: Poincare--
Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem
(53C20, 5SF17; 53C20, 5SF17)
(referred to in: Hopf alternative)
(refers to: Brownian motion; Discrete
group of transformations; Ergodic-
ity; geodesic flow; Hopf alternative;
Lebesgue measure; Riemannian
manifold; Subharmonic function)
Hopfield model
[6ST05, 92C20; 6ST05, 92C20)
(see: Hebb rule)
hopping detection in radar or sonar signals
see: frequency--
horizontal covariant derivative
[53C60; 53C60)
(see: Berwald connection)
Hiinnander class
[33CIO, 35Sxx, 47B38; 33CIO, 35Sxx,
47B3S)
(see: Bessel potential operator)
Hiinnander condition
[60Hxx, 6OH07; 60Hxx, 60H07)
(see: Malliavin calculus)
Horn clause
[68NI7; 6SNI7)
(see: Logic programming)
Horn conjecture see: Bateman--
Horrocks-Mumford bundle
[14Kxx,5SF07; 14Kxx, 5SF07)
(see: Abelian surface)
horseshoe see: Smale-
Hough transformation
(6SUIO; 6SUIO)
(refers to: normal; Normal equation)
house with two rooms
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05)
(see: Collapsibility)
Hove scaling see: Friedrichs-van-
(HV)-CURVATURE
Howell cube
[05B30; 05B30)
(see: Howell design)
Howell design
(05B30; 05B30)
(referred to in: Room square)
(refers to: graph; one-factor; One-
factorization; orthogonal Latin
squares; Room square)
Howell design see: cyclic -; d-
dimensional -
Howell rotation see: complete balanced -
HTML
[68Q40; 6SQ40)
(see: Computer algebra package)
Huang theorem see: Wen-ling-
HulTman code
(94A29; 94A29)
(referred to in: Kullback-Leibler in-
formation)
(refers to: Coding and decod-
ing; Entropy; Information the-
ory; Kullback-Leibler information;
Probability distribution; Pseudo-
metric)
Huffman codes see: different-
Hugoniot condition see: Rankine--
hull see: cotorsion -; Korovkin -
Hulthen potential
(8IVxx; 8lVxx)
(refers to: delta-function; Schriidinger
equation)
human brain see: understanding of -
Hungarian method
[90B06, 9OBSO, 9OC05; 9OB06,
90BSO, 9OC05)
(see: Assignment problem)
Hurewicz homomorphism
[55Pxx; 55Pxx)
(see: Adams-Hilton model)
Hurwitz equation
(11041, 11072; 11041, IID72)
(refers to: Diophantine approxima-
tions; Diophantine equations; Mar-
kov spectrum problem)
Hurwitz equation see: fundamental solution
of a Markov- -; Markoff- -; Markov--
Hurwitz factorization problem
[16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx)
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
Hurwitz stable polynomial
[340xx, 93009; 340xx, 93009)
(see: Kharitonov polynomial theory)
Hurwitz transformation
(l6Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx)
(referred to in: Kustaanheimo-Stiefel
transformation)
(refers to: Cayley-Dickson algebra;
ClilTord algebra; Euclidean space;
Hopf fibration; Hypercomplex num-
ber; Kustaanheimo-Stiefel transfor-
mation; metric; Pseudo-Euclidean
space; three-body problem)
Hurwitz tran.'Jormation
[16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx)
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
Hutchinson cycle
[34-02, 34K15, 34K20, 34K25, 92-02;
34-02, 34K15, 34K20, 34K25, 92-02)
(see: Hutchinson equation)
Hutchinson equation
(34-02, 34K15, 34K20, 34K25, 92-02;
34-02, 34K15, 34K20, 34K25, 92-02)
(refers to: Laplace operator)
Hutchinson equation
[34-02, 34K15, 34K20, 34K25, 92-02;
34-02, 34K15, 34K20, 34K25, 92-02)
(see: Hutchinson equation)
Hutner theorem see: Saxon--
Huxley system see: Hodgkin--
(HV)-curvature
535
(Hv)-CURvATURE
[53C60; 53C60J
(see: Berwald connection)
hydrogen atom see: Pauli algebraicsolution
of the -; radial equation for the -
hyper-elliptic equation
IllD4l, IID61, 11186; IID41,
IID61,IIJB6J
(see: Gel'fond-Baker method)
hyper-finite algebra see: uniformly-
hyper~quasi-extensi(}n
[03Bxx; 03Bxxl
(see: Adequacy theorem)
hyper-quasi-intension
103Bxx; 03BxxJ
(see: Adequacy theorem)
hyperbolic behaviour see: theory of smooth
dynamical systems with non-uniformly -
hyperbolic boundary (if a Gromov hyper-
bolic space
153C99; 53C99J
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
hyperbolic compactijication
[53C99; 53C99J
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
hyperbolic complex manifold see: Kobayashi-
hyperbolic complex numbers see: algebra
of -
hyperbolic diffeomorphism see: non-
uniformly -; non-uniformly partially -
hyperbolic dynamical systems see: theory
of non-uniformly -
hyperbolic equilibrium
[5BFI4; 5SFI4J
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
hyperbolic equilibrium see: non--
hyperbolic flock
[5IExx, 51N15; 5lExx, 51NI51
(see: Flock)
hyperbolic flock of deficiency one see: par-
tial-
Hyperbolic group
(20F32; 20F32)
(referred to in: Asymptotic invari-
ant of a group; Gromov hyperbolic
space; Word metric)
(refers to: cohomological dimen-
sion; finite group; Finitely-presented
group; Free group; free product;
Fundamental group; Gromov hyper-
bolic space; group; Group without
torsion; Polynomial and exponen-
tial growth in groups and algebras;
Riemannian manifold)
hyperbolic group
[20F32, 57M07; 20F32, 57M071
(see: Word metric)
hyperbolic group see: elementary -; Gro-
mav - ~ word- -
Hyperbolic group in the sense of Gromov
[20F32; 20F32J
(see: Hyperbolic group)
hyperbolic hypercomplex number
[16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17D05,
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17D05,
55RxxJ
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
hyperbolic isometry of hyperbolic spaces
[53C99; 53C99J
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
hyperbolic iterated junction system
[2BASO, 5BFII, 60J05; 2BASO, 5BFII,
60J05J
(see: Iterated function system)
hyperbolic measure
[2BDxx, 5SF15; 2BDxx, 5SFI5J
(see: Pesin theory)
hyperbolic metric
[30F35; 30F35J
(see: Bers space)
hyperbolic octonions see: algebra of -
hyperbolic plane see: real-
hyperbolic quaternions see: algebra of -
hyperbolic space see: asymptotic ray in a
Gromov -; convergence in a Gromov -;
0- -; Gromov-; hyperbolic boundary of
a Gromov-
536
hyperbolic space in the sense (~r Grmnov
[53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
hyperbolic spaces see: elliptic isometry of
-; hyperbolic isometry of -; parabolic
isometry of -
hyperbolic trajectory see: non-uniformly -;
non-uniformly partially -; uniformly -;
uniformly partially -
hyperbolicity .<ee: Kobayashi-
hypercomplex number see: elliptic -; hy-
perbolic -
hypercontractive inequalities see: Nelson
family of -
Hypercontractive semi-group
(46E35, 46LS9, 47D03, 5BG03;
46E35, 46LS9, 47D03, 5SG03)
(refers to: central limit theorem;
Clifford algebra; differential opera-
tor; Fourier transform; Hausdorff-
Young inequalities; Hilbert space;
integral operator; quantum field
theory; Riemannian manifold; Self-
adjoint operator; semi-group; Semi-
group of operators; Spectrum of
an operator; Statistical mechanics,
mathematical problems in)
hyperconvex metric space
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05J
(see: Collapsibility)
hypercube
[90C35; 90C35]
(see: Search algorithm)
hypercube see: m-dimensional-
hypercube o{ order n
[05C45, 68Pxx, 6SRxx, 94B60;
05C45, 6SPxx, 68Rxx, 94B601
(see: Gray code)
hypergeometric function ,"iee: general-
ized -
hypergraph see: face of a -
hypergroup see: locally compact -
Hypergroups, harmonic analysis on lo-
cally compact
(43AIO, 43A46, 43M2; 43AIO,
43A46,43A62)
(refers to: Generalized displacement
operators; Haar measure; Harmonic
analysis; Harmonic analysis, ab-
stract; Invariant average; Plancherel
formula; Quantum groups)
hyperintensional predication
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see:Adequacy theorem)
hyperoval
[5IExx; 51ExxJ
(see: Galois geometry)
hyperplane section
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J991
(see: Adjunction theory)
hyperplane section bundle
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99J
(see: Adjunction theory)
hyperplanes see: Arrangement of -; char-
acteristic polynomial of an arrangement
of -; dependent intersection of -: di-
visor of an arrangement of -; edge of
an arrangement of -; exponent of an ar-
rangement of -; free arrangement of -
hyperplanes in general position see: ar-
rangement of -
hypersurface in an anti-de Sitter space see:
mean curvature of a -; space-like -
hypersurfaces in an see: complete maximal
space-like -
hypotheses see: characterization of geo-
metrical mappings under mild -
hypothesis see: extended version of the
Riemann -; Generalized continuum -;
Kurepa -; Weil Riemann -
hypothesis A see: Kaplansky-
hypothesis for non-singular projective alge-
braic varieties see: Riemann-
Hysteresis
(47H30; 47H30)
(referred to in: Hysteron; Non-ideal
relay; Non-ideal relay)
(/ders to: Hopf bifurcation; Hys-
teron; hysteron; Non-ideal relay;
non-ideal relay; Stochastic differen-
tial equation)
hysteresis
15XF14; 5SFI4J
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
hysteresis see: Preisach-Giltay -;
Preisach-Giltay model of ferromag-
netic -
hysteresis non-linearity
147H30; 47H30J
(see: Hysteresis)
Hysteron
(47H30; 47H30)
(referred to in: Hysteresis; Hysteresis)
(refers to: Hysteresis; Metric; semi-
group)
___ 1___
t-operator
I03Bxx; 03Bxx 1
(see: Adequacy theorem)
I -denshy topology
126A15; 26A151
(sec: Density topology)
I-density topology see: deep-
I-divergence
160B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exxl
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
J -valuation see: ostensive-
I CC (F) family ollanguages
103D05, 68Q50, 68S05: 03D05,
6SQ50, 6SS051
C,ee: Contextual grammar)
ICL
103B40; 03B401
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
I ( .1 L -s.''f'stem
I03B40; 03B401
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
I ( , L -system see: basis of a statement of
an -; Curry -; derivable statement of
an -; statement of an -; term of an -
ideal see: closed -; implicative -; inde-
composable -; 1- -; order -; Schatten
operator -; Stickelberger -; strict trans-
form of an -
ideal behaviour for a Calder6n-Toeplitz op-
erator see: Schatten-
ideal domain see: extension of a princi-
pal -: finite extension of a principal -;
principal -
ideal in an I-group see: I - -
ideal of trace-class operators
143Axx, 46Hxx, 47D27, 47035;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47D27, 470351
(see: Arens multiplication)
ideal plasticity see: Prandtl model of -
ideal relay see: Non--
ideal space
145P05, 46E30, 47B55; 45P05, 46E30,
47B551
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
ideal space see: normed-
ideal theorem see: prime-
IDEALS
[68Q40; 6XQ40 J
(see: Computer algebra package)
idempotent see: block -; defect group of
an -
idempotent addition
115A4X, 16 Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
XX, 44A15, 68QIO, SI-XX, 90C39,
93C30; 15A4X. 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx,
44-XX, 44AIS, 68QIO, 81-XX,
90C39,93C30]
(see: Idempotent analysis; Idempo-
tent semi-ring)
Idempotent algorithm
(16Y60, 49Lxx, 90C39; 16Y60,
49Lxx,9OC39)
(referred to in: Idempotent analysis;
Idempotent correspondence princi-
ple; Idempotent semi-ring)
(refers to: Bellman equation; Boolean
algebra; dynamic programming;
Idempotent analysis; idempotent
correspondence principle; idempo-
tent semi-ring; Jacobi method; linear
algebra; Seidel method)
Idempotent analysis
(l5A48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
XX, 44A15, 6SQIO, 81-XX, 9OC39,
93C30; 15A48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx,
44-XX, 44A15, 6SQIO, BI-XX,
90C39,93C30)
(referred to in: Idempotent algorithm;
Idempotent correspondence princi-
ple; Idempotent correspondence
principle; Idempotent semi-ring;
Idempotent superposition principle)
(refers to: Bellman equation; Boolean
algebra; Cauchy problem; dy-
namic programming; Fourier trans-
form; functional analysis; group;
Hamilton-Jacobi theory; Idempo-
tent algorithm; Idempotent corre-
spondence principle; idempotent
correspondence principle; Idempo-
tent semi-ring; idempotent semi-
ring; Idempotent superposition
principle; Integral operator; Leg-
endre transform; Locally compact
space; mathematical logic; Metric;
semi-continuous function; semi-ring;
topological space)
idempotent mlculus
[ISA48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44-
XX, 44A15, 6SQIO, 81-XX, 90C39,
93C30; 15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx,
44-XX, 44A15, 68QIO, BI-XX,
90C39,93C301
(see: Idempotent analysis)
idempotent character
[15A4S, 16 Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
XX, 44A15, 68QIO, BI-XX, 9OC39,
93C30; 15A48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx,
44-XX, 44A15, 68QIO, BI-XX,
90C39,93C30]
(see: Idempotent analysis)
Idempotent correspondence principle
(16Y60, 44A15, 49Lxx, 60135, 81-XX,
90C39; 16Y60, 44A15, 49Lxx, 60135,
SI-XX,90C39)
(referred to in: Idempotent algorithm;
Idempotent analysis; Idempotent
analysis)
(reters to: Bellman equation; Deci-
sion problem; Fourier transform;
Hamilton-Jacobi theory; Idempo-
tent algorithm; Idempotent analysis;
idempotent analysis; Idempotent
seml-rlOg; Kolmogorov-Chapman
equation; Legendre transform; Mar-
kov process; Probability measure;
probability theory; Stochastic pro-
cess)
idemp(}tent func.:tion ",/}(u'e
115A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44-
XX, 44AIS, 6BQIO, BI-XX, 9OC39,
93C30; 15A48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx,
44-XX, 44AI5, 6BQIO, 81-XX,
90C39,93C301
(see: Idempotent analysis)
idempotent multiplication see: semi-ring
with -
idempotent operat(}r
160D05, 6SUIO; 60D05, 68UIOJ
(see: Mathematical morphology)
;dempotent scalar product

[ISA4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
XX, 44AIS, 6SQIO, XI-XX, 90C39,
93C30: ISA4X, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx,
44-XX, 44A15, 6XQIO, XI-XX,
90C39,93C30[
(see: Idempotent analysis)
idempotent semi-field
[16Y60: 16Y60[
(see: Idempotent semi-ring)
idempotent semi-group
[16Y60: 16Y60[
(see: Idempotent semi-ring)
idempotent semi-module
[ISA48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
XX, 44AIS, 68QIO, XI-XX, 90C39,
93C30: ISA4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx,
44-XX, 44A15, 6XQIO, XI-XX,
90C39,93C30[
(see: Idempotent analysis)
Idempotent semi-ring
(l6Y60: 16Y60)
(referred to ill: Idempotent algo-
rithm: Idempotent analysis: Idem-
potent analysis: Idempotent corre-
spondence principle: Idempotent
semi-ring: Idempotent superposition
principle)
(refers to: Boolean algebra: dynamic
programming: Idempotent algo-
rithm: idempotent analysis: Idem-
potent semi-ring: parallel program-
ming: reflexivity: semi-ring; transi-
tivity)
idempotent semi-ring
[ISA48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2XCxx, 44-
XX, 44AIS, 68QIO, SI-XX, 90C39,
93C30: ISA4X, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx,
44-XX, 44AIS, 6XQIO, XI-XX,
90C39,93C30[
(see: Idempotent analysis; Idempo-
tent semi-ring)
idempotent semi-ring see: boundedly com-
plete -; commutative - ; partial order on
an -
Idempotent superposition principle
(49Lxx, SI-XX, 90C39: 49Lxx, XI-
XX,90C39)
(referred to ill: Idempotent analysis)
(refers to: Bellman equation: Hamil-
ton-Jacobi theory: idempotent anal-
ysis: Idempotent semi-ring)
identical restriction on COflstitufh'e re/a-
tions
[73B30, SOAOS, XOA97: 73B30,
SOAOS, SOA97[
(see: Clansius-Duhem inequality)
identities see: Algebra with polynomial
-; MacWilliams -; power moment -;
Sahlqvist -
identity see: approximate -; Biedenharn-
Elliot -: Bukhstab -: mixed
Sahlqvist -: trigonometric -
identify opera/or
[4SPOS, 46E30, 47B5S; 4SPOS, 46E30,
47BSS[
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
identity ring see: polynomial-
II see: Scratch pad -
Illative combinatory logic
(03B40: 03B40)
(refers to: Arithmetization: Com-
binatory logic; Completeness (in
logic): Inconsistency: Interpretation:
'x-calculus)
illative comhinatory logic
[03B40: 03B40[
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
illative combinatory logic see: conversion
rule in -; logical constant in -: term
in -
illative notions
[03B40: 03B40[
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
image see: bounded-
image grammar
[03DOS, 6SQ45, 6XQSO: 03DOS,
68Q4S, 68QSO[
(see: Grammar form)
image inequality see: curvature-
image processing see: digital-
image restoration
[60D05, 6SU I 0: 60005, 6SU I O[
(see: Mathematical morphology)
il1UlRinary class
[03Exx, 03E70: O3Exx, O3E70[
(see: Alternative set theory)
imheddable Benz plane
[SIBOS: SIBOS[
(see: Benz plane)
imbedding see: toroidal-
immediate extension
[l2JIO, 12J20, 13B40, 13115, 14H05;
12110, 12J20, 13B40, 13J15, 14HOSj
(see: Henselization of a valued field:
Valued function field)
immediate extension see: maximal-
implicative BCK-lligebra
[03G25, 04A03, 06Dxx, 06Exx:
03G25, 04A03, 06Dxx, 06Exx[
(see: BCK-algebra)
implicative BCK-algebra see: positive-
implicative ideal
[03G25, 04A03, 06Dxx, 06Exx:
03G25, 04A03, 06Dxx, 06Exx[
(see: BCI-algebra: BCK-algebra)
implicit method see: Alternating-
direction -
impossibility theorem see: Arrow-
(in group theory) see: p-rank-
(in logic) see: coheir -: definability -:
Forking -: heir -
(in modal logic) see: necessity operator -:
possibility operator -
(in physics) see: field-
(in probability theory) see: integral limit
property -; local limit property -
(in quantization) !·jee: Anomalies-
(in quantum mechanics) see: dynamical
symmetry -
(in statistics) see: Outlier -; string -:
yoke -
(in the geometry of numbers) see: Flatness
theorem -
inaccessible cardinal
[20K20: 20K20[
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of Abelian groups)
inllccurac:v in information theory
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx: 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exx[
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
inactive constraint
[90C30: 90C30 [
(see: Passive constraint)
incentre (~la tetrahedron
[5IM20, 52-XX: SIM20, S2-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
Incidence calculus
(03B48, 68T99; 03B48, 68T99)
(refers to: Permissible law (infer-
ence): probability: probability the-
ory)
incidence (~f a logical formula
[03B4S, 68T99; 03B4S, 6XT99]
(see: Incidence calculus)
inclusion-and-exclusion see: method of -
inclusion-ano-exclusion method
[60COS: 60C05]
(see: Bonferroni inequalities)
inclusion-and-exclusion principle see:
Sylvester -
incomparahle elements of a partially or-
dered set
[06A06, 06AIO, 60E15: 06A06,
06AI0,60EI5]
(see: Correlation inequalities:
Fishburn-Shepp inequality)
incomplete factorization
[6SFIO: 6SFIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
incomplete Room square
[OSBI5: OSBIS[
(see: Room square)
incompletely-specified switching func-
tion
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94CIO; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94C 10]
(see: Karnaugh map)
incompleteness theorem see: Godel first-
inconsistent data
[62F35: 62F35]
(see: Outlier)
inconsistent observation
[62F35: 62F3S]
(see: Outlier)
inconsistent permanent summability method
see: perfectly-
inconsistent theory
[03B53: 03B53[
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
increment process
[60G09: 60G09[
(see: De Finetti theorem)
increment process see: exchangeable-
incremental non-linear analysis system see:
automatic dynamiC -
incumbent
[90CIO: 90CIO[
(see: Branch-and-bound algorithm)
indecomposability theorem see: ZiI'ber-
indecomposable ideal
[ 16Dxx, 16L30, 20C20, 20D20:
16Dxx, 16L30, 20C20, 20D20[
(see: Block)
indecomposable module see: absolutely-
indecomposable theorem see: Green-
independence
[OSB35, 06Bxx: 05B35, 06Bxx[
(see: Jordan-Dedekind space)
independence of irrelevant alternatives
[90A05, 90A08, 90A2S; 90AOS,
90AOS, 90A2S]
(see: Arrow impossibility theorem)
independence property see: rate--
independence theoremfor valuedfunction
fields
[12J20, 14H05: 12J20, 14H05j
(see: Valued function field)
independent element in a modular lattice
[06C05: 06C05 j
(see: Arguesian lattice)
independent set
[OSB3S, 06Bxx: 05B3S, 06Bxx[
(see: Jordan-Dedekind space)
independent set see: k- -: m- -
independent set in a partially ordered set
[06A07: 06A07]
(see: Greene-Kleitman theorem)
index see: Boyd -: Conley -: Connes
higher -: Karamata -: lower Boyd -:
lower Karamata -: lower Matuszewska
-: Lyapunov-like -: Matuszewska -:
Moscovici higher -: performance -;
ramification -: upper Boyd -: upper
Karamata -: upper Matuszewska
Vapnik-Chervonenkis -
index of an anti-de Silter space
[S3C20, 53C42; 53C20, 53C42]
(see: Anti-de Sitter space)
index of an eigenvalue
[65Fxx: 6SFxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
index (~f regular variation
[26A12: 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
index (~f regular variation (~f a function
[26AI2, 60G70: 26A12, 60G70[
(see: De Haan theory)
index theorem
[8IQ30, 81R25, 81T70: 81Q30,
8IR2S,8IT70]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization))
index theorem see: families-
indexed by functions see: empirical pro-
cess -
indexed by sets see: empirical process -
INFINITE COVERING
indicatrix see: length of the tangent -:
Tangent -
indirect adaptive control
[93C40, 93D2l; 93C40, 93D21[
(see: Adaptive stabilization)
indiscernibility equivalence
[03Exx, 03E70: 03Exx, O3E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
indistinguishability relation
[S4E70: S4E70j
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
individuals see: type of -
induction see: co--
induction argument see: Bertini-type-
induction of a group representation
[20CI5: 20C15]
(see: Brauer characterization of
characters)
inequalities see: Bell -: Bonferroni
-: Bonferroni-type -: Correlation -:
Markov-Bernstein-type -: method of
polynomials for proving Bonferroni-type
-: Meyer -: Nelson family of hypercon-
tractive -
inequality see: affine isoperimet-
ric -: Ahlswede-Daykin -: Ando-
Hiai -: Bernstein -; Bernstein-type
Blaschke-Santal6 -: Brunn-
Minkowski -: Burkholder-Davis-Gundy
-: Clausius-Duhem -: coercivity -:
Cordes -: curvature image -: 0-
ultrametric - ~ elliptic variational -;
exponential-class Moser-Trudinger -;
Fefferman-Garsia -: Fishburn-Shepp
-: FKG -: Fortuin-Kasteleyn-Ginibre
-: four-functions -: Furuta -; grand
Furuta -: Hardy-Littlewood-Sobolev
-; Harris -; Heinz -; Heinz-Kato
-: Heinz-Kato-Furuta -: Holley -:
inverse Brunn-Minkowski -; inverse
Santal6 -; Jensen -; Kosaki trace
-; linearized Moser-Trudinger -; loga-
rithmic fractional-integral -; logarithmic
Sobolev -; Lowner-Heinz -: Lundberg
-: Mahler -; Markov -: Markov-type
-; Milman -; Moser-Trudinger -; n-
simplex -: operator -; order-preserving
operator -: Petty geo-minimal surface
area -: Petty projection -: Reisner -;
residual dissipation -: Ruelle -: Shan-
non -: Sobolev -: trace -; triangle -;
Turan-Kubilius -: two-point logarithmic
Sobolev -: xyz -
inequality for extensions of valuations see:
fundamental -
inequality for operators see: norm-
inequality for valued function fields see:
genus -
inequality in Lp-spaces
[4IA17, 42B30: 4IA17, 42B30[
(see: Burkholder-Davis-Gundy in-
equality)
inequality of affine differential geometry see:
affine isoperimetric -
inequality on the sphere see: isoperimet-
ric-
inequality problem see: variational-
inertia completion problem see: minimal-
inertia degree
[IISIS, 12J20: IISIS, 12120[
(see: Defect)
inertia field
[12J20, 13B15: 12J20, DBI5[
(see: Ramification theory of valued
fields)
inertia field see: absolute-
inertia Rroup
[12120, DBI5, 20C05, 20CIO; 12J20,
13B I 5, 20C05, 20C I O[
(see: Clifford theory: Ramification
theory of valued fields)
inference see: Bayesian -; Differential
geometry in statistical -; statistical -
infinite coverinR
[60DOS: 60D05]
(see: Dvoretzky problem)
537
INFINITE GENERAL LINEAR GROUP
infinite general linear group see: classifying
space of the -
infinite order see: alternating Choquet ca-
pacityof -
infinite partially ordered sets see: structure
theorem for -
infinitesimal Kobayashi pseudo-metric
[32H20; 32H20)
(see: Kobayashi hyperbolicity)
infinity see: natural-
information see: expected -; Fisher -;
generalized Fisher -; Kullback-Leibler
-; Kullback-Leibler quantity of -; mea-
sure of discriminatory -; observed -
information criterion see: Akaike-
information divergence see: Kullback-
Leibler -
in/ormation for discrimination
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exx)
(see: Kullback-Leibler.type distance
measures)
information matrix see: Fisher-
information quantity see: Kullback-
Leibler -
information theory see: error in -; inaccu-
racy in-
informational divergence
[60Exx, 62BIO, 94AIS, 94AI7,
94A29; 60Exx, 62B 10, 94A IS, 94A 17,
94A29)
(see: HulTman code; Kullback-
Leibler information)
infra-invariant
[06FIS, 20F60; 06FIS, 20F60)
(see: Convex subgroup of a partially
ordered group)
initial-boundary value problem see: first-
initial operator
[44A99, 47A05; 44A99, 47A05)
(see: Algebraic analysis)
initial temperature
[90Cxx; 9OCxx)
(see: Simulated annealing)
initial time
[81S20; 81S20)
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the·
ory)
initial-value problem
[6SL05; 65L05)
(see: Adaptive Runge-Kutta method)
initial value problem of the second kind
[45OOS, 47Bxx; 45D05, 47Bxx)
(see: Abstract Volterra equation)
injective metric space
[20FOS, 57M20, S7QOS; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05)
(see: Collapsibility)
inner product
[2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70)
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3 - j, 6 - j, and
9 - j coefficients)
inner-product error
[47AIO, 49RIO, 65FIO; 47AIO,
49R 10, 65F 10)
(see: Anti·eigenvalue)
inner product of vectors
[94B25; 94B25)
(see: MacWilliams identities)
Iniinii-Wigner contraction
[17Bxx, 81R05; 17Bxx, 81R05)
(see: Gell·Mann formula)
input
[47H30; 47H30)
(see: Hysteresis)
insertion algorithm see: Schensted-
insertion procedure see: Schensted-
inspection see: rectifying-
insphere 0/ a tetrahedron
[51M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom·
etry of the)
instability see: Benjamin-Feir -;
Rayleigh-Taylor -
instability of superposed fluids see:
Rayleigh-Taylor -
538
instanton number
[81 Q30, 81 R25, 8IT70; 81 Q30,
81R25,81T70J
(see: Anomalies (iu quantization»
insurance company
[60Gxx, 60G35; 60Gxx, 60G351
(see: Risk theory)
integer see: content of an -; Hardy-
Littlewood formula for the number of rep-
resentations of an -; 5- -; weight of
an -
integer) see: Hardy-Ramanujan theorem
(on the normal number of prime factors of
an -
integer Dehn surgery
[S7M2S; S7M25J
(see: Dehn surgery)
integer optimization
[IIH06, IIHI6, IIH31, IIH46,
IIH50, 51MII, 51MI5, 51MI6,
51M20, 51M25; IIH06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIHSO, SIMI I,
51MI5, 51MI6, 51M20, 51M25)
(see: LLL basis reduction metbod)
integer polynomials see: polynomial-time
factorization of -
integer programming problem see: Mixed-
integers see: decidability of the elemen-
tary theory of the ring of algebraic -;
Dedekind ring of -; elementary theory
of the ring of algebraic -; ring of alge-
braic -
integrability see: Burkill -; Burkill-
Cesari -; K-H- -; Kovalevskaya -;
Kowalewski -; Kurzweil-Henstock- -
integrability in the sense (~f complex vari-
ables
[58F07; 58F07)
(see: Painleve test)
integrable dynamical system see: alge-
braically -; completely -; Kovalevskaya
-; Kowalewski -; Liouville -
integrable function see: Burkill-Cesari -;
K-H- -; Kurzweil-Henstock- -
integrable Hamiltonian system see: alge-
braically completely -
integrable holomorphic automorphic form
see: p--
integrable in the sense of complex variables
see: differential equation, -
integrable interval function
[26A45, 26B 15, 28A 75, 28B05,
49Q25; 26A45, 26B 15, 28A 75, 28B05,
49Q25)
(see: Burkill-Cesari iutegral)
integrable rectangle function see: Burkill-
integrable set of random variables see: Uni-
formly -
integrable system see: algebraic com-
pletely -
integral see: Burkill-Cesari -; Calder6n-
Zygmund-singular -; entropy -; gauge
Gauss-Weierstrass singular -;
generalized Riemann -; Ito stochas-
tic -; It6-Wiener stochastic -; K-H
-; Kurzweil-Henstock -; Laplace-
Stieltjes -; logarithmic -; MacShane
-; Riemann-complete -; Skorokhod
-; Ward Perron-Stieltjes -; Wiener -;
Wiener-Ito -
integral current
[28Cxx, 58A I 0, 58A25, 58C35;
28Cxx, 58AIO, 58A25, 58C35J
(see: Federer-Fleming deformatiou
theorem)
integral definite rational/unction
[03C60, 12JIO, 12Ll2; 03C60, 12JIO,
12Ll2)
(see: p·adically closed field)
integral for a Hamiltonian system see: for-
mal-
integral formula see: Cauchy-
integral inequality see: logarithmic
fractional- -
integral limit property (in probability the-
ory)
[28Dxx, 60Fxx, 60GOY, 60K35;
28Dxx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35J
(see: Bernoulli measure)
integral modification of the Bernstein poly-
nomials see: Durrmeyer-
integral operator
[45P05, 46E30, 47B55; 45P05, 46E30,
47B55J
(see: Integral representations of lin·
ear operators)
integral operator see: Bergman -; Cauchy
singular -; ordered-bounded -; regular
-; symbol of a Wiener-Hopf -; Volterra
-; Wiener-Hopf -
integral operator (?f finite double norm
147B38; 47B38J
(see: Hille-Tamarkin operator)
integral operators see: continuity charac-
terization of -
Integral representations of linear oper-
ators
(45P05, 46E30, 47B55; 45P05, 46E30,
47BS5)
(refers to: Banach space; Fourier
transform; Hilbert transform; K·
space; Measure space; Orlicz space;
Unitarily·equivalent operators)
integral solutions of the transport problem
see: Dantzig theorem on -
integral transform
[45P05, 46E30, 47B55; 45P05, 46E30,
47B55]
(see: Integral representations of lin·
ear operators)
integral transform see: Bergman-type -;
Vekua-type -
integrality constraint
[90Cxx; 90CxxJ
(see: Constrained optimization prob·
lem)
integration see: Burkill-Cesari weak -
integration of arithmetic functions see:
Novoselov theory of -
integro-differential operator
[60H I 0, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05;
60HIO, 60K35, 65C05, 65UOS]
(see: Monte·Carlo methods for par·
tial differential equations)
integro-differential predator-prey model see:
Volterra -
intension
[03Bxx; 03BxxJ
(see: Adequacy theorem)
intension .'·jee: hyper-quasi--
intensional isomorphism
[03Bxx; 03BxxJ
(see: Adequacy theorem)
intensity (~f irrelevant alternatives
[90A05, 90A08, 90A28; 90A05,
90A08,90A28J
(see: Arrow impossibility theorem)
interacting boson model
[81Rxx, 81R05; 81Rxx, 81R05J
(see: Spectrum geueratiug algebra)
interacting branching process
[60HIO, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05;
60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05J
(see: Monte·Carlo methods for par·
tial dilTerential equations)
interacting particles see: strongly-
interaction see: mean field -; mean field
type -
interaction picture Hamiltonian
[8IS20; 81S20J
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the·
ory)
interactive method in optimization
190C29; 90C29]
(see: Multi·objective optimization)
Intercept
(51 Mxx, 51 N20; 51 Mxx, 51 N20)
(reiers to: geometry)
intercept form see: axis-
intercept representation of a line see:
slope- -
interior-point algorithms see: primal-dual-
Interior'point methods in mathemati·
cal programming
(90C05, 9OC20, 90C25; 9OC05,
90C20,90C25)
(referred to in: Proximal point meth·
ods in mathematical programming)
(refers to: convex programming; lin·
ear programming; Mathematical
programming; Newton method)
intermediate expression swell
168Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
intermediate value theorem
[03C60, 12Jl5, 12L12; 03C60, 12JI5,
12Ll2l
(see: Real closed field)
intennittency route to chaos
[S8FI3; S8F13]
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac·
tiou)
internal contextual grammar
[03D05, 68QSO, 68S05; 03D05,
68Q50, 68S05 J
(see: Contextual grammar)
internal energy
[73B30, 80A05, 80A97; 73B30,
80A05,80A97J
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
internal state
[47H30; 47H30J
(see: Hysteresis)
internal validity
[03B53; 03B53J
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
interpoation spaces see: Mityagin theorem
on -
interpolant
[26CIO, 30D55, 30E05, 41A05,
46EIO, 47A57, 86A22; 26CIO, 30D5S,
30E05, 41A05, 46EIO, 47A57, 86A22]
(see: Caratheodory interpolation)
interpolation see: Caratheodory -; H oo
-; Hermite-Fejer -; Uiwner -; Nehari
-; Nevanlinna-Pick -; Nudelman -
interpolation functor
[46B70; 46B70)
(see: Calder6n couples)
interpolation method
[46B70; 46B70J
(see: Calder6n couples)
interpolation problem see: Caratheodory
-; Nehari -; Nevanlinna-Pick -; Schur
method for solving the Caratheodory -;
suboptimal Nevanlinna-Pick -
interpolation property see: Riesz-
interpolation space
[46B70; 46B70)
(see: Calder6n couples)
interpolation space see: Lions-Peetre real-
method -; relative -
interpolation spaces see: Calder6n mono-
tonicity property for -; Calder6n theorem
on -
interpolation theorem
[46E35, 46L89, 47D03, 58G03;
46E35, 46L89, 47D03, 58G03J
(see: Hypercontractive semi·group)
interpretation
[03Cxx; 03Cxx)
(see: Frai'sse characterization of ele·
mentaryequivalence)
interpretation see: domain of an -;
Rossler -; sub- -
interpretation, generated by a subset see:
subsystem of an -
interpretation grammar
[03D05, 68Q45, 68Q50; 03D05,
68Q4S, 68Q50)
(see: Grammar form)
interpretation '!f a grammar modulo a dfl-
subMitution
[03D05, 68Q45, 68Q50; 03005,
68Q45, 68Q50)
(see: Grammar form)
interpretations see: elementarily equivalent
-; equivalent -
intersection see: disjoint-

intersection number see: self--
intersection of hyperplanes see: depen-
dent -
intersection pairing see: Arakelov -;
Gillet-Soule arithmetic -
intersection with regular languages see:
closed under -
intersection with regular languages, op-
eration for languages
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
intertwining
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx]
(see: Yoke)
interval see: Bezier curve of degree n
over an - ~ disconjugate on an -; non-
oscillation on an -
interval function see: integrable-
interval in an ordered structure
[03C45, 03C60, 06F25, 06F99, 12115;
03C45, 03C60, 06F25, 06F99, 12Jl5]
(see: o-minimal)
interval mathematics
[650xx; 650xx]
(see: Reliable computation)
interval polynomial
[34Dxx, 93D09; 34Dxx, 93D09]
(see: Kharitonov polynomial theory)
interval polynomial see: robustly stable -
intuitionistic logic see: dual-
intuitionistic predicate logic
[03B40; 03B40]
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
invariance see: conformal -; Homotopy -
invariant see: automorphic modular -;
Casimir -; Chern-Moser-Tanaka -; ['-
-; gamma modular -; Hopf -; infra-
-; modular -; principal scalar -
invariant function space see: rearrangement-
invariant in the theory of Abelian groups see:
Gamma- -
invariant in the theory of modular forms see:
automorphic -; Gamma- -
invariant linear control system see:
continuous-time time- -; discrete-time
time--
invariant manifold
[58Fxx, 58F14; 58Fxx, 58F14]
(see: Centre manifold)
invariant manifold see: stable -; unsta-
ble-
invariant mean
[43A07, 43A15, 46A22, 46Exx,
51M20, 51M25; 43A07, 43A15,
46A22, 46Exx, 51 M20, 51 M25]
(see: Banach limit)
invariant mean
[43A07, 43A15, 46A22, 46Exx,
51M20, 51M25; 43A07, 43A15,
46A22, 46Exx, 51 M20, 51 M25]
(see: Banach limit)
invariant mean see: left- -; right- -
invariant measure see: harmonic -; quasi-
invariant module see: G - -
invariant of a group see: Asymptotic-
invariant probability measure see: base-
-; scale--
invariant set
[28D15, 58F17; 28D15, 58F17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
invariant set ofan iteratedjunction system
[28A80, 58FII, 60J05; 28A80, 58FII,
60J05]
(see: Iterated function system)
invariant submanifold see: anti--
invariant submanifold of a Sasakian man-
ifold
[53C25; 53C25]
(see: Sasakian manifold)
invariantsubmanifold of a Sasakian manifold
see: anti- -; semi- -
invariant Taylor expansion
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx]
(see: Yoke)
invariant Taylor expansion
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
invariant torus
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
invariant transverse metric for a foliation see:
holonomy- -
invariant under a function see: set-
inverse
[030xx, 03015, 06Exx, 06E15;
030xx, 03015, 06Exx, 06E 15]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
inverse see: Penrose-Moore-
inverse Brunn-Minkowski inequality
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
inverse local time
[60J65; 60J65]
(see: Bessel processes)
inverse morphism
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
inverse morphism operation for lan-
guages
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
inverse morphisms see: closed under -
inverse operator theorem
[46Axx, 46A03, 46A13; 46Axx,
46A03,46AI3]
(see: Frt,chet topology)
inverse Santal6 inequality
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A2l; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banacb-Mazur compactum)
inverse scattering
[14D20, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 58F07,
70H20; 14D20, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
58F07, 70H20]
(see: Calogero-Moser-Krichever
system)
inverse scattering transform
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07]
(see: Painleve-type equations)
inverse theorem in approximation theory
[4IAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 4lA27, 41A36, 41A40]
(see: Bernstein-Baskakov-Kantoro-
vich operator)
inverse theorem in approximation theory
see: local-
invert method see: shift and -
invertibilityof d / dt see: right--
invertible sheaf see: symmetric-
invertible transformation see: measure-
preserving -
invisible shape of a set
[03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
involutive subbundle of the tangent bundle
[32C16, 53C15; 32C16, 53C15]
(see: CR-manifold)
irrational rotation C' -algebra
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46L80]
(see: AF-algebra)
irreducible algebra see: subdirectly-
irreducible character
[20Cl5; 20Cl5]
(see: Brauer characterization of
characters)
irreducible characterfor a prime number see:
defect of an -
irreducible KG-module
[20CI5; 20C15]
(see: Brauer cbaracterization of
cbaracters)
irreducible lattice element see: completely
join- -
irreducible point of an ordered set
[OM06; 06A06]
(see: Fixed-point property)
irreducible representation label
[20Cxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
irreflexive order
[OMIO, 60E15; OM 10, 60E15]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
irrelevant alternatives see: independence
of -; intensity of -
irreversible thermodynamics
[73B30, 80A05, 80A97; 73B30,
80A05, 80A97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
irreversible thermodynamics see: ex-
tended -
Isaacs theorem
[20C05, 2OCIO; 20C05, 20CIO]
(see: Clifford theory)
Ishlinskii model in plasticity see: Besseling-
Ishlinskir model of plasticity
[47H30; 47H30]
(see: Hysteron)
Ising model
[8IR40, 81T17, 82B28; 81R40,
8ITI7,82B28]
(see: Renormalization group analy-
sis)
ISO 2859
[62N I0; 62N 10]
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
iso-dynamic tetrahedron
[51M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
isolated positive cone
[06F15; 06F15]
(see: ro-group)
isolated subgroup
[06F15, 20F60; 06F15, 20F60]
(see: Convex subgroup of a partially
ordered group)
isometric dilation
[30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Commutant lifting theorem)
isometric metric spaces see: roughly-
isometric spaces see: Quasi--
isometry see: (A,k)-quasi- -; linear-;
pseudo- -; Quasi- -
isometry of hyperbolic spaces see: elliptic
-; hyperbolic -; parabolic -
isomorphic Bernoulli shifts
[28Dxx, 60Fxx, 60009, 60K35;
28Dxx, 60Fxx, 60009, 60K35]
(see: Bernoulli measure)
isomorphic difference sets
[05BIO, IIBI3, 20KOI; 05BIO,
IIBI3,20KOI]
(see: Abelian difference set)
isomorphic one-factorizations
[05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factorization)
isomorphic trees
[65Lxx; 65Lxx]
(see: Butcher series)
isomorphism see: intensional -; Kunneth
-~ quasi--
isomorphism between Bernoulli shifts
[28Dxx, 60Fxx, 60009, 60K35;
28Dxx, 60Fxx, 60009, 60K35]
(see: Bernoulli measure)
isomorphism of difference sets
[05BIO, IIBI3, 20KOI; 05BIO,
IIBI3,20KOI)
(see: Abelian difference set)
isomorphism of onejactorizations
[05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factorization)
isomorphism theorem see: Keisler-Shelah
-;los -
isoperimetric inequality see: affine-
isoperimetric inequality of affine differential
geometry see: affine-
isoperimetric inequality on the sphere
JACOBIAN VARIETY
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
isosceles tetrahedron
[5IM20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
1ST
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07]
(see: Painleve-type equations)
Iterated function system
(28A80, 58FII, 60J05; 28A80, 58FII,
60J05)
(refers to: Borel set; Cantor set;
complete metric space; contracting-
mapping principle; Contraction;
Fractals; Hausdorff metric; Markov
chain)
iterated function system see: attractor of an
-; hyperbolic -; invariant set of an -;
recurrent -
iteratedfunction system with probabilities
[28A80, 58FII, 60J05; 28A80, 5SFII,
60J05]
(see: Iterated function system)
iterative refinement see: method of -
iterative solution method for systems of
linear equations
[65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
It6 integral see: Wiener--
ItO stochastic calculus
[60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H07]
(see: Malliavin calculus)
lt6 stochastic integral
[60Hxx, 60H05, 60H07; 60Hxx,
60H05, 60H07]
(see: Malliavin calculus; Skorokhod
integral)
It6--Wiener stochastic integral
[60Fxx, 62Exx; 60Fxx, 62Exx]
(see: U-statistic)
Iverson notation
[68N 15; 68N 15]
(see: APL)
Iwasawa theorem
[llrI8; IlrlS]
(see: Stickelberger ideal)
Iwasawa theory
[IIS40, 19Cxx, 19F27; IIS40, 19Cxx,
19F27]
(see: Birch-Tate conjecture)
---J---
[6SNI5; 68N15]
(see: APL)
J -divergence
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exx]
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
J -divergence
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exx]
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
J -homomorphism
[19L20, 55Q20; 19L20, 55Q20]
(see: Adams conjecture)
Jacobi equation see: Hamilton--
Jacobi mapping see: Abel--
Jacobi series see: Fourier--
Jacobi sums
[IIT22, llT23, llT24, IIT71, 14015,
94B27; llT22, llT23, llT24, IIT71,
14015,94B27]
(see: Bombieri-Weil bound)
Jacobian variety
[58F07; 58F07]
539
JACOBIAN VARIETY
(see: Kowalewski top)
Jacobson-Bourbaki theorem
(I2FIO, 16090; 12FIO, 16090)
(refers to: bijection; category; cross
product; Extension of a field; field;
finite group; Galois theory; module;
Morita equivalence; regular repre-
sentation; ring; vector space)
Jacobson-Bourbaki theorem
[12FIO, 16090; 12FIO, 16090]
(see: Jacobson-Bourbaki theorem)
Jacobson category
(08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx;
OSC05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx)
(refers to: Algebraic algebra; cate-
gory; Commutative algebra; coprod-
uct; Morphism; morphism; Regular
ring (in the sense of von Neumann);
Zariski category)
Jacobson object
[08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, ISFxx;
OSC05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx]
(see: Jacobson category)
Jaegermann theorem see: Tomczak--
James fibration
[55Q40; 55Q40]
(see: EHP spectral sequence)
James theorem
[46A22; 46A22]
(see: Bishop-Phelps theorem)
J ames theorem
[55Q40; 55Q40J
(see: EHP spectral sequence)
Janet theory of differential equations see:
Riquier- -
Jannsen conjecture see: Beninson--
Jeffreys distance
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62ExxJ
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
Jensen inequality
[47A63; 47A63]
(see: Lowner-Heinz inequality)
Jeu de taquin
(05E 10, 2OC30; 05E 10, 2OC30)
(referred to in: Pictures; Robinson-
Schensted correspondence)
(refers to: monoid; Robinson-
Schensted correspondence; Skew
Young tableau; Young tableau)
jeu de taquin
[05EIO,2OC30;05EIO,2OC30]
(see: Jeu de taquin)
John theorem
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
join
[06AIO, 60E15; O6AIO, 6OE15]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
join-irreducible lattice element see: com-
pletely -
joint probability distribution see: exchange-
able -; symmetric -
Jones polynomial
[SITxx; SITxxJ
(see: Bohm-Aharonov effect)
J()ns.wm lemma
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
Jordan-Dedekind chain condition
[06Bxx, 20030; O6Bxx, 20030]
(see: Jordan-Dedekind lattice;
Jordan-Dedekind property)
Jordan-Oedekind chain condition
[05B35, 06Bxx; 05B35, O6BxxJ
(see: Jordan-Dedekind space)
Jordan-Dedekind lattice
(06Bxx, 20030; O6Bxx, 20030)
(referred 10 in: Jordan-Dedekind
property; Jordan-Dedeklnd space)
(refers 10: Chain; Jordan-Holder the-
orem; lattice; Partially ordered set)
Jordan-Dedekind property
(06Bxx; 06Bxx)
540
(referred 10 in: Jordan-Dedekind
space)
(refers to: Chain; Jordan-Dedekind
lattice; Partially ordered set)
Jordan-Dedekind property of a partially
ordered set
[06Bxx; 06BxxJ
(see: Jordan-Dedekind property)
Jordan-Dedekind space
(05B35, 06Bxx; 05B35, 06Bxx)
(referred 10 in: Jordan-Dedekind
space)
(refers to: Atom; closure space;
Jordan-Dedekind lattice; Jordan-
Dedekind property; Jordan-Dedekind
space; lattice; matroid)
Jordan homomorphism
[5IB05; 51B05]
(see: Chain geometry)
Jordan length (If a continuous rectifiable
curve
[26A45, 26B 15, 2SA 75, 28B05,
49Q25; 26A45, 26B 15, 28A75, 28B05,
49Q25J
(see: Burkill-Cesari integral)
Jordan totient function
[IIAxx; llAxxJ
(see: Totient function)
Journal of Logic Programming
[6SN17; 6SNI7J
(see: Logic programming)
Julia set
[5SFxx; 5SFxxJ
(see: Non-linear dynamics)
jump see: amplitude vector of an accelera-
tion -
Jury test for zeros '!fpolynomials
[26CIO, 30055, 30E05, 41A05,
46EIO, 47A57, S6A22; 26CIO, 30055,
30E05, 41A05, 46EIO, 47A57, S6A22]
(see: Caratheodory interpolation)
___ K ___
K-Aronszajn tree
[03E05, 05C05, 54H05;
05C05, 54H05 J
(see: Aronszajn tree)
K-jiltration
[20K20; 20K20J
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of Abelian groups)
K-free group
L20K20; 20K20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of Abelian groups)
k-chain
[06A07; O6A07]
(see: Greene-Kleitman theorem)
K -contact flow
(53C15, 53C57, 5SF05; 53C15,
53C57,58F(5)
(refers 10: Betti number; Contact
structure; Levi-Civita connection;
Riemannian metric; tangent bundle;
vector field)
K -contactflow see: almost-periodic-
K -contact manifold
[53C15, 53C57, 58F05; 53C15,
53C57, 5SF05]
(see: K -contact flow)
K -divisibility theorem
[46B70; 46B70]
(see: Calderon couples)
K -divisibility theorem see: Brudnyi-
Kruglyak -
K -functional see: Peetre-
k-graph
[05-XX; 05-XXJ
(see: Ramsey number)
K -group see: Milnor-
K -groups see: higher-
K-H-integrability
126A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42[
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
K-H-integrable function
126A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42J
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
K-H integral
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42]
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
k-independent set
[06A07; 06A07J
(see: Greene-Kleitman theorem)
K -monotone couple
[46B70; 46B70J
(see: Calderon couples)
k-norm '!f a partition (If a partiallv or-
dered set into chaim
106A07; 06A07[
(see: Greene-Kleitman theorem)
K-space
146B70; 46B70J
(see: Calderon couples)
K -space see: relative-
K -theory see: higher algebraic -; Morava
-; pairing of cyclic cohomology with -
Kac theorem see: Erd6s--
Kadec-Macaev estimates see: Gurarii--
Kiihler ditferential
[16W55, 17B56, 17B60, 17B70,
17B81, 58AIO; 16W55, 17B56,
17B60, 17B70, 17B81, 58AIO[
(see: Poisson algebra)
Kahler manifold see: locally conformal -
Kahler metric .,ee: locally conformal -
Kiihlerian geometry
153C25, 53C55; 53C25, 53C55J
(see: Hopf manifold)
Kakutani ('()~fJicient
[62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62Pxx [
(see: Bhattacharyya distance)
Kakufllni problem
[IIBxx; IIBxx[
(see: Syracuse problem)
Kalman linear filtering theory
[62Cxx, 62P05; 62Cxx, 62P05[
(see: Credibility theory)
Kalman partial realization problem
[15-XX, 30E05, 47A57; 15-XX,
30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Partially specified matrices,
03E05, completion of)
Kamei theorem .'ee: Fujii-Furuta--
KAN
[68Q40; 68Q40 J
(see: Computer algebra package)
KANT
[68Q40; 6SQ40J
(see: Computer algebra package)
Kantorovic'h converKence ratelor steepest
descent
147AIO, 49RIO, 65FIO; 47AIO,
49R 10, 65FIOJ
(see: Anti-eigenvalue)
Kantorovich error rate
[47AIO, 49RIO. 65FIO; 47A10,
49RIO, 65FIOJ
(see: Anti-eigenvalue)
Kantorovich operator see: Bernstein-
Baskakov- -
Kantorovich polynomials see: Bernstein-
Kaplansky field
(12J I0, 12J20; 12Jl 0, 12120)
(referred 10 in: Model theory of valued
fields; Valued function field)
(relers 10: Cauchy sequence; field;
Galois cohomology; Model theory of
valued fields; p-divisible group; per-
fect field; Real closed field; Valua-
tion; valuation; Zorn lemma)
Kaplansky hypothesis A
[ 12J 10, 12J20; 12J 10, 12J20]
(see: Kaplansky field)
Kaplansky test problem
[20K20; 20K20[
(see: Cotorsion-free group)
Kaplansky theorem
112J 10, 12J20; 12JlO, 12J20]
(see: Kaplansky field)
Karllmata index
126A12; 26AI2J
e,ee: Karamata theory)
Karamata index see: lower -; upper -
Karamata Tauberian theorem
[26AI2; 26A12J
(see: Karamata theory)
Karamata theorem
[26AI2; 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
Karamata theorem see: Hardy-Littlewood-
Karamata theory
(26AI2; 26A12)
(referred to in: De Haan theory)
(refers to: Abel theorem; analytic
number theory; Baire property; de
Haan theory; Entire function; Mer-
cer theorem; probability theory;
Tauberian theorems)
Karman equations see: Von-
Karman equations for plates see: Von-
Karnaughmap
(03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94C 10)
(refers 10: Boolean algebra; Gray
code; mathematical logic; prob-
ability theory; truth table; Venn
diagram)
Karnaugh map .,ee: classical -; variable-
entered -
Karp algorithm
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions
(90C30; 9OC30)
(refers 10: Lagrange multipliers;
Mathematical programming)
Karush-Kuhn-Tucker optimality condi-
lions
[90C30; 90C30J
(see: Karush-Kuhn-Tucker condi-
tions)
Kasami sequence
[IIB37, IIBS3, 94Bxx; IIB37,
II B83, 94Bxx]
(see: Correlation property for se-
quences)
Kasteleyn-Ginibre inequality see: Fortuin-
Kato-Furuta inequality see: Heinz--
Kato inequality see: Heinz--
Katok-Burns criterion
[2S0xx, 5SF15; 2SDxx, 58F15[
(see: Pesin theory)
Kawamata-Shokumv theorem
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99]
(see: Adjunction theory)
Kawamata theorem
114C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99[
(see: Adjunction theory)
Kazhdan-Lusztig cell
105E05, 05EIO, 05EI5, 2OG05; 05E05,
05E 10, 05E 15, 2OG05 J
(see: Robinson-Schensted corre-
spondence)
Kazhdan T -property
[20F32, 57M07; 20F32, 57M07]
(see: Asymptotic invariant of a
group)
k(B)-conjecture see: Brauer-
KdV equation see: cylindrical -; modi-
fied -
Keisler model see: Henkin--
Keisler-Shelah isomorphism theorem
(03C05, 03C07, 03C20; 03C05,
03C07, 03C20)
(refers 10: continuum hypothesis; in-
terpretation; Ultrafilter; ultrafilter)
Kemmotsu manifold
153A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C25[
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)

Kempf vanishing theorem
(14F17, 14M IS, 20GIO; 14F17,
14M IS, 20G10)
(refers co: algebraically closed field;
Borel subgroup; Character formula;
Character of a group; Euler char-
acteristic; Flag structure; homoge-
neous space; Kodaira theorem; lin-
ear algebraic group; Projective al-
gebraic set; Representation theory;
Schubert variety; sheaf; Weight of a
representation of a Lie algebra; Weyl
group; Cech cohomology)
Kempf vanishinK theorem
114F17, 14MIS, 20GIO; 14F17,
14MIS,20GIOJ
(see: Kempf vanishing theorem)
Kendall-Matheron theorem see: Choquet-
Kendall's measure oldependence
[60Exx, 60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20; 60Exx,
60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20J
(see: Copula)
Kepler problem
[170xx, S3ASO, SSR05, 58FOS,
S8F07, 70-XX, 70H33, 70M20,
8IROS, 81S10; 170xx, S3ASO, SSROS,
S8FOS, 58F07, 70-XX, 70H33, 70M20,
8IROS,8ISIOI
(see: Kustaanheimo--Stiefel transfor-
mation; MIC-Kepler problem)
Kepler problem see: MIC--
Kepler problem in classical mechanics see:
MIC--
Kerdock and Preparata codes
(OSE30, 94B IS, 94B35; OSE30,
94B 15, 94B35)
(referred to in: Correlation property
for sequences; Octacode)
(refers to: Fourier transform; Ga-
lois ring; isometric mapping;
MacWilliams identities)
kernel see: Biot-Savart -; completely
degenerate -; Dirichlet -; Gauss -;
n-dimensional Gauss -; n-dimensional
Weierstrass -; Pesin tempering -; Pois-
son -; semi-group property of the Gauss
-; strictly totally positive -; tame -; to-
tally non-negative -; totally positive -;
Walsh-Dirichlet -
kernel function
[15-XX; 15-XXI
(see: Total positivity)
Kernel of a matrix
(l5A04; 15A04)
(refers to: field; matrix)
kernel (~f a morphological operator
16000S, 68UIO; 60005, 68UIOI
(see: Mathematical morphology)
kernel oj a U -statistic
[60Fxx, 62Exx; 60Fxx, 62Exx I
(see: U-statistic)
kernel of a U -statistic see: primitive-
kernel of an operator in mathematical
morphology
[60005, 68UIO; 60005, 68UIOJ
(see: Mathematical morphology)
kernel operator
[45P05, 46E30, 47BSS; 45POS, 46E30,
47B55J
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
kernel, sign-regular III order r
[15-XX; 15-XX]
(see: Total positivity)
kernel theorem for semi-modules see:
Schwartz -
kernel, totally positive "lllrder r
[15-XX; 15-XX]
(see: Total positivity)
K a-module see: irreducible-
Kharitonov polynomial theory
(340xx, 93009; 340xx, 93009)
(refers to: Differential equation, or-
dinary; Polynomial; Routh-Hurwitz
criterion)
Kharitonov theorem
1340xx, 93009; 340xx, 930091
(see: Kharitonov polynomial theory)
Khovanskii finiteness theorem
I03C60, 12JIO, 12J15; 03C60, 12JlO,
12JlSI
(see: Model theory of the real expo-
nential function)
Ki-Kim-Nakagawa theorem
153C20, 53C42; 53C20, 53C421
(see: Anti-de Sitter space)
Kiefer process
160B 10, 60Exx, 60F05, 62Exx; 60B 10,
60Exx, 60F05, 62Exx I
(see: Empirical process)
kilter algorithm see: out-of--
Kim-Nakagawa theorem see: Ki--
kind see: boundary conditions of the first
-; boundary conditions of the second -;
boundary value problem of the first -;
boundary value problem of the second
-; Boundary value problem of the third
-; exsphere of the first -; exsphere of
the second -; Feuerbach sphere of the
first -; Feuerbach sphere of the second
-; initial value problem of the second -;
modified Bessel function of the third -
kinematic viscosity
176COS, 76E15; 76C05, 76EISJ
(see: Convection equations)
kinkv handle
IS7N13, 57RIO; 57N13, S7RIOJ
(see: Casson handle)
Kirhv calculusfortramed links
IS7M25; 57M251
(see: Dehn surgery)
Kirchhoff stress see: Piola--
Kirillov conjecture
(20G05, 22E50; 20G05, 22ESO)
(refers to: Archimedean axiom; Ir-
reducible representatiou; local field;
unitary representation)
Kirillov-Kostant-Souriau Poisson struc·
lure
116W30, 17B37, 22E60, S3C15,
S8H15, 8IRSO; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, S3CIS, 58H15, 81R50]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
Kirillov-Souriau orbit see: Kostant--
Kirk-Caristifixed-point theorem
[26AIS, 54C30, 54E50; 26A15,
54C30, 54E50]
(see: Ekeland variational principle)
Kirkman array see: multi·dimensional-
Kirkman cube
105B05, 05BIS; 05B05, OSBI5]
(see: Design with mutually orthogo-
nal resolutions)
Kirkman schoolgirl problem
[05BIS; 05B15]
(see: Room square)
Kirkman square
[05B05, OSB I 5; OSB05, OSB 15]
(see: Design with mutually orthogo-
nal resolutions)
KKT conditions
[90C30; 90C301
(see: Karush-Kuhn-Tucker condi-
tions)
KKT optimality conditions
190C30; 90C30 I
(see: Karush-Kuhn-Tucker condi-
tions)
KKT-triple
190C30; 90C30 I
(see: Karush-Kuhn-Tucker condi-
tions)
Kleene + see: closed under -
Kleene + operationjor languages
[68Q4S, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S0S]
(see: AFL operations)
Kleinian group
[30F35; 30F35 I
(see: Bers space)
Kleitman theorem see: Greene--
Kloostennan sums
IIIT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT71, 14GIS,
94B27; llT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT71,
14GI5,94B27]
(see: Bombieri-Weil bound)
knapsack problem
190CIO, 90CII, 9OC27; 90C10,
90C II, 90C27]
(see: Lagrangean relaxation)
Knaster-Tarski-Davis theorem
[06A06; 06A06]
(see: Fixed-point property)
Knizhnik-Zamolodchikov differential
equations
[OSB35, 20F36, 20F5S, 52B30, 57N65;
OSB35,20F36,20F5S,52B30,57N65]
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
knot polynomial
[81 Q30, 81 R25, 81 T70; 81 Q30,
8IR25,8IT70]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
Knuth congruence
[05E 10, 20C30; 05E 10, 20C30]
(see: Jeu de taquin)
Knuth theorem
rOSE 10, 20C30; 05E 10, 20C30]
(see: Jeu de taquin)
Kobayashi-hyperbolic complex manilold
[32H20; 32H20]
(see: Kobayashi hyperbolicity)
Kobayashi hyperbolicity
(32H20; 32H20)
(refers to: complex manifold; holo-
morphic mapping; Poincare model)
Kobayashi metric
[30045; 3004S]
(see: Bloch function)
Kobayashi pseudo-metric see: infinitesi-
mal-
Kochen-Ershov principle see: Ax--
Kochen operator
[03C60, 12JIO, 12L12; 03C60, 12J1O,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)
Kochen ring
[03C60, 12JlO, 12L12; 03C60, 12JlO,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)
Kodaira vanishing theorem
114F17, 14M15, 20GIO; 14F17,
14MI5,20GIO]
(see: Kempf vanishing theorem)
Kolm()goT()v-PT()khomv theorem
[60Hxx, 60J65; 60Hxx, 60J6S1
(see: Wieuer measure)
Kolmogorov-Sinal entropy
[280xx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K3S;
280xx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35]
(see: Bernoulli measure)
Kolmogorov zero-one law
[280xx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35;
280xx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35]
(see: Bernoulli measure)
Konig-Egervary theorem
[90B06, 90B80, 9OC05; 90B06,
90B80, 9OCOS]
(see: Assignment problem)
Kijnig principle
[05B45; 05B4S]
(see: Penrose tiling)
Korotkov operators
[47B38; 47B38]
(see: Carleman operator)
Komvkin closure
[4IAxx, 41A35, 41A36, 41A65, 46-02,
46Bxx, 47 AS8, 47B38, 47B48, 47B60,
47B65, 47C 10; 41 Axx, 41 A35, 41 A36,
41A65, 46-02, 46Bxx, 47A58, 47B38,
47B48, 47B60, 47B65, 47CIO]
(see: Abstract approximation the-
ory; Bohman-Korovkin theorem;
Korovkin-type approximation the-
ory)
Korovkin first theorem
[4IA36; 41A36]
(see: Korovkin theorems)
Korovkin hull
KOTHE-TOEPLITZ OUAL
[4IAxx, 46Bxx, 47B65; 4lAxx,
46Bxx,47B651
(see: Bohman-Korovkin theorem)
Korovkin second theorem
[4IA36; 41A36]
(see: Korovkin theorems)
Korovkin set
[4IAxx, 46Bxx, 47B6S: 4lAxx,
46Bxx,47B65]
(see: Bohman-Korovkin theorem)
Korovkin shadow
[41 Axx, 41A35, 41 A36, 41A65, 46-02,
46Bxx, 47 A58, 47B38, 47B48, 47B60,
47B65, 47C I 0; 41 Axx, 41 A35, 41 A36,
41A65, 46-02, 46Bxx, 47A58, 47B38,
47B48, 47B60, 47B65, 47C 101
(see: Bohman-Korovkin theorem;
Korovkin-type approximation the-
ory)
KOTf)vkin suhset
[41 A35, 41A36, 41 A65, 46-02, 47 AS8,
47B38, 47B48, 47B60, 47C 10; 41A3S,
41A36, 41A65, 46-02, 47AS8, 47B38,
47B48, 47B60, 47CI01
(see: Korovkin-type approximation
theory)
Korovkin theorem see: Bohman- -; quan·
titative form of the -
Korovkin theorems
(4IA36; 41A36)
(referred to in: Abstract approxima-
tion theory; Bohman-Korovkin the-
orem; Korovkin-type approximation
theory)
(relers to: Bohman-Korovkin theo-
rem; Chebyshev system; Continuous
functions, space of; Korovkin-type
approximation theory; Liuear oper-
ator; uniform convergence)
KOTOvkin third theorem
[4IA36; 41A36]
(see: Korovkin theorems)
Korovkin-type approximation theory
(4IA35, 41A36, 41 A65, 46-02, 47 A58,
47B38, 47B48, 47B60, 47CIO; 41 A35,
41A36, 41A6S, 46-02, 47A58, 47B38,
47B48, 47B60, 47CIO)
(relerred to in: Abstract approxima-
tion theory; Bohman-Korovkin the-
orem; Korovkin theorems)
(relers to: approximation theory; Dif-
ferential equation, partial; Equicon-
tinuity; functional analysis; har-
monic analysis; Korovkin theorems:
Linear operator; measure; potential
theory; probability theory; Topolog-
ical vector space; topological vector
space)
Korovkin-type theorems
[4IA35, 41A36, 41 A65, 46-02, 47 AS8,
47B38, 47B48, 47B60, 47CIO; 41A3S,
41A36, 41A65, 46-02, 47A58, 47B38,
47B48, 47B60, 47CIO]
(see: Korovkin-type approximation
theory)
Korovkin 's theorem
[4IA35, 41A36, 41A65; 41A3S,
4IA36,4IA65]
(see: Abstract approximation theory)
Korteweg-de Vries equation see: cylindri-
cal -; generalized cylindrical -
Kortweg-de Vries equation see: modi·
fied -
Kosaki trace inequality
147A63; 47A63]
(see: Furuta inequality)
Kostant-Kiri11ov-Souriau orbit
[S8F07; 58F07]
(see: Kowalewski top)
Kostant-Souriau Poisson structure see:
Kirillov- -
Kostant-Symes theorem see: Adler--
Kothe-Toeplitz dual
(40H05, 46A45; 40HOS, 46A4S)
(refers to: bilinear functional; dual-
ity; FK-space; isomorphism; Linear
541
KOTHE-TOEPLITZ DUAL
functional; Mackey topology; ma-
trix; Normal space; Weak topology)
Kovalevskaya integrability
[58F07; 58F07]
(see: Kowalewski top)
Kovalevskaya integrable dynamical sys-
tem
[58F07; 58F07]
(see: Kowalewski top)
Kovalevskaya top
[58F07; 58F07]
(see: Kowalewski top)
Kowalew.fki integrability
[58F07; 58F07]
(see: Kowalewski top)
Kowalewski integrable dynamical system
[58F07; 58F07]
(see: Kowalewski top)
Kowalewski top
(58F07; 58F07)
(referred to in: Abelian surface;
Goryachev-Chaplygin top)
(refers to: Abelian integral; Algebraic
torus; elliptic curve; geodesic Row;
Goryachev-Chaplygin top; hyper-
elliptic curve; Laurent series; Lie
algebra; Loop; Polarized algebraic
variety)
Kowalew.fki top
[58F07; 58F07]
(see: Kowalewski top)
Krichever system see: Calogero-Moser-
-; Calogero-Moser-Sutherland- -; el-
liptic Calogero-Moser- -
Kripke frame see: Euclidean-
Kronecker product
[2OCxx. 20005. 22A25. 22E70;
2OCxx. 20005. 22A25. 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wiper, 3-j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
Kruglyak K -divisibility theorem see:
Brudnyi- -
Krull dimension
[2OC20. 20Dxx; 20C20. 20Dxx]
(see: v-rank)
Krushkal-Wallis te.ft
[90A28; 90A28]
(see: Voting paradoxes)
Kruskal algorithm
[9OC27; 9OC27]
(see: Greedy algorithm)
Krylov space
[65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
kth partial differential oj a BooleanJunc-
tion
[06E30; 06E30]
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
Kubilius inequamy see: Tunin--
Kuhn-Tucker condilion see: extended-
Kuhn-TUcker conditions
(9OC25. 9OC30; 9OC25. 9OC30)
(refers to: Concave function; convex
programming; objective function;
Riemannian manifold)
Kuhn-Tucker conditions
[9OC25. 9OC30; 9OC25. 9OC30]
(see: Karush-Kuhn-TUcker condi-
tions; Kuhn-TUcker conditions)
Kuhn-Tucker condilions see: Karush--
Kuhn-Tucker optimalily conditions see:
Karush- -
Kullback-Leibler information
(60Exx. 62BIO. 94A15. 94A17;
60Exx. 62BIO. 94A15. 94A17)
(referred to in: Huffman code)
(refers to: Density of a probability
distribution; Discrete distribution;
Entropy; Huffman code; Informa-
tion distance; Kullback-Leibler-type
distance measures; Logarithm of a
number)
Kullback-Leibler inJormation divergence
[52Axx. 9OCxx. 9OC05. 9OC25;
52Axx. 9OCxx. 9OC05. 9OC25]
(see: Bregman function)
Kullback-Leibler i,!/ormation quantity
542
[60Exx. 62BIO. 94A15. 94A17;
60Exx. 62BIO. 94A15. 94A17]
(see: Kullback-Leibler information)
Kullback-Leibler quantity oj i,!/ormation
[60Exx. 62BIO. 94A15. 94A17;
6OExx. 62BIO. 94A15. 94AI7]
(see: Kullback-Leibler information)
Kullback-leibler type see: distance mea-
sure of-
Kullback-Leibler-type distance mea-
sures
(60B 10. 60Exx. 62Exx; 60B 10. 60Exx.
62Exx)
(referred to in: Bhattacharyya dis-
tance; Bregman function; Kullback-
Leibler information; Statistical man-
ifold)
(refers to: Density of a probability dis-
tribution; entropy; information the-
ory; mathematical statistics)
Kumar construction A see: Botzas-
Hammons--
Kumar construction B see: Botzas-
Hammons--
Kiinneth isomorphism
[16W30. 55N20. 55N22; 16W30.
55N20.55N22)
(see: Hopf ring)
Kupper model see: Rao--
Kuratowski axioms
[03Gxx. 03G15. 06Exx. 06E15;
03Gxx. 03G 15. 06Exx. 06E 15]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
Kuratowski closure axi(}m~
[54A05; 54A05]
(see: Closure space)
Kuratowski c/osure operation
[54A05; 54A05]
(see: Closure space)
Kuratowski closure operator
[54A05; 54A05]
(see: Closure space)
Kurepa hypothesis
[03E05. 05C05. 54H05; 03E05.
05C05. 54H05]
(see: Aronszajn tree)
Kurepa tree
[03E05. 05C05. 54H05; 03E05.
05C05.54H05]
(see: Aronszajn tree)
Kurzweil-Henstock-integrability
[26A39. 26A42; 26A39. 26A42]
(see: KurzweiI-Henslock integral)
Kurzweil-Henstock-integrable junction
[26A39. 26A42; 26A39. 26A42]
(see: Kurzweil-Henslock integral)
Kurzweil-Henslock integral
(26A39. 26A42; 26A39. 26A42)
(referred to in: Burkill-Cesarl inte-
gral)
(refers to: Bolzano-Weierstrass theo-
rem; Denjoy integral; derivative; Le-
besgue integral; Perron integral; Rie-
mann integral; Stiel~es integral)
Kurzweil-Henstock integral
[26A39. 26A42; 26A39. 26A42]
(see: Kurzweil-Henslock integral)
Kustaanheimo-Stiefel transformation
(I7Dxx. 53A50. 55R05. 70-XX.
70M20; 17Dxx. 53A50. 55R05. 70-
XX.70M20)
(referred to in: Hurwitz transforma-
tion)
(refers to: Cayley-Dickson algebra;
Fibration; Hopf fibration; Hurwitz
transformation; MIC-Kepler prob-
lem; Pauli matrices; Schriidinger
equation; vector field)
Kulla formula see: s-stage Runge- -
Kulla method see: Adaptive Runge- -;
8-stage adaptive Runge- -
Kutta-Rosenbrock methods see: Runge-
___ L ___
A-conversion see: prinCiples of -
A-operator
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
(A,k )-quasi-isometry
[53C23; 53C23]
(see: Quasi-isometry)
I-algebra
(06F25; 06F25)
(refers to: algebraic system; Associa-
tive rings and algebras; I -algebra;
homomorphism; ideal; lattice; par-
tial order; topological space; Totally
ordered set)
I-algebra
[46E05. 46Jxx; 46E05. 46Jxx)
(see: I-algebra)
I-algebra see: positive cone of an -; strict
-; totally-ordered -
L21rames
[42CIO; 42C10]
(see: Clifford wavelets)
L-function see: automorphic-
I-group
(06FI5. 20F60; 06FI5. 20F60)
(refers to: TO-groUP; Abelian group;
algebraic system; Boolean algebra;
Complete lattice; Convex subgroup;
Distributive lattice; group; I-variety;
lattice; Lattice-ordered group; 0-
group; Totally ordered group)
I-group see: Archimedean -; convex sub-
group of an -; decomposition property
for an -; I-ideal in an -; orthogonal el-
ements in an -; polar in an -; polar set
in an -; positive cone of an -
I-groups see: examples of -; variety
of normal-valued -; variety of repre-
sentable -
I-homomorphism
I06FI5. 06F25. 20F60; 06FI5. 06F25.
20F60]
(see: I-algebra; I-group)
I-ideal
[06F25; 06F25]
(see: I-algebra)
I-ideal in an I-group
[06FI5. 20F60; 06F15. 20F60]
(see: I-group)
Lp-multiplier
[33C 1O. 35Sxx. 47B38; 33C 1O. 35Sxx.
47B38]
(see: Bessel potential operator)
L-series see: Dirichlet-
L-space
128A99, 62B 15. 62B20. 62C05;
28A99. 62B15. 62B20.62C05]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
L -space see: abstract-
L p -space see: classical-
L-space of a statistical experiment
(28A99, 62B 15. 62B20. 62C05;
28A99. 62B 15, 62B20. 62C05)
(refers to: Banach lattice; measur-
able space; Radon measure; Radon-
Nikodym theorem; Riesz space; sta-
tistical decision theory)
Lp spaces see: Sparr theorem for
weighted -
Lp-spaces see: inequality in -
L-stability
[65L05. 65L06; 65L05. 65L06]
(see: Adaptive Runge-Kulta method;
Rosenbrock methods)
L-stable numerical method
[65L06; 65L06]
(see: Rosenbrock methods)
L-structure
[03C07; 03C07]
(see: Structure)
L-structure
[03C50. 03C95; 03C50. 03C95]
(see: Existentially closed)
I-subgroup
[06FI5. 20F60; 06FI5. 20F60]
(see: I-group)
I-subgroup see: convex -; prime -
It theorem see: Rosenthal-
I-variety
(06FI5. 08Bxx. 20F60; 06FI5. 08Bxx.
20F60)
(refers to: TO-groUP; distributive lat-
tice; group; I-group; lattice; Variety
of groups)
label see: irreducible representation -
label oj a context-Jree rule
[68Q42. 68S05; 68Q42. 68S05]
(see: Regulated rewriting)
Lagrange duality
[9OC29; 9OC29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
Lagrange junction
[9OC25. 9OC30; 9OC25. 9OC30]
(see: Kuhn-TUcker conditions)
Lagrange multipliers rule
[9OC30; 9OC30]
(see: Karush-Kuhn-TUcker condi-
tions)
Lagrange top
[58F07; 58F07]
(see: Kowalewski top)
Lagrangean
[9OCIO. 9OCII. 9OC27; 9OCIO.
90C 11. 9OC27]
(see: Lagrangean relaxation)
Lagrangean Junction
[9OCIO. 9OCII. 9OC27; 9OC1O.
9OC1I.9OC27]
(see: Lagrangean relaxation)
Lagrangean relaxation
(9OCIO. 9OCll. 9OC27; 9OCIO.
9OCll.9OC27)
(referred to in: Branch-and-bound al-
gorithm)
(refers to: Branch-and-bound algo-
rithm; integer programming)
Lagrangian junction
[9OC30; 9OC30]
(see: Karush-Kuhn-TUcker condi-
tions)
Lagrangian method see: augmented-
Lagrangian relaxation
[90CIO. 9OCII. 9OC27; 9OC1O.
9OCII.9OC27]
(see: Lagrangean relaxation)
Laguerre-Lie geometry
[51805; 51B05]
(see: Benz plane; Chain geometry)
Laguerre plane
[51805; 51B05]
(see: Benz plane)
Lahnumber
(05AI9. IIB83; 05A19. IIB83)
(referred to in: Bell polynomial)
(refers to: Bell polynomial; CombI-
natorial analysis; generating func-
tion; Laguerre polynomials; recur-
rence relation)
lambda-calculus see: untyped-
Lamperti representation
[60J65; 6OJ65]
(see: Bessel processes)
Landau collision operator see: Fokker-
Planck- -
Landweber exact functor theorem
[55N35; 55N35]
(see: Elliptic cohomology)
language see: categorial -; context-free
-; context-sensitive -; finile -; quota-
tional -; recursively enumerable -; reg-
ular -; sense -
language family see: closure of a -; gram-
matical-
language generated by "f
[68S05. 92D20; 68S05. 92D20)
(see: Splicing operation)
language marked by an automaton

[69Fxx, 908xx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 908xx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
language ojfields
[03C07; 03C07]
(see: Structure)
language oj groups
[03C07; 03C07]
(see: Structure)
language oj rings
[03C07; 03C07]
(see: Structure)
languages see: Abstract family of -;
anti-AFL family of -; CF family of -;
closed under intersection with regular -;
concatenation operation for -; CS fam-
ily of -; Dyck -; family of -; fam-
ily of context-free -; family of context-
sensitive -; family of finite -; family of
non-context-free -; family of recursively
enumerable -; family of recursively enu-
merable -; family of regular -; inter-
section with regular languages, operation
for -; inverse morphism operation for -;
Kleene + operation for -; morphism op-
eration for - ; non-erasing morphism op-
eration for -; ICC (F) family of -;
RE family of -; REG family of -; regular
operation on -; substitution with regular
languages operation for -; union opera-
tion for-
languages operation for languages see:
substitution with regular -
languages, operation for languages see: in-
tersection with regular -
Lapack
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
Laplace questhm on the optimal choice (~f
a vol inK procedure
[90A28; 90A28]
(see: Voting paradoxes)
Laplace-Stieltjes integral
[44AIO; 44AIO]
(see: Laplace-Stieltjes transform)
Laplace-Stieltjes transform
(44AIO; 44AIO)
(refers to: function of bounded vari-
ation; integral; Laplace transform;
Lebesgue integral)
Laplace-Stieltjes transform see: bilateral
-; two-sided -
Laplacian see: automorphic -; confor-
mal-
large complex discs see: domain without -
large deviation principle
[280xx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35;
280xx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35]
(see: Bernoulli measure)
large deviations
[60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 6SU05;
60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 6SUOS]
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial differential equations)
large FFT algorithm see: Winograd-
large field
[03C60, 12J I0, 12Ll2; 03C60, 12J 10,
12Ll2]
(see: Model theory of valued fields)
large Fourier transform algorithm see:
Winograd -
large numbers see: strong law of -; weak
law of -
large partial 3Jrame
[06COS; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
Larson order
[16S34, 16W30; 16S34, 16W30]
(see: Hopf order)
Larson order
[IIR54, 13B05, 16W30; II RS4,
13B05,I6W30j
(see: Hopf orders, applications of)
Larson order see: Tate-Oort--
Las Vegas primality test
[IIA5I, II Y II, 68Q25; IIA51,
IIYII,68Q25]
(see: Probabilistic primality test)
Lascar axioms
[03C4S; 03C45]
(see: Forking)
last theorem see: Fermat-
last theorem, first case see: Fermat ~
last theorem, second case see: Fermat-
lattice
IIIH06, IIHI6, IIH31, IIH46,
IIHSO, SIMI I, 51MI5, 51MI6,
SIM20, 51M25; IIH06, IIHI6,
IIH31, II H46, IIHSO, 51M II,
51MI5, 51MI6, 51M20, 51M25]
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
lattice see: A 3 - - ; A;- -; Abelian
-; Archimedean vector -; Arguesian
-; Banach -; basis of a -; cubic -;
De Morgan -; Desarguesian -; dimen-
sion of a -; distributivity in a -; E8-
-; independent element in a modular
-; Jordan-Dedekind -; linear -; non-
decreasing mapping on a -; 0- -;
order-complete Banach -; point in a -;
projective pair of quotients in a -; quo-
tient in a -; rank of a -; skeleton -;
solid subset of a -; subquotient in a -;
Toda -; vector -
lattice basis see: LLL-reduced-
lattice duality principle
168Q20, 68QS5; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(.see: Analysis of programs)
lattice element see: completely join-
irreducible -
lattice elements see: collinear-
lattice endomorphism
[06030; 06030]
(.see: Ockham algebra)
lattice geometry see: subspace of a -
lattice 'if.finite height
168Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
lattice-ordered algebra
106F25, 46E05, 46Jxx; 06F2S, 46E05,
46Jxx]
(.see: j-algebra; I-algebra)
lattice-ordered group
106FI5, 20F60; 06FI5, 20F60]
(see: I-group)
lattice presentation
[06COS; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
lattice-regular measure
[54035; 54035]
(see: Banaschewski compactifica-
tion)
lattice regularization
[S8F07, 81TtO, 81T20, 83C47; 58F07,
81TtO, 81T20, 83C47]
(see: Massive Thirring model)
Laurent expansion
[26-XX, 308xx, 42Axx; 26-XX,
30Bxx, 42Axx]
(.see: Series expansion)
Lavrent'ev equation see: Bitsadze--
Lavrent'ev normal curve see: Bitsadze--
Lavrent'ev problem see: Bitsadze- -; reg-
ular solution of the Bitsadze- -; Tricomi-
Bitsadze- -
law see: Arguesian -; Arrhenius -;
Benford -; constitutive -: convergence
in -; Darcy -; de Morgan -; Euler
formal group -; first digit -; first-digit
-; general digit -; Kolmogorov zero-
one -; second digit -; significant-digit
- ; straightening -; tight distribution -;
Zero-two -
law of continuum thermodynamics see:
second -
law of large numbers see: strong
weak -
law of thermodynamics see: first-
Lax methods see: Beurling--
Lax-Milgram lemma
(3SA15, 35GIS; 35AI5, 35GIS)
(referred to in: Babuska-Lax-
Milgram theorem)
(refers to: Babuska-Lax-Milgram
theorem; Banach space; basis;
Boundary value problem, ordinary
differential equations; Boundary
value problem, partial differential
equations; functional; linear space;
Norm; Reflexive space; Separable
space; Sesquilinear form)
Lax-Milgram theorem see: Babuska--
Lax pair
[14020, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 58F07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
58F07, 70H20]
(see: Calogero-Moser-Krichever
system; Goryachev-Chaplygin top)
layer see: perfectly matched -
Lazard elimination process
[17801, 20M05; 17801, 20M05]
(see: Lazard set)
Lazard set
(l780I,20M05; 17801, 20M05)
(referred to in: Hall set; Hall word;
Lyndon word)
(refers to: Associative rings and alge-
bras; Binary tree; free magma; Hall
set; Hall word; Lie algebra, free; Lie
polynomial; Lyndon word; word)
Lazard words
[17801, 20M05; 17801, 20M05]
(see: Lazard set)
LB-algebra
[46Hxx; 46Hxx]
(see: Fn.,chet algebra)
L B -algebras see: Gel'fand--Mazur-type
theorem for -
leading coefficient
[13PIO,68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40]
(see: Buchberger algorithm)
leading eigenspace see: stable -; unsta-
ble -
leading eigenvalue see: focus-focus -;
saddle -; saddle-focus -; stable -; un-
stable -
leading manifold see: non--
leading monomial
[13PIO,68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40j
(see: Buchberger algorithm)
leading power product
[13PIO,68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40]
(see: Griibner basis)
leading term
[13PIO, 68Q40; 13PIO, 68040]
(see: Buchberger algorithm)
leaj
[05A15, 05C05, 20M05; 05AI5,
05C05, 20M05]
(see: Binary tree)
learning see: Hebbian -; supervised -;
unsupervised -
learning rule
[68T05, 92C20; 68T05, 92C20]
(see: Hebb rule)
learning rule see: backpropagation-
least fixed point
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
least Herbrand model
[68NI7; 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
least-squares solution of a linear system
see: minimal-
Lech theorem see: Skolem--Mahler--
Lee distance
[05E30, IIH56, 94815, 94835;
05E30, II H56, 94815,94835]
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes;
Octacode)
Lee farm
[53C25, 53C55; 53C25, 53CS5]
(see: Hopf manifold)
Lejschetz principle
[03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95;
03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95]
LENGTH OF A CODE
(see: Transfer principle)
Lefschetz principle
[03C60, 12115, 12L12; 03C60, 12115,
12L12]
(see: Real closed field)
Lef,chetz theorem
[14Kxx, 58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07]
(see: Abelian surface)
left-amenable semi-group
[43A07, 43A IS, 46A22, 46Exx,
SIM20, SIM2S; 43A07, 43AI5,
46A22, 46Exx, SI M20, 51 M25]
(see: Banach limit)
left-invariant mean
[43A07, 43AI5, 46A22, 46Exx,
51M20, 51M2S; 43A07, 43AI5,
46A22, 46Exx, SIM20, 51M25]
(see: Banach limit)
I~ft shift
[43A07, 43AIS, 46A22, 46Exx,
SIM20, SIM2S; 43A07. 43AIS,
46A22, 46Exx, SI M20, SI M2S]
(see: Banach limit)
left spectralfactorization
[47A57, 47A68; 47A57, 47A681
(see: Band method)
left standard factorization
[05Axx, 17BOI, 20MOS; 05Axx,
17801,20M05]
(see: Lyndon word)
legal assignment finder
[03B48, 68T99; 03B4R, 68T99]
(see: Incidence calculus)
Lehmer problem on the Euler totientfunc-
tion
[IIAxx; IIAxx]
(see: Totient function)
Leibler information see: Kullback--
Leibler information divergence see:
Kullback- -
Leibler information quantity see: Kullback-
Leibler quantity of information see:
Kullback- -
Leibler type see: distance measure of
Kullback- -
Leibler-type distance measures see:
Kullback- -
Leibniz condition
[44A99, 47 A05; 44A99, 47 A05]
(see: Algebraic analysis)
Leibniz-Hopf algebra
(13KOS, 14L05, 16W30; 13K05,
14LOS,16W30)
(referred to in: Lie polynomial)
(refers to: Formal group; free associa-
tive algebra; Free semi-group; Hopf
algebra; Lyndon word; Shuffle alge-
bra; shuffle algebra; Witt vector)
Leibniz-Hop.f alxebra
[UK05, 14L05, 16W30; 13KOS,
14L05,16W30]
(see: Leibniz-Hopf algebra)
Leibniz rule
[16W55, 17856, 17860, 17870,
17881, 58AIO; 16W55, 17856,
17860, 17870, 17881,58A10]
(see: Poisson algebra)
Leibniz rule see: graded version of the -
lemma see: closing -; diagonalization-;
Dickson -; Dvoretzky-Rogers -; Ha-
damard -; Hewitt-Savage -; Heyman
-; Jonsson -; Lax-Milgram -; Os-
trowski -; Saks-Henstock -; Sauer -;
Schiitzenberger -; shadowing -; Shir-
shov -; Sullivan shadow -
lemma on operators commuting with repre-
sentation operators see: Schur-
lemma on partitions see: Cousin-
Lempe/ construction
105830; 05830]
(see: Costas array)
length in quenching see: critical-
length metric
[20F32, 57M07; 20F32, 57M07]
(see: Word metric)
length of a code see: average-
S43
LENOTH OF A CONTINUOUS RECTIFIABLE CURVE

length of a continuous rectifiable curve see: (see: Additive stochastic process) (34C20, 3SA30, 58019, 5K035; line see: distance in the projective -; pro-
Jordan - Levy process 34C20, 3SA30. 5S019, 58035) jective -; rational function on the projec-
length of a group element [31Cxx. 60005, 60060. 60J4S; 3lCxx. (reters to: Evolution equation; Ga- tive -; slope-intercept representation of
[20F32. 57M07; 20F32. 57M07] 60005. 60060. 60J45] lois theory; Gauss method; Griibner a -; Wilson-
(see: Word metric) (see: Dvoretzky problem; Fitzsimm- basis; heat equation; Lie algebra; line bundle see: spanned-
length of a word ons-Fristedt-Shepp theorem) Lie group; Lie transfonnation group; line in a chain space
[05Axx, 17BOI. 20M05; 05Axx, Levy process see: Wiener-- Prolongation of solutions of differen- [51 B05; 51 B05]
17BOI,20M05] lexicographic order tial equations; Riccati equation) (see: Chain space)
(see: Hall word; Lyndon word; Shir- [05Axx, 17BOI. 20M05; 05Axx, Lie symmetry analysis with symbolic 'wJti- linear (Jcoceleration function
shov basis) 17BOI.20M05] ware 162N05, 90B25; 62N05. 90B25 I
length of the tangent indicatrix (see: Lyndon word) [34C20. 35A30, 58019. 5803S; (see: Accelerated life testing)
[53A04; 53A04] lexicographical ordering 34C20. 35A30. 58019, 5803S1 linear analysis system see: automatic dy-
(see: Tangent indicatrix) [13PIO, 68Q40; 13P10. 68Q40] (see: Lie symmetry analysis) namie incremental non- -
Lenstra polynomial-time theorem (see: Buchberger algorithm) Lie symmetry group of a .1'Ystem (If differ- linear character
(9OCIO; 9OCIO) LF-space ential equations 12OCIS; 20CI51
(refers to: integer programming) [46Axx, 46A03, 46A13; 46Axx, [34C20, 35A30. 58019. SK03S; (see: Brauer characterization of
Leopoldt conjecture 46A03.46AI31 34C20. 35A30. 58019.580351 characters)
(IIR23. IIR37. IIR42; IIR23. (see: Frechet topology) (see: Lie symmetry analysis) lillearcode
IIR37,IIR42) library of the general-purpose system see: liesymm 105BOS. 05B07, 05E30. 94B15,
(refers to: algebraic K -theory; Al- share - [68Q40; 68Q40] 94B25, 94B35; 05B05, 05B07. 05E30,
gebraic number; Class field theory; Lichnerowicz problem (see: Computer algebra package) 94B 15. 94B25. 94B3S1
DirIchlet theorem; Field; Galois co- [53C21; 53C21] life testing see: Accelerated- (see: Golay code; Kerdock and
homology; Galois extension; Galois (see: Yamabe problem) life-time testing Preparata codes)
group) Lichtenbaum conjecture [62N05. 90B25; 62NOS, 90B2S1 linear code see: [n,k]-
Leopoldt conjecture [IIS40. 19Cxx, 19F27; IIS40, 19Cxx, (see: Accelerated life testing) linear connection see: coefficients of a non-
[IIR23, IIR37, IIR42; IIR23. 19F27] Lifschitz-type theorem
IIR37,IIR42] (see: Birch-Tate conjecture) [280xx. 58F15; 2S0xx. 58FISI linear control system .•ee: continuous-
(see: Leopoldt conjecture) LIE (see: Pesin theory) time time-invariant -; discrete-time time-
Leopold! conjecture see: weak- [68Q40; 68Q401 lifting t!f a Borel cylinderfunction invariant -
Leopoldt defect (see: Computer algebra package) [60B II. 60HOS. 60H07; 60B II, linear convolution
[IIR23. IIR37. IIR42; IIR23, LiE 6OHOS,6OH07] 112005. 65T20; 12005, 65T20]
IIR37.IIR42] [68Q40; 68Q40] (see: Accessible random variable) (.,ee: Winograd small convolution al-
(see: Leopoldt conjecture) (see: Computer algebra package) lifting of a pseudo-differential operator gorithm)
Lester theorem Lie algebra see: Borel- -; double of a -; [33C 10. 35Sxx, 47B38; 33C 10, 35Sxx, linear differential equation
[5IM05, 51MIO; 51M05. 51MIO] reductively filtered - 47B3K] IlI0xx. 11181; Il0xx, IIJ811
(see: Beckman-Quarles-type theo- Lie algebra of primitive element" (see: Bessel potential operator) (see: G-function)
rems) [16S30. 16W30. 17B35; 16S30, lifting theorem see: Commutant -; Sz.- linear discriminant function see: Fisher-
leller in a word 16W30,17B351 Nagy-Foias commutant - linear dynamical system in the plane see:
[17BOI. 20M05; 17BOI. 20M05] (see: Primitive element in a co- likelihood estimator see: maximum-- autonomous non- -
(see: Hall word; Shirshov basis) algebra) likelihood function see: log-- linear dynamics see: Non--
letter substHution see: disjoint-finHe-- Lie algebra under constraint likelihood ratio test linear elasticity see: non--
letters [170xx. 53A50, 55R05, 70-XX, 153Cxx. 62Fxx; 53Cxx. 62Fxx] linear equations see: iterative solution
[05Axx. 17BOI. 20M05; 05Axx. 70M20; 170xx, S3A50, 55R05, 70- (see: Differential geometry in statis- method for systems of -
17BOI.20M05] XX,70M20] tical inference) linear extension ofa partially ordered set
(see: Lyndon word) (see: Kustaanheimo-Stiefel transfor- likelihood ratio test see: maximum-- I06AIO. 60E15; 06A1O. 6OEIS]
level-2 elliptic genus mation) likelihood yoke see: expected -; ob- (see: Correlation inequalities)
[55N22, 55N35; 55N22. 55N35] Lie algebra under constraints served - linear feedback shift register
(see: Elliptic genera) [16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005, limtt see: Banach -; lower specffication 105E30, II S20, II S31, 94B3S; OSE30,
level see: acceptable quality -; Whitney - 55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17Axx, 17Bxx, 17005, -; upper specification - II S20. II S31. 94B3S]
level in a partially ordered set 55Rxx] limit distribution (see: Galois ring)
[06A07; 06A07) (see: Hurwitz transformation) [IIN37; IIN37] linear filtering theory see: Kalman-
(see: Greene-Kleitman theorem) Lie algebra sp (8,R) see: symplectic- (see: Delange theorem) linear flo(,k
level in quantization Lie algebroid limit of quantum theory see: Stochastic- [SIExx. 51N15; 5lExx. SINISI
[8iQ30, 81R25. 81T70; 81Q30, [16W55. 17B56, 17B60, 17B70, limit ordinal (see: Flock)
8IR25.81T70) 17B81, 5SAIO; 16W55, 17B56, I03C45; 03C45] linear group see: classifying space of the
(see: Anomalies (in quantization)) 17B60, 17B70. 17B81, 5SA 10] (see: Morley rank) infinite general -
level of a seH-organizing process see: (see: Poisson algebra) limit point see: radial- linear growth see: Malthusian coefficient
macro -; micro - Lie bialgebra see: tangent- limit property (in probability theory) see: in- of-
Leverett equation see: Buckley-- Lie bialgebra structure .•ee: double of a -; tegral-; local- linear isometry
Leverett profile see: Buckley-- dual of a- limit set see: radial- [46120; 46J20]
Levi-Civita symbols Lie geometry see: Laguerr&-- limit spectrum (see: Choquet boundary)
[53C6O; 53C60] Lie group see: double of a Poisson -; dual [45P05, 46E30, 47BS5; 45P05. 46E30, linear lattice
(see: Berwald connection) Poisson -; Poisson -; real Hardy space 47B551 [06C05; 06C05]
Leviform of functions on a nilpotent - (see: Integral representations of lin- (see: Arguesian lattice)
[32CI6. 53C15; 32C16, 53C15] Lie polynomial ear operators) linear mapping see: null space of a -;
(see: CR-manifold) (I7BOI, 17B35; 17BOI, 17B35) limit theorem see: strong -; weak - nullspace of a -
Levin-Pfluger theory of completely regu- (referred to in: Hall polynomial; limit theorem for U-statistics see: central- linear operator see: bounded self-adjoint
lar growth of entire functions Lazard set; Lyndon word; Primi- limited fluctuation credibility theory -; positive -
[26AI2; 26AI2) tive element in a co-algebra) 162Cxx. 62P05; 62Cxx, 62POSI linear operators see: Integral representa-
(see: Karamata theory) (refers to: free associative algebra; (see: Credibility theory) tions of-
Levinson algorithm Hall set; Hopfalgebra; Leibniz-Hopf limits see: pseudo-- linear polyhedron see: piecewise--
[30E05, 47A57. 93EII; 30E05. algebra; Lie algebra; Lie algebra, Lindemann-Weierstrass theorem linear programming see: logical variable
47A57.93EII) free; Lyndon word; Primitive ele- [IIJSI, IIJ91; IIJSI, IIJ911 in -
(see: Caratheodory-Toeplitz exten- ment in a co-algebra; Shirshov basis; (see: E-function) linear programming problem see: feasible
sion problem) universal enveloping algebra) Lindenbaum algebra set of a -; set of optimal solutions of a -
Levitzki theorem see: AmHsur-- Lie-Rinehart algebra [03Bxx. 03B4S, 03C62. 03Exx. 06Exx, linear programming relaxation
Levy area [16W55, 17B56. 17B6O, 17B70, 06E25. 08Bxx; 03Bxx. 03B4S, 03C62, [90CIO; 90C10]
[60H05. 60H07, 6OJ65; 60H05. 17B81, 5SAIO; 16W55, 17B56. 03Exx. 06Exx, 06E2S. 08Bxx I (see: Branch-and-bound algorithm)
60H07,6OJ65) 17B60, 17B70. 17B81. 58AIO) (see: Magari algebra) linear recurrence
(see: Brownian functional) (see: Poisson algebra) Lindenbaum sentence alliebra 105E30.IIS20,IIS31.94B35;OSE30.
Levy measure Lie superalgebra [03Bxx, 03B4S, 03C62. 03Exx. 06Exx, II S20. II S31. 94B3S]
[3ICxx. 60005. 60060. 6OJ45; 31 Cxx. [SIRxx, 81R05; SIRxx. 81R05] 06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, (see: Galois ring)
60005. 60060, 6OJ45] (see: Spectrum generating algebra) 03Exx. 06Exx. 06E25, 08Bxxl linear regression see: minimax risk for -
(see: Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp Lie superbracket (see: Magari algebra) linear representation
theorem) [SIRxx, 81R05; SIRxx, 81R05] Lindenmayer system [2OCI5; 2OC15]
Levy process (see: Spectrum generating algebra) [68Q45. 68S0S; 6KQ4S, 68S0S] (see: Brauer characterization of
[60J30; 60130] Lie symmetry analysis (see: Trio) characters )

544

linear resolution
[68NI7; 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
linear SchrOdinger equation see: non--
linear stability analysis
[35Q35, 76-XX; 35Q35, 76-XX]
(see: Spinodal decomposition)
linear subspace see: solid-
linear system see: minimal least-squares
solution of a -
linear-time Chazelle triangulation algo-
rithm
[52B55, 68Q20, 68Q25, 68U05;
52B55, 68Q20, 68Q25, 68U05)
(see: Computational geometry)
linear transformation see: order-
preserving -
linear unbiased estimator
[62105; 62105]
(see: Best linear unbiased estimator)
linear unbiased estimator see: Best-
linearity see: hysteresis non- -; Prandtl
non- -
linearization see: Carleman-
linearized Moser-Trudinger inequality
[46E35, 58GXX; 46E35, 58GXX]
(see: Moser-Trndinger inequality)
linearly weighted mean
[62F35; 62F35]
(see: Outlier)
lines see: arrangement of -; base of -
ling Huang theorem see: Wen--
link see: framed-
links see: Kirby calculus for framed -
Linpack
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
Lions-Peetre real-method interpolation
space
[46B70; 46B70]
(see: Calderon couples)
Liouville equation
(35Axx, 35A30, 35L05, 58F07, 58F37;
35Axx, 35A30, 35L05, 58F07, 58F37)
(refers to: Differential equation, par-
tial; Laplace equation; wave equa-
tion)
Liouville equation see: elliptic-
Liouville integrable dynamical system
[58F07; 58F07]
(see: Goryachev-Chaplygin top)
Liouville operator see: Sturm--
Lipschitz condition see: one-sided-
Lipschitz constant see: one-sided-
Lipschitz domain see: special-
Lipschitz function
[15A66, 30G30, 30G35; 15A66,
3OG30, 30G35]
(see: Clifford analysis)
Lipschitz surface
[15A66, 30G30, 30G35; 15A66,
30G30, 30G35]
(see: Clifford analysis)
liquid see: mobility of a -
list reversal
[05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60;
05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60]
(see: Gray code)
literal see: negative -; positive -
Littlewood conjecture see: Hardy--
Littlewood formula for the number of repre-
sentations of an integer see: Hardy--
Litllewood-Karamata theorem see: Hardy-
Littlewood operator see: Hardy--
Littlewood-Paley functional
[42B30; 42B30)
(see: Hardy spaces)
Littlewood-Ramanujan methods see:
Hardy- -
Littlewood-Richardson fillings
[05E05, 05E 10, 05E 15, 20G05; 05E05,
05E 10, 05E 15, 2OG05]
(see: Pictures)
Littlewood-Richardson rule
105E05, 05E I0, 05E 15, 20G05; 05E05,
05E10, 05E15, 20G05]
(see: Pictures)
Littlewood-Richardson rule
[05E05, 05EIO, 05E15, 20G05; 05E05,
05E10, 05E15, 20G05]
(see: Robinson-Schensted corre-
spondence)
Litllewood-Sobolev inequality see: Hardy-
Lizorkin space see: Besov-Triebel- -
LLL basis reduction method
(I I H06, IIHI6, IIH31, 11H46,
IIH50, 51MII, 51M15, 51M16,
51M20, 51M25; I I H06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIH50, 51MII,
51M15, 51M16, 51M20, 51M25)
(refers to: Geometry of numbers;
Group; lattice; Orthogonalization
method; Quadratic form)
LLL-reduced lattice basis
[I I H06, IIHI6, IIH31, 11H46,
IIH50, 51MII, 51M15, 51M16,
51M20, 51M25; I I H06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIH50, 51MII,
51M15, 51M16, 51M20, 51M25]
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
LLL reduction see: block-
loading see: relative safety -
Liib derivability conditions
[03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 08Bxx]
(see: Magari algebra)
Lob theorem see: formalized-
local analytic loop
[170xx, 20Nxx, 22E05, 22E67;
170xx, 20Nxx, 22E05, 22E67]
(see: Akivis algebra)
local anomalies
[81Q30, 81R25, 81T70; 81Q30,
81R25,81T70)
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
local cohomology theory
[8IQ30, 81R25, 8ITIO; 81Q30,
8IR2S,8ITIO)
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
local convergence theorem for the
Bairstow method
[26CI0, 65HOS; 26CIO, 65H05]
(see: Bairstow method)
local convergence theoremfor the Newton
method
[26CI0, 65H05; 26CIO, 65H05]
(see: Bairstow method)
local data encoding at a synapse
[68T05, 92C20; 68T05, 92C20]
(see: Hebb rule)
local formula for the Pontryagin class
[16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G12;
16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G 12]
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
local-global principle see: Hasse-
local hidden-variable theory
[81015, 8lPxx; 81015, 81Pxx)
(see: Bell inequalities)
local inverse theorem in approximation
theory
[4IAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 4IA40]
(see: Baskakov operators)
local limit property (in probability theory)
[280xx, 60Fxx, 6OG09, 60K35;
280xx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35]
(see: Bernoulli measure)
local Moufang loop
[170xx, 20Nxx, 22E05, 22E67;
170xx, 20Nxx, 22E05, 22E67)
(see: Akivis algebra)
local ring see: extension of a -; finite
extension of a -
local Skolem property
[12J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05)
(see: Valued function field)
local.<table manifold
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58FI5)
(see: Pesin theory)
LOGISTIC ALTERNATIVE IN STATISTICS
local state see: axiom of -
local subgroup see: p--
local time see: inverse-
local topological equivalence
[34C20, 58Fxx; 34C20, 58Fxx]
(see: Equivalence of dynamical sys-
tems)
local unstable manifold
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
localizable measure
[28A99, 62B15, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62B15, 62B20, 62C05)
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
localization in algebraic topology
[19006; 19006]
(see: Plus-construction)
locally bounded algebra see: complete-
locally bounded topological vector space
[46Axx, 46A03, 46A13; 46Axx,
46A03, 46A 13)
(see: Frechet topology)
locally closed variety
[06FI5, 08Bxx, 20F60; O6FI5, 08Bxx,
20F60)
(see: i-variety)
locally compact see: Hypergroups, har-
monic analysis on -
locally compact hypergroup
[43AIO, 43A46, 43A62; 43AIO,
43A46,43A62)
(see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
sis on locally compact)
locally compact space see: harmonic func-
tion on a subset of a locally convex, -
locally conformal Kahler manifold
[53C25, 53C55; 53C25, 53C55)
(see: Hopf manifold)
locally conformal Kahler metric
[53C25, 53C55; 53C25, 53C55]
(see: Hopf manifold)
locally convex cones
[4IA35, 41A36, 41A65; 41A35,
4IA36,4IA65]
(see: Abstract approximation theory)
locally convex, locally compact space see:
harmonic function on a subset of a -
locally finite subgroup
[16S34; 16S34]
(see: Modular group algebra)
locally Minkowski geometry
[53C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
locally Minkowski space
[53C60; 53C60)
(see: Berwald space)
locally pseudo-convex F -algebra
[46Hxx; 46Hxx)
(see: Frechet algebra)
locally topologically equivalent au-
tonomous systems "f ordinary dif-
ferential equations
[34C20, 58Fxx; 34C20, 58Fxx]
(see: Equivalence of dynamical sys-
tems)
locally topologically equivalent systems
of ordinary differential equations
[34C20, 58Fxx; 34C20, 58Fxx]
(see: Equivalence of dynamical sys-
tems)
location theory
[9OCxx; 9OCxx]
(see: Simulated annealing)
locking see: solution-
locking route to chaos see: frequency-
log determinant variation formula see:
Polyakov-Onofri -
log-likelihood function
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
log majorization
[47 A63; 47 A63]
(see: Furuta inequality)
log-supermodular function
[06AIO, 60E15; 06AIO, 60E15]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
log-supermodularfunction Oil a partially
orderedut
[06A06, 60E15; 06A06, 60EI5)
(see: FKG inequality)
log-supermodular probability measure
[06A1O, 60E15; 06AIO, 60E15]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
logarithm see: p-adic-
logarithmic barrierfunction
[90C05, 90C20, 9OC25; 90C05,
9OC20,9OC25]
(see: Interior-point methods in math-
ematical programming)
logarithmic de Rham complex
[IIG40, 14CI7, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx. 19F27; IIG40, 14CI7. 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Beninson conjectures)
logarithmic fractional-integral inequality
[46E35, 58GXX; 46E35, 58GXXj
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
logarithmic integral
[IINI3, IIN36; IINI3, IIN36j
(see: Bombieri prime number theo-
rem)
logarithmic Sobolev ill equality
[46E35, 46L89, 47003, 58G03;
46E35, 46L89, 47003, 58G03]
(see: Hypercontractive semi-group)
logarithmic Sobolev inequality see: two-
point -
logic see: algebraic -; conversion rule in
illative combinatory -; dual intuitionistic
-; Illative combinatory -; intuitionistic
predicate -; logical constant in illative
combinatory -; minimal -; negative for-
mula of modal -; Paraconsistent -; pos-
itive formula of modal -; provability -;
pure combinatory -; relevance -; rele-
vant -; term in illative combinatory -
logic) see: coheir (in -; definability (in
-; Forking (in -; heir (in -; necessity
operator (in modal -; possibility operator
(in modal-
logic program
[68NI7; 68NI71
(see: Logic programming)
logic program see: derivation of a query
relative to a -; successful derivation of a
query relative to a -
Logic programming
(68NI7; 68N17)
(refers to: Depth-first search; many-
valued logic)
Logic Programming see: Journalof-
logic programming see: positive-
logical chart
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94C10]
(see: Karnaugh map)
logical consequence .'tee: explosive -;
paraconsistent -
logical constant in illative combinatory
logic
[03B40; 03B401
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
logical diagram
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94CIOj
(see: Karnaugh map)
logical formula see: incidence of a -; sub-
structure complete -
logical relation
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
logical relation see: truth under a -
logical term see: closed -; negative -
logical theory see: stable -; trivial -
logical variable in linear programming
[9OC05, 9OC30; 9OC05, 9OC30]
(see: Slack variable)
logics see: da Costa C family of -
logistic alternative in statistics
[62Fxx, 62Gxx, 62G30; 62Fxx,
62Gxx, 62G30)
(see: Anderson-Darling statistic)
545
LOGISTIC CURVE

logistic curve Lozonovskil theorem (see: Hall word) (see: Kothe-Toeplitz dual)
[92025; 92025) [45P05, 46E30, 47B55; 45P05, 46E30, Lyndon theorem see: Chen-Fox-- Mac Lane G -complex see: Eilenberg--
(see: Pearl-Verhulst logistic process) 47B55) Lyndon word macro level of a self-organizing process
logistic mapping (see: Integral representations of lin· (05Axx, 17B01, 20M05; 05Axx, [60Hxx, 60135, 90Axx, 920xx, 92Exx,
[58Fxx; 58Fxx) ear operators) 17B01,20M05) 92Hxx, 92Kxx; 6OHxx, 60135, 9OAxx,
(see: Non·linear dynamics) LP (referred to in: Hall set; Hall word; 92Dxx, 92Exx, 92Hxx, 92Kxx]
logistic process see: Pearl-Verhulst -; [68NI7; 68NI7) Lazard set; Leibniz-Hopf algebra; (see: Master equations in cooperative
Verhulst-Pearl - (see: Logic programming) Lie polynomial; Shirshov basis; and social phenomena)
logistic smooth tran.,ilion auto-regres.,ive LP see: Priest- Shuffle algebra) MacShane integral
model .cPA (refers to: alpbabet; Binary tree; Cen· [26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42]
[62MIO; 62MIO) [03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx, tral series of a group; free associative (see: Kurzwell-Henstock integral)
(see: Canadian lynx series) 06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, algebra; Hall set; Hall word; Lazard MACSYMA
logistic-type data set 03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 08Bxx) set; lexicographic order; Lie algebra, [34C20, 35A30, 58019, 58G35,
[92025; 92025) (see: Magari algebra) free; Lie polynomial; Mobius func· 68Q40; 34C20, 35A30, 58019,
(see: Pearl-Verhulst logistic process) LSL tion; order; Shirshov basis; word) 58G35, 68Q40]
longtime [62NIO; 62NIO) lynx data see: Canadian- (see: Computer algebra package; Lie
[8IS20; 81S20) (see: Acceptance sampling plan for lynx series see: Canadian- symmetry analysis)
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the- variables) MACSYMA(R)
ory) LTD [68Q40; 68Q40) .
longitude [68T05, 92C20; 68T05. 92C20] (see: Computer algebra package)
[57M25; 57M25)
(see: Dehn surgery)
(see: Hebb rule)
LTP ___ M ___ MacWilliams duality
[05E30, 94B15, 94B35; 05E30,
longitude see: preferred- [68T05, 92C20; 68T05, 92C20] 94B 15, 94B35]
loop see: local analytic -; local Moufang (see: Hebb rule) (see: Kerdock and Preparata codes)
-; Moore -; Wilson - LTPO I-'-resolution class MacWilliams equation
loop algebra [62NIO; 62NIO] [05B05, 05B 15; 05B05, 05B 15] [94B25; 94B25]
[58F07; 58F07) (see: Acceptance sampling plan for (see: Design with mutually orthogo- (see: MacWilliams identities)
(see: Kowalewski top) attributes) nal resolutions) MacWilliams identities
loop space LTPOplans I-'-resolutions see: mutually orthogonal- (94B25; 94B25)
[55Pxx; 55Pxx) [62NIO; 62NIO] I-'-resolvable combinatorial design (referred to in: Kerdock and Preparata
(see: Adams-Hilton model) (see: Acceptance sampling plan for [05B05, 05B 15; 05B05, 05B 15] codes)
Lorentz metric attributes) (see: Design with mutually orthogo. (refers to: Combinatorial analysis; fi·
[53C20, 53C42; 53C20, 53C42) Lucas theorem see: Gauss-- nal resolutions) nite field; linear space)
(see: Anti-de Sitter space; De Sitter LUE m-convex Bo-algebra Magari algebra
space) [62J05; 62J05) [46Hxx; 46Hxx] (03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
Lorentz signature see: metric of - (see: Best linear unbiased estimator) (see: Frechet algebra) 06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
Lorentz space lumping see: state- m-dependent sequence of random vari- 03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 08Bxx)
[46B70; 46B70) Lundberg approximation see: Cramer-- ables (refers to: Arithmetic, formal; ax·
(see: Calderon couples) Lundberg exponent [60G09; 60G09] iomatic set theory; Boolean a1ge.
Lorenz equations [60Gxx, 6OG35; 60Gxx, 60G35] (see: De Finetti theorem) bra; category; Free algebraic sys-
(54H20, 58Fxx; 54H20, 58Fxx) (see: Risk theory) m-dimensional hypercube tem; Giidel incompleteness theorem;
(referred to in: Convection equations) Lundberg inequality [05Cxx; 05Cxx] Modal logic; scattered space; Stone
(refers to: convection equations; [60Gxx, 6OG35; 60Gxx, 6OG35] (see: Acyclic orientation) space; Variety of universal algebras)
Lorenz attractor) (see: Risk theory) M * -estimate see: Milman low - Magari algebra see: free-
Lorenz system Lupas operators in approximation theory m-independent set Magari algebras see: duality theorem for
[54H20, 58Fxx; 54H20, 58Fxx) [4IAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A4O; [05B35, 06Bxx; 05B35, 06BxxJ -; representation theorem for -
(see: Lorenz equations) 4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A4O] (see: Jordan-Dedekind space) Magari theorem
loss model see: Erlang- (see: Bernstein-Baskakov-Kantoro- M -position of a convex body (08Bxx; 08Bxx)
Lot-sensitive compliance sampling plans vich operator) [46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx, (refers to: Universal algebra; variety
[62NIO; 62NIO) Lusztig cell see: Kazhdan-- 46B20, 52A21] of universal algebras)
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for Luzin-Men.,hov theorem (see: Banach-Mazur compactum) magic square
attributes) [26A15; 26A15] m-sequence [20Cxx, 2OG05, 22A25, 22E70;
lot tolerance percent defective (see: Density topology) [II B37, 11883, 94Bxx; 11 B37, 2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70]
[62NIO; 62NIO) Lyapunov blockform IIB83,94Bxx) (see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for [280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15] (.,ee: Correlation property for se· 9 - j coefflcients)
attributes) (see: Pesin theory) quences) Magma
low density Lyapunov change of coordinates M -space see: abstract- (20N02; 20N02)
[8IS20; 81S20) [280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15] m-symmetric random variables see: De (referred to in: Free magma)
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the· (see: Pesin theory) Finelli theorem for - (refers to: binary relation; free
ory) Lyapunov coefficient m-symmetric sequence of random vari- magma)
low M* -estimate see: Milman- [58FI4; 58F14] able.. Magma
lower Boyd index (see: Codimension·two bifurcations) [60G09; 60G09) [68Q40; 68Q40]
[46B20; 46B20) Lyapunov exponent see: backward upper (see: De Finetti theorem) (see: Computer algebra package)
(see: Boyd index) -; forward multiplicity of a -; forward (m, m) -di..conjugacy magma see: closed subset of a free -;
lower Karamata index upper - [34CIO; 34CIO] Free -
[26AI2; 26AI2) Lyapunov exponent at a point see: value of (see: Disconcugacy) magmas see: morphism of -
(see: Karamata theory) a forward upper - ( m, n ) -additive sequence of measure.. magnetism see: Mayergoyz model of -;
lower Matuszewska index Lyapunov function see: eventually strict - [60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx, Preisach-GiHay model of -
[26AI2; 26AI2) Lyapunov-like index 62Exx) Mahler inequality
(see: Karamata theory) [62MIO; 62MIO] (see: Kullback-Leibler.type distance [52A4O; 52A4O]
lower specification limit (see: Canadian lynx series) measures) (see: Blaschke-Santal6 inequality)
[62NIO; 62NIO) Lyapunov metric M/GIl-queue Mahler-Lech theorem see: Skolem--
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for [28Dxx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15] [60K25, 68M20; 60K25, 68M20] Mahlo cardinal
variables) (see: Pesin theory) (see: Performance analysis) [03E05, 05C05, 20K20, 54H05;
Lowner-Heinz inequality Lyapunov-Schmidt reduction MIMll-queue 03E05, 05C05, 20K20, 54H05)
(47A63; 47A63) [58F36; 58F36] [60115; 601l5J (see: Aronszajn tree; Gamma-
(referred to in: Furuta inequality; (see: Birkhoff normal form) (see: Bernoulli excursion) invariant in the theory of Abelian
Heinz-Kato inequality) Lyndon basis Macaev estimates see: Gurarii-Kadec-- groups)
(refers to: Furuta inequality; Heinz- [05Axx, 17B01, 20M05; 05Axx, Mach number main theorem see: Brauer first -
Kato inequality; Hilbert space; lin· 17BOI,20M05] [82B4O; 82B40] main theorem of AFL-theory
ear operator) (see: Lyndon word) (see: Broadwell model) [68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
LOwner-Heinz inequality Lyndon basis machine see: generalized sequential - (see: Abstract family of languages)
[47A63; 47A63) [17BOI,20M05; 17B01, 20M05] Mackey functor major class see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis -;
(see: LOwner-Heinz inequality) (see: Lazard set) [55N25; 55N25] vc-
LOwner interpolation Lyndon basis see: Chen-Fox-- (see: Bredon cohomology) majorization see: log-
[30E05, 47A57; 30E05, 47A57) Lyndon factorization Mackey topology Malliavin calculus
(see: Commutant lifting theorem) [17BOI, 20M05; 17B01, 20M05] [40H05, 46A45; 40H05, 46A45] (60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H07)

546

(refers to: Banach space; Brownian
motion; Hilbert space; Lebesgue
measure; Optional random process;
random variable; Sobolev classes (of
functions); Sobolev space; stochastic
integral; Tensor product; Wiener
space, abstract)
MALM
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Malthusian coefficient of linear growth
[34-02, 34K IS, 34K20, 34K25, 92-02;
34-02, 34KI5, 34K20, 34K25, 92-02]
(see: Hutchinson equation)
Mal'tsev projective class
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
Mammana factorization
[34CIO; 34CIO]
(see: Disconcugacy)
Manakov geodesic flow
[l4Kxx,5SF07; 14Kxx, 5SF07]
(see: Abelian surface)
Manakov metric
[5SF07; 5SF07]
(see: Kowalewski top)
Mandelbrot set
[5SFxx; 5SFxx]
(see: Non-linear dynamics)
manifold see: almost co-symplectic -;
almost contact -; almost contact met-
ric -; almost Hermitian -; anti-invariant
submanffold of a Sasakian -; Brieskorn
-; Cartan-Hadamard -; Centre -; co-
symplectic -; complex Hopf -; connec-
tion string on a statistical -; contact -;
CR- -; double derivative string on a sta-
tistical -; generalized Hopf -; global
stable -; global unstable -; homoclinic
-; Hopf -; invariant -; invariant sub-
manifold of a Sasakian -; K -contact
-; Kemmotsu -; Kobayashi-hyperbolic
complex -; local stable -; local un-
stable -; locally conformal Ka.hier -;
non-leading -; Poisson -; quaternion
Hopf -; real Hopf -; regular contact -;
Sasakian -; Seifert -; Seifert fibred -;
semi-invariant submanifold of a Sasakian
-; slow -; stable invariant -; Statistical
-; strictly pseudo-convex -; submani-
fold of a Sasakian -; topological 4- -;
unstable invariant -
manffold theorem see: centre-
manffolds see: classffication of closed
simply-connected topological 4- -; CR-
diffeomorphic -; equivalent CR- -;
Riemannian spin -
manipulation see: mathematical formula -
Mann-Dashen algebra see: Gell--
Mann formula see: Gell--
Mann matrices see: Gell--
Mann-okubo formula see: Gell--
mantissa
[60Axx, 6OExx, 62Exx; 60Axx,
6OExx, 62Exx]
(see: Benford law)
mantissa sigma algebra
[60Axx, 6OExx, 62Exx; 6OAxx,
6OExx, 62Exx]
(see: Benford law)
mantis.~a space
[60Axx, 6OExx, 62Exx; 60Axx,
60Exx, 62Exx]
(see: Benford law)
map see: classical Karnaugh -; Karnaugh
-; variable-entered Karnaugh -
map function see: discriminant of a -
map variable
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94C 10]
(see: Karnaugh map)
Maple
[13PIO, 34C20, 35A30, 5S019,
5SG35,6SQ40; 13PIO, 34C20, 35A30,
5S019, 5S035, 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package;
Grabner basis; Lie symmetry analy-
sis)
mapping see: Abel-Jacobi -; acyclic -;
Beilinson regulator -; Collatz -; contact
moment -; CR- -; divisor reduction -;
Gray -; Hochschild coboundary -; lo-
gistic -; motivic Chern character -; null
space of a linear -; nullspace of a linear
-; odd -; order-preserving -; pseudo-
conformal -; relative trace -; S - -;
upper semi-continuous -; Wh~ney -
mapping in algebraic geometry see: ad-
junction -
mapping of a curve see: canonical-
mapping of Riesz spaces see: normal-
mapping on a lattice see: non-
decreasing -
mapping principle see: Banach contrac-
tion -
mapping theorem see: Borsuk odd -;
open -; Riemann -
mappings under mild hypotheses see:
characterization of geometrical -
marked by an automaton see: language-
Markoff-Hurwitz equation
[11041,11072; 11041, 11072]
(see: Hurwitz equation)
Markov algebra
[60Exx, 60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20; 60Exx,
60Jxx, 62Gxx, 62H20]
(see: Copula)
Markov-Bernstein-type inequalities
(4IAI7; 41A17)
(refers to: Approximation of func-
tions, direct and inverse theorems;
Chebyshev polynomials; polynomial;
trigonometric polynomial)
Markov causality principle
[16Y60, 44A15, 49Lxx, 60J35, SI-XX,
9OC39; 16Y60, 44A15, 49Lxx, 6OJ35,
SI-XX,90C39]
(see: Idempotent correspondence
principle)
Markov equation
[11041,11072; 11041, 11072]
(see: Hurwitz equation)
Markov-Hurwitz equation
[11041,11072; 11041, 11072]
(see: Hurwitz equation)
Markov-Hurwitz equation see: fundamen-
tal solution of a -
Markov inequality
[4IAI7; 41A17]
(see: Markov-Bernstein-type in-
equalities)
Markov theorem see: Gauss--
Markov-type inequality
[4IAI7; 41A17]
(see: Markov-Bernstein-type in-
equalities)
Marquand-Veitch diagram
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94C 10]
(see: Karnaugh map)
MART
[52Axx, 9OCxx, 9OC05, 9OC25;
52Axx, 9OCxx, 90C05, 9OC25]
(see: Bregman distance)
Martin axiom
[03Exx, 03E05, 04-XX, 05C05,
20K20, 47003, 54H05; 03Exx,
03E05, 04-XX, 05C05, 20K20, 47003,
54H05]
(see: Adjoint semi-group of oper-
ators; Aronszajn tree; Whitehead
problem)
Martin space see: Cameron--
Maslov A-measure
[15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44-
XX, 44A15, 6SQIO, SI-XX, 9OC39,
93C30; 15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx,2SCxx,
44-XX, 44A15, 6SQIO, SI-XX,
9OC39,93C30]
(see: Idempotent analysis)
Maslov space
[15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44-
XX, 44A15, 6SQIO, SI-XX, 9OC39,
93C30; 15A4S,I6Y60,I9Lxx,2SCxx,
44-XX, 44A15, 6SQIO, SI-XX,
9OC39, 93C30]
(see: Idempotent analysis)
Maslov superposition principle
[49Lxx, SI-XX, 9OC39; 49Lxx, SI-
XX,9OC39]
(see: Idempotent superposition prin-
ciple)
mass see: centre of -
mass conjecture see: pos~ive­
mass renormalization
[5SF07, SITlO, SITIO, S3C47; 5SF07,
SITlO, SIT20, S3C47]
(see: Massive Thirring model)
mass theorem see: equi-part~ion-of-­
Massive Thirring model
(5SF07, SITlO, SIT20, S3C47; 5SF07,
SITlO, SIT20, S3C47)
(refers to: Commutation and anti-
commutation relationships, repre-
sentation of; delta-function; quan-
tum field theory; scattering matrix)
massive Thirring model see: bound states
of the -
master equation
[SIS20; SIS20]
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
Master equations in cooperative and s0-
cial phenomena
(60Hxx, 60J35, 90Axx, 920xx, 92Exx,
92Hxx, 92Kxx; 6OHxx, 60J35, 90Axx,
920xx, 92Exx, 92Hxx, 92Kxx)
(referred to in: Abelian surface)
(refers to: Fokker-Planck equation;
transition prohabilities)
master field
[SIS20; SIS20]
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
master grammar
[03005, 6SQ45, 6SQ50; 03005,
6SQ45, 6SQ50]
(see: Grammar form)
match set of a permutation
[06AIO, 60E15; 06AIO, 6OE15]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
matched layer see: perfectly-
matching in a graph
[05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factor; One-factorization)
matching in a graph see: cost of a -;
spanning -
matching problem
[6OC05; 6OC05]
(see: Bonferroni inequalities)
material see: Bingham -; simple thermo-
mechanical -; strongly elliptic -
material time derivative
[73B30, SOA05, S0A97; 73B30,
SOA05, S0A97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
materials see: numerical methods for creep
-; numerical methods for elasto-plastic
-; numerical methods for visco-plastic -
MathEdge
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Mathematica
[I3PIO, 34C20, 35A30, 5S019,
5S035, 6SNI5, 6SQ40; I3PIO,
34C20, 35A30, 5S019, 5SG35, 6SNI5,
6SQ40]
(see: APL; Computer algebra pack-
age; Grabner basis; Lie symmetry
analysis)
mathematical constraint on thermody-
namical evolution
[73B30, SOA05, SOA97; 73B30,
SOA05, S0A97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
mathematical formula manipulation
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
MAXIMAL FIELD EXTENSION
Mathematical morphology
(60005, 6SUIO; 60005, 6SUlO)
(referred to in: Hit-or-miss topology;
Hit-or-miss topology)
(refers to: Complete lattice; convex
set; integral geometry; pattern recog-
nition)
mathematical morphology see: closing op-
eration in -; kernel of an operator in -;
opening operation in -; structuring ele-
mentin -
mathematical programming see: Interior-
point methods in -; Proximal point meth-
ods in-
mathematical programming problem see:
general-
mathematics see: actuarial -; interval -
Matheron theorem see: Choquet-Kendall-
MathLink
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
MathTensor
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
mating see: random-
matrices see: coefficient assignable pair
of -; completely controllable pair of -;
completely reachable pair of -; control-
lable pair of -; Gell-Mann -; Pauli -;
Perron-Frobenius theory of non-negative
-; pole assignable pair of -; reachable
pair of -
matrices, completion of see: Partially spec-
ffied -
matrix see: band in a -; basis -; COme
pletion of a partially specified -; con-
trollabil~y -; Defective -; factorizable
muRi-particle scattering -; feedback -;
Fisher information -; Hankel -; Hes-
sian -; Kernel of a -; modal -; non-
defective -; normal -; null space of
a -; nullspace of a -; parity-check
-; partially specified -; Pick -; quasi-
triangular r- -; r- -; reachabil~ -;
singular values of a -; strictly negative
-; strictly pos~ive -; strictly totally pos-
itive -; totally non-negative -; totally
pos~ive -; triangular r- -; Vahlen -;
Vandermonde -
matrix computations see: A priori and a
posteriori bounds in -
matrix direct product
[2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx, 2OG05, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
matrix element of a tensor operator see: re-
duced -
matrix for a code see: generator -; par~
check -
matrix method see: summability by a -
matrix of a code see: generating -; gen-
erator-
matrix summability see: absolute-
matroid see: anti--
Matusita coefficient
[62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62Pxx]
(see: Bhattacharyya distance)
Matuszewska index
[26A12; 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
Matuszewska index see: lower -; upper -
max-plus algebra
[69Fxx, 9OBxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
max-plus algebra approach
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
MAXIMA
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
maximal field extension see: alge-
braically -
547
MAXIMAL FUNCTION
maximal function see: non-tangential -;
radial-
maximal immediate extension
[12JIO, 12J20; 12JlO, 12J20J
(see: Kaplansky field)
maximal of elation type see: Baer group, -
maximal of homology type see: Baer
group, -
maximal operator
[42B30; 42B30J
(see: Hardy spaces)
maximal space-like hypersuriaces in an see:
complete -
maximal valued field
[IISI5, 12120; IISI5, 12J201
(see: Defect)
maximal width path problem
[16Y60, 49Lxx, 90C39; 16Y60,
49Lxx, 9OC39J
(see: Idempotent algorithm)
maximum entropy characterization
[30E05, 47A57; 30E05, 47A571
(see: Nehari extension problem)
maximum entropy principle
[47A57, 47A68; 47A57, 47A68J
(see: Band method)
maximum entropy solution
[47A57, 47A68; 47A57, 47A68]
(see: Band method)
maximum-likelihood estimator
[53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx, 62Gxx,
62G30; 53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx, 62Gxx,
62G30]
(see: Anderson-Darling statistic;
Yoke)
maximum-likelihood ratio test
[62F35; 62F351
(see: Outlier)
Maxwell equation see: Vlasov--
Maxwell system see: Vlasov--
Mayergoyz model of magnetism
[47H30; 47H30J
(see: Hysteresis)
Mazur compactum see: Banach- -; radius
of the Banach- -
Mazur distance see: Banach--
Mazur distance to the cube see: Banach-
Mazur-Orlicz theorem
(40C05; 40C05)
(referred to in: Frt!chet topology)
(refers to: Banach-Steinhaus theo-
rem; Frechet topology; functional
analysis)
Mazur-Drlicz theorem
140C05; 40C05J
(see: Mazur-Orlicz theorem)
Mazur problem see: Michael--
Mazur-type theorem for Bo-algebras see:
Gel'fand- -
Mazur-type theorem for LB-algebras see:
Gel'fand- -
McFarland difference set
[05BIO, IIBI3, 20KOI; 05BIO,
IIBI3,20KOIJ
(see: Abelian difference set)
McKay conjecture see: Alperin--
mean see: cycle -; invariant -; left-
invariant -; linearly weighted -; oper-
ator -; right-invariant -; trimmed -
mean curvature of a hypersurface in an
anti-de Sitter space
[53C20, 53C42; 53C20, 53C42]
(see: Anti-de Sitter space)
mean field interaction
[60HI0, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05;
60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 65U051
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial differential equations)
mean field model
[60G09; 60G09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
mean field model see: generalized-
mean field type interaction
[60G09; 60G09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
mean (~f a function over a set
548
[26A45, 32A37, 46Exx; 26A45,
32A37, 46Exx I
(see: BMO -space)
mean oscillation see: function of bounded
-; function of vanishing -; space of
functions of bounded -; space of func-
tions of vanishing -
mean value (dan arithmeticfum'titm
[IIA25, IIN37, IIN56; IIA25,
IIN37,IIN56]
(see: Delange theorem; Hallisz mean
value theorem)
mean value (~fan arifhmeticalfuncthm
IIIN37; IIN37]
(see: Elliott-Daboussi theorem)
mean value theorem see: Halasz-
mean weight (~la circuit
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
mean weight ora path
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
measurable function see: slowly varying -
measurable norm
[60Hxx; 60Hxx]
(see: Wiener space, abstract)
measure see: base-invariant probabil-
ity -; Bernoulli -; completely additive
-; conditional -; Conformal -; Dirac
-; doubly-stochastic -; empirical -:
free -; Gaussian -; harmonic invari-
ant -; hyperbolic -; lattice-regular -;
Levy -; localizable -; log-supermodular
probability -; Maslov A - -: mixing -;
Patterson-Sullivan -; permanent ran-
dom -; Plancherel -; quasi-invariant
-; representing -; scale-invariant prob-
ability -; semi-finite -; separability -;
Sinal-Ruelle-Bowen -; uniform proba-
bility -; weak white noise -; Wiener -
measure algebra
143Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47D35;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47D351
(see: Arens regularity)
measure algebra see: group-
measure for a function see: conformal-
measure of dependence see: Kendall's -;
Spearman's -
measure (~f dependence beftreen ttvo ar-
bitrary suh-afields
[280xx, 60A H), 60005, 60Fxx,
60060, 60Kxx; 280xx, 60A J(l,
60005, 601'xx, 60G60, 60Kxx]
(see: Absolute regularity)
measure (~ldiscriminat(}ry informatifm
[62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62Pxx]
(see: Bhattacharyya distance)
measure f~f distance bettl/een /11,'0 distri-
butions
[62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62Pxx I
(see: Bhattacharyya distance)
measure (~f divergence between 1l1)() dis-
tributions
[62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62Pxx I
(see: Bhattacharyya distance)
measure of Kullback-Leiblertype sec: dis-
tance -
measure (~lseparati()n between tyl/O distri-
butions
[62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62Pxx I
(see: Bhattacharyya distance)
measure (~l variation-distance be1l1-'een
two distributions
[62H30, 62Pxx; 62H30, 62Pxx]
(see: Bhattacharyya distance)
measure-preservinK invertible tram/or-
mation
[28015, 58F17; 28015, 58FI71
(see: Hopf alternative)
measure space see: conservative part of a
-; dissipative part of a -; Wiener -
measure theory see: geometric-
measurement
[81S20; 81S20]
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
measures see: Q-conformal family of prob-
ability -; domination of -; generating
function of a sequence of -; Kullback-
Leibler-type distance -; ( m, n) -additive
sequence of --; Percolation theory on
Bernoulli -: symmetrically additive se-
quence of-
measures of dependence sec: non-
parametric -
MeatAxe
168Q40: 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
mechanical material ,"iee: simple thermo-
mechanics see: MIC-Kepler problem in
classical -; quantum -
mechanics) see: dynamical symmetry (in
quantum -
median (~la tetrahedron
151 M20, 52-XX; 51 M20, S2-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
meet
10MlO, 60E15; 06A10, 60EIS]
(sec: Correlation inequalities)
Meier-Wunderli basis
117BOI, 17B35; 17BOl, 17B3S[
(see: Lie polynomial)
Meijer (] -functions
(33C40; 33C40)
(refers to: Hypergeometric funclion;
Lie group; Representation of a com-
pact group)
Menger determinant see: Cayley--
Menger space
154E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
Menshov theorem see: Luzin--
Menten equation see: Michaelis--
merge-cut Hopfalgebra
[20M05, 6W30; 20M05, 6W30]
(see: Shume algebra)
mesh function
12M4S, 26B15, 2XA7S, 2XBOS,
49Q2S: 26A45, 26B 15, 28A 7S, 2XBOS,
49Q25]
(see: Burkill-Cesari integral)
meson
IXIR05, 81V25; BIROS, XIV251
(see: Gell-Mann-Okubo formula)
method see: A-stable numerical -; accel-
eration of a -; adaptive quadrature -;
Adaptive Runge-Kutta -; Alternating-
direction implicit -; Alternating Schwarz
-: ARK -; augmented Lagrangian -:
Bairstow -; Band Bertsekas expo-
~;
nential multipliers -; Billard -; Bregman
-; Chorin random vortex -; classical
acceleration -: conjugate-gradient -;
convergence-preserving summability -;
direction -; t -constraint -; Frobenius
-; Frobenius-norm -; Gauss elimi-
nation -: Gauss-Seidel -; Gel'fond-
Baker -; gradient -; Hungarian -:
inclusion-and-exclusion -; interpolation
-; L -stable numerical ~; LLL basis
reduction -; local convergence theorem
for the Bairstow -; local convergence
theorem for the Newton -; non-adaptive
quadrature -; norm minimization -;
order of consistency of a numerical -;
path-following -: periectly inconsistent
permanent summability -; permanent
summability -; prolongation -; pseudo-
spectral -; relaxation -; Richardson
-; s-stage adaptive Runge-Kutta -;
s-stage Rosenbrock -; Schwarz -;
shift and invert -; splitting -; stan-
dard displacement -; stochastic search
-; summability by a matrix -; trans-
portation simplex -; weighted sum
minimization -
method for Diophantine equations 8ee:
Gel'fond-Baker -
method for random covering sec: Billard-
method for solving shortest path problems
see: Bellman-
method for solving the Caratheodory inter-
polation problem see: Schur-
method for systems of linear equations see:
iterative solution -
method for tilings see: projection-
method in multi-objective optimization see:
scalarization -
method in numerical analysis see:
Schwarz -
method in optimization see: interactive-
method interpolation space see: Lions-
Peetre real- -
method (~f constants
I03Cxx; 03Cxxj
(see: Henkin construction)
method (~r inc/usion-and-ex('lusi()f1
160C05; 60C05]
(sec: Bonferroni inequalities)
method (~f iterative rejinemellt
[6SFxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
method (~l polynomial,,' for proving
B()f~rerrmli-type inequalities
160C05; 60C05]
(see: Bonferroni-type inequalities)
methods see: Acceleration -: Beurling-
Lax -; Hardy-Littlewood-Ramanujan
Rosenbrock -: Runge-Kutta-
Rosenbrock -
methods for creep materials see: numeri-
cal -
methods for slasto-plastic materials see:
numerical-
methods for partial differential equations
see: Monte-Carlo-
methods for visco-plastic materials see: nu-
merical-
methods in mathematical programming see:
Interior-point -; Proximal point -
metric see: conformal -; contact -; Haus-
dorff -; hyperbolic -; infinitesimal Koba-
yashi pseudo- -; Kobayashi -; length
-: locally conformal Kahler -; Lorentz
-: Lyapunov -: Manakov -; Poincare
-: pseudo-Riemannian Skorokhod
- ; uniform -; Word -
metric for a foliation see: holonomy-
invariant transverse -
metric manifold see: almost contact -
metric of Lorentz signature
IX3Cxx; 83Cxx]
(see: Synge world function)
metric space see: hyperconvex -; injective
- ; Probabilistic -; probabilistic pseudo-
metric spaces see: roughly isometric -
metric structure see: almost contact -;
contact -; normal contact -
metric tree
153C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
metrically generated space see: pseudo-
Metz unital see: Buekenhout--
Meyer inequalities
[60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H07]
(see: Malliavin calculus)
Meyer-Steenrod theorem
[53CI5, 53C57, 58F05; 53C15,
53C57, 58F05]
(see: K -contact flow)
mgu
168N17; 6BN17]
(see: Logic programming)
MIC-Kepler problem
(58F05, 58F07, 70H33, 81R05, 81S10;
58F05, 5BF07, 70H33, BIR05, 81SIO)
(referred to in: Kustaanheimo-Stiefel
transformation)
(refers to: cohomology; Hamiltonian
system; Kepler equation; principal
series)
MIC-Kepler problem in classical mechall-
ies
 MODIFIED KORTWEG-OE VRIES EQUATION

[S8FOS, S8F07, 70H33, 81ROS, 81SIO; minimax risk I,,,

S8FOS, 58F07, 70H33, 81R05, 81S10]
(see: MIC.Kepler problem)
Michael-Mazur problem
[46Hxx; 46HxxJ
(see: Frechet algebra)
Michaelis-Menten equation
(92C4S; 92C4S)
mien} level (~f II se1f-orgllnizing process
[60Hxx, 60135, 90Axx, 920xx, 92Exx,
92Hxx, 92Kxx; 60Hxx, 60135, 90Axx,
920xx, 92Exx, 92Hxx, 92Kxx I
(see: Master equations in cooperative
and social phenomena)
micro process in a se(t~(}rgllnizing process
[60Hxx, 6013S, 90Axx, 920xx, 92Exx,
92Hxx, 92Kxx; 60Hxx, 6013S, 90Axx,
920xx, 92Exx, 92Hxx, 92Kxx I
(see: Master equations in cooperative
and social phenomena)
MILSTO 1050
[62N 10; 62N 101
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
mild hypotheses see: characterization of
geometrical mappings under -
mild singularities
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99]
(see: Adjunction theory)
Milgram lemma see: Lax--
Milgram theorem see: Babuska-Lax--
Mills theory see: Yang--
Milman inequality
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Milman low M* -estimate
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Milman quotient-of-subspl/ce theorem
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Milnor K -group
[IIS40, 19Cxx, 19F27; IIS40, 19Cxx,
19F27]
(see: Birch-Tate conjecture)
min see: shuffles of -
minimal see: 0 - -
minimal boundary
[32E2S, 46J 10; 32E2S, 46J 10]
(see: Bergman-Shilov boundary)
minimal inertia completion problem
[IS-XX, 30EOS, 47A57; 15-XX,
30EOS, 47AS7J
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion 00
minimalfeaM-squares solution (?f a linear
system
[6SFxx; 65FxxJ
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
minimal logic
[03B4S, 03G05, 06Exx, 06E25;
O3B4S, O3GOS, 06Exx, 06E251
(see: Sahlqvist theorem)
minimal polynomial
[20KOI, SIBOS; 20KOI, 51B05[
(see: Chain geometry; Erdiis-
Heilbronn problem)
minimal realization of boundary value
systems
[15-XX, 30E05, 47AS7; 15-XX,
30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion 00
minimal spectral radius problem
[IS-XX, 30E05, 47A57; 15-XX,
30E05, 47 A571
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion 00
minimal structures see: finiteness theorem
foro- -
minimal surface area inequality see: Petty
geo- -
linear regression
[62J05; 62JOSI
(see: Best linear unbiased estimator)
minimization method see: norm
weighted sum -
minimization of a switching function
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C I0; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94C I0 [
(see: Karnaugh map)
Minimum spanning tree
(OSCOS; OSC05)
(refers to: Tree)
minimum spanning tree
[52BSS, 68Q20, 68Q2S, 68UOS;
52B55, 68Q20, 68Q25, 68U05]
(see: Computational geometry)
minimum tree see: Steiner-
Minkowski addition
[60005, 68U 10; 60005, 68U 10]
(see: Mathematical morphology)
Minkowski compactum
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, S2A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Minkowski geometry
[5IBOS; 51BOS1
(see: Benz plane)
Minkowski geometry see: locally-
Minkowski inequality see: Brunn- -; in-
verse Brunn- -
Minkowski plane
[51 BOS; 51 B051
(,<ee: Benz plane)
Minkowski set difference operation
[52B55, 68Q20, 68Q2S, 68UOS;
52B55, 68Q20, 68Q25, 68U05]
(see: Computational geometry)
Minkowski space see: locally-
Mink()wski subtraction
[60005, 68U1O; 60005, 68UIO]
(see: Mathematical morphology)
Minkowski sum
[52B55, 68Q20, 68Q2S, 68UOS;
52B5S, 68Q20, 68Q2S, 68UOS]
(see: Computational geometry)
Minkowsky geometry
[SIB05; 51B051
(see: Chain geometry)
Minty theorem
[05Cxx; 05Cxx [
(see: Acyclic orientation)
Miquelian Benz plane
[5IB05; 51B05]
(see: Benz plane)
Miquels condition
[5IB05; SIB05]
(see: Benz plane)
Mirakian operator see: Szasz--
Mises functional see: von-
Mises statistic see: weighted Cramer-
von -
Mises theorem see: Bernstein-von-
miss topology see: Borel u-algebra gener-
ated by the hit-or- -; convergence in the
hit-or- -; Hit-or--
mitotic group see: pseudo--
Mityagin couple see: Calderon--
Miryagin theorem on interpoation spaces
[46B70; 46B70]
(see: Calderon couples)
mixed geodesi!'
[S3C 15, 53C40, 53C56; S3C 15,
53C40, 53C561
(see: CR-submanifold)
mixed identity
[43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 4703S;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035]
(see: Arens regularity)
Mixed integer programming problem
(90CII; 90CII)
(refer" to: Linear programming;
Mathematical programming; objec-
tive function)
mixed integer programming problem
[9OCIO, 90CII, 90C27; 90CIO,
90CII,9OC27]
(see: Lagrangean relaxation)
mixed self-similar set
[28A80, S8FII, 60J05; 28A80, 58FII,
60J05J
(see: Iterated function system)
mixed Shimura variety
[II Fxx, II G 18, 14Mxx, 20Gxx;
IIFxx,IIGIS,14Mxx,200xx]
(see: Shimura variety)
mixed type see: boundary value problem
of-
Mixing
[280xx, 60A 10, 60005, 6OFxx,
60G60, 60Kxx; 280xx, 60AIO,
60005, 60Fxx, 60060, 60KxxJ
(see: Absolute regUlarity)
mixing see: 0'--
mixing coefficient see: (3--
mixing condition
[280xx, 60A 10, 60005, 60Fxx,
60G60, 60Kxx; 2S0xx, 60AIO,
6000S, 60Fxx, 60G60, 60Kxx]
(see: Absolute regularity)
mixing measure
[60009; 60G09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
mixing random variables see: (l<- - ; (3- -
mixture connection
[S3Cxx, 62Fxx; S3Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
mixture model
[62F35; 62F35]
(see: Outlier)
mixture of Dirichlet processes
[62AIS; 62AIS]
(see: Dirichlet process)
mixture outlier model
[62F3S; 62F3S]
(see: Outlier)
mKdV equation
[34A20, 34A2S, 34C20, S8F07;
34A20, 34A2S, 34C20, S8F07]
(see: Painleve-type equations)
mobility of a liquid
[76S05; 76S0S]
(see: Buckley-Leverett equation)
Mobius geometry
[SIBOS; 5IBOS]
(see: Benz plane; Chain geometry)
M;;bius plane
[SIBOS; 51BOSJ
(see: Benz plane)
modal calculus
[03Bxx; O3Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
modal formula see: canonical-
modal logic see: negative formula of -;
positive formula of -
modal logic) see: necessity operator (in -;
possibility operator (in -
modal matrix
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
model see: Adams-Hilton -; Bayesian hi-
erarchical -; bi-viscosity -; Bliman dry
friction -; bound states of the massive
Thirring - ; Bradley-Terry -; Broad-
well -; classical risk -; discrete ve-
locity -; Erlang loss -; exponential
-; exponential auto-regressive -; ex-
ponential dispersion -; generalized
mean field -; Henkin -; Henkin-
Keisler -; Herbrand -; Hopfield -;
interacting boson -; Ising -; least
Herbrand -; logistic smooth transition
auto-regressive -; Massive Thirring -;
mean field -; mixture -; mixture outlier
-; non-Archimedean -; AR (2)- -;
Oregonator -; Paired comparison -;
parametriC statistical -; Prime -; quan-
tum sine-Gordon -; random coefficient
auto-regressive -; random effects -;
Rao-Kupper -; RCA -; saturated -;
self-exciting threshold auto-regressive
-; slippage -; slippage outlier -;
Sorinedry friction - ; state-dependent -;
subset auto-regressive -; subset bilin-
ear -; thermal explosion -; Thurstone
-; transformation -; vibron -; Volterra
integro-differential predator-prey -
model-complete theory
[03C60, 12J 10, 12J 15, 12Ll2; 03C60,
12JIO, 12JI5, 12Ll2]
(see: Model theory of the real expo-
nential function; Model theory ofval-
ued fields; p.adically closed field)
model completeness
[03C60, 12JIO, 12JIS; 03C60, 12JlO,
12J15]
(see: Model theory of the real expo-
nential function)
model completeness of an elementary the-
ory
[12J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
model completeness of the theory of real
closed fields
[03C60, 12JlS, 12Ll2; 03C60, 12Jl5,
12LI21
(see: Real closed field)
model in plasticity see: Besseling-
IshlinskiT -
model of a Benz plane see: affine-
model of a chain space see: quadric-
model of a Shimura variety see: canoni-
cal-
model of elasto-plasticity see: Besseling-
model of ferromagnetiC hysteresis see:
Preisach-Giltay -
model of ideal plasticity see: Prandtl-
model of magnetism see: Mayergoyz -;
Preisach-Giltay -
model of plasticity see: IshlinskiT-
model r~ference adaptive control
[93C40, 93021; 93C40, 93D21]
(see: Adaptive stabilization)
model test see: prime-
Model theory of the real exponential
function
(03C60, 12JlO, 12J15; 03C60, 12JIO,
12JlS)
(referred to in: a·minimal)
(refers to: Algebraic independence;
Analytic function; elementary the-
ory; elimination of quantifiers; Ex-
ponential function, real; field; model
theory; a-minimal; Semi-algebraic
set; Structure)
Model theory of valued fields
(03C60, 12Jl 0, 12Ll2; 03C60, 12Jl 0,
12Ll2)
(referred to in: Algebraic Diophan-
tine equations; Henselian; Kaplan.
sky field; Ramification theory of val-
ued fields; Real closed field; Transfer
principle; Valued function field; Val-
ued function field; p-adically closed
field)
(refers to: Algebraic Diophantine
equations; Defect; Elementary the·
ory; Elimination of quantifiers; elim-
ination of quantifiers; Existentially
closed; Field; Henselian; Henseliza-
tion of a valued field; Kaplansky
field; Laurent series; Model theory;
model theory; p-adically closed field;
power series; Ramification theory of
valued fields; Real closed field; Semi·
algebraic set; Structure; Ultrafilter;
Valuation; Valued function field)
modelling see: semi-parametric-
modification of the Bernstein polynomials
see: Durrmeyer -; Durrmeyer inte-
gral-
modified Besselfunction of the third kind
[33C 10, 3SSxx, 47B38; 33C 10, 35Sxx,
47B38]
(see: Bessel potential operator)
modified KdV equation
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A2S, 34C20, SSF07]
(see: Painleve-type equations)
modified Kortweg-de Vries equation

549
MODIFIED KORTWEO-DE VRIES EQUATION
[34A20. 34A25. 34C20. 5SF07;
34A20. 34A25. 34C20. 5SF07]
(see: Painleve.-type equations)
lIWdijied Yang-Baxter equation
[16W30. 17B37. 22E60. 53C15.
5SH15. SIR50; 16W30. 17B37.
22E60. 53C15. 5SH15. SIR50]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
modular equation
[1IF20; 1IF20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
modular lorms see: automorphic invariant
in the theory 01 -; Gamma-invariant in
the theory 01 -
Modular group algebra
(l6S34; 16S34)
(refers to: Block; field; finite group;
FInite group, representation of a;
group; group algebra; ideal; Jacob-
son radical; locally finite group; Ma-
trix algebra; NUpotent group; Pro-
jective module; Solvable group; sub-
normal subgroup)
modular group algebra
[16S34; 16S34]
(see: Modular group algebra)
modular group algebra see: non--
modular invariant
[1IF20; 1IF20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
modular invariant see: automorphic -;
gamma -
modular lattice see: independent element
ina -
Modular representation theory of finite
groups
[19Cxx.2OC20; 19Cxx.2OC20]
(see: Alperin conjecture)
modularity conjecture see: Taniyama-
Shlmura -
module see: A -semi- -; absolutely inde-
composable -; G-invariant -; idempo-
tent semi- -; irreducible K G- -
modules see: Schwartz kamel theorem lor
semi- -
moduli variety
[I I Fxx. 1I01S. 14Mxx. 200xx;
IIFxx. 1I01S. 14Mxx.200xx]
(see: Shlmura variety)
modulo a dfl-substijution see: interpretation
of a gral1lmar -
modulus see: Young plasticity -
modulus of a plate see: elastic -; Young -
modulus of an operator
[45P05. 46E30. 47B55; 45P05. 46E30.
47B55]
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
modulus of smoothness see: DHzian-
Totik-
modus ponens
[03B53; 03B53]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
molecular physics
[SIRxx. SIR05; SIRxx. SIR05]
(see: Spectrum generating algebra)
Molino see: Riemannian foliation in the
sense 01 Reinhart- -
Molino Riemannian foliation see: Reinhart-
moment see: binomial-
moment identities see: power-
moment mapping see: contact-
momenta see: addition of n+ 1 angular -
moments associated with Be.,sel polyno-
mials
[33C 10; 33C 10]
(see: Bessel polynomials)
momentum see: conservation 01 -
momentum quantum number see: angu-
lar-
monad in alternative set theory
[03Exx. 03E70; 03Exx. 03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
Monge-Ampere operator
550
[31 A30. 31 B30. 73Cxx. 73K 10.
73K15; 31A30. 31B30. 73Cxx. 73K10.
73K15]
(see: Von Karman equations)
Monge point of a tetrahedron
[5IM20. 52-XX; 51M20. 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
monochromatic graph
[05-XX; 05-XX]
(see: Ramsey number)
monochromatic spanning tree
[05C55. 05DIO. 20KOI; 05C55.
05DI0.20KOI]
(see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem)
monogenic function
[15A66. 30030. 30035; 15A66.
3OG30. 3OG35]
(see: Clifford analysis)
monoid see: complete factorization of a
free -; plactic -
monomial see: leading -; standard -;
triangle -
monotone convergence theorem
[26A39. 26A42; 26A39. 26A42]
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
monotone couple see: K - -
monotone function see: operator--
monotone Gray code
[05C45. 6SPxx. 6SRxx. 94B60;
05C45. 6SPxx. 6SRxx. 94B60]
(see: Gray code)
monotone sequence see: completely-
monotonicity property lor interpolation
spaces see: Calder6n-
Monte-Carlo methods for partial dif-
ferential equations
(60HIO. 60K35. 65C05. 65U05;
60HIO. 60K35. 65C05. 65U05)
(refers to: Boltzmann equation;
Branching process; Brownian mo-
tion; Differential equation, partial;
Diffusion equation; Diffusion pro-
cess; empirical distribution; Gaus-
sian process; Generalized function;
heat equation; Integro-differential
equation; jump process; law of
large numbers; Markov process;
Navier-Stokes equations; Neumann
boundary conditions; Probability of
large deviations; Random variable;
stochastic differential equation; Tur-
bulence, mathematical problems
in; V1asov-Poisson-Fokker-Planck
system)
Monte-Carlo primality test
[IIA51. IIYII. 6SQ25; IIA51,
IIYII,6SQ25]
(see: Prohabilistic primality test)
Monthly see: The American -
Moore family
[6SQ20, 6SQ55; 6SQ20, 6SQ55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
Moore inverse see: Penrose---
Moore loop
[55Pxx; 55Pxx]
(see: Adams-Hilton model)
Morava K -theory
[55N22; 55N22]
(see: Brown-Peterson spectrum)
Morava K -theory
[S5N35; 55N35]
(see: Elliptic cohomology)
Morelell-Weil theorem
[11040, 14C17, 140xx, 19Dxx,
19Exx, 19F27; 11040, 14C17, 140xx,
19Dxx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: BeHinson conjectures)
Moreau-Yoshida convolution
[9OC30; 9OC30]
(see: Proximal point methods in
mathematical programming)
Morgan algebra see: de-
Morgan lattice see: De-
Morgan law see: de-
Morley ",-rank
[03C45; 03C45]
(see: Forking)
Morley rank
(03C45; 03C45)
(referred to in: Group of finite Morley
rank)
(refers to: algebraic variety; cardinal
number; complex manifold; dimen-
sion; Group of finite Morley rank;
mathematical logic; model theory;
Ordinal number)
Morley rank see: finite -; Group of finite -
morphism see: bounded -; co-disjointing
-; direct lactor -; fundamental -; in-
verse -; universal -
morphism 01 a pair see: nefvalue-
morphism 'if magmas
[OSAxx, 17BOI, 20N02; OSAxx,
17BOI,20N02]
(.,ee: Free magma; Magma)
morphism 'if weighted algebras
[16A99, 17D92, 90D10; 16A99,
17D92,90DIO]
(see: Baric algebra)
morphism operation for languages
[6SQ45, 6SS05; 6SQ45, 6SS05J
(see: AFL operations)
morphism operation for languages see: in-
verse -; non-erasing -
morphisms see: closed under -; closed
under inverse -; co-disjointed pair 01 -;
co-disjunctable pair of -
morphological operator see: kernel of a -
morphology see: closing operation in math-
ematical - ; kernel of an operator in math-
ematical -; Mathematical -; opening
operation in mathematical -; structuring
element in mathematical -
Morse alphabet
[94A29; 94A29]
(see: Huffman code)
Moscovici higher index
[16E4O, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SG 12;
16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 5SG 121
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
Moser-Krichever system see: Calogero-
-; elliptic Calogero--
Moser-Sutherland--Krichever system see:
Calogero--
Moser system see: rational Calogero- -
Moser-Tanaka invariant see: Chern--
Moser-Trudinger inequality
(46E35, 5S0XX; 46E35, 5S0XX)
(refers to: entropy; Kihler manifold;
pseudo-differential operator; Sobo-
lev space; Variational equations)
Moser-Trudingerinequatity see: exponential-
class -; linearized -
most general unijier
[6SNI7; 6SN17]
(see: Logic programming)
Mostow rigidity theorem
[53C23; 53C23]
(see: Quasi-isometry)
motion see: continuous version of a Brown-
ian -; Euclidean -; geodesic -; recur-
rent Brownian -
motion planning problem
[52B55, 6SQ20, 6SQ25, 6SU05;
52B55, 6SQ20, 6SQ25, 6SU05]
(see: Computational geometry)
motive see: Chow -; Grothendieck -
motivic Chern character mapping
[11040, 14C17, 14Gxx, 19Dxx,
19Exx, 19F27; 11040, 14C17, 140xx,
19Dxx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: BeDinson conjectures)
motivic cohomology
[11040, 14C17, 140xx, 19Dxx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG4O, 14CI7, 140xx,
19Dxx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: BeDinson conjectures)
Moufang loop see: local-
movable singular point 'if an ordinary dif-
ferential equation
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 5SF07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 5SF07]
(see: Painleve-type equations)
movement see: Open Math -
MS-algebra
[06D30; O6D30]
(see: Ockham algebra)
Muller code see: Reed---
multi-attribute utility theory
[9OC29; 9OC29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
multi-dimensional Kirkman array
[05B05, 05B15; 05B05, 05B 15]
(see: Design with mutually orthogo-
nal resolutions)
multi-dimensional prime number theorem
see: Hinz-Bombieri-
muiji-dimensional see: Pythagorean theo-
rem,-
Multi-objective optimization
(9OC29; 90C29)
multi-objective optimization see: scalariza-
tion method in -
multi-objective optimization problem
[9OC29; 9OC29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
multi-objective programming problem
[9OC29; 9OC29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
muiji-particle scattering matrix see: factor-
izable -
multilinear form of the Cayley-Hamilton
theorem
[16Rxx; 16Rxx]
(see: Amitsur-Levitzki theorem)
multinomial coefficient see: restricted-
multiplication
[2OCxx, 2OG05, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx, 2OG05, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9-j coefficients)
multiplication see: Arens -; semi-ring with
idempotent -
multiplicative algebraic reconstruction
technique
[52Axx, 9OCxx, 9OC05, 9OC25;
52Axx, 9OCxx, 9OC05, 9OC25]
(see: Bregman distance)
multiplicative diagonal in an algebra with
band structure see: right-
multiplicative function .'ee: un~ormly
summable -
multiplicative graph
[05CI5; 05C15]
(see: Hedetniemi conjecture)
multiplicatively-convex Bo-algebra
[46Hxx; 46Hxx]
(see: Frechet algebra)
multiplicity 01 a Lyapunovexponent see: for-
ward-
multiplicity of a recurrence
[IIB37; IIB37]
(see: Skolem--Mahler-Lech theorem)
muijiplier see: L p - -
multiplier 'if an Abelian difference .w
[05B 10, II B 13, 20KO I ; 05B 10,
IIBI3,20KOI]
(see: Abelian difference set)
multiplier sequence space
[4OH05, 46A45; 4OH05, 46A45]
(see: Kiithe-Toeplitz dual)
multiplier theorem
[05B 10, II B 13, 20KO I; 05B 10,
IIBI3,20KOI]
(see: Abelian difference set)
muijipliers method see: Bertsekas expo-
nential -
multipliers rule see: Lagrange-
multivariate normal di.'ltribution
[53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx,
62Axx, 62Fxx]
(see: Statistical manifold)
multivariate statistics
[06AIO, 6OE15; O6AIO, 60E15]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
Mumford bundle see: Horrocks---
MuPAD
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Mur boundary conditions

[65M05, 65M1O, 86-08; 65M05, Nash equilibrium
65M1O, 86-08] [90AI4, 900xx, 92Bxx; 90A14,
(see: Absorbing boundary condi- 900xx, 92Bxx]
tions) (see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
mutation natural infinity
[68T05, 90B40; 68T05, 90B40J [03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70]
(see: Genetic algorithm) (see: Alternative set theory)
mutually orthogonall"-resolution., natural semantics see: big-step-
[05B05,05BI5;05B05,05BI5J NAUTY
(see: Design with mutually orthogo- [68Q40; 68Q40]
nal resolutions) (see: Computer algebra package)
mutually orthogonal resolutions see: De- NCALGEBRA
sign with - 168Q40; 68Q40]
myope topology (see: Computer algebra package)
[54Bxx, 68U I 0; 54Bxx, 68U I 0] near-field plane
(see: Hit-or-miss topology) [SIExx. SINI5; SIExx, SINI5]
myopic algorithm (see: Flock)
[90C27; 90C27] near-one-factor of a graph
(see: Greedy algorithm) [05C70; 05C70]
Myrberg theorem (see: One-factorization)
[53C20, 58FI7; 53C20, 58FI7J near-onejactorization (~f a graph
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem) [OSC70; OSC70]
(see: One-factorization)
necessity operator (in modal logic )
[03B4S, O3G05. 06Exx, 06E25;
___ N ___ 03B45, 03GOS, 06Exx, 06E25]
(see: Sahlqvist theorem)
nef
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
N see: problem- 14J99]
n see: Costas array of order -; geom- (see: Adjunction theory)
etry of rank -; Gray code of order -; hy- n~fvalue morphism of a pair
percube of order -; standard polynomial of [14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
degree - 14J99]
n-cube (see: Adjunction theory)
[OSC45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60; nefvalue of a pair
05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx. 94B601 114C20. 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
(see: Gray code) 14J99]
n-dimensional Gauss kernel (see: Adjunction theory)
[35K05, 41A35, 6013S; 35KOS, negative correlation
4IA35,60135] [06A1O. 60EIS; 06A10, 60E15]
(see: Gauss kernel) (see: Correlation inequalities)
n-dimenshmal Weierstrass kernel negative correlation see: non--
[35K05, 41A35, 60135; 35K05, negative curvature see: pinched-
4IA35,60135] negative formula of modal logic
(see: Gauss kernel) [03B4S, 03GOS, 06Exx. 06E25;
nFame 03B45. 03GOS. 06Exx, 06E25]
[06C05; 06C05J (see: Sahlqvist theorem)
(see: Arguesian lattice) negative functional see: strictly-
n-periodic sequence negative kernel see: totally non- -
[IIB37, IIB83, 94Bxx; IIB37, negative literal
II B83, 94Bxx] [68NI7; 68N17]
(see: Correlation property for se- (see: Logic programming)
quences) negative logical term
n-periodic sequence see: s-decimation of [03B45, 03G05, 03G IS, 06E 15,
an - 06E25; O3B45, 03GOS, 03G IS, 06E15,
N* -radical 06E2S]
[16S34; 16S34] (see: Sahlqvist identities)
(see: Modular group algebra) negative matrices see: Perron-Frobenius
n-simplex inequality theory of non- -
[5IM20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX] negative matrix see: strictly -; totally non-
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the) negatively curved group
n-stage Casson tower [20F32; 20F32]
[57NI3, 57R1O; 57N13. S7RIO] (see: Hyperbolic group)
(see: Casson handle) Nehari extension problem
n-type (30EOS, 47 AS7; 30EOS, 47 AS7)
[03C45; 03C45] (referred to in: Band method;
(see: Forking) Caratheodory-Schur extension
n+ 1 angular momenta see: addition of - problem; Partially specified ma-
[n,k] linear code trices, completion of)
[94B25; 94B25] (refers to: band method; Commutant
(see: MacWilliams identities) lifting theorem; HOC; control theory;
Nagumo equations see: FitzHugh-- Hilbert space; Krein space; linear op-
Nagy-Foias commutant lifting theorem see: erator)
Sz.- - Nehari extension problem
Nagy-Shaffer construction see: Sz.-- [30E05, 47AS7; 30E05, 47A57]
Nakagawa theorem see: Ki-Kim-- (see: Nehari extension problem)
Nakano theorem Nehari extension problem see: suboptimal
[45P05, 46E30, 47B55; 45P05. 46E30, - ; superoptimal -
47B55] Nehari interpolation
(see: Integral representations of lin- [30EOS, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A57]
ear operators) (see: Commutant lifting theorem)
Narayama numbers Nehari interpolation problem
[05AI5, 05COS. 20MOS; 05AIS, [30E05, 47AS7; 30EOS, 47A57]
05C05,20MOS] (see: Commutant lifting theorem)
(see: Binary tree) neighbourhood see: regular-
Nefmark-Sacker bifurcation
[S8FI4; S8F14]
(see: Hopf bifurcation)
Nelson family '!f hypercontractive in-
equalities
[46E35, 46L89, 47003, S8G03;
46E35, 46L89, 47003, 58G03]
(see: Hypercontractive semi-group)
nerve see: refractory period for a -
nest algebra
[30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Nehari extension problem)
net see: Bezier -; Bezier control -; con-
trol -; Ostrowski -; Petri -; stochastic
Petri -; timed Petri -
net of operators see: convergence of a -
network see: error in a feedforward -;
Neural -; product-form -; queueing -;
shortest path in a -
network of queues
[60K25, 68M20; 60K2S, 68M20]
(see: Performance analysis)
network optimization problem
[OSC35, 51 M 16, 90B06, 90B80,
90C05; 05C35, 51 M 16, 90B06,
90B80, 9OC05]
(see: Assignment problem; Steiner
tree problem)
Neumann boundary conditions
(35GI5; 35G15)
(referred to in: Dirichlet boundary
conditions; Monte-Carlo methods
for partial differential equations)
(refers to: Differential equation, par-
tial, of the second order; Dirichlet
boundary conditions; First bound-
ary value problem; Second bound-
ary value problem; Third boundary
value problem)
Neumann conditi()n.~
[3SGI5; 35G15]
(see: Neumann boundary conditions)
Neumann data
[35G1S; 35G15]
(see: Neumann boundary conditions)
Neumann enveloping algebra see: von-
Neural network
(62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68TIO;
62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68TOS, 68T 10)
(refers to: Communication channel;
Hebb rule; Network; vector space)
neuron
[68T05, 92C20; 68T05, 92C20]
(see: Hebb rule)
neutral element of a partially ordered set
[06C05; 06COS]
(see: Argnesian lattice)
neutronics
[60HIO, 60K35, 65COS, 65UOS;
60H 10, 60K3S, 65COS, 6SU05]
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial differential equations)
Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation
(30EOS, 47A57, 93B36; 30E05,
47A57,93B36)
(referred to in: Caratheodory-Schur
extension problem; Commutant lift-
ing theorem)
(refers to: Hardy classes)
Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation problem
[30E05, 47A57, 93B36; 30E05,
47A57,93B36]
(see: Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation)
Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation problem see:
suboptimal -
Newton method see: local convergence
theorem for the -
Nielsen p' formula see: Barndorff--
Nielsen transfonnation
[20F05, 57M20, 57QOS; 20F05,
57M20, 57QOS]
(see: Collapsibility)
Nijenhuis tensor field
[S3C25; S3C2S]
(see: Sasakian manifold)
Nikodym density see: Radon--
Nikodym derivative see: Radon--
NON-HYPERBOLIC EQUILIBRIUM
Nikodym theorem see: non-commutative
Radon- -
nilpotent Lie group see: real Hardy space
of functions on a -
Nirenberg problem
[S3C21; 53C21]
(see: Yamabe problem)
node see: Steiner-
node bifurcation see: Saddle--
node equilibrium see: saddle--
Noetherian domain
(I6P40; 16P40)
(refers to: integral domain; Noethe-
rian ring)
Noetherian ring see: effective-
noise see: fast degrees of freedom as -;
quantum -
noise measure see: weak white -
noise sequence see: pseudo--
Noll thermodynamics see: Coleman--
non-adaptive quadrature formula
[4IA25, 41A46, 65C05, 65030,
6S032, 65Y20, 68Q25; 41 A25,
41 A46, 65C05, 65030, 65032, 6SY20,
68Q2S]
(see: Adaptive quadrature)
non-adaptive quadrature method
[4IA25, 41A46, 65COS, 65030,
65032, 6SY20, 68Q25; 41 A25.
41 A46, 65C05. 65030. 6S032, 65Y20.
68Q25]
(see: Adaptive quadrature)
mm-anticipative operator
[47Bxx, 93Axx, 93B28; 47Bxx,
93Axx, 93B28]
(see: Abstract Volterra operator)
non-Archimedean model
[03C60, 12JIO, 1211S; 03C60, 12J10,
12115]
(see: Model theory of the real expo-
nential function)
non-blocking supervisor
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(.see: Discrete event system)
non-chordal pattern
[IS-XX, 30EOS, 47AS7; IS-XX,
30EOS, 47 A57]
(see: Partially specified matrices.
completion 00
non-commutative geometry
[81 Rxx, 81 Txx; 81 Rxx. 81 Txx]
(see: Chiral anomaly)
non-commutative Radon-Nikodym theo-
rem
[47 A63; 47 A63]
(see: Furuta inequality)
non-context-free languages see: family
01-
non-decreasing function on a partially or-
dered set
[06A06, 60E15; 06A06, 60EIS]
(see: FKG inequality)
non-decreasing mapping on a lattice
[06A1O, 60E15; 06A10, 60E15]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
non-defective matrix
[ISAI8,65Fxx; ISAI8, 6SFxx]
(see: Defective matrix)
non-defective matrix
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
non-erasing morphism operation for lan-
guages
[68Q4S, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S0S]
(see: AFL operations)
non-forking extension
[03C45; O3C4S]
(see: Forking)
non-homogeneous plate
[3IA30, 31B30, 73Cxx, 73K10,
73K15; 31A30, 31 B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73KIS]
(see: Von Karman equations)
non-hyperbolic equilibrium
[58Fxx, 58F14; 58Fxx, 58F14]
S51
NON-HYPERBOLIC EQUILIBRIUM
(see: Centre manifold)
Non-ideal relay
(47H30; 47H30)
(referred to in: Hysteresis; Hysteresis)
(refers to: Absolute continuity; Borel
measure; Hysteresis; hysteresis; Le-
besgue measure)
non-leading manifold
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
non-linear analysis system see: automatic
dynamic incremental -
non-linear connection see: coefficients of
a-
non-linear dynamical system in the plane
see: autonomous-
Non-linear dynamics
(58Fxx; 58Fxx)
(refers to: analytic function; Au-
tonomous system; Chaos; Dynam-
ical system; Hausdorff dimension;
Julia set; Limit cycle; Linear differ-
ential operator; Qualitative theory
of differential equations; Strange
attractor; van der Pol equation)
non-linear elasticity
[3 I A30, 31B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73K15; 31A30, 31 B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73K15]
(see: Von Karman equations)
non-linear 5chrtidinger equation
[35Q53, 58F07, 76B15; 35Q53,
58F07,76B15]
(see: Benjamin-Feir instability)
non-linearity see: hysteresis -; Prandtl -
non-modular group algebra
[16534; 16534]
(see: Modular group algebra)
non-negative correLation
[06AIO, 6OE15; 06AIO, 60E15]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
non-negative kernel see: totally-
non-negative matrices see: Perron-
Frobenius theory of -
non-negative matrix see: totally-
non-oscillation on an interval
[34CIO; 34CIO]
(see: Disconcugacy)
non-parametric measures of dependence
[60Exx, 60Jxx, 620xx, 62H20; 60Exx,
60Jxx, 620xx, 62H20]
(see: Copula)
non-parametric statistics
[62AI5; 62A15]
(see: Dirichlet process)
non-positive correlation
[06AIO, 6OE15; 06AIO, 60EI5)
(see: Correlation inequalities)
non-reflecting boundary conditions
[65M05, 65MIO, 86-08; 65M05,
65MIO,86-08)
(see: Absorbing boundary condi-
tions)
non-resonant eigenvalues
[58F36; 58F36)
(see: Birkhoff normal form)
non-.<equential design
[41A25, 41A46, 65C05, 65030,
65032, 65Y20, 68Q25; 41A25,
41 A46, 65C05, 65030, 65032, 65Y20,
68Q25)
(see: Adaptive quadrature)
non-simpLy-connected region
[8ITxx; 81Txx)
(see: Bohm-Aharonov effect)
non-singular projective algebraic varieties
see: Riemann hypothesis for -
non-tangential maximal function
[42B30; 42B30)
(see: Hardy spaces)
non-transversal homoclinic bifurcation
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
non-uniformly hyperbolic behaviour see:
theory of smooth dynamical systems
with -
552
non-un(f,,,mly hyperbolic diffeo/l/or-
phism
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
non-uniformly hyperbolic dynamical sys-
tems see: theory of -
non-uniformly hyperbolic trajectory
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
non-unit,,,mly partially hyperbolic diffeo-
morphism
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58FI51
(see: Pesin theory)
non-uniformly partially hyperbolic tra-
je('(ory
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58FI51
(see: Pesin theory)
non-uniqueness (~f an asymptotic centre
for Bn
146Bxx, 46B20, 52A21: 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A211
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Nordstrom-Robinson code
[05E30, IIH56, 94BI5, 94B35;
05E30, II H56, 94B 15, 94B35]
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes:
Octacode)
Narlund summability see: absolute-
norm see: Bloch -; Chebyshev
F - -: F -semi- -: integral operator
of finite double -: measurable -: p-
homogeneous -; supremum -: t- -:
variational -
norm inequality for operators
[47A63; 47A63]
(see: Heinz inequality; Heinz-Kato
inequality)
norm method see: Frobenius--
norm minimization method
[9OC29; 90C291
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
norm of a function see: B M 0 - -
norm of a partition of a partially ordered set
into chains see: k--
norma/almost contact structure
[53C25; 53C25)
(see: Sasakian manifold)
normal alternative in statistics
[62Fxx, 620xx, 62030: 62Fxx,
620xx, 62030]
(see: Anderson-Darling statistic)
normal analyticfullC'fion
[30045: 300451
(see: Bloch function)
normal cone operator
[9OC30; 90C30]
(see: Proximal point methods in
mathematical programming)
normal contact metric structure
[53C25; 53C251
(see: Sasakian manifold)
normal coordinates see: extended-
normal crossing divisor
[05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65:
05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N651
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
normal ('u rve
[35Mxx, 76N15: 35Mxx, 76NI51
(see: Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev problem)
normal curve see: Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev-
normal distribution see: multivariate-
norma/form
158F14; 58F14]
(see: Hopf bifurcation)
normal form see: Birkhoff -: Birkhoff-
Gustavson -; formal -; truncated -
normal form '!f a Hamiltonian
[58F36; 58F361
(see: BirkhotT normal form)
normalf,,,m '!f a vector field
[30005, 58FI3, 58F23: 30005, 581'13,
58F231
(see: Siegel disc)
normal mapping (?f Riesz spaces
146A40; 46A40]
(see: Dedekind completion)
normal matrix
165Fxx: 65Fxxl
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
normal number of prime factors of an inte-
ger) see: Hardy-Ramanujan theorem
(on the-
normal operator on II Hoo/ean algebra
1030xx, 03015, 06Exx, 06E15;
030xx, 03015, 06Exx, 06E15]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
normal order (If growth
[IIK65,IIN37; IIK65,IIN37)
(see: Hardy-Ramanujan theorem)
normal ordering
[58F07, 81TIO, 81T20, 83C47; 58F07,
81T10, 81T20, 83C47 I
(see: Massive Thirring model)
normal p-rank (?fa group
[2OC20, 200xx: 20C20, 200xx I
(see: p-rank)
normal parametrization
[68U 10; 68U 101
(see: Hough transformation)
normal topo/Oltv
[40H05, 46A45; 40H05, 46A451
(see: Kiithe-Toeplilz dual)
normal-valued I·groups see: variety of-
normalized periodic sequenc'('
[II B37. II B83, 94Bxx: II B37,
II B83, 94Bxxl
(see: Correlation property for se-
quences)
normalized yoke
153Cxx, 62Axx: 53Cxx. 62Axxl
(see: Yoke)
normalizer of a subgroup
106FI5, 20F60; 06FI5, 20F60]
(see: Convex subgroup of a partially
ordered group)
normalizing transformations
162E20: 62E20]
(see: Box-Cox transformation)
normed Cayley-Dick.\·(m algehra
[16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx: 16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17005,
55Rxx]
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
normed Cayley-Dickson algebra see:
pseudo- -
normed ideal space
145P05, 46E30, 47B55: 45P05, 46E30,
47B551
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
narmed space see; basis constant in a -
p- -: polar of a convex set in a -
not fork see: does-
not having the Banach-Saks property
see: Baernstein example of a reflex-
ive space-
notation see: Iversan-
notation for a tetrahedron see: Euler-
notation for rooted trees see: bracket-
notions see: iIIative-
Novikov conjecture
116E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58012:
16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 580121
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
Novoselov theory of integration of arith-
metic functions
IIIN37: IIN371
(see: Delange theorem)
NP-completeness
[05Cxx; 05Cxxl
(see: Acyclic orientation)
NP-hard
I05C35, 51M 16; 05C35, 51MI61
(see: Steiner tree problem)
NP-hard
III H06, 90Cxx, 'l0C 10, 90C II.
9OC27: IIH06, 90Cxx, 9OCIO, 90CII.
90C27 I
(see: Frobenius problem; La-
grangean relaxation: Simulated an-
nealing)
nth order Bernstein algehra
117D92, 92010: 170'l2,'l2DIO]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
Nudelman interpolation
[30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47 A571
(see: Commutant lifting theorem)
null sequence see: weakly-
null space '!f a lillear lIlal'pin/!
[15A04; 15A041
(see: Kernel of a matrix)
null space of a matrix
[15A04; 15A041
(see: Kernel of a matrix)
/lull.'pace "f a linear mapping
[15A04: 15A04]
(see: Kernel of a matrix)
nul/space "f a matrix
[15A04; 15A04]
(see: Kernel of a matrix)
Nullstellensatz
[03C50, 03C95; 03C50, 03C951
(see: Existentially closed)
Nullstellensatz see: Dubois -: Hilbert -:
p-adic Hilbert -
number see: angular momentum quan-
tum -: Carmichael -; Catalan -; com-
posite -; condition -: defect of an irre-
ducible character for a prime -; elliptic
hypercomplex -; Gadel -; golden -:
hyperbolic hypercomplex -; instanton
-: Lah -: Mach -: quantum -: Ram-
sey -; regular prime -; Schur -; self-
intersection -: spatial wave -; spectral
condition -: wave -: Zel'dovich -
number curve see: average sampling -
number field
[03C60, 11035, IIR58, 12L05,
14025:03C60, 11035, IIR58,I2L05,
140251
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
number field see: Abelian -: algebraic -
number formula see: Dedekind class -
number of prime factors of an integer) see:
Hardy-Ramanujan theorem (on the nor-
mal-
number of representations of an integer see:
Hardy-Littlewood formula for the -
number operator
160Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H071
(see: Malliavin calculus)
number set) see: flow (action of the real -
number theorem see: Bombieri prime
Hinz-Bombieri multi-dimensional
prime -; Page-Siegel-Walfisz prime -;
prime -
~ number theory see: probabilistic-
numbers .<ee: algebra of Cayley -; al-
gebra of complex -; algebra of Hamilton
-; algebra of hyperbolic complex -; Bell
-; elementary theory of the p-adic -:
field of algebraic -; field of real -; Ga-
lois group of the p-adic -; Narayama -:
projection quantum -: Runyon -; Stir-
ling -: strong law of large -: weak law
of large -
numbers) see: Flatness theorem (in the
geometry of -
numerical algorithm see: stability of a -
numerical analYSis see: algebraic stability
in -; diagonal stability in -; Schwarz
method in-
numerical method see: A-stable -: L-
stable -; order of conSistency of a -
numerical methods for creep materials
[65L60, 65N30, 65Y99: 65L60,
65N30, 65Y99 I
(see: ADINA system)
numerical methods for elasto-plastic ma-
terials
[65L60, 65N30, 65Y99; 65L60,
65N30, 65Y99)
(see: ADINA system)
numerical methods for visco-plastic ma-
terials
[65L60, 65N30, 65Y99: 65L60,
65N30, 65Y991
(see: ADINA system)
numerkally effective

[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99]
(see: Adjunction theory)
NURBS
[65DI7, 68U07; 65Dl7, 68U07]
(see: Bezier curve)
___ 0 ___
Wl -Amnszajn tree
[03E05, 05C05, 54H05; 03E05,
05C05, 54H05]
(see: Aronszajn tree)
WI-tree
[03E05, 05C05, 54H05; 03E05,
05C05,54H05]
(see: Aronszajn tree)
a-algebra
[06F25; 06F25]
(see: I-algebra)
a-group
(06FI5, 06F20; 06FI5, 06F20)
(refers to: po-group; Convex sub-
group; partial order; topological
group; Totally ordered group)
a-lattice
[20025; 20025]
(see: Bruhat-Tits building)
a-minimal
(03C45, 03C60, 06F25, 06F99, 12J 15;
03C45, 03C60, 06F25. 06F99, 12Jl5)
(refers to: elementary theory; Expo-
nential function, real; Model theory
of the real exponential function; Or-
der (on a set); ordered group; or-
dered ring; real closed field; Semi-
algebraic set; Structure)
o-minimal structures see: finiteness thea-
remfor-
a-regularly varying function
[26A12; 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
object see: asymmetric -; co-disjunctable
-; directly cO-disjunctable -; finitely
presentable -; flatly co-disjunctable -;
Jacobson -; rigid -
object-oriented design
[16Y60. 49Lxx. 90C39; 16Y60.
49Lxx.90C39J
(see: Idempotent algorithm)
objective see: stabilization-
objective optimization see: Multi·
scalarization method in multi· -
objective optimization problem see: multi-
objective programming problem see: multi·
observable
[8IS20; 81S20J
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
observables see: algebra of -
observation see: inconsistent - ~ rogue -;
spurious -
observed a-connection
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
observed a-geometry
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx]
(see: Yoke)
ob.!erved geometry
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx. 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
observed itiformation
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
observed likelihood yoke
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx]
(see: Yoke)
observed skewness tensor
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
OC curve
[62NIO; 62NIO]
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
Ockham algebra
(06D30; 06D30)
(refers to: Algebraic systems, variety
of; distributive lattice; Order (on a
set); partially ordered set; topologi-
cal space; universal algebra)
Ockham algebra congruence
[06D30; 06D30]
(see: Ockbam algebra)
Ockham space
[06D30; 06D30J
(see: Ockham algebra)
Octacode
(II H56, 94B35; IIH56, 94B35)
(refers to: cyclic group; Gray code;
Kerdock and Preparata codes; Leech
lattice)
octonions see: algebra of -; algebra of
Cayley -; algebra of hyperbolic -
odd correlation
[IIB37, IIB83, 94Bxx; IIB37,
II B83, 94Bxx]
(see: Correlation property for se-
quences)
odd mapping
]54H25, 55M20; 54H25, 55M20]
(see: Borsuk fixed-point theorem)
odd mapping theorem see: Borsuk-
odd Poisson supermanifold
[16W55, 17B56, 17B60, 17B70,
17B81, 58AIO; 16W55, 17B56,
17B60, 17B70, 17B81, 58AIO]
(see: Poisson algebra)
ODESOLVE
[68040; 68040]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Oeft/i-Prager criterion
[65Fxx; 65FxxJ
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
Ohmic current
[33A30, 33A40, 35L05, 35LIO,
35N10, 76W05, 85A35, 86A25;
33A30, 33A40, 35L05, 35LlO, 35N 10,
76W05, 85A35, 86A25J
(see: Alfven waves)
Okada theorem
[53C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
Okubo formula see: Gell-Mann--
O'Nan-Scott theorem
(20BI5; 20B15)
(refers to: Abelian group; affine ge-
ometry; Alternating group; Carte-
sian product; Centralizer; group; Ir-
reducible matrix group; normal sub-
group; Permutation group; permu-
tation group; Primitive group of per-
mutations; Simple group; stabilizer;
Symmetric group; Wreath product)
one see: bracketed word of weight -;
bracketed words of weight -; partial con-
ical flock of deficiency -; partial hyper-
bolic flock of deficiency -
One-factor
(05C70; 05C70)
(referred to in: Halin graph; Howell
design; One-factorization)
(refers to: graph)
one-fac/or in a graph
[05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factor)
One,tuctor of a graph
[05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factor)
one-factor of a graph see: near--
One-factorization
(05C70; 05C70)
(referred to in: Howell design; Room
square)
(refers to: graph; Graph, bipartite;
Hamiltonian tour; Latin square;
One-factor; tournament)
one-factorization see: perfect-
One-factorization of a graph
[05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factorization)
one-factorization of a graph see: near--
one-factorizations see: isomorphic -; iso-
morphism of -
one law see: Kolmogorov zero- -
one·sided Lipschitz condition
[65L06; 65L06]
(see: B-convergence)
one-sided Lipschitz constant
l65L06; 65L06]
(see: B-convergence)
one-way wave equation
[65M05, 65MIO, 86-08; 65M05,
65M 10, 86-08]
(see: Absorbing boundary condi-
tions)
one-way wave equation see: paraxial-
Onofri log determinant variation formula see:
Polyakov- -
Oort algebra see: Tate--
Oort Galois extension see: Tate--
Oort-Larson order see: Tate--
open mapping theorem
[46Axx, 46A03, 46A13; 46Axx,
46A03,46A13]
(see: Frechet topology)
opening
[60D05, 68UIO; 6OD05, 68UIO]
(see: Mathematical morphology)
opening operation in mathematical mor-
phology
[54Bxx, 68UIO; 54Bxx, 68UIOJ
(see: Hit-or-miss topology)
OpenMath movement
[68040; 68040]
(see: Computer algebra package)
operating characteristic curve
[62NIO; 62NIO]
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
operation see: Adams -; closure -; con-
catenation -; dot -; graph of the addi-
tion -; Kuratowski closure -; Minkowski
set difference -; Splicing -
operation for languages see: concatenation
-; intersection w~h regular languages,
-; inverse morphism -; Kleene + -;
morphism -; non-erasing morphism -;
subst~ution with regular languages -;
union -
operation in mathematical morphology see:
closing -; opening -
operation of adjoining
[03D05, 68Q50, 68S05; 03005,
68Q50, 68S05]
(see: Contextual grammar)
operation on languages see: regular-
operational semantics see: small-step
structural -
operations see: AFL-
operator see: Absolutely summing -; Ab-
stract Volterra -; anti-extensive -; ap-
proximable -; Artin-Schreier -; Berg-
man integral -; Bernstein -; Bernstein-
Baskakov-Kantorovich -; Bessel poten-
tial -; biharmonic -; boundary value
problem for an elliptiC -; bounded self·
adjoint linear -; boundedness for a
Calderon-Toeplitz -; Calderon-Toeplitz
-; Calderon-Zygmund -; Carleman -;
Cauchy singular integral -; causal -;
chiral Dirac -; closure -; compactness
for a Calderon-Toepl~z -; compactness
of an -; complete continuity of an -;
correspondence principle lor a Calder6n-
Toeplitz -; dilation -; Dirichlet-Iorm -;
discrete Wiener-Hopi -; divergence
-; eigenvalue bounds for a Calder6n-
Toeplitz -; Euclidean Cauchy-Riemann
-; Euclidean Dirac -; evolutionary
OPPOSITE REGULUS
quadratic -; extensive -; Finsler delta·
derivative -; Fokker-Planck-Landau
collision -; Frobenius-Perron -; gener-
alized convolution -; Green function of
a disconjugate differential -; Hankel -;
Hardy-Littlewood -; Hille-Tamarkin -;
L- - ; idempotent -; identity -; initial
-; integral -; integro·differential -;
kernel -; kernel of a morphological -;
Kochen -; Kuratowskiclosure -; >.--;
lifting of a pseudo·differential-; maximal
-; modulus of an -; Monge-Ampere
-; non-anticipative -; normal cone -;
number -; ordered-bounded integral
-; Ornstein-Uhlenbeck -; Paneitz -;
parallel transport -; periodicity -; poly·
nomial -; posttive -; positive linear -;
reduced matrix element of a tensor -;
regular integral -; resolving -; Schatten
ideal behaviour for a Calder6n-Toeplitz
-; Stickelberger -; strongly accre-
tive -; Sturm-Liouville -; symbol of a
discrete Wiener-Hopf -; symbol of a
Toeplitz -; symbol of a Wiener-Hopf in-
tegral -; Szasz-Mirakian -; tensor -;
Toeplitz -; transport -; upper bound
-; Volterra integral -; weakly com·
pact -; widening -; Wiener-Hopf -;
Wiener-Hopf integral -; eech closure -
operator entropy see: relative-
operator Fejer-Riesz theorem
[42A05, 47A56; 42A05, 47A56]
(see: Fejer-Riesz theorem)
operator function see: order-preserving-
operator ideal see: Schatten-
operator in mathematical morphology see:
kernel of an -
operator (in modal logic) see: necessity -;
possibility -
operator inequality
[47 A63; 47 A63]
(see: Furuta inequality)
operator inequality see: order-preserving-
operator mean
[47A63; 47A63J
(see: Furuta inequality)
operator-monotone function
[47A63; 47A63]
(see: Lowner-Heinz inequality)
operator of finite double norm see: inte·
gral-
operator on a Boo/ean algebra
[03Gxx, 03G 15, 06Exx, 06E 15;
03Gxx, 03GI5,06Exx, 06E15]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
operator on a Boolean algebra see: additive
-; normal-
operator theorem see: inverse-
operator trigonometry
[47AIO, 49RIO, 65FIO; 47AIO,
49RIO,65FIOJ
(see: Anti-eigenvalue)
operator-valued function see: outer-
operators see: Adams -; Adjoint semi-
group of -; Banach space of absolutely
p-summing -; Baskakov -; Boolean al-
gebra w~h -; continuity characterization
of integral -; convergence of a net of -;
convergence of a sequence of -; gener·
alized Carleman -; ideal of trace·class
-; Integral representations of linear -;
Korotkov -; norm inequality for -; Schur
lemma on operators commuting with rep-
resentation -; second commutant of a
set of -; strongly ergOdiC semi-group of
-; Szego theorem on determinants of
Toeplitz -
operators commuting with representation
operators see: Schur lemma on -
operators in approximation theory see:
Baskakov -; Lupas -; Szasz -
opposite edges of a tetrahedron
[5IM20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
opposite regulus
[5lExx, 51N15; 5lExx, 51N15]
553
OPPOSITE REGULUS
(see: Flock)
opposite sides of a tetrahedron
[SIM20, S2-XX; SIM20, S2-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
optimal see: asymptotically -; fixed sam-
ple -
optimal choice of a voting procedure see:
Laplace question on the -
optimal family of periodic sequences see:
asymptotically -
optimal solution see: completely -;
Pareto -
optimal solution oja convex programming
problem
[90C2S, 90C30; 9OC25, 90C30]
(see: Kuhn-Tucker conditions)
optimal solutions of a linear programming
problem see: set of -
optimality see: Asymptotic -; fixed sample
-; proper Pareto -; weak Pareto -
optimality conditions see: Karush-Kuhn-
Tucker -; KKT -
optimality of estimating functions see:
Asymptotic -
optimality principle see: Bellman-
optimization
[26AIS, 54C30, 54E50; 26AI5,
54C30, S4ESO]
(see: Ekeland variational principle)
optimization see: integer -; interactive
method in -; Multi-objective -; scalar-
ization method in multi-objective -
optimization problem see: central path of
an -; Constrained -; multi-objective -;
network -; vector -
optimization theory
[16Y60, 44A IS, 49Lxx, 60135, 81-XX,
90C39; 16Y60, 44A15, 49Lxx, 60135,
SI-XX,90C39]
(see: Idempotent correspondence
principle)
orbifold
[53C2S, 53C55; 53C25, S3CSS]
(see: Hopf manifold)
orbit see: dissipative -; homoclinic -;
Kostant-Kirillov-Souriau -
order
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
order see: alphabetical -; alternating Cho-
quet capacity of infinite -; Galois exten-
sion of a Hopf -; Greither -; Hopf -; ir-
reflexive -; Larson -; lexicographic -;
pre- -; R-Hopf -; Tate-Dort-Larson
-; total -; transitive -
order automorphism of a totally ordered
set
[06F15, 08Bxx, 20F60; 06FI5, 08Bxx,
20F60]
(see: I-variety)
order Bernstein algebra see: nth-
order-bounded set
[4SI'OS, 46E30, 47B55; 451'05, 46E30,
47B55]
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
order-complete Banach lattice
[2SA99, 62BI5, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62B IS, 62B20, 62COS]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
order-disconnected topological space see:
totally -
order homomorphism
[06FI5; 06F15]
(see: po-group)
order ideal
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46L80]
(see: AF-algebra)
order n see: Costas array of -; Gray code
of -; hypercube of -
order of a finite Benz plane
[5IBOS; 5IBOS]
(see: Benz plane)
order (~f a rooted tree
554
[65Lxx; 65Lxx[
(see: Butcher series)
order of consistency of a numerical
method
[65L06; 65L06[
(see: Rosenbrock methods)
order of growth see: normal-
order on an idempotent semi-ring see: par-
tial-
order-preserving linear transformation
[06F2S; 06F25]
(see: I-algebra)
order-preserving mapping
[06A06; 06A06J
(see: Fixed-point property)
order-preserving operator function
[47A63; 47A63J
(see: Furuta inequality)
order-preserving operator inequality
[47 A63; 47 A63 [
(see: Furuta inequality)
order r see: kernel, sign-regular of -; ker-
nel, totally positive of -; sign-regularity
of -
order unit
[03G25, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx;
03G25, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx J
(see: BCK-algebra)
orderable graph see: perfectly-
orderable group see: fully-
ordered Abelian group see: state on an -;
un perforated -
ordered algebra see: laUice--
ordered-bounded integral operator
[45P05, 46E30, 47B55; 45P05, 46E30.
47B55J
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
ordered field see: real closure of an -
ordered group see: Convex subgroup of a
partially -; lattice- -; partially -; right-
-; totally-
ordered I-algebra see: totally--
ordered partition
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62AxxJ
(see: Yoke)
ordered set see: central element of a par-
tially -; centre of a partially -; chain in a
partially -; core of a partially -; down-
set in a partially -; incomparable ele-
ments of a partially -; independent set
in a partially -; irreducible point of an -;
Jordan-Dedekind property of a partially
-; level in a partially -; linear extension
of a partially -; log-supermodular func-
tion on a partially -; neutral element of a
partially -; non-decreasing function on a
partially -; order automorphism of a to-
tally -; retraction of a partially -; up-set
in a partially -
ordered set into chains see: k-norm of a
partition of a partially -
ordered sets see: cancellation theorem
for partially -; Fixed-point property for
(partially) -; structure theorem for infi-
nite partially -
ordered structure see: interval in an -
ordered vector spaces st:e: orthomorphism
of -
ordering st:e: elimination -; lexicographi-
cal -; normal -; pointwise -; reduction
-; well founded -
orders, applications of see: Hopl-
ordinal see: limit-
ordinary base-b pseudo-prime
[IIA5I, IIN25, IIYII; IIA51,
IIN25,IIYIl]
(see: Pseudo-prime)
ordinary density point
[26AI5; 26A15]
(see: Density topology)
ordinary density topoIOR)'
[26A15; 26A15]
(see: Density topology)
ordinary differential equation see: critical
point of an -; fixed singular point of an
-; movable singular point of an -; reg-
ular point of an -; similarity reduction of
a partial differential equation to an -
ordinary differential equations see: locally
topologically equivalent autonomous sys-
tems of -; locally topologically equiva-
lent systems of -; topologically equiva-
lent autonomous systems of -; topolog-
ically equivalent systems of -
Ore domain
[06C05; 06C05J
(see: Arguesian lattice)
Oregonator model
[58FI3; 58FI31
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac-
tion)
organization regime scc: self--
organizing process see: macro level of a
self- -; micro level of a self- -; micro
process in a self- -; self- -
orientation see: Acyclic -; dependent
edge in an acyclic -
(orientation, colouring) see: compatible
pair -
orientation graph see: acyclic-
orientation (~f a graph
[05Cxx; 05CxxJ
(see: Acyclic orientation)
orientation on a graph see: transitive-
oriented cobordism ring
[55N22, 55N35; 55N22, 55N35[
(see: Elliptic genera)
oriented design see: object--
Orficz duality
146E35, 58GXX; 46E35, 58GXX[
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
Orlicz theorem see: Mazur--
Orlik-S()I(mum algehra
[05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65;
05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65J
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
Ornstein theorem
[280xx. 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K35;
2S0xx, 60Fxx, 60G09, 60K3S [
(see: Bernoulli measure)
Ornstein-Uhlenbeck ()perator
[60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H071
(see: Malliavin calculus)
Omstein-Uhlenbeck operator
[46E35. 46L89, 47003, 58G03;
46E35, 46L89, 47003, 58G03J
(see: Hypercontractive semi-group)
orthocentre (~fa tetrahedron
[51M20, 52-XX; 51 M20, S2-XXJ
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry ofthe)
orthocentric tetrahedron
151M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XXI
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
orthocentric tetrahedron see: semi--
orthogonall'-resolutions see: mutually-
orthogonal combinatorial designs
[05B05, 05B 15; 05B05, OSB IS J
(see: Design with mutually orthogo-
nal resolutions)
orthogonal elements in an I-group
[OoFI5, 201"60; 06FI5, 20F60J
(sec: I-group)
orthogonal factorization see: random-
orthogonal resolutions sec: Design with
mutually -
()rth()gonaiity
[20Cxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20GOS, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j. and
9 - j coefficients)
orthogonality defect see: small-
orthogonalization see: Gram-Schmidt-
ORTHOMIN
[65FIO; 65FI01
(see: Acceleration methods)
()rthomorphism
[46E05, 46Jxx; 46E05, 46JxxJ
(see: I-algebra)
orthomorphism (~f ordered vector space.'·
[06F25; 06F25 I
(see: I-algehra)
orthonormal series
[42CIO, 43A75; 42CIO, 43A75J
(see: Walsh series)
oscillating function see: slowly-
oscillation see: function of bounded mean
-; function of vanishing mean -; space
of functions of bounded mean -; space
of functions of vanishing mean -
oscillation on an interval see: non--
osten.'Iive c-valuations
[03Bxx; 03BxxJ
(see: Adequacy theorem)
o,\·tensive I -valuation
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
oMensive v-valuations
[03Bxx; 03BxxJ
(see: Adequacy theorem)
osten.'Iive valuation
[03Bxx; 03BxxJ
(see: Adequacy theorem)
Ostrowski lemma
[IISI5, 12J20, 13B15; IISI5, 12120_
13B15]
(see: Defect; Ramification theory of
valued fields)
Ostrowski net
[12J 10, 12J20; 12J1 0, 12J20]
(see: Kaplansky field)
out-o!-kilter algorithm
[90B06, 90B80, 90C05; 90B06,
90B80, 90C05 J
(see: Assignment problem)
outer expan.\'ion for a singular perturha-
tion problem
[33K57, 35B25, HOA25; 33K57_
35B25, 80A25]
(see: Activation energy)
outer junction
[42A05, 47AS6; 42AOS, 47A56J
(see: Fejer-Riesz theorem)
outer operator-valued/unction
[42A05, 47AS6; 42AOS, 47A56J
(see: Fejer-Riesz theorem)
outgOing quality see: average-
Outlier
(62F35; 62F35)
(referred to in: Box-Cox transforma-
tion)
(refers to: Biased estimator; Density
of a probability distribution; Error;
Likelihood-ratio test; Normal dis-
tribution; probability distribution;
sample variance; statistical test)
Outlier (in statistics)
[62F35; 62F35[
(see: Outlier)
outlier model see: mixture -; slippage -
outlier testing
[62F35; 62F35J
(see: Outlier)
output
[47H30; 47H30J
(see: Hysteresis)
oval
[5IExx; 51ExxJ
(see: Galois geometry)
(Iverlapping shuffle algebra
[13K05, 14L05, 16W30; 13K05,
14L05,I6W30j
(see: Leibniz-Hopf algebra)
(Iverlapping shuffle product
[13K05, 14L05, 16W30; 13K05,
14LOS,16W30[
(see: Leibniz-Hopf algebra)
overrelaxation see: successive-
ovoid see: Tits-
---p---
Jr-c/ass
[03Exx,03E70;03Exx,03E701

(see: Alternative set theory)
Tru-ciass
[03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
11" H see: cylinder set with base in -
p-adic see: totally-
p-adic (-function
[IIR23, IIR37, IIR42; IIR23,
IIR37, IIR42]
(see: Leopoldt conjecture)
p -adic field element see: totally-
p-adic fields see: formally-
p-adic Hilbert 17th problem
[03C60, 12JIO, 12L12; 03C60, 12J 10,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)
p-adie Hilbert Nullstellensatz
[03C60, 12JlO, 12L12; 03C60, 12J 10,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)
p-adic logarithm
[llR23, IIR37, IIR42; IIR23,
IIR37,IIR42]
(see: Leopoldt conjecture)
p-adic numbers see: elementary theory of
the -; Galois group of the -
p-adic regulator
[llR23, IIR37, IIR42; IIR23,
IIR37, IIR42]
(see: Leopoldt conjecture)
p-adic Serre bound
[llT22, llT23, llT24, IIT71, 14015,
94B27; IIT22, IlT23, IIT24, 11T71,
14015,94B27]
(see: Bomhieri-Weil bound)
p-adically closed field
(03C60, 12J 10, 12L12; 03C60, 12J 10,
12L12)
(refers to: Archimedean group; di-
visible group; Elimination of quanti-
fiers; elimination of quantifiers; Ex-
tension of a field; field; Galois group;
Henselian; Hilbert theorem; Model
theory of valued fields; p-rank; Real
closed field; valuation; vector space)
p-adically closed p-valued field
[03C60, 12J 10, 12L12; 03C60, 12J 10,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)
p-a(om
[42B30; 42B30]
(see: Hardy spaces)
# P -completeness
[05Cxx; 05Cxx]
(see: Acyclic orientation)
p-depth of a group
[20C20, 200xx; 20C20, 200xx J
(see: p-rank)
p-elementary group
[20CI5; 2OC15]
(see: Brauer characterization of
characters)
p' formula see: Barndorff-Nielsen-
p-group see: elementary Abelian -
p-Henselian valuation
[03C60, 12Jl 0, 12L12; 03C60, 12Jl 0,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)
p-homogeneous norm
[46Axx, 46A03, 46A13; 46Axx,
46A03,46AI3]
(see: Frechet topology)
p-integrable h%morphic automorphic
form
[30F35; 30F35]
(see: Bers space)
p-Iocal subgroup
[19Cxx, 2OC20; 19Cxx, 20C20]
(see: Alperin conjecture)
p-normed space
[46Axx, 46A03, 46A13; 46Axx,
46A03, 46A 13]
(see: Frechet topology)
p-prime group
[12120, 13B15; 12J20, 13B15]
(see: Ramification theory of valued
fields)
p-radical
[03025, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx;
03025, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx]
(see: BCI-algebra)
p-rank
(2OC20, 200xx; 2OC20, 200xx)
(refers to: Abelian group; cohomol-
ogy of groups; Cyclic group; Dimen-
sion; finite group; Normal subgroup;
Simple finite group; Sylow subgroup)
p-rank (in group theory)
[20C20, 200xx; 2OC20, 200xx]
(see: p-rank)
p-rank of a group see: normal -; sec-
tional-
p-rank of a p-valued field
[03C60, 12JIO, 12L12; 03C60, 12JIO,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)
p-semi-simple BCI-algebra
[03025, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx;
03025, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx]
(see: BCI-algebra)
p-summing see: absolutely-
p-summing operators see: Banach space
of absolutely -
P-symbol
[05E05, 05E 10, 05E15, 20005; 05E05,
05EIO, 05E15, 20005]
(see: Robinson-Schensted corre-
spondence)
P type see: differential equation of -
P-type differential equation
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07]
(see: Painleve-type equations)
p-valued field
[03C60, 12J I 0, 12L12; 03C60, 12J 10,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)
p-valued field see: p-adically closed -;
p-rank of a-
PA
[03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 08Bxx]
(see: Magari algebra)
PA-property
[93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55,
93C05, 93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
PA-ring
[93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55,
93C05,93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
package see: Computer algebra -; Grass-
mann -
packing see: densest sphere -
Page-Siegel-Wallisz prime number theo-
rem
[IINI3, IIN36; IINl3, IIN36]
(see: Bombieri prime number theo-
rem)
Pain/eve analysis
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07]
(see: Painleve test; Painleve-type
equations)
Painleve property
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07]
(see: Painleve test; Painleve-type
equations)
Painleve test
(58F07; 58F07)
(referred to in: Painleve-type equa-
tions)
(refers to: Branch point; Cauchy-
Kovalevskaya theorem; Korteweg-
de Vries equation; Movable singular
point; Painleve-type equations)
Pain/eve transcendent
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07]
(see: Painleve-type equations)
Pain lev" type see: differential equation
of -
PARTIAL BELL POLYNOMIAL
Painleve-type differential equation parahoric subgroup
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07; [20025; 20025]
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07] (see: Bruhat-Tits building)
(see: Painleve-type equations) parallel axiom see: Euclid-
Painleve-type equations parallel communicating grammar system
(34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07; [68QIO, 68Q45, 68Q50; 68QIO,
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07) 68Q45,68Q50]
(referred to in: Painleve test) (see: Grammar system)
(refers to: Branch point; Essential parallel grammar system
singular point; Evolution equation; [68Q I0, 68Q45, 68Q50; 68Q 10,
Korteweg-de Vries equation; Mov- 68Q45,68Q50]
able singular point; Painleve equa- (see: Grammar system)
tion; Painleve test; Riccati equation; parallel structure see: partial-
sine-Gordon equation; Soliton) parallel transp()rt operat()r
pair see: amicable -; Banach -; C - -; [8ITxx; 8lTxx]
Calder6n -; Lax -; nelvalue morphism (see: Bohm-Aharonov effect)
of a -; nelvalue of a - PARAMACS
pair of matrices see: coefficient assignable [68Q40; 68Q40]
- ; completely controllable -; com- (see: Computer algebra package)
pletely reachable -; controllable -; PARAMAX
pole assignable -; reachable - [68Q40; 68Q40]
pair of morphisms see: co-disjointed -; (see: Computer algebra package)
co-disjunctable - parameter see: chemical reaction
pair of quotients in a lattice see: projec- power -; screening -; threshold -
tive - parameter space
pair (orientation, colouring) see: compati- [53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
ble - (see: Differential geometry in statis-
paired comparison experiment tical inference)
[62Jl5; 62Jl5] parameters see: existential sentence with
(see: Bradley-Terry model) -; treatment -
paired comparison experiment parametric family of distributions see: finite-
[62115, 62K05; 62115, 62K05] dimensional -
(see: Paired comparison model) parametriC measures of dependence see:
Paired comparison model non- -
(62115, 62K05; 62Jl5, 62K05) parametric modelling see: semi--
(referred to in: Bradley-Terry model) parametric statistical model
(refers to: Bradley-Terry model; Nor- [53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
mal distribution) (see: Differential geometry in statis-
pairing see: Arakelov intersection -; tical inference)
Gillet-Soule arithmetic intersection - parametric statistics
pairing of cyclic cohomology with K- [53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx,
theory 62Axx, 62FxxJ
[16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58012; (see: Statistical manifold)
16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58012] parametrically definable set
(see: Cyclic cohomology) [03C45, 03C60, 06F25, 06F99, 12J 15;
Paley difference set 03C45, 03C60, 06F25, 06F99, 12115]
[05BIO, IIBI3, 20KOI; 05BIO, (see: a-minimal)
IIBI3,20KOI] parametrization see: normal-
(see: Abelian difference set) parametrization approach see: Schur-
Paley functional see: Littlewood-- paraxial one-way wave equation
pancyclic graph [65M05, 65MIO, 86-08; 65M05,
[05C05, 05C45, 05C85, 05C99; 65M I0, 86-08]
05C05, 05C45, 05C85, 05C99] (see: Absorbing boundary condi-
(see: Halin graph) tions)
Paneitz operator Pareto condition
[46E35, 580XX; 46E35, 580XX] [90A05, 90A08, 90A28; 90A05,
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality) 90A08, 90A28]
parabolic isometry of hyperbolic spaces (see: Arrow impossibility theorem)
[53C99; 53C99] Pareto optimal solution
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space) [9OC29; 90C29]
parabolic quenching (see: Multi-objective optimization)
[35K57, 35K60, 35K65; 35K57, Pareto optimality see: proper -; weak -
35K60, 35K65] PARI
(see: Quenching) [68Q40; 68Q40]
paraconsistent consequence relation (see: Computer algebra package)
[03B53; 03B53] parity-check matrix
(see: Paraconsistent logic) [IIH56,94B35; IIH56, 94B35]
Paraconsistent logic (see: Octacode)
(03B53; 03B53) parity check matrix for a code
(refers to: Antinomy; distributive lat- [05E30, 94B 15, 94B35; 05E30,
tice; GOdel incompleteness theorem; 94B 15, 94B35]
intuitionistic logic; Kripke models; (see: Kerdock and Preparata codes)
Logical calculus; modal logic; Peano Parker spiral
axioms; topological space; topos) [33A30, 33A40, 35L05, 35L10,
paraconsistent logical consequence 35N I0, 76W05, 85A35, 86A25;
]03B53; 03B53] 33A30, 33A40, 35L05, 35LIO, 35NIO,
(see: Paraconsistent logic) 76W05, 85A35, 86A25]
paradigm of communication see: WAVE- (see: Alfven waves)
paradox see: Banach-Tarski -; Einstein- Parrott problem see: strong-
Podolsky-Rosen -; self-reference -; part see: bivector-
squeeze flow - part of a measure space see: conservative
paradoxes see: Voting- -; dissipative -
paradoxical decomposition partial 3-frame see: large-
[43A07, 43A15, 46A22, 46Exx, partial affine space
51M20, 51M25; 43A07, 43A15, ]5IB05; 51B05]
46A22, 46Exx, 51 M20, 51 M25] (see: Chain space)
(see: Banach limit) partial Bell polynomial
555
PARTIAL BELL POLYNOMIAL

[05A 19, II B83; 05A 19, II B83] partition see: 6 -fine -; ordered - (relers to: Birth-and-death process) (see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
(see: Bell polynomial) partition in Kenetic algorithms Pedersen-Takesaki theorem in matrix computations)
partial conical flock of d~fi('iency one [68T05, 90B40; 6ST05. 90B40] ]47 A63; 47 A63] period-doubling route to chaos
[5IExx, 51N15; 5lExx, 51N15] (see: Genetic algorithm) (see: Furuta inequality) ]58FI3; 58F13]
(see: Flock) partition of a partially ordered set inlo chains Peetre K ,tullctional (see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac-
partial differential equation to an ordinary dif- see: k-norm of a - ]46B70; 46B70] tion)
ferential equation see: similarity reduc- partition-ot-mass theorem see: equi-- (see: Calderon couples) period for a nerve see: refractory-
tion of a - partition polynomial Peetre real-method interpolation space see: periodiC aliquot sequence see: eventu-
partial differential equations see: Monte- [05A 19, II B83; 05A 19, II B83] Lions- - ally -
Carlo methods for - (see: Bell polynomial) Pelczar theorem see: Abian-Brown-- perj()di(' (Jut{)('(,rrelat;()fI ('()effi('jent
partial differential of a Booleanfunction partitions see: Cousin lemma on - pendululII ]11 B37, II BS3, 94Bxx; II B37,
[06E30; 06E30] party graph see: cocktail- [58Fxx; 58Fxx] II BX3, 94Bxx]
(see: Boolean differential calculus) Pascal (see: Non-linear dynamics) (see: Correlation property for se-
partial differential of a Boolean function see: [6SNI5; 68N15] Penrose-Moore inverse quences)
kth - (see: APL) ]65Fxx: 65Fxx] periodic correlation coefficient
partial dual problem Passive constraint (see: A priori and a posteriori bounds [II B37, II B83, 94Bxx; II B37,
[90CI0, 9OCII, 90C27; 90C10, (90C30; 90C30) in matrix computations) II B83, 94Bxx]
90CII,90C27] (referred to in: Active constraint) Penrose tiling (see: Correlation property for se-
(see: Lagrangean relaxation) (refers to: Active constraint; Mathe- (05B45; 05645) quences)
partial flock matical programming) pentagrid periodic cyclic cohom%gv
~IExx,5INI5;5IEx~5INI5] passive ('onstraill1 IOSB45; 05B45] [16E40, 46L85, SSN35, S8G 12:
(see: Flock) [9OC30; 90C30] (see: Penrose tiling) 16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G 12]
partial function (see: Passive constraint) percent defective see: lot tolerance - (see: Cyclic cohomology)
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C10; 03Bxx, Pasta-Ulam-type recurrence see: Fermi- percentile clustering periodic K -contact flow see: almosl--
06Exx, 94C 10] [54E70; 54E70] periodic sequence see: n- -; normalized
(see: Karnaugh map) patch see: Bezier- (see: Probabilistic metric space) -; perfect -; s-decimation of an n- -
partial hyperbolic flock of deficiency one path see: Hamilton -; mean weighl of a percolation on trees periodiC sequences see: asymptoticallyop-
[5IExx, 51N15; 5lExx, 51N15] -; weight of a - ]60DOS; 6000S] timal family of -
(see: Flock) pathJollowing method (sec: Dvoretzky problem) periodicily see: Bott-
partial order on an idempotent semi-ring [90C05, 90C20, 90C25; '10C05, Percolatiol1 theory on Bernoulli measures periodicity operator
[15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44- 90C20, 90C25] [28Dxx, 6OFxx. 60G09. 60K35; [16E40, 46LS5, 55N35, 58G 12;
XX, 44A15, 6SQ10, SI-XX, 90C39, (see: Interior-point methods in math- 28Dxx. 60Fxx. 60G09. 60K3S] 16E40, 46L85, 55N35, SSG 12]
93C30; 15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, ematical programming) (sec: Bernoulli measure) (see: Cyclic cohomology)
44-XX, 44AI5, 6SQIO, SI-XX, path in a network see: shortest- perfect ('ode periodicity route 10 chaos see: quasi--
9OC39,93C30] path of an optimization problem see: cen- [05BOS. 05B07, '14B2S: OSB05. permanent random measure
(see: Idempotent analysis; Idempo- tral- 05B07.94625] [60Fxx, 62Exx; 60Fxx, 62Exx]
tent semi-ring) path problem see: maximal width -: short- (see: Golay code) (see: U-statistic)
partial parallel structure est - perfect c-error-correcting code permanellt summability method
[5IB05; 51 B05] path problems see: Bellman melhod for 105B05, 05B07. '14625; 05B05. 140C05; 40C05]
(see: Chain space) solving shortest - 05607.94625] (see: Mazur-Orlicz theorem)
partial realization problem see: Kalman- pattern (see: Golay code) permanent summability methodsee: per-
partially hyperbolic diffeomorphism see: [15-XX, 30E05, 47A57, 90A14. perfect extension (~la Boolean algebra fectly inconsistent -
non-uniformly - 900xx,92Bxx; 15-XX, 30E05, 47 A57. [03Gxx. 03GI5, 06Exx, 06E15; permeability
partially hyperbolic trajectory see: non- 90A 14, 900xx, 92Bxx] 03Gxx. 03G IS, 06Exx. 06E 15] [76S05; 76S05]
uniformly -; uniformly - (see: Evolutionarily stable strategy: (see: Boolean algebra with operators) (see: Buckley-Leverett equation)
partially ordered group Partially specified matrices, comple- perfn't (me}actorizatiofl permulation see: match set of a -
[06FI5; 06F15] tion of) [OS(,70; 05C70] permutation group see: primitive -; socle
(see: po-group) pattern see: attainable -; band -; chordal (see: One-factorization) of a primitive -
partially ordered group see: Convex sub- -; non-chordal - ; rectangular - : trian- per/('('f l'erit){/ic sequence permutation group action see: affine type
group of a - gular - ]11 B37. 116X3, 946xx: II B37. for a primitive -: almost-simple type for a
partially ordered set see: central element pattern spectrum II B83, 94Bxx] primitive -; diagonal type for a primitive
of a -; centre of a - ; chain in a -; core [60005, 6SUIO; 60005, 68U10] (see: Correlation property for se- -; holomorphic simple type for a primi-
of a - ; down-set in a - ; incomparable (see: Mathematical morphology) quences) tive -; twisted wreath product type for a
elements of a - ; independent set in a patterned starter in an Ahelian group perl'eet Room square primitive -; type for a primitive -
-; Jordan-Dedekind property of a -; [05C70; 05C70] ]05BIS: 05BIS] permutohedron
level in a - ; linear extension of a -; log- (see: One-factorization) (see: Room square) ]05C45. 6XPxx, 6XRxx, 94B60:
supermodular function on a - ; neutral Patterson-Sullivan measure I,erfect sequem'c ('onje('fure 05C4S, 6SPxx, 68Rxx, 94B60]
element of a - ~ non-decreasing function [53C20, 58F17; 53C20, 5SFI7] ]IIB37. IIB83. '14Bxx; IIB37, (see: Gray code)
on a -; retraction of a -; up-set in a - (see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem) I I BS3. 946xx] Perron-Frobenius theory of non-negative
partially ordered set into chains see: k- Pauli algehraic solution (~r the hydrogen (see: Correlation property for se- matrices
norm of a partition of a - atom quences) ]ISA48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
(partially) ordered sets see: Fixed-point [8lRxx, 81R05; 8lRxx. 81R05] perfect subgroup XX. 44A15, 68Q10. SI-XX, 90C39,
property for - (see: Spectrum generating algebra) [1'1006; 19006] 93C30; 15A48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx,
partially ordered sels see: cancellation the- Pauli matrices (see: Plus-construction) 44-XX, 44A15, 68Q10. 81-XX,
orem for -; structure theorem for infi- [I7B45, 81R05; 17B45, 81R05] perfect suhset 90C39.93C30]
nite - (see: Gell-Mann matrices) ]40H05. 46A45; 40H05, 46A4S] (see: Idempotent analysis)
Partially specified matrices, completion PC grammar system (.,ee: Kiithe-Toeplitz dual) Perron operator see: Frobenius--
of [68QI0, 68Q45. 68Q50; 68Q10. perfect subset see: (y- - : (3- -; -y-- Perron-Stieltjes integral see: Ward-
(15-XX, 30E05, 47A57; 15-XX, 68Q45, 68Q50] perfel,tly inc'(JIIsistent l,ennallcllf summa~ perspectivity see: axial -: central -
30E05, 47 A57) (see: Grammar system) hility method perturbation analysis
(referred to in: Caratheodory- POELIE ]40C05; 40C05] ]69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
Toeplitz extension problem) [68Q40; 68Q401 (see: Mazur-Orlicz theorem) 93A30]
(refers to: band method; Caratheo- (see: Computer algebra package) perj('c1ly matched layer (see: Discrete event system)
dory-Toeplitz extension problem; POEtools ]65MOS, 65M 10, 86-0X: 65M05, perturbation problem see: outer expansion
field; linear algebra; Nehari ex- [68Q40; 68Q40] 6SMI0.86-08] for a singular -; regular expansion for a
tension problem; pole assignment (see: Computer algebra package) (see: Absorbing boundary condi- singular -; singular -
problem) peak point tions) Pes;" entropyformu/ll
partially specified matrix ]46120; 46J20] perfe('t!.", ordl'rtlhle graph ]28Dxx, 58F15; 28Dxx, S8F15]
]15-XX, 30E05, 47A57; 15-XX. (see: Choquet boundary) ]OSCxx; OSCxx] (see: Pesin theory)
30E05. 47 A57] Peano arithmeth' (see: Acyclic orientation) Pesin set
(see: Partially specified matrices, [03Bxx, 03B45. 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx, Performance analysis ]28Dxx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
completion of) 06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, (60K25. 68M20; 60K25. 68M20) (see: Pesin theory)
partially specified matrix see: completion 03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 08Bxx] (refers to: probability theory: Queue; Pesin tempering kernel
ofa - (see: Magari algebra) Queue with refusals; queueing the- ]28Dxx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
particle scattering matrix see: factorizable Pearl logistic process see: Verhulst-- ory) (see: Pesin theory)
multi- - pear
- Verhulst logistic process perj<"'Ilwnc(' index Pesin theory
particles see: strongly interacting - (92025; 92025) ]6SFxx: 6SFxx] (280xx, 58F15: 2XDxx. 58F15)

556

(refers to: Absolute continuity; Ber-
noulli automorphism; cascade;
Chaos; diffeomorphism; Dynami-
cal system; Entropy of a measurable
decomposition; Entropy theory of a
dynamical system; ergodic theory;
Ergodicity; flow (continuous-time
dynamical system); foliation; Haus-
dorff dimension; Holder condition;
Hyperbolic set; Invariant measure;
K -system; Lebesgue measure; man-
ifold; Markov chain; measurable
decomposition; metric entropy; met-
ric isomorphism; mUltiplicative er-
godic theorem; Riemannian metric;
Topological transitivity; Y -system)
Petersen theorem
[05C70; 05C701
(see: One-factor)
Peterson spectrum see: Brown--
Petersson scalar product
[30F35; 30F35 1
(see: Bers space)
Petri net
[69Fxx, 908xx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
Petri net see: stochastic -; timed -
Petryshyn theorem
[35A15, 35015; 35AI5, 35015]
(see: Lax-Milgram lemma)
Pettis property see: Dunford--
Petty geo-minimal surface area inequality
[52A40; 52A40]
(see: Blaschke-Santal6 inequality)
Petty projection inequality
[52A40; 52A401
(see: Blaschke-Santal6 inequality)
Pfaffian chain
[03C60, 12JIO, 12J15; 03C60, 12J10,
12J15]
(see: Model theory of the real expo-
nential function)
Pfluger theory of completely regular growth
of entire functions see: Levin--
Phelps extremization principle
[26A15, 54C30, 54E50; 26AI5,
54C30, 54E50]
(see: Ekeland variational principle)
Phelps theorem see: Bishop--
phenomena see: Master equations in co-
operative and social -
physics see: Cauchy tetrahedron argument
in continuum -; molecular -
physics) see: field (in -
PI-ring
[16Rxx; 16Rxx]
(see: Amitsur-Levitzki theorem)
Picardgmup
[20020; 20020]
(see: Bianchi group)
Pick function
[47A63; 47A63]
(see: Lowner-Heinz inequality)
Pick interpolation see: Nevanlinna--
Pick interpolation problem see: Nevanlinna-
-; suboptimal Nevanlinna- -
Pick matrix
[30E05, 47A57, 93B36; 30E05,
47A57,93B36]
(see: Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation)
Picone comparison theorem see: Sturm-
picture
[05E05, 05E 10, 05E 15, 20005; 05E05,
05EIO, 05EI5, 20005]
(see: Pictures)
picture see: system-reservoir-
picture Hamiltonian see: interaction-
Pictures
(05E05, 05EIO, 05EI5, 20005; 05E05,
05EIO, 05EI5, 20005)
(referred to in: Robinson-Schensted
correspondence)
(refers to: Bijection; intertwining
number; irreducible representation;
jeu de taquin; Robinson-Schensted
correspondence; Young diagram)
piecewise-constant wavelet
[42C 10; 42C 10]
(see: Clifford wavelets)
piecewise-linear polyhedron
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
pigeon-hole principle see: Dirichlet-
Pilla, conjecture
[11041, 11061, 11186; 11041,
1I061,IIJS6]
(see: Gel'fond-Baker method)
pinch point
114Kxx,5SF07; 14Kxx, 5SF07]
(see: Abelian surface)
pinched negative curvature
[28015, 58FI7; 2S015, 5SF17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
Piola-Kirchhoffstress
[73B30, SOA05, 80A97; 73B30,
80A05, 80A97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
place
[12J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
place see: dimension of a -; rational -
place of afunctionfield
[12J20, 14H05; 12120, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
plactic congruence
[05EIO, 20C30; 05EIO, 2OC30]
(see: Jeu de taquin)
plactic equivalence
[05E05, 05EIO, 05EI5, 20005; 05E05,
05EIO, 05EI5, 20005]
(see: Robinson-Schensted corre-
spondence)
piacfic monoid
[05E05, 05E 10, 05EI5, 2OC30, 20005;
05E05, 05EIO, 05EI5, 20C30, 20005]
(see: Jeu de taquin; Robinson-
Schensted correspondence)
plan see: Dodge sampling -; double-
sample acceptance sampling -; Romig
sampling -; single sampling -
plan for attributes see: Acceptance sam-
pling -
plan for variables see: Acceptance sam-
pling -
planar binary tree see: rooted-
planar binary trees see: rooted-
Plancherel-Godement theory
[43AIO, 43A46, 43A62; 43AIO,
43A46,43A62]
(see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
sis on locally compact)
Plancherel measure
[43AIO, 43A46, 43A62; 43AIO,
43A46, 43A62]
(see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
sis on locally compact)
Planck collision process see: Fokker--
Planck equation see: Vlasov-Fokker--
Planck-Landau collision operator see:
Fokker- -
Planck system see: Vlasov-Poisson-
Fokker- -
plane see: affine model of a Benz -; au-
tonomous non-linear dynamical system in
the -; Benz -; circle -; circle in a
Benz -; classical affine Benz -; clas-
sical Benz -; derived affine -; egg-
like Benz -; finite Benz -; generator
in a Benz -; imbeddable Benz -; La-
guerre -; Minkowski -; Miquelian Benz
-; Mobius -; near-field -; order of a
finite Benz -; point in a Benz -; real
hyperbolic -; spread of a translation -;
translation -
planning problem see: motion-
plans see: Lot-sensitive compliance sam-
pling -; LTPD-
plastic materials see: numerical meth-
ods for elasto- -; numerical methods for
visco- -
plasticity see: Besseling-lshlinskiTmodel in
-; Besseling model of elasto- -; Ishlin-
skff model of -; Prandtl model of ideal -
plastic~y modulus see: Young-
plate see: anisotropic -; elastic modu-
lus of a -; non-homogeneous -; Young
modulus of a -
plates see: Von Karman equations for -
plenary power
[17092,92010; 17092,92010]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
plus algebra see: max--
plus algebra approach see: max--
Plus-construction
(19006; 19006)
(referred to in: Acyclic group)
(refers to: algebraic K -theory; al-
gebraic topology; classifying space;
cofibration; CW-complex; functor;
fundamental group; homology; ho-
motopy type; loop space; normal
subgroup; surgery)
plus-construction see: Quillen-
po-group
(06FI5; 06F15)
(refers to: Convex subgroup; group;
homomorphism; I-group; normal
subgroup; o-group; partial order;
Partially ordered group; partially
ordered set)
Pochhammer symbol
[IlJSI, IIJ91; IlJSI, IIJ91]
(see: E-function)
Podolsky-Rosen paradox see: Einstein--
Poincare-Birkhoff-Witt theorem
[17BOI; 17BOI]
(see: Hall polynomial)
Poincare domain
[30D05, 5SFI3, 58F23; 30005, 58FI3,
58F23]
(see: Siegel disc)
Poincare homoclinic structure
[58FI4; 5SF14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
Poincare-Hopf theorem
(58F99, 58010; 58F99, 58010)
(refers to: Poincare theorem; Singu-
lar point, index of a; vector field)
Poincare metric
[32H20; 32H20]
(see: Kobayashi hyperbolicity)
Poincare polynomial
[05B35, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30, 57N65;
05B35,20F36,20F55,52B30,57N65]
(see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
Poincare recurrence theorem
[28015, 5SFI7; 28015, 5SF17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
Poincare section
[5SFxx; 5SFxx]
(see: Non-linear dynamics)
Poincare series
[53C20, 58F17; 53C20, 58FI7]
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem)
Poincare series ofa holomorphicfunction
[30F35; 30F35]
(see: Bers space)
Poincare theta-series
[30F35; 30F35]
(see: Bers space)
point see: backward spectrum of a diffeo-
morphism at a -; Bezier -; Bezier con-
trol -; conjugate -; control -; extremal
-; forward spectrum of a diffeomorphism
at a -; greatestfixed -; leastfixed -;
ordinary density -; peak -; pinch -; ra-
dial limit -; Slater -; Steiner -; strong
density -; support -; Tate -; value of a
forward upper Lyapunov exponent at a -
point algorithms see: primal-dual interior-
point, associated with a diffeomorphism see:
forward filtration at a -
point crossover see: Single--
point for the Steiner tree problem see: reg-
ular-
point guard
POISSON KERNEL
[5IM20; 51M20]
(see: Art gallery theorems)
point in a Benz plane
[5IB05; 51B05]
(see: Benz plane)
point in a lattice
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
pOint methods in mathematical program-
ming see: Interior- -; Proximal -
point of a polynomial see: fixed-
point of a tetrahedron see: Monge-
point of an ordered set see: irreducible-
point of an ordinary differential equation see:
critical -; fixed singular -; movable sin-
gular -; regular-
point Poisson proce.'iS
[31 Cxx, 60005, 60060, 60J45; 31 Cxx,
60005, 60060, 601451
(see: Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp
theorem)
point property see: Fixed--
point property for (partially) ordered sets
see: Fixed--
point theorem see: Borsuk fixed- -;
centre- -; fixed- -; Kirk-Caristi fixed-
-; Ryll-Nardzewski fixed- -
point transfer see: Dold fixed- -
points see: set of extreme -
pOints in a chain space see: distant-
points in a tree see: confluent of two -
points in an affine space see: equivalent-
pOints in Euclidean space see: Centroid of
a set of -
points in general position in splice
[05-XX; 05-XX]
(see: Ramsey number)
pointwise ordering
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
Poisson actions
[16W30, I7B37, 22E60, 53CI5,
5SHI5, 81R50; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, 53CI5, 58HI5, SIR501
(see: Poisson Lie group)
Poisson algebra
(l6W55, 17B56, I7B60, 17B70,
I7B81, 58A10; 16W55, 17B56,
17860, 17870, 17B81, 58AIO)
(referred to in: Poisson Lie group)
(refers to: Adjoint operator; algebra;
Associative rings and algebras; bilin-
ear mapping; Cohomology; Commu-
tative algebra; Commutative ring;
differentiable manifold; Lie algebra;
Lie algebra, graded; Poisson brack-
ets; Symplectic structure)
Poisson algebra see: graded-
Poisson algebra structure
[16W55, 17B56, 17B60, 17B70,
I7BSI, 58AIO; 16W55, 17B56,
17860, I7B70, I7B81, 58AlOi
(see: Poisson algebra)
Poisson algebra structure see: graded-
Poisson bivector
[16W55, 17B56, 17860, 17B70,
I7B81, 58AIO; 16W55, 17856,
17B60, 17B70, 17B81, 5SAIOI
(see: Poisson algebra)
Poisson bracket
[16W55, 17856, 17B60, 17870,
17B81, 58A10; 16W55, 17B56,
17B60, I7B70, I7B81, 58AIO]
(see: Poisson algebra)
Poisson cohomology
[16W55, 17B56, 17B60, 17B70,
17BSI, 58A10; 16W55, I7B56,
I7B60, I7B70, 17BSI, 58AIO]
(see: Poisson algebra)
Poisson-Fokker-Planck system see:
Vlasov- -
Poisson-Hop.f algebra
[I6W30, 17837, 22E60, 53CI5,
58HI5, 81R50; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, 53C 15, 58H 15, 81 R50]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
Poisson kernel
557
POISSON KERNEL
[IIFxx, 280xx, 30Cxx, 32Nxx, 58Fxx,
80-XX; II Fxx, 280xx, 3OCxx, 32Nxx,
58Fxx,80-XX]
(see: Conformal measure)
Poisson Lie group
(l6W30, 17B37, 22E60, 53CI5,
58HI5, 81R50; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, 53CI5, 58HI5, 81R50)
(refers 10: Lie group; Poisson alge-
bra; Quantum groups; Yang-Baxter
equation)
Poisson Lie group see: double of a -;
dual-
Poisson manifold
[16W30, 16W55, 17B37, 17B56,
17B60, 17B70, 17881, 22E60, 53C 15,
58AIO, 58HI5, 81R50; 16W30,
16W55, 17B37, 17B56, 17860,
17B70, 17B81, 22E60, 53CI5, 58AIO,
58H15,81R50]
(see: Poisson algebra; Poisson Lie
group)
Poisson process see: point-
Poisson structure
[16W30, 17B37, 22E60, 53CI5,
58HI5, 81R50; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, 53CI5, 58HI5, 81R50]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
Poisson structure see: Kirillov-Kostant-
Souriau -
Poisson supermanifold see: odd-
Poisson system see: Vlasov--
polar body
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21, 52A40;
468xx, 46B20, 52A21, 52A40]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum;
Blaschke-Santal6 inequality)
polar in an I-group
[06FI5, 20F60; 06FI5, 20F60]
(see: I-group)
polar of a convex set in a normed space
[41A35, 41A36, 41A65; 41A35,
41A36,41A65]
(see: A bstract approximation theory)
polar of a set in an I-group
[06F 15, 20F60; 06F 15, 20F60]
(see: Convex subgroup of a partially
ordered group)
polar set
[3lCxx, 60005, 60G60, 60J45; 31Cxx,
60005, 60G60, 60J45]
(see: Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp
theorem)
polarization
[14Kxx, 58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07]
(see: Abelian surface)
polarization see: degree of a -; principal
-; separable -
polarized Abelian surface
[14Kxx, 58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07]
(see: Abelian surface)
polarized Abelian surface see: type of a -
pole assignable pair of matrices
[93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93855,
93C05,93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
Pole assignment problem
(93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93B55,
93C05,93015)
(referred to in: Assignment problem;
Partially specified matrices, comple-
tion of)
(refers to: algebraically closed field;
Automatic control theory; character-
istic polynomial; Commutative ring;
Dedekind ring; field; transfer func-
tion)
pole shifting theorem
[93B55, 93C05, 93015; 93855,
93C05,93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
Pollak conjecture see: Gilbert--
P,i/ya factorization
[34C 10; 34C 10]
(see: Disconcugacy)
Ptilva frequency function
[15-XX; 15-XX]
558
(see: Total positivity)
P<ilya frequency sequence
[15-XX; 15-XX]
(see: Total positivity)
polyadie algebras
[03Gxx, 03GI5, 06Exx, 06E15;
03Gxx, 03G 15, 06Exx, 06E 15]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
Polyakov action
[46E35, 58GXX; 46E35, 58GXX]
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
Polyakov-Onofri log determinant varia-
tionformula
[46E35, 58GXX; 46E35, 58GXX]
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
polygon see: Bezier-
polygon covered by a set of guards
[5IM20; 51M20]
(see: Art gallery theorems)
polyhedron
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
polyhedron see: contractible -; piecewise-
linear -; rational -; special -; standard
-; topological -
polynomial see: additive -; Artin-Schreier
-; Bell -; Bernstein -; characteris-
tic -; Chebyshev -; complete Bell -;
complex -; exponential -; fixed point of
a -; Hall -; Hurwitz stable -; interval
-; Jones -; knot -; Lie -; minimal
-; partial Bell -; partition -; Poincare
-; reduced -; reduced form of a -; ro-
bustly stable interval -; S- -; Schur-;
skew Schur-
polynomial equations see: Skolem question
on decidability of solution of systems of -
polynomial identities see: Algebra with -
polynomial identity rinli
[16Rxx; 16Rxx]
(see: Amilsur-Levitzki theorem)
polynomial of an arrangement of hyper-
planes see: characteristic-
polynomial of degree n see: standard-
polynomial operator
[4lAxx, 468xx, 47865; 41Axx,
46Bxx, 47865]
(see: Bohman-Korovkin theorem)
polynomial, reducible with respect to a set
of polynomials
[13PIO, 68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40]
(see: Grobner basis)
polynomial theory see: Kharitonov-
polynomial time
[IIA5I, IIYII, 68Q25; IIA51,
IIYII,68Q25]
(see: Probabilistic primality test)
polynomial-time factorization of integer
polynomials
[I I H06, IIHI6, IIH31, IIH46,
IIH50, 51MII, 51MI5, 51MI6,
51M20, 51M25; I I H06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIH50, 51MlI,
51MI5, 51MI6, 51M20, 51M25]
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
polynomial-time theorem see: Lenstra-
polynomial wors/·('ase complexity
[90C05, 90C20, 90C25; 90C05,
90C20, 9OC25]
(see: Interior-point methods in math-
ematical programming)
polynomials see: Bernstein -; Bernstein-
Kantorovich - ; Bessel -; bivariate
Bernstein -; Brafman -; Durrmeyer
integral modification of the Bernstein -;
Durrmeyer modification of the Bernstein
-; Fourier-Hermite -; Jury test for
zeros of -; moments associated with
Bessel -; polynomial, reducible with
respect to a set of -; polynomial-time
factorization of integer -; reducibility
with respect to a set of -; robustly stable
family of -; Routh test for zeros of -;
weight equation for Bessel -
polynomials for proving Bonferroni-type in-
equalities see: method of -
polytope (see: Furuta inequality; Heinz in-
[340xx, 93009; 340xx, 93009] equality; Heinz-Kato-Furuta in-
(see: Kharitonov polynomial theory) equality; Heinz-Kato inequality;
ponens see: modus- Lowner-Heinz inequality)
Pontryagin algebra positive semi-definite element in a C oj< -
[55Pxx; 55Pxx] algebra
(see: Adams-Hilton model) [47A57, 47A68; 47A57, 47 A68]
Pontryagin class see: local formula for (see: Band method)
the - positivity see: Total-
Pontryagin-Thom theorem possibility operator (in modal logic )
[55N22; 55N22] [03B45, 03G05, 06Exx, 06E25;
(see: Brown-Peterson spectrum) O3B45, 03G05, 06Exx, 06E25]
Popoviciu theorem (see: Sahlqvist theorem)
[4IA36; 41A36] posteriori bound see: a-
(see: Korovkin theorems) posteriori bounds in matrix computations
population see: state of a - see: A priori and a -
position ."e: arrangement of hyperplanes potential see: Action -; Coulomb
in general- Hulthen -; stationary action -
position in space see: points in general - potential operator see: Bessel-
position of a convex body see: M - - potential space see: Bessel-
positive characteristic see: equivalent power see: concatenation -; plenary -
weights of a group algebra of -; weight power moment identities
of a group algebra in - [94B25; 94B25]
positive ('one (see: MacWilliams identities)
[06FI5; 06F15] power parameter
(see: po-group; To-group) [62E20; 62E20]
positive cone (see: Box-Cox transformation)
[46E05, 46Jxx; 46E05, 46Jxx] power predicate
(see: f -algebra) [03C60, 1211 0, 12Ll2; 03C60, 1211 0,
positive cone see: isolated- 12Ll2]
positive ("one (~f an I-algehra (see: p-adically closed field)
[06F25; 06F25] power product see: leading-
(see: I-algebra) power sum see: generalized-
positive cone (d an I-group power-type acceleration function
[06F15, 20F60; 06FI5, 20F60] [62N05, 90B25; 62N05, 90B25]
(see: I-group) (see: Accelerated life testing)
positive correlation power variance function
[06AIO, 60E15; 06AIO, 60E15] [62E20; 62E20]
(see: Correlation inequalities) (see: Box-Cox transformation)
positive correlation see: non-- Prager criterion see: Oettli--
positive defect see: block of - Prandtl model of ideal plasticity
positive-definite algebra element [47H30; 47H30]
[47AS7, 47A68; 47A57, 47A68] (see: Hysteron)
(see: Band method) Prandtl non-linearity
positive-definite bounded functions on an [47H30; 47H30]
Abelian semi-group see: Ressel char- (see: Hysteron)
acterization of completely - pre·Finsler connection
positive-definite function see: com- [53C60; 53C60]
pletely - (see: Berwald connection)
positive element in C (A) pre·Finsler connection see: coefficients of
[4lAxx, 46Bxx, 47B65; 41Axx, a-
468xx, 47B65] pre·order
(see: Bohman-Korovkin theorem) [05Cxx, 68RIO; 05Cxx, 68RIO]
positive extension see: R-- (see: Depth-first search)
positive./ilfmula ,,{modal logic pre-topological space
[03845, 03GOS, 06Exx, 06E25; [54A05; 54A05]
03845,03GOS,06Exx,06E25] (see: Closure space)
(see: Sahlqvist theorem) precedence graph
positive function see: totally- [69Fxx, 908xx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
positive functional see: strictly- 93A30]
positive implicative BCK-algebra (see: Discrete event system)
[03G25, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx; preconditioning acceleration
03G25, 04A03, 060xx, 06Exx] [65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: BCK-algebra) (see: Acceleration methods)
positive kernel see: strictly totally -; to- predator-prey model see: Volterra integro-
tally - differential -
positive linear operator Predator-prey system
141 Axx, 45P05, 468xx, 46E30, 47855, (92025, 92040; 92025, 92040)
47865; 41 Axx, 45P05, 468xx, 46E30, (referred to in: Canadian lynx data)
47B55,47865] (refers to: Asymptotically-stable so-
(see: Bohman-Korovkin theorem; lution; chaos; equilibrium position;
Integral representations of linear Focus; Laplace operator; Limit cy-
operators) cle; Node; Reaction-ditTusion equa-
positive literal tion; Rough system; Stochastic dif-
168N17;68N171 ferential equation)
(see: Logic programming) predicate see: Hilbert-Bernays standard
positive logic programming provability -; power -
[68NI7; 68NI71 predicate constant see: degree of a -;
(see: Logic programming) extension of a -
positive mass conjecture predicate logic see: intuitionistic-
[S3C21; 53C21! predication see: hyperintensional-
(see: Yamabe problem) predictable characteristics see: triplet of -
positive matrix see: strictly -; strictly totally predictable process
-; totally- [62F12, 62G20; 62FI2, 62G20]
positive of order r see: kernel, totally - (see: Asymptotic optimality)
positive operatof preferred longitude
[47A63; 47A63! [57M25; 57M25]

(see: Dehn surgery)
Preisach-Giltay hysteresis
[47H30; 47H30]
(see: Non-ideal relay)
Preisach-Giltay model of ferromagnetic
hysteresis
[47H30; 47H30]
(see: Non-ideal relay)
Preisach-Giltay model of magnetism
[47H30; 47H30]
(see: Hysteresis)
premium see: credibility-
premium rate see: credibility-
Preparata codes see: Kerdock and -
preparation
[8IS20; 81S20]
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
prescribed scalar curvature problem
[53C21; 53C21]
(see: Yamabe problem)
presentable object see: finitely-
presentable Riesz space see: finitely-
presentation see: balanced group -; lat-
tice-
preserving linear transformation see: order-
preserving mapping see: order--
preserving operator function see: order--
preserving operator inequality see: order-
preserving summability method see:
convergence- -
prey model see: Volterra integro-differential
predator- -
prey system see: Predator--
Priest LP
[03853; 03853]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
Priestley space
[06D30; 06D30]
(see: Ockham algebra)
Prim algorithm
[9OC27; 90C27]
(see: Greedy algorithm)
primal-dual interior-point algorithms
[90C05, 9OC20, 9OC25; 90C05.
9OC20, 9OC25]
(see: Interior-point methods in math-
ematical programming)
primality test see: Las Vegas -; Monte-
Carlo -; Probabilistic -
prime see: Euler base-b pseudo- -; or-
dinary base-b pseudo- -; Pseudo- -;
strong base-b pseudo- -
prime element
[03C60, 12JIO, 12L12; 03C60. 12JIO,
12L12]
(see: p-adically closed field)
prime f -algebra see: semi--
prime factor
[II K65, II N37; II K65. II N37]
(see: Hardy-Ramanujan theorem)
prime-factor fast Fourier transform see:
Good-Thomas -
prime factors of an integer) see: Hardy-
Ramanujan theorem (on the normal num-
berof -
prime group see: p--
prime ideal theorem
[03025. 04A03, 06Dxx, 06Exx;
03025, 04A03. 06Dxx, 06Exx]
(see: BCK-algebra)
prime I-subgroup
[06FI5, 20F60; 06F15. 20F60]
(see: Convex subgroup of a partially
ordered group)
Prime model
(03C50, 03C95; 03C50. 03C95)
(referred to in: Valued function field)
(refers to: elementary theory; Model
theory; prime field)
prime model test
[03C50, 03C95; 03C50, 03C95]
(see: Prime model)
prime number see: defect of an irreducible
character for a -; regular -
prime number theorem
IIIA25, IIN37, IIN56, 26A12,
60070; IIA25, IIN37, llN56,
26AI2,60070]
(see: De Haan theory; Hahisz mean
value theorem; Wirsing theorems)
prime number theorem see: Bombieri
-; Hinz-Bombieri multi-dimensional-;
Page-Siegel-Walfisz -
prime skeleton
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
prime spectrum of an algebra
[08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx. 18C05. 18Fxx;
08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx]
(see: Jacobson category)
prime test see: strong-
Primitive element in a co-algebra
(l6S30, 16W30, 17835; 16S30,
16W30.17B35)
(referred to in: Lie polynomial)
(refers to: co-algebra; field; Hopf al-
gebra; Lie algebra; Lie algebra, free;
Lie polynomial; universal enveloping
algebra)
primitive element of a co-algebra
[16S30, 16W30, 17B35; 16S30,
16W30,17B35]
(see: Primitive element in a co-
algebra)
primitive elements see: Lie algebra of -
primitive in analysis
[44A99, 47A05; 44A99, 47A05]
(see: Algebraic analysis)
primitive kernel of aU-statistic
160Fxx, 62Exx; 60Fxx, 62Exx]
(see: U-statistic)
primitive permutation group
[20BI5; 20B15]
(see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
primitive permutation group see: socle of
a-
primitive permutation group action see:
affine type for a -; almost-simple type
for a -; diagonal type for a -; holomor-
phic simple type for a -; twisted wreath
product type for a -; type for a -
principal AFL
[68Q45. 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Trio)
principal congruence subgroup
[20020; 20020]
(see: Bianchi group)
principal G-bundle
[55N22, 55N35; 55N22, 55N35]
(see: Elliptic genera)
principal ideal domain
[2OC05, 20CIO; 20C05, 2OCIO]
(see: Clifford theory)
principal ideal domain see: extension of a
-; finite extension of a -
principal polarization
[14Kxx, 58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07]
(see: Abelian surface)
principal scalar invariant
[53C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald space)
principal semi-AFL
[68Q45. 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Trio)
principal trio
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Trio)
principle see: Ax-Kochen-Ershov
Banach contraction -; Banach con-
traction mapping -; Bellman optimality
-; Bernstein stationarity -; black box
-; certainty equivalence -; correspon-
dence -; Dirichlet pigeon-hole -; Eke-
land -; Ekeland variational -; Hasse
local-global -; Idempotent correspon-
dence -; Idempotent superposition -;
Konig -; large deviation -; lattice du-
ality -; Lefschetz -; Markov causality
-; Maslov superposition -; maximum
entropy -; Phelps extremization -; re-
duction -; superposition -; Sylvester
inclusion-and-exclusion -; Tarski
Transfer -
principle for a Calder6n-Toeplitz operator
see: correspondence-
principle for random walks see: equiva-
lence -
principle in statistics see: equivalence-
principles of A-conversion
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
prior distribution see: Dirichlet process -
priori and a posteriori bounds in matrix com-
putations see: A-
priori bound see: a-
priori estimate see: a-
prisoner dilemma
[90AI4, 90Dxx, 92Bxx; 90A14,
90Dxx, 92Bxx]
(see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
probabilistic algorithm
[62D05; 62D05]
(see: Adaptive sampling)
probabilistic counting
[62D05; 62D05]
(see: Adaptive sampling)
Probabilistic metric space
(54E70; 54E70)
(refers to: closure space; Com-
pact space; complete lattice; Con-
nected space; Levy metric; Measure-
preserving transformation; Metric
space; metric space; Metrizable
space; mixing; Plane trigonometry;
Probability distribution; probability
measure; pseudo-metric; topological
structure (topology); Weak topology)
probabilistic metric space
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
probabilistic number theory
[lIK65, lIN37; lIK65, IIN37]
(see: Hardy-Ramanujan theorem)
Probabilistic primality test
(lIA51. IIYll, 68Q25; llA51,
IIYII,68Q25)
(referred to in: Carmichael number;
Pseudo-prime)
(refers to: Abelian variety; Carmichael
number; Complexity theory; Cryp-
tography; Cryptology; Elliptic
curve; number theory; Prime num-
ber; Pseudo-prime)
probabilistic pseudo-metric space
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
probabilities see: iterated function system
w~h -
probability see: ruin-
probabil~y distribution see: exchangeable
joint -; symmetric joint -
probability generating function
[05AI9, IIB83;05AI9, 11883]
(see: Bell polynomial)
probability measure see: base-invariant -;
log-supermodular -; scale-invariant -;
uniform -
probability measures see: a-conformal
family of -
probabil~y theory) see: integral limit prop-
erty (in -; local limit property (in -
problem to see: Hilbert-
problem 7 see: Hilbert-
problem see: (3x+l)- -; Assignment
-; band extension of the Caratheodory-
Toeplitz extension -; Bernstein -;
Birkhoff cancellation -; Bitsadze-
Lavrent'ev Bitsadze-Samarskil
Caratheodory interpolation
Caratheodory-Schur extension
Caratheodory-Toeplitz extension
Cauchy-Goursat -; central path of an
optimization -; central solution of the
Caratheodory-Toeplitz extension
classical Bernstein -; coin-change -;
Collatz -; combinatorial Gray code -;
Constrained optimization -; contractive
completion -; convex programming -;
PROCESS
covariance extension -; Dantzig theo-
rem on integral solutions of the transport
-; dual -; Dvoretzky -; eigenvalue
-; eigenvalue-eigenvector -; Erdos-
Heilbronn -; evolution -; feasible set
of a linear programming -; first initial-
boundary value -; focal boundary value
-; free boundary value -; Frobenius
-; general mathematical programming
-; Hardy -; Hasse-Collatz -; Hilbert
10th -; Hilbert seventh -; Hilbert tenth
-; homogeneous space -; Hurwitz
factorization -; initial-value -; Kaku-
tani -; Kalman partial realization -;
Kaplansky test -; Kepler -; Kirkman
schoolgirl -; knapsack -; Lichnerowicz
-; matching -; maximal width path
-; MIC-Kepler -; Michael-Mazur -;
minimal inertia completion -; minimal
spectral radius -; Mixed integer pro-
gramming -; motion planning -; multi-
objective optimization -; multi-objective
programming -; Nehari extension -;
Nehari interpolation -; network opti-
mization -; Nevanlinna-Pick interpola-
tion -; Nirenberg -; optimal solution
of a convex programming -; outer ex-
pansion for a singular perturbation -;
p-adic Hilbert 17th -; partial dual -;
Pole aSSignment -; prescribed scalar
curvature -; quadratic assignment -;
quantization -; regular expansion for
a singular perturbation -; regular point
for the Steiner tree -; regular solution
of the Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev -; relaxed
-; Riemann -; Riemann boundary
value -; Schur method for solving the
Caratheodory interpolation -; set of
optimal solutions of a linear programming
-; shortest path -; Signorini -; sin-
gular perturbation -; small denominator
-; spherical Bernstein -; statistical
decision -; Steiner -; Steiner tree
-; strong Parrott -; suboptimal Nehari
extension -; suboptimal Nevanlinna-
Pick interpolation -; superoptimal Ne-
hari extension -; Syracuse -; Titch-
marsh divisor -; traveling-salesman -;
Tricomi-Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev -; Ulam
-; variational inequality -; vector opti-
mization -; Whitehead -; Yamabe-
problem for an elliptic operator see: bound-
aryvalue -
problem for Banach spaces see: basis-
problem for copulas see: compatibility-
problem for finite sets see: relation clo-
sure -
problem for random covering see: Dvoret-
zky -
problem in a group see: solvable conjugacy
-; solvable word -
problem in classical mechanics see: MIC-
Kepler -
problem in differential geometry see: Bern-
stein -
problemN
[35Mxx, 76N15; 35M xx, 76N15]
(see: Bitsadze--Lavrent'ev problem)
problem of mixed type .,ee: boundary
value -
problem of the first kind see: boundary
value -
problem of the second kind see: boundary
value -; initial value -
problem of the third kind see: Boundary
value -
problem on the Euler totient function see:
Lehmer-
problem on the resolution of definite rational
functions see: Hilbert-
problems see: Bellman method for solving
shortest path -; stiff -
procedure see: Laplace question on the
optimal choice of a voting -; Schensted
insertion -
process see: Additive stochastic -; Brown-
ian excursion -: conjugate stochastic -:
559
PROCESS
Cox -; <i-dimensional Bessel -; dimen-
sion of a Bessel -; Dirichlet -; Empirical
-; exchangeable increment -; Fokker-
Planck collision -; homogeneous addi-
tive stochastic -; increment -; inter-
acting branching -; Kiefer -; Lazard
elimination -; Levy -; macro level of
a self-organizing -; micro level of a
self-organizing -; micro process in a
self-organizing -; Pearl-Vernulst logis-
tic -; point Poisson -; predictable -;
purely discontinuous stochastic -; self-
organizing -; stochastically continuous
stochastic -; Verhulst-Pearl logistic -;
Wiener-levy -
process algebra see: stochastic-
process in a self-organizing process see:
micro-
process indexed by functions see: empiri-
cal-
process indexed by sets see: empirical-
process prior distribution see: Dirichlet-
processes see: Bessel -; mixture of
Dirichlet -
processes and fields see: Absolute regu-
larHy of stochastic -
processing see: digital image -
processor see: systolic-
product see: categorial -; co-universal
-; first Arens -; Gromov -; Hilbert-
Schmidt tensor -; idempotent scalar -;
inner -; Kronecker -; leading power -;
matrix direct -; overlapping shuffle -;
Petersson scalar -; second Arens -;
shuffle -
product action of a wreath product type
[20B 15; 20B 15)
(see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
product Bezier surface see: tensor-
product error see: inner--
product{orm network
[6OK25, 68M20; 6OK25, 68M20)
(see: Performance analysis)
product formula
[22Exx, 33-XX, 42Cxx; 22Exx, 33-
XX,42Cxx)
(see: Addition theorems in the theory
of special functions)
product-of-sums
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94CIO; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94C 10)
(see: Karnaugh map)
product of vectors see: inner-
product type see: product action of a
wreath -
product type for a primitive permutation
group action see: twisted wreath -
production of a contextual grammar
[03D05, 68Q50, 68S05; 03D05,
68Q50, 68S05)
(see: Contextual grammar)
products see: Arens -; sum-of- -
profile
[90A05, 90A08, 90A28; 90A05,
90A08, 9OA28)
(see: Arrow impossibility theorem)
profile see: Buckley-Leverett - ' (.<ee: Computer algebra package)
profile junction
[54E70; 54E70)
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
program see: derivation of a query rela-
tive to a logic -; Elliott classHication -;
logic -; successful derivation of a query
relative to a logic -
program analy"is
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55)
(see: Analysis of programs)
program analysis see: correctness relation
in -
program verification
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55)
(see: Analysis of programs)
programmed grammar
[68Q42, 68S05; 68Q42, 68S05)
(see: Regulated rewriting)
Programming see: Journal of Logic -
560
programming see: Interior-point methods
in mathematical -; Logic -; logical vari-
able in linear -; positive logic -; Prox-
imal point methods in mathematical -;
tacil-
programming problem see: convex -; fea-
sible set of a linear -; general mathemat-
ical -; Mixed integer -; multi-objective
- ; optimal solution of a convex -; set of
optimal solutions of a linear -
programming relaxation see: linear-
programs see: Analysis of -
projection see: Bregman-
projection inequality see: Petty-
projection method for tilings
[05B45; 05B45 J
(see: Penrose tiling)
projection quantum numbers
[2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
projective algebraic varieties see: Riemann
hypothesis for non-singular -
projective algebraic variety
[14F17, 14MI5, 20010; 14F17,
14M15,20GIOJ
(see: Kempf vanishing theorem)
projective class see: Mal'tsev-
projective height
[IIGxx, IU81, IU91; IIGn, IU81,
IU91)
(see: E·function; G-function)
projective line
[5IB05; 51B05)
(see: Chain geometry)
projective line see: distance in the -; ra-
tional function on the -
projective pair (~f quotients in a lattice
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
projective surface see: adjoint bundle of a
-; canonical bundle of a -
projective system
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
Prokhorov theorem
[6OBIO, 6OB12; 60810, 60B12]
(see: Skorokhod topology)
Prokhorov theorem see: Kolmogorov--
Prolog see: cut in -
prolongation method
[34C20, 35A30, 58D19, 58035;
34C20, 35A30, 58DI9, 58G35]
(see: Lie symmetry analysis)
prolonged vector field
[34C20, 35A30, 58D19, 58035;
34C20, 35A30, 58DI9, 58035]
(see: Lie symmetry analysis)
propagation of chaos
[60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05;
6OHIO, 6OK35, 65C05, 65U05]
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial dltTerential equations)
propagation rule
[03B48, 68T99; 03B48, 68T99]
(see: Incidence calculus)
proper chain geometry
[5IB05; 51805J
(see: Chain geometry)
proper extended-real-valued function
[46A22, 52A07; 46A22, 52A07)
Bishop-Phelps theorem;
(see:
Bl'llndsted-Rockafellar theorem)
proper geodesic
[53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
proper Pareto optimality
[9OC29; 90C29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
proper right factor of a word
[05Axx, 17BOI, 20M05; 05Axx,
I7BOI,20M05J
(see: Lyndon word)
properly discontinuous group action
[30F35; 30F35]
(see: Bers space)
properties of grammatical families see: pseudo-Boolean algebra see: /':,.--
density - pseudo-Cauchy sequence
property see: accessibility -; AK- -; ap- 112JlO, 12J20; 12JIO, 12J201
proximation -; Baernstein example of a (see: Kaplansky field)
rellexive space not having the Banach- pseudo-conformal mappi/lg
Saks -; Banach-Saks -; bispectral -; 132CI6, 53C15; 32CI6, 53CI51
CA- -; Church-Rosser -; congruence (see: CR-manifold)
subgroup -; Dunford-Pettis -; empty pseUdo-convex F -algebra see: locally-
sphere -; exchange -; FC- -; fi- pseUdo-convex manifold see: strictly-
nite subset -; Fixed-point -; Folner pseudo-differential operator see: lifting of
-; Jordan-Dedekind -; Kazhdan T- a-
-; local Skolem -; PA- -; Painleve pseul/lJ·distam'e
-; rate-independence -; regular func- 194A29; 94A29J
tion having the uniqueness -; Riesz in- (see: HutTman code)
terpolation -; sign change -; stability pseud(J-isometry
of the Banach-Saks -; strong acces- 153C23; 53C23]
sibility -; strong visibility -; sum -; (see: Quasi-isometry)
symmetry -; Szarek finite-dimensional pseudo-limits
analogue of Enllo's example of a space 112J1O, 12120; 12J1O,I21201
without the approximation -; trace -; (see: Kaplansky field)
Vapnik-Chervonenkis -; weak Banach- pseudo-metric .'ee: infinitesimal Koba-
Saks -; weak exchange -; Whitney - yashi -
property FA for groups pseudo-metric space .,ee: probabilistic-
120G20; 20G20] pseudo-metrically generated space
(see: Bianchi group) 154E70; 54E701
property for an I-group see: decomposi- (see: Probabilistic metric space)
tion -
pseud(}-mi(otic group
property for interpolation spaces see:
120E06, 20E07, 20Jxx; 20E06. 20E07.
Calder6n monotonicity -
20JxxJ
property for (partially) ordered sets .<ee:
(see: Binate group)
Fixed-point -
p,w~ud(}-n(}ise sequence
property for sequences see: Correlation-
IIIB37, IIB83. 94Bxx; IIB37,
property (in probability theory) see: integral
11883,94BxxJ
limit -; local limit -
(see: Correlation property for se-
property of a partially ordered set .<ee:
quences)
Jordan-Dedekind -
pseudo-normed Cayley-Dickso/l algebra
property of a regular function see: unique-
116Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17D05.
ness -
55Rxx; 16Sxx, 17 Axx, 17Bxx, 17D05.
property of the Gauss kernel see: semi-
55Rxxl
group -
(see: Hurwitz transformation)
proportional J)voretzky-Rogers fa('tor·
Pseudo-prime
;zalion
(IIA5I. IIN25. IIYII; IIA51.
146Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 468xx,
IIN25,IIYII)
46820, 52A21]
(referred to in: Carmichael number;
(see: Banach-Mazur compadum)
Probabilistic primality test)
propositional attitude
103Bxx; 03Bxx] (refers to: Carmichael number; Ellip.
tic curve; Finite field; Jacobi sym-
(see: Adequacy theorem)
protocol see: cooperation-
bol; probabilistic primality test; Rie-
mann hypotheses)
provability logic
103Bxx, 03845, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx, pseudo-prime
[IIA51, IIN25, IIYII; IIA51,
06E25, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 08Bxx I IIN25,IIYII]
(see: Pseudo-prime)
(see: Magari algebra)
pseudo-prime see: Euler base-b -; ordi-
provability predicate see: Hilbert-Bernays
nary base-b -; strong base-b -
standard -
pseudo-Riemannian metric
proving Bonferroni-type inequalities see:
183Cxx; 83Cxx]
method of polynomials for -
(see: Synge world function)
Proximal point methods in mathemati-
pseudo-spectral merhod
cal programming
165M05, 65M 10, 86-08; 65M05,
(90C30; 90C30)
65M 10, 86-0B]
(referred to in: Bregman distance;
(see: Absorbing boundary condi·
Bregman function)
tions)
(refers to: Bregman distance; Breg-
PSK constellation see: 4--
man function; Hilbert space; III-
PUNIMAX
posed problems; Interior.point
168Q40; 6BQ40]
methods in mathematical program-
ming; linear programming; opera-
tor; quadratic programming; Reg- pure braid ,'pace
105835, 20F36, 20F55, 52B30. 57N65;
ularization method; subditTerential;
05835, 20F36, 20F55, 52830, 57N65]
weak topology)
Priifer domain (see: Arrangement of hyperplanes)
pure combinatory logic
(13F05; 13F05)
(refers to: Bezout ring; Dedekind 103840; 03B40]
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
ring; Flat module; Group without
torsion; Injective module; integral pure disco/ltinuity
domain; Localization in a commuta- 160130; 60130]
tive algebra; Semi-hereditary ring; (see: Additive stochastic process)
Valuation) purely di,w'ontinuous stochastic process
Priif"r transformation 160130; 60130]
[34CIO; 34CIOI (see: Additive stochastic process)
(see: Disconcugacy) purpose system see: share library of the
pseudo-Boolean algebra general- -
[03Bxx, 03B45, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx, puzzle see: Chinese rings -; towers of
06E25. OBBxx; 038xx, 03845, 03C62, Hanoi -
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E25, 08Bxx] PVF see: EDM--
(see: Magari algebra) pyramid see: regular-

Pythagorean theorem, multi-dimen- [16W30, 17B37, 221060, S3CIS,
sional S8H15, SIR50; 16W30, 17B37,
(5IM25; 51M25) 22E60, 53C IS, S8H 15, 81 R50]
(refers to: Pythagoras theorem) (see: Poisson Lie group)
Pythagorean triples quantum anomaly
[11041, IIG05, 14H25, 14HS2; [SIRxx, SITxx; 8lRxx, SITxx]
11041, IIGOS, 14H2S, 14H52] (see: Chiral anomaly)
(see: Fermat last theorem) quantum chaos
[8IS20; 81S20]
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
---Q---
quantum field anomaly
[8lRxx, SITxx; SIRxx, SITxx[
(see: Chiral anomaly)
quantum mechanics
[15A4S, 16 Y60, 17Dxx, 19Lxx,
q-analysis
28Cxx, 44-XX, 44AIS, 49Lxx, 53ASO,
[05EIO, 20C30; 05EIO, 20C30]
5SR05, 6013S, 68Q I 0, 7C1-XX, 70M20,
(see: Skew Young tableau)
BI-XX, 810lS, 81Pxx, SIRxx, SIROS,
q-spccial functions
90C39,93C30; 15MS, 16Y60, 170xx,
[22Exx, 33-XX, 42Cxx; 22Exx, 33-
19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-XX, 44AIS, 49Lxx,
XX, 42Cxx]
53ASO, 5SR05, 6013S, 68Q I 0, 70-
(see: Addition theorems in the theory
XX, 70M20, HI-XX, S1015, SIPxx,
of special functions)
81 Rxx, 81 ROS, 90C39, 93C30]
Q-symbol
(see: Bell inequalities; Idempotent
[OSEOS, OSE I 0, OSE IS, 20GOS; 05EOS,
analysis; Idempotent correspon-
OSE I 0, OSE IS, 20G05]
dence principle; Idempotent super-
(see: Robinson-Schensted corre-
position principle; Kustaanheimo-
spondence)
Stiefel transformation; Spectrum
(q+l)-arc
generating algebra)
[SIExx; SIExx]
quantum mechanics) see: dynamical sym-
(see: Galois geometry)
metry (in-
QCO
quantum noise
[81R40, 81T17, 82B28; 81R40,
[8IS20; 81S20]
BITl7,82B281
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
(see: Renormalization group analy-
ory)
sis)
quantum number
quadrangle see: generalized-
[8lRxx, 8IROS; SIRxx, 8IROS]
quadratic algebra
(see: Spectrum generating algebra)
[SIBOS; SIBOS]
quantum number see: angular momen-
(see: Chain geometry)
tum -
quadratic assignment problem
quantum numbers see: projection-
[90Cxx; 90Cxx]
quantum sine-Gordon model
(see: Simulated annealing)
[S8F07, 81T10, SIT20, 83C47; SSF07,
quadratic characteristic 81 TlO, 8IT20, S3C47]
[62FI2, 62G20; 62FI2, 62G20]
(see: Massive Thirring model)
(see: Asymptotic optimality)
quantum theory see: Stochastic limit 01 -
quadratic flock Quarles-type theorems see: Beckman--
[5IExx, 5INIS; SIExx, SINI5] quasi-additive function
(see: Flock)
[26A45, 26B 15, 2BA 75, 28B05,
quadratic operator see: evolutionary- 49Q2S; 26MS, 26B 15, 28A7S, 28BOS,
quadratic variation 49Q25]
[41A17, 42B30; 41 A 17, 42B30] (see: Burkill-Cesari integral)
(see: Burkholder-Davis-Gundy in- quasi-additive function see: Cesari-
equality) quasi-continuous function
quadrature .... ee: Adaptive- [26A IS, 54C30; 26A15, 54C30]
quadrature formula see: adaptive -; non- (see: Blumberg theorem)
adaptive - quasi-crystal
quadrature method see: adaptive -; non- [05B4S; 05B45]
adaptive - (see: Penrose tiling)
quadric quasi-extension see: hyper--
[5IExx; SIExx] quasi-intension see: hyper--
(see: Galois geometry) quasi-invariant measure
quadric model (~f a chain space [60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H07]
[5IBOS; SIBOS] (see: Malliavin calculus)
(see: Chain space) Quasi-isometric spaces
quadric set see: Flock of a - (53C23; S3C23)
qualification see: constraint- (referred to in: Asymptotic invariant
quality see: average outgoing - ofa group)
quality level see: acceptable- (refers to: equivalence; Metric space;
quantifier rank
Quasi-isometry)
[03Cxx; 03Cxx] Quasi-isometry
(see: Fra'sse characterization of ele- (53C23; 53C23)
mentary equivalence) (relerred to in: Asymptotic invariant
quantifiers see: Elimination of -; relative of a group; Quasi-isometric spaces;
elimination of - Word metric)
quantitative fonn of the Korovkin theorem (refers to: Continuous mapping; Lip-
[4lAxx, 46Bxx, 47B65; 41Axx, schitz constant; Metric space)
46Bxx, 47B651 quasi-isometry see: (.\, k ) - -
(see: Bohman-Korovkin theorem) quasi-i,\'()morphism
quantity see: Kullback-Leibler information [SSPxx; 5SPxx]
-; saddle- (see: Adams-Hilton model)
quantity of information see: Kullback- quasi-periodicity route to chaos
Leibler - [SSFI3; 58F13]
quantization see: level in - (see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac-
quantization) sec: Anomalies (in - tion)
quantization problem quasi-triangular r-matrix
RAMIFICATION GROUP
[16W30, 17B37, 22E60, 53C15, (see: Calogero-Moser-Krichever
58HIS, SIRSO; 16W30, 17B37, system)
22E60, 53CI5, S8H15, 8IRSO] r-matrix see: quasi-triangular -; triangu-
(see: Poisson Lie group) lar -
quatemion Hopf manifold R-positive extension
[53C2S, S3CS5; 53C2S, 53C55] [47AS7, 47A68; 47AS7, 47A68]
(see: Hopf manifold) (see: Band method)
quaternions see: algebra of -; algebra of Racah coefficient
Hamilton -; algebra of hyperbolic - [20Cxx, 20G05, 22A2S, 22E70;
Quenching 20Cxx, 20G05, 22A2S, 22E70]
(35KS7, 3SK60, 35K65; 35KS7, (see: Racah, Wigner, 3 - j, 6 - j, and
3SK60, 3SK6S) 9- j coefficients)
(refers to: First boundary value prob- Racah sum rule
lem) [20Cxx, 20GOS, 22A25, 22E70;
quenching 20Cxx, 20G05, 22A2S, 22E70]
[35Q3S, 76-XX; 35Q3S, 76-XX] (see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
(see: Spinodal decomposition) 9 - j coefficients)
quenching see: critical length in -; para- Racah, Wigner, 3-j, 6-j, and 9-j
bolic - coefficients
quenching solution (20Cxx, 20GOS, 22A2S, 22E70;
[3SKS7, 3SK60, 3SK6S; 35KS7, 20Cxx, 20GOS, 22A2S, 22E70)
3SK60,3SK65] (refers to: vector space)
(see: Quenching) radar or sonar signals see: frequency-
quenching time hopping detection in -
[35KS7, 35K60, 35K6S; 35K57, radial equatiun fur the hydrogen atom
35K60, 3SK6S] [SIRxx, 8IROS; SIRxx, XIROS]
(see: Quenching) (see: Spectrum generating algebra)
query radial limit point
[68NI7; 6SNI7] [53C20, SSFI7; 53C20, 58F17]
(see: Logic programming) (see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem)
radia/limit set
query see: resolution by a -; resolving -
[S3C20, S8F17; 53C20, 5XF17]
query relative to a logic program see:
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem)
derivation of a -; successful deriva-
radial maximalfunctioTl
tion of a-
[42B30; 42B30]
question see: Tarski-
(see: Hardy spaces)
question on decidability of solution of
radiating houndary conditioliS
systems of polynomial equations see:
[65M05, 6SMIO, X6-08; 6SM05,
Skolem -
6SM 10, X6-08]
question on the optimal choice 01 a voting
(see: Absorbing boundary condi-
procedure see: Laplace-
tions)
queue
radical see: Gel'land -; N' - -; p- -;
[90C3S; 90C35]
real-
(see: Search algorithm)
radius (~rthe Banach-Mazur compactum
queue see: MIMll- M/G/1-
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
single-server -
46B20, 52A21]
queueing network
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
[60K25, 68M20; 60K2S, 68M20]
radius problem see: minimal spectral -
(see: Performance analysis) Rad()-Andreascu-VaIClin theorem
queues see: network 01 -
[5IM05, 5IMIO; 51M05, SIMIO]
Quillen plus-construction (see: Beckman-Quarles-type theo-
[19006; 19006] rems)
(see: Plus-construction) Rad" theorem
Quillen theorem [5IMOS, 51MIO; SIM05, 51MIO]
[20C20, 200xx; 20C20, 200xx] (see: Beckman-Quarles-type theo-
(see: p-rank) rems)
quotatjollallanguage Rad(Jfl-Nik()d.vm density
[03Bxx; 03Bxx] [60G09; 60G09]
(see: Adequacy theorem) (see: De Finetti theorem)
quotient in a lattice Radon-Nikodym derivative
[06COS; 06COS] [II Fxx, 2S0xx, 30Cxx, 32Nxx, 5SFxx,
(see: Arguesian lattice) 62H30, 62Pxx, 80-XX; I I Fxx, 280xx,
quotient-of-subspace theorem see: Mil- 30Cxx, 32Nxx, SSFxx, 62H30, 62Pxx,
man - SO-XX]
quotient theorem see: Ritt- (see: Bhattacharyya distance; Con-
quotients see: Fermat- formal measure)
quotients in a lattice see: projective pair Radon-Nikodym theorem see: non-
of - commutative -
Ramanujan methods see: Hardy-
Littlewood- -
___ R ___
Ramanujan theorem see: Hardy--
Ramanujan theorem (on the normal num-
ber of prime factors of an integer) see:
Hardy- -
ramification deficiency
R-atotn [IISI5, 12120; IISI5, 12120]
[68N 17; 68N 17] (see: Defect)
(see: Logic programming) ramification field
R-Hopforder [12120, 13BIS; 12120,13B15]
[16S34, 16W30; 16S34, 16W30[ (see: Ramification theory of valued
(see: Hopf order) fields)
r-matrix ramification field see: absolute-
[14020, 14H40, 14HS2, 14K25, ramification group
22E67, 33EOS, 34LOS, 3SQS3, S8F07, [12120, 13BIS; 12120, 13B15]
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14HS2, (see: Ramification theory of valued
14K2S, 22E67, 33EOS, 34LOS, 3SQS3, fields)
S8F07,70H20] ramification group see: higher-
561
RAM[F[CATION [NOEX
ramification index
[[ [S[S, [2J20; IISIS, 12J20]
(see: Defect)
Ramification theory of valued fields
(l2J20, 13BIS; 12J20, 13BIS)
(referred to in: Defect; Henselian;
Henselization of a valued field;
Mode[ theory of valued fields; Valued
function fie[d)
(refers to: commutative algebra; de-
fect; Extension of a field; Ga[ois
group; Henselization of a valued
field; ideal; Mode[ theory of valued
fields; NormaJ subgroup; number
theory; p-group; pro-p-group; profi-
nite group; Ramified prime ideal;
Separable extension; valuation)
ramijied field see: finitely-
ramified field extension see: tamely-
Ramsey number
(OS-XX; OS-XX)
(refers to: Dirich[et box principle;
graph; hypergraph)
Ramsey number
[OS-XX; OS-XX]
(see: Ramsey number)
Ramsey theorem
[OS-XX; OS-XX]
(see: Ramsey number)
Ramsey theory
[OS-XX; OS-XX]
(see: Ramsey number)
Ramsey theory
[OSCSS, OSOIO, 20KOI; OSCSS,
OSOIO,20KOI]
(see: ErdOs-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem)
Ramsey theory see: zero-sum-
random dosed set
[28Cxx, 6000S; 28Cxx, 6000SJ
(see: Choquet-KendaU-Matheron
theorem)
random coefficient auto-regressive model
[62MIO; 62MIO]
(see: Canadian lynx series)
random cove ring
[6000S; 60OOS]
(see: Dvoretzky problem)
random covering see: Billard method for
-; Dvoretzky problem for -
random cutout
[31 Cxx, 6000S, 60G60, 60J4S; 31 Cxx,
60OOS, 6OG60, 60J4S]
(see: Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp
theorem)
random cutout
[6000S; 6000S]
(see: Dvoretzky problem)
random effects model
[62AIS; 62AIS]
(see: Dirich[et process)
random events see: exchangeable-
random mating
[17092,92010; 17092,92010]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
random measure see: permanent-
random orthogonal factorization
[46Bxx, 46B20, S2A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, S2A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
random search
[90C3S; 9OC3SJ
(see: Search algorithm)
random trees
[60JIS; 6OJ[S]
(see: Bernoulli excursion)
random variable see: Accessible-
random variables see: a-mixing -; {3-
mixing -; De Finelli theorem for m-
symmetric -; exchangeable sequence of
-; m-dependent sequence of -; m-
symme!:-ic sequence of - ; symmetric se-
quence of -; Uniformly integrable set
of-
random vortex method see: Chorin-
random walks see: equivalence principle
for-
S62
rank see: finite Morley -; Group of fi-
nite Morley -; Morley <p- -; Morley -;
quantifier -; p- -
rank (in group theory) see: p--
rank n see: geometry of-
rank of a group see: normal p- -; sectional
p--
rank of a lallice
[[IH06, I[HI6, IIH31, llH46,
IIHSO, SIMI I, 51MI5, SIMI6,
SIM20, 51M25; I I H06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIHSO, SIMI I,
SIMIS, SIM[6, 51M20, SIM2S]
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
rank of a p-valued field see: p--
rank of a residue in a geometry
[5IE24; SIE24]
(see: Diagram geometry)
rank ofa set
[OSB35, 06Bxx; OSB35, 06Bxx]
(see: Jordan-Dedekind space)
rank of a U -statistic
[60Fxx, 62Exx; 60Fxx, 62Exx]
(see: U-statistic)
Rankine-Hugoniot condition
[76S0S; 76S05]
(see: Buckley-Leverett equation)
Ran-Kupper model
[62J IS, 62K05; 62JlS, 62K05]
(see: Paired comparison model)
rapidity variable
[S8F07, 81TlO, 81T20, 83C47; S8F07,
8lTlO, 8lT20, 83C47J
(see: Massive Thirring model)
rate see: credibility premium -; Kantoro-
vich error -; shear -
rate constant see: specific-reaction-
rate for steepest descent see: Kantorovich
convergence -
rate-independence property
[47H30; 47H30]
(see: Hysteresis)
rate of a chemical reaction see: reaction-
rate of strain tensor
[73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 760xx]
(see: Bingham fluid)
ratio see: Steiner -; volume -
ratio and Euclidean sections see: theorem
on volume-
ratio ergodic theorem
[28015, S8F17; 280lS, 58F17]
(see: Hopf alternative)
ratio test see: likelihood -; maximum-
likelihood -
rational Bezier spline
[4IAIS, 41ASO, 6S00S, 6S007,
6S0lO, 6S0lS, 6S017, 68U05,
68U07, 68UIO; 41AIS, 41A50,
6S00S, 65007, 65010, 65015,
6S017, 68U05, 68U07, 68UIO]
(see: Bezier spline)
rational Bezier surface
[41AIS, 4[ASO, 41A63, 6S005,
6S007, 650 I0, 650 IS, 65017,
68U05, 68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5,
41ASO, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 6S017, 68U05,
68U07,68UIO]
(see: Bezier surface)
rational Calogero-Moser system
[[4020, 14H40, 14HS2, 14K2S,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35QS3, S8F07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14HS2,
14K2S, 22E67, 33EOS, 34LOS, 3SQ53,
S8F07,70H20]
(see: Calogem-Moser-Krichever
system)
rational function see: integral definite -;
rationally definite -
rational junction on the projective line
[1[T22,llT23,IIT24,IIT71,14G15,
94B27; IIT22, IIT23, IlT24, IIT71,
[4GIS, 94B27J
(see: Bombieri-Weil bound)
rational functions see: Hilbert problem on
the resolution of definite -
rational place
112J20, 14HOS; 12J20, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
rational polyhedron
IIIH06; IlH06J
(see: F[atness theorem)
rational transduction
168Q45, 68S0S; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Abstract family of languages)
rationally definite rational function
112FOS, 12JlS; 12FOS, 12J 15]
(see: Artin-Schreier theory)
ray in a Gromov hyperbolic space see:
asymptotic -
Rayleigh flow
182B40; 82B40]
(see: Broadwell model)
Rayleigh-Ritz variational characteriza-
tion of eigenvalues
147AIO, 49RIO, 65FIO; 47AIO,
49RIO,6SFIO]
(see: Anti-eigenvalue)
Rayleigh-Taylor instability
(76Exx; 76Exx)
(refers to: Laplace equation)
Rayleigh-Taylor instability o{superposed
fluids
176Exx; 76Exx]
(see: Rayleigh-Taylor instability)
rays see: asymptotic class of geodesic -;
exponential divergence of geodesic -
RCA model
162M 10; 62MIO]
(see: Canadian lynx series)
RE family of languages
168Q4S, 68S05; 68Q4S, 68S0S]
(see: Trio)
reachability matrix
193BS5, 93C05, 9301S; 93B55,
93C05,93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
reachahle pair oj matrices
193BS5, 93C05, 930 IS; 93BS5,
93COS, 93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
reachable pair of matrices see: com-
pletely -
reaction see: Belousov-ZhabotinskiI -; re-
action rate of a chemical -; steady state
of a chemical -
reaction-diffusion equations see: convection-
reaction equation see: chemical-
reaction parameter see: chemical-
reaction rate constant see: specific--
reaction rate of a chemical reaction
192C4S; 92C4S]
(see: Michaelis-Menten equation)
real-analytic function see: restricted-
real class
ImExx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E701
(see: Alternative set theory)
Real closed field
(03C60, 12JI5, 12L12; 03C60, 12J15,
12L12)
(referred to in: E[imination of quan-
tifiers; Existentially closed; Exis-
tentially closed; Kaplansky field;
Model theory of valued fields; Trans-
fer principle; o-minimal; p-adically
closed field)
(refers to: Algebraically closed field;
Axiomatized class; Cauchy theo-
rem; elementary theory; Elimination
of quantifiers; elimination of quanti-
fiers; Euclidean geometry; Extension
of a field; Hilbert theorem; Model
theory of valued fields; ordered field;
p-adically closed field; Structure;
Sturm theorem; Transfer principle)
real closed field see: cut in a -
real-closedfield
[I2F05, 12Jl5; 12FOS, 12JI51
(see: Artin-Schreier theory)
real closed fields see: completeness of the
elementary theory of -; decidability of
the theory of -; model completeness of
the theory of -
real-closed fields see: Artin-Schreier char-
acterization of -
real closure of an ordered field
103C60, 12JIS, 12L12; 03C60, 12JlS,
12L12J
(see: Real closed field)
real distribution see: totally-
real exponential function see: Model theory
of the -
real field see: formally-
real Hardy space of functions on a homo-
geneous group
142B30; 42B30J
(see: Hardy spaces)
real Hardy space of functions on a nilpo-
tent Lie group
142B30; 42B30]
(see: Hardy spaces)
real Hopf manifold
IS3C2S, S3C55; 53C2S, 53CS5]
(see: Hopf manifold)
real hyperbolic plane
III F20; I [F20J
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
real-method interpolation space see:
Lions-Peetre -
real number set) see: flow (action of the -
real numbers see: field of -
real radical
I03C60, 12JlS, 12L12; 03C60, 12JlS,
12L12J
(see: Real closed field)
real submanifold see: totally-
real-valued function see: proper extended-
real-variable HP theorv
142B30; 42B30]
(see: Hardy spaces)
real-variable theory (~f
142B30; 42B30]
(see: Hardy spaces)
realizable eR-structure
132CI6, S3CIS; 32CI6, 53CIS]
(see: CR-manifold)
realization functor see: Betti-
realization of boundary value systems see:
minimal-
realization problem see: Kalman partial -
rearrangement see: decreasing-
rearrangement-invariant function space
146B20; 46B20J
(see: Boyd index)
rearrangement of functions see: symmet-
ric -
reasoning see: automatic-
reciprocal theorem see: Betti-
reciprocity see: combinatorial-
reciprocity relationjor Dedekind sums
111F20; IIF20J
(see: Dedekind sum)
reconstruction technique see: multiplicative
algebraic -
rectangle function see: Burkill integrable -
rectangular pattern
[IS-XX, 30E05, 47 AS7; IS-XX,
30EOS, 47AS7J
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion of)
rectangular tetrahedron see: tri--
rectifiable curve see: Jordan length of a
continuous -
rectifying inspection
[62NIO; 62NIO]
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
recurrence see: Fermi-Pasta-Ulam-type
-; linear -; multiplicity of a -; root of
a-
recurrence sequence
[l1B37; IIB37]
(see: Skolem-Mahler-Lech theorem)
recurrence sequence see: degenerate-
recurrence theorem see: Poincare-
recurrent Brownian motion
[S3C20, 58F17; S3C20, 58F17]
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem)

recurrent iterated function system
[28A80, 5SFII, 60J05; 2SASO, 5SFII,
60J05]
(see: Iterated function system)
recurrentself-.,imilar set
[2SASO, 5SFII, 6OJ05; 2SASO, 58FII,
60J05]
(see: Iterated function system)
recurrent .~et
[2S0I5, 5SF17; 28015, 5SFI7]
(see: Hopf alternative)
recurring .~equence
[11837, II 883, 948xx; II 837,
11883,948xx]
(see: Correlation property for se-
quences)
recursive class see: 3-terminal-
recursively enumerable language
[03005, 68Q45, 6SQ50, 68S05;
03005, 68Q45, 6SQ50, 6SS05]
(see: AFL operations; Contextual
grammar; Trio)
recursively enumerable languages see:
family of -; family of -
Redten
[68Q40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
REOUCE
[34C20, 35A30, 5S019, 58G35,
6SQ40; 34C20, 35A30, 5S019,
5SG35, 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package; Lie
symmetry analysis)
reduced algebra
[OSC05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx;
08C05, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx]
(see: Jacobson category)
reduced basis
[IIH06, IIHI6, IIH31, IIH46,
IIH50, 51MII, 51MI5, 51MI6,
51M20, 51M25; IIH06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIH50, 51MII,
51MI5, 51MI6, 51M20, 51M25]
(see: LLL basis reduction metbod)
reducedform of a polynomial
[I3P 10, 68Q40; 13P 10, 68Q40]
(see: Griibner basis)
reduced laUice basis see: LLL--
reduced matrix element of a tensor oper-
ator
[22C05, 22010, 22E70, SIR05;
22C05, 22010, 22E70, SIR05]
(see: Wiguer-Eckart tbeorem)
reduced polynomial
[12005, 65T20; 12005, 65T20]
(see: Winograd small convolution al-
gorithm)
reducibility with respect to a set of poly-
nomials
[I3PIO, 68Q40; 13PIO, 6SQ40]
(see: Griibner basis)
reducible with respect to a set of polynomials
see: polynomial,-
reduct of a .~truclure
[03C07; 03C07]
(see: Structure)
reduction see: basis -; block -; block
LLL -; constant -; good -; Lyapunov-
Schmidt -
reduction everywhere see: good-
reduction formula
[6OC05; 60C05]
(see: Bonferroni-type inequalities)
reduction mapping see: divisor-
reduction method see: LLL basis -
reduction of a partial differential equation
to an ordinary differential equation see:
similarity -
reduction of valued function fields see: con-
stant -
reduction ordering
[13PIO,68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40]
(see: Buchberger algoritbm)
reduction principle
[58Fxx, 5SF14; 5SFxx, 58F14]
(see: Centre manifold)
reduction resuR see: subject-
reductive connection /unction
[6SQ20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
reductively filtered Lie algebra
[58F36; 58F36]
(see: Birkhoff normal form)
redundancy of a code
[94A29; 94A29]
(see: Huffman code)
Ree unital
[05805, 2OG4O, 51E20; 05805,
2OG40,51E20]
(see: Unital)
Reebfield
[53CI5, 53C57, 58F05; 53CI5,
53C57, 58F05]
(see: K -contact ftow)
Reed-Muller code
[05E30, 94815, 94835; 05E30,
94815, 94835]
(see: Kerdock and Preparata codes)
Rees algebra
[14805, 14E15; 14805, 14E15]
(see: Blow-up algebra)
reference adaptive control see: model-
reference paradox see: self--
refinement see: method of iterative -
reflected binary code
[038xx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 038xx,
06Exx, 94C 10]
(see: Karnaugh map)
reflected Gray code see: binary-
reflecting boundary conditions see: non--
reflection coefficient
[26CIO, 30055, 30E05, 41A05,
46E 10,47 A57, 65M05, 65M 10, S6-0S,
S6A22; 26C 10, 30055, 30E05, 41 A05,
46E 10,47 A57, 65M05, 65M 10, S6-08,
86A22]
(see: Absorbing boundary condi-
tions; Caratbeodory interpolation)
reflection group see: exponent of a -
reflex field of a Shimura variety
[lIFxx, IIGIS, 14Mxx, 2OGxx;
IIFxx, IIGIS, 14Mxx, 2OGxx]
(see: Shimura variety)
0-reflexive Banach space
[47003; 47003]
(see: Adjoint semi-group of opera-
tors)
reflexive space not having the Banach-Saks
property see: Baernstein example of a -
refractory period for a nerve
[92C20; 92C20]
(see: Action potential)
REG family of languages
[68Q45, 68S05; 6SQ45, 6SS05]
(see: Trio)
regime see: self-organization-
region see: damping -; non-simply-
connected -
register see: linear feedback shift -
register sequence see: shift-
regression see: minimax risk for linear -
regressive model see: exponential auto-
-; logistic smooth transKion auto- -;
random coefficient auto- -; self-exciting
threshold auto- -; subset auto- -
regular algebra see: Arens--
regular Aronszajn tree
[03E05, 05C05, 54H05; 03E05,
05C05, 54H05]
(see: AronsZl\.in tree)
regular Banach algebra see: semi--
regular contact manifold
[53C15, 53C57, 5SF05; 53CI5,
53C57, 5SF05]
(see: K -contact ftow)
regular expansion for a singular pertur-
bation problem
[33K57, 35825, SOA25; 33K57,
35825, SOA25]
(see: Activation energy)
regular function
[12J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
regular function see: uniqueness property
of a-
regular junction having the uniqueness
property
[12J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
regular graph
[05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factorization)
regular growth of entire functions see:
Levin-Pfluger theory of completely -
regular integral operator
[45P05, 46E30, 47855; 45P05, 46E30,
47855]
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
regular language
[03005, 6SQ45, 6SQ50, 68S05;
03005, 6SQ45, 68Q50, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations; Contextual
grammar; Trio)
regular languages see: closed under inter-
section with -; family of -
regular languages operation for languages
see: substitution with -
regular languages, operation for languages
see: intersection with -
regular measure see: laUice--
regular neighbourhood
[2S0xx, 5SF15; 280xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin tbeory)
regular of order r see: kernel, sign- -
regular operation on languages
[6SQ45, 6SS05; 6SQ45, 6SS05]
(see: AFL operations)
regular point for the Steiner tree problem
[05C35, 51M16; 05C35, 51M16]
(see: Steiner tree problem)
regular point of an ordinary differential
equation
[34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 58F07;
34A20, 34A25, 34C20, 5SF07]
(see: Painleve.type equations)
regular prime number
[11041, 1IG05, 14H25, 14H52;
11D41, IlG05, 14H25, 14H52]
(see: Fermat last tbeorem)
regular pyramid
[51M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry oftbe)
regular representation see: graphical-
regular set
[31005; 31005]
(see: Brelot harmonic space)
regular solution of the Bitsadze-
Lavrent'ev problem
[35Mxx, 76N15; 35Mxx, 76N15]
(see: Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev problem)
regular spread
[51E20; 51E20]
(see: Buekenhout-Melz unital)
regular variation
[26A12, 6OG70; 26A12, 60G70]
(see: De Haan theory; Karamata tbe-
ory)
regular variation see: index of -
regular variation of a junction
[26A12, 6OG70; 26AI2, 6OG70]
(see: De Haan tbeory)
regular variation of a function see: index
of-
regularKy see: Absolute -; Arens -; Sign-
-; strict sign- -
regularity coefficient see: absolute-
regularity condKion see: Slater-
regularity of order r see: sign--
regularKy of stochastic processes and fields
see: Absolute-
regularization see: laUice-
regularly varying junction
[26A12, 6OG70; 26AI2, 6OG70]
(see: De Haan tbeory; Karamata tbe-
ory)
regularly varying function see: extended
-;0--
Regulated rewriting
RELATIVE SAFETY LOADING
(6SQ42, 6SS05; 6SQ42, 6SS05)
(refers to: abstract family of lan-
guages; formal language; Grammar,
context-free; Trio)
regulator
[IIG4O, 14CI7, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG4O, 14CI7, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Bemnson conjectures)
regulator see: Dirichlet -; p-adic -
regulator mapping see: Beninson-
regulus
[5lExx, 51N15; 51Exx, 51N15]
(see: Flock)
regulus see: oPposite-
Reider theorem
[14Kxx,58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07]
(see: Abelian surface)
Reinhart-Molino see: Riemannian foliation
in the sense of -
Reinhart-Molino Riemannian foliation
[53C15, 53C57, 5SF05; 53CI5,
53C57,5SF05]
(see: K -contact ftow)
Reisner inequality
[52A4O; 52A40]
(see: Blaschke-Santal6 inequality)
relation see: balance -; compatible bi-
nary -; dispersion -; explosive conse-
quence -; indistinguishability -; logical
-; paraconsistent consequence -; rel-
atively founded -; tolerance - ; truth un-
der a logical -
relation algebra
[03Gxx, 03GI5, 06Exx, 06EI5;
03Gxx, 03G 15, 06Exx, 06E 15]
(see: Boolean algebra witb operators)
relation algebra
[03845, 03G05, 03GI5, 06EI5,
06E25; 03845, O3G05, O3G IS, 06E 15,
06E25]
(see: Sahlqvist identities)
relation closure problem for finite sets
[I6Y60, 49Lxx, 90C39; 16Y60,
49Lxx, 9OC39]
(see: Idempotent algorithm)
relation for Dedekind sums see: reci-
procKy -
relation in program analysis see: correct-
ness -
relation structure see: complex algebra of
a-
relation symbol
[03C07, 6SN17; 03C07, 6SN17]
(see: Logic programming; Structure)
relation symbol see: ar~y of a -
relation-.,ymbol atom
[6SNI7; 6SNI7]
(see: Logic programming)
relational structure see: complex algebra
ofa -
relations see: identical restriction on con-
stitutive -
relative acceleration constant
[62N05, 90B25; 62N05, 90B25]
(see: Accelerated life testing)
relative Calderon couple
[46870; 46870]
(see: Calderon couples)
relative elimination of quantifiers
[03C60, I2JlO, 12L12; 03C60, 12JIO,
12L12]
(see: Model theory ofvalued fields)
relative entropy
[60Exx, 62810, 94AI5, 94A17;
6OExx, 62810, 94AI5, 94A17]
(see: Kullback-Leibler information)
relative interpolation space
[46B70; 46870]
(see: Calder6n couples)
relative K -space
[46B70; 46870]
(see: Calderon couples)
relative operator entropy
[47A63; 47A63]
(see: Furuta inequality)
relative safety loading
563
RELATIVE SAFETY LOAOING
[60Gxx, 60G3S; 60Gxx, 60G3S1
(see: Risk theory)
relative to a logic program see: derivation
of a query -; successful derivation of a
query -
relative trace mapping
[16W20,2OC20; 16W20, 20C201
(see: Brauer homomorphism; Defect
group of a block)
relatively founded relation
[03Bxx, 03B4S, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E2S, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B4S, 03C62,
03Exx,06Exx, 06E2S, 08Bxxl
(see: Magari algebra)
relator group see: Higman four-generator
four- -
relaxation
[90C 10, 90C II, 90C27; 90C 10,
9OCII,9OC27]
(see: Lagrangean relaxation)
relaxation see: Lagrangean -; Lagrangian
-; linear programming -
relaxation method
[6SFIO; 6SFIOJ
(see: Acceleration methods)
relaxation method
[6SFIO; 6SFIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
relaxed problem
[9OCIO, 90CII, 90C27; 90CIO,
90CII,9OC27]
(see: Lagrangean relaxation)
relay see: Non-ideal-
relevance logic
[03BS3; O3BS3]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
relevant logic
[03BS3; 03BS3]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
reliability see: System-
reliability of systems
[62NOS; 62NOS]
(see: System reliability)
Reliable computation
(6SGxx; 6SGxx)
(refers to: interval analysis; software)
remainder term .... ee: Halasz theorem
with -
Remmert finiteness theorem see: Grauert-
Renault UNISURF CAO system
[6S017, 68U07; 6S017, 68U071
(see: Bezier curve)
renormalization see: mass-
renormaiization group
[8 I R40, 81T17, 82B28; SIR40,
8ITI7,82B28]
(see: Renormalization group analy-
sis)
Renormalization group analysis
(8 I R40, 81T17, 82B28; 81R40,
81T17,82B28)
(refers to: Lagrangian; lattice; quan-
tum field theory; Statistical physics,
mathematical problems in)
representable group
[06FIS, 20F60; 06FIS, 20F60]
(see: I-group)
representable I-groups see: variety of-
representation
[20C IS, 60B II, 60HOS, 60H07;
20CIS, 60BII, 60HOS, 60H07]
(see: Accessible random variable;
Brauer characterization of charac-
ters)
representation see: Fock -; graphical reg-
ular -; induction of a group -; Lamperti
-; linear -; restriction of a group -;
Stone -
representation-jinite algebra
[16G60; 16G60]
(see: Algebra of finite representation
type)
representation label see: irreducible-
representation of a line see: slope-
intercept -
S64
representation operators see: Schur lemma
on operators commuting with -
representation theorem see: Skorokhod-
representation theorem for Boolean alge-
bras see: Stone-
representation theorem for MaKar; (ilge-
bras
[03Bxx, O3B4S, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E2S, 08Bxx; 03Bxx, 03B4S, 03C62,
O3Exx, 06Exx, 06E2S, 08Bxx I
(see: Magari algebra)
representation theorem for slowly varyinK
functions
126A12; 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
representation theory of finite groups see:
Modular -
representation type see: Algebra offinite -
representations see: Bernstein theorems
on -; equivalent -
representations) see: Clifford theory (for
group -
representations of an integer see: Hardy-
Littlewood formula for the number of -
representations of linear operators see: In-
tegral-
representative see: Teichmuller-
representing measure
[46J20; 46J20]
(see: Choquet boundary)
reproducing formula see: Calderon-
reservoir picture see: system--
residual
[6SFxx; 6SFxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
residual dissipation inequality
173B30, 80AOS, 80A97; 73B30,
80AOS, 80A97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
residual space
[SIBOS; SIB05]
(see: Chain space)
residue characteristic
[03C60, 12JlO, 12Ll2; O3C60, 12110,
12Ll2]
(see: Model theory of valued fields)
residue class field
[20G2S; 20G2S]
(see: Bruhat-Tits building)
residue field
[llrl8, IISI5, 12J20; IlrlX, IISI5,
12J20]
(see: Defect; Stickelberger ideal)
residue in a geometry
[SIE24; SIE24]
(see: Diagram geometry)
residue in a geometry see: rank of a -:
type of a-
residue theorem see: ruled-
resolution see: linear-
resolution by a query
[68NI7; 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
resolution class see: /1--
resolution of definite rational functions see:
Hilbert problem on the -
resolutions see: Design with mutually or-
thogonal -; mutually orthogonal /1- -
resolvable combinatorial design
[OSBOS, OSB IS; OSBOS, OSB IS]
(see: Design with mutually orthogo-
nal resolutions)
resolvable combinatorial design see: dou-
bly -; /l' -
resolved group scheme
[I I RS4, 13BOS, 16W30; IIRS4,
13BOS,16W301
(see: Hopf orders, applications of)
resolving operator
[ISA48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
XX, 44AIS, 68Q10, XI-XX, 90C39,
93C30; ISA48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2XCxx,
44-XX, 44AIS, 68QIO, 81-XX,
90C39,93C301
(see: Idempotent analysis)
resolving querv
168N17; 68NI71
(see: Logic programming)
resonance see: strong-
resonant eigenvalue
130005,581'13, S8F23; 3000S, S8FI3,
581'23 [
e,ee: Siegel disc)
r(>.wnant eigenvalues
1581'36; 5SF361
(see: Birkhoff normal form)
resonant eigenvalues see: non--
Ressel characterization (d' completely
positive-definite hounded functions on
an Ahelian semi-group
160G09; 60G091
(see: De Finetti theorem)
restoration see: image-
restricted multinomial coefficient
[20Cxx, 20GOS, 22A25, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20G05, 22A2S, 22E70J
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3 - j, 6 - j, and
9 - j coefficients)
restric·ted real-analytic function
[03C60, 12110, 12J IS; 03C60, 12110,
12J lSI
(see: Model theory of the real expo-
nential function)
restriction of a group representation
120C15; 20C15[
(see: Brauer characterization of
characters)
restri(·ti,m (~la system (~ld(fferential equa-
tiolls
IS8Fxx, 581'14; S8Fxx, SXFI4]
(see: Centre manifold)
restriction on constitutive relations
identical -
result scc: subject reduction -
retraction see: comparative-
rftrw·tilm (d'a part hilly (Jrdered set
[06A06; 06A061
(see: Fixed-point property)
reversal see: list-
revolving door lllgorithm
[OSC45, 68Pxx, 6SRxx, 94B60;
OSC4S, 68Pxx, 6SRxx, 94B60J
(see: Gray code)
rewriting scc: Regulated-
Rham complex see: logarithmic de -
rhomb scc: arrowed -; half -
Ric<.:i
[68Q40; 68Q40 I
(see: Computer algebra package)
Richardson fillings see: Littlewood--
RicJwrd.wJI/ method
[47AIO, 49RIO, 6SFIO; 47AIO,
49RIO,6SFIOI
(see: Anti-eigenvalue)
Richardson rule see: Littlewood--
Richman type see: Butler group of -
Riemann boundary value problem
(30E25, 4SExx, 45FIS; 30E2S, 4SExx,
4SFIS)
(reiers to: Riemann-Hilbert prob-
lem)
Riemann-('omplete integral
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42[
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
Riemann equations sec: Cauchy--
Riemann function see: complex-
Riemann hypothesis sec: extended version
of the -; Weil-
Riemann hypothesisfor non-singular pm-
jective 1Ilgebrah' varieties
IIIT22,IIT23,IIT24,IIT7I,14GIS,
94B27; IIT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT71.
14GIS, 94B27 I
(see: Bombieri-Weil bound)
Riemann integral sec: generalized-
Riemann mapping theorem
13000S, S8FI3, SSF23; 3000S, S8FI3,
S8F23]
(see: Siegel disc)
Riemann operator ... ce: Euclidean Cauchy-
Riemann pmhlem
130E25, 4SExx, 4SFIS; 30E25, 4SExx,
451'ISJ
(see: Riemann boundary value prob-
lem)
Rinllann spm'e
112J20, 14HOS; 12J20, 14HOSI
(see: Valued function field)
Riemann sum
126A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A421
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
Riemannian foliation see: Reinhart-
Molino -
Riemllnnian .f{Jliation ill the sense (~l
Reinhart-Molino
IS3CIS, S3CS7, S8FOS; 5KI5,
S3CS7, S8F051
(see: K -contact flow)
Riemannian metric see: pseudo--
Riemannian spin manifolds
181 Q30, SI R2S, SIT70; 81 Q30,
81 R2S, 8IT701
e,ee: Anomalies (in quantization)
Ries:. algebra
146EOS, 46Jxx; 46EOS, 46Jxxl
(.,ee: f -algebra)
Ries:, interpolatioll property
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46L801
(see: AF-algebra)
Riesz space see: Dedekind-complete -;
Dedekind completion of a -; finitely pre-
sentable -; free -
Riesl spaces . . ee: normal mapping of -
Riesl summability ....ee: absolute-
Ries:. -'",vstem
.'·iCC: [ISA66, 30G30, 30G3S; ISA66,
30G30, 30G3S1
(see: Clifford analysis)
Riesz theorem see: Fejer- -: operator
Fejer- -
right-amenable semi-group
[43A07, 43AIS, 46A22, 46Exx,
SIM20, SIM2S; 43A07, 43AIS,
46A22, 46Exx, 51 M20, 51 M2S1
(see: Banach limit)
right factor of a word see: proper-
right-invariall1 mean
[43A07, 43AIS, 46A22 , 46Exx,
SIM20, SIM2S; 43A07, 43AIS,
46A22, 46Exx, SI M20, SI M251
(see: Banach limit)
right-invertibility of d/ dt
144A99, 47A05; 44A99, 47AOSI
(see: Algebraic analysis)
right multiplicative diagonal in an alge-
bra with band structure
147AS7, 47A68; 47A57, 47A68]
(see: Band method)
right-(}rliered group
106FIS; 06FI51
(see: ra-group)
rifiht shifi
143A07, 43AIS, 46A22, 46Exx,
SIM20, SIM2S; 43A07, 43AIS,
46A22, 46Exx, SI M20, SI M2S1
(see: Banach limit)
right spectralfactorizatitm
[47A57, 47A68; 47AS7, 47A681
(see: Band method)
right standard factorization
[OSAxx, 17BOI, 20MOS; OSAxx,
17BOI,20M05]
(see: Lyndon word)
rigid object
IOSC70; OSC70 J
(see: One-factorization)
rigid rotator
18IRx~XIR05;8IRxx,SIROSI
(see: Spectrum generating algebra)
rigid subanalytic set
[03C60, 1211 0, 12Ll2; 03C60, 12J 10,
12L12J
(see: Model theory of valued fields)
rigidity see: flexural-
rigidity theorem see: Mostow-
Rinehart algebra see: Lie--

ring see: Abstract Witt -; boundedly
complete idempotent semi- -; CA-
-; canonical -; commutative idempo-
tent semi- -; complex cobordism -;
cotorsion-Iree -; effective -; effective
Noetherian -; extension 01 a local -;
FC- -; lin~e extension 01 a local -; Ga-
lois -; Herman -; Hopi -; Idempotent
semi- -; Kochan -; oriented cobordism
-; PA- -; partial order on an idempotent
semi- -; PI- -; polynomial identity -;
uniserial-
ring algorithm see: universal semi- -
ring '!f algebraic integers
[03C60, 11035, II R58, 12L05,
14G25; 03C60, 11035, IIR58, 12L05,
14G25]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
ring of algebraic integers see: decidability
of the elementary theory of the -; ele-
mentary theory of the -
ring of integers see: Dedekind-
ring space
[19D06; 19D06]
(see: Plus-construction)
ring space see: A~ -
ring with idempotent multiplication see:
semi- -
rings see: language of -
rings puzzle see: Chinese-
Riquier-Janet theory of differential equa-
tions
[34C20, 35A30, 58D 19, 58035;
34C20, 35A30, 58D19, 58035]
(see: Lie symmetry analysis)
risk for linear regression see: minimax-
risk model see: classical-
Risk theory
(60Gxx, 60G35; 6OGxx, 60G35)
(referred to in: Credibility theory)
(refers to: distribution function; Pois-
son process; Random variable; Re-
newal tbeory; stochastic point pro-
cess)
Rill quotient theorem
[II B37; II B37)
(see: Skolem-Mahler-Lech theorem)
Ritz variational characterization of eigenval-
ues see: Rayleigh--
TO-groUp
(06FI5; 06F15)
(refers to: group; l-group; quasi-
variety)
To-group see: Archimedean -; Conra-
dian -
Robbins empirical Bayes theory
[62Cxx, 62P05; 62Cxx, 62P05)
(see: Credibility theory)
robin tournament see: round-
Robinson code see: Nordstrom--
Robinson-Schensted construction
[05EI0,2OC30; 05E10, 2OC30)
(see: Jeu de taquin)
Robinson-Schensted correspondence
(05E05, 05EIO, 05E15, 20G05; 05E05,
05E 10, 05E 15, 2OG05)
(referred to in: Jeu de taquin; Pic-
tures)
(refers to: bijection; general linear
group; jeu de taquin; monoid; pic-
tures; symmetric group; Symmetric
polynomial; Young tableau)
Robinson test
(03C95; 03C95)
(referred to in: Valued function field)
(refers to: elementary tbeory; existen-
tially closed; Model theory; Struc-
ture)
robust estimation
[62F35; 62F35]
(see: Outlier)
robust stability of a system of differential
equations
[34Dxx, 93D09; 34Dxx, 93D09]
(see: Kharitonov polynomial theory)
robustly .,tablefamily of polynomials
[34Dxx, 93D09; 34Dxx, 93D09]
(see: Kharitonov polynomial theory)
robustly stable interval polynomial
[34Dxx, 93D09; 34Dxx, 93009]
(see: Kharitonov polynomial theory)
Rockafellar theorem see: Brondsted- -;
Brendsted- -
Rogers factorization see: proportional
Dvoretzky- -
Rogers lemma see: Dvoretzky--
Rogers theorem see: Dvoretzky--
rogue observation
[62F35; 62F35]
(.,ee: Outlier)
Rome surface see: Steiner-
Romig sampling plan
[62NIO; 62N10)
(.,ee: Acceptance sampling plan for
attributes)
Room d-cube
[05B05, 05B 15; 05B05, 05B 15]
(see: Design with mutually orthogo-
nal resolutions)
Room design
[05BI5; 05B15]
(see: Room square)
Room frame
[05BI5;05BI5)
(see: Room square)
Room square
(05BI5; 05B15)
(referred to in: Design with mutually
orthogonal resolutions; Howell de-
sign)
(refers to: Design with mutually or-
thogonal resolutions; Howell design;
Latin square; One-factorization)
Room square see: balanced -; general-
ized -; incomplete -; perfect -; skew
-; standardized -
rooms see: house with two -
root see: affine-
root of a recurrence
[IIB37; IIB37]
(see: Skolem-Mahler-Lecb theorem)
rooted planar binary tree
[I7BOI,20M05; I7BOI,20M05]
(see: Hall set; Hall word; Lazard set)
rooted planar binary trees
[17BOI; 17BOl]
(see: Hall polynomial)
rooted tree
[65Lxx; 65Lxx]
(see: Butcher series)
rooted tree
[65Lxx; 65Lxx]
(see: Butcher series)
rooted tree see: elementary differential as-
sociated with a -; order of a -
rooted trees see: bracket notation for -
Roquette unit density appmximation the-
orem
[03C60, II 035, II R58, 12L05,
14G25; 03C60, 11035, IIR58, 12L05,
14G25)
(see: Algebraic Diopbantine equa-
tions)
Rosen paradox see: Einstein-Podolsky--
Rosenblum theorem
[42A05, 47A56; 42A05, 47A56]
(see: Fejer-Riesz theorem)
Rosenbrock method see: s-stage-
Rosenbrock methods
(65L06; 65L06)
(refers to: Euler method; Jaco-
bian; Newton method; Runge-Kutta
method; Stability; StitT ditTerential
system)
Rosenbrock methods see: RunglH<utta-
Rosenthall! theorem
[46Bxx, 47B07; 46Bxx, 47B07]
(see: Dunford-Pettis property)
Rosser property see: Church--
Rossler interpretation
[58F13; 58F13)
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinsk11 reac-
tion)
rotation see: complete balanced Howell -
rotation C' -algebra see: irrational-
rotator see: rigid-
Rothaus-Simon spectral gap theorem
[46E35, 46L89, 47D03, 58G03;
46E35, 46L89, 47D03, 58G03]
(see: Hypercontractive semi-group)
roughly isometric metric spaces
[53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
round in a tournament
[05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factorization)
round robin tournament
[05BI5; 05B15]
(see: Room square)
rounding error
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
route to chaos see: fractal torus -;
frequency locking -; intermittency -;
period-doubling -; quasi-periodicity -
Routh test for zeros of polynomials
[26C10, 30D55, 30E05, 41A05,
46EIO,47A57, 86A22; 26C10, 30D55,
30E05, 41 A05, 46E 10,47 A57, 86A22]
(see: Caratheodory interpolation)
Roy theorem see: Gallai--
Rudin-Carleson theorem for function
spaces
[4IA35, 41A36, 41A65; 41A35,
4IA36,4IA65]
(see: Abstract approximation theory)
Ruelle-Bowen measure see: SinaT--
Ruelle conjecture see: Eckmann--
Ruelle inequality
[28Dxx, 58F15; 28Dxx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
Ruelle thermodvnamic formalism
[II Fxx, 28D~x, 30C~x, 32Nxx, 58Fxx,
80-XX; II Fxx, 28Dxx, 3OCxx, 32Nxx,
58Fxx, 80-XX]
(see: Conformal measure)
Ruijsenaars system
[14D20, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 58F07,
70H20; 14D20, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
58F07,70H20]
(see: Calogero-Moser-Kricbever
system)
ruin probability
[6OGxx, 60035; 60Gxx, 6OG35]
(see: Risk theory)
Rukimbira theorem
[53C15, 53C57, 58F05; 53C15,
53C57,58F05]
(see: K -contact flow)
rule
[68NI7; 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
rule see: backpropagation learning -;
extensionality -; graded version of the
Leibniz -; Hebb -; label 01 a context-
Iree -; Lagrange multipliers -; learn-
ing -; Leibniz -; Littlewood-Richardson
-; propagation -; Racah sum -; selec-
tion -; training -
rule in illative combinatory logic see:
version -
rule over an alphabet see: splicing-
ruled residue theorem
[12J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
Rumely existence theorem
[03C60, II G35, II R58, 12L05,
14G25;03C60, IIG35, IIR58, 12L05,
14G25]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
Runge-Kutta formula see: s-stage-
Runge-Kutta method see: Adaptive -; s-
stage adaptive -
Runge-Kulla-Rosenbrock methods
SADDLE-NODE BIFURCATION
[65L06; 65L06]
(see: Rosenbrock methods)
Runyon numbers
[05A15, 05C05, 20M05; 05A15,
05C05,20M05]
(see: Binary tree)
Ryll-Nardzewski fixed-point theorem
[43AIO, 43A46, 43A62; 43AIO,
43A46,43A62]
(see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
sis on locally compact)
___ s ___
u-algebra
[46B20, 47B07; 46B20, 47B07)
(see: Grothendieck space)
u-algebra see: tail-
u-algebra generated by the hit-or-miss
topology see: Borel-
u-class
[03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
u7r-class
)03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
u-fields see: measure of dependence be-
tween two arbitrary sub- -
u-Stonean space see: compact-
s-decimation of an n-periodic sequence
[IIB37, IIB83, 94Bxx; IIB37,
II B83, 94Bxx]
(see: Correlation property for se-
quences)
S-integer
[11D41, IID61, 11186; IID41,
IID61,IIJ86]
(see: Gel'fond-Baker method)
S-mapping
[55R12; 55R12]
(see: Becker-Gottlieb transfer)
S -polynomial
[13PIO, 68Q40; 13P10, 68Q40]
(see: Buchberger algorithm; Grabner
basis)
s-stage adaptive Runge-KUlla method
[65L05; 65L05]
(see: Adaptive Runge-Kutta method)
s-stage Rosenbrock method
[65L06; 65L06)
(see: Rosenbrock methods)
s-stage Runge-KUlla formula
[65Lxx; 65Lxx)
(see: Butcher series)
S -unit equation
[1ID41, IID61, IIJ86; 1ID41,
IID61,11186]
(see: Gel'fond-Baker metbod)
S-units
[IID41, IID61, IIJ86; IID41,
II D61, IIJ86]
(see: Gel'fond-Baker method)
Sacker bifurcation see: NeTmark--
SACLIB
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
saddle
con- [58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
saddle see: standard-
saddlefocus
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
saddleJoeus leading eigenvalue
[58F14; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
saddle leading eigenvalue
[58F14; 58F14)
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
Saddle-node bifurcation
135A47, 58F14; 35A47, 58F14)
(refers to: autonomous system; Cen-
tre manifold; codimension; Eigen
565
SADDLE-NODE BIFURCATION
value; Equilibrium position; Equiv-
alence of dynamical systems; inner
product; Jacobian; saddle node)
saddle-node bifurcation
[35A47, 5SF14; 35A47, 58F14]
(see: Saddle-node bifurcation)
saddle-node equilibrium
[5SFI4; 5SF14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
saddle quantity
[5SFI4; 5SF14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
safety loading see: relative-
Sahlqvist antecedent
[03B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E25;
03B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E25]
(see: Sahlqvist tbeorem)
Sahlqvist formula
[03B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E25;
03B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E25]
(see: Sahlqvist tbeorem)
Sahlqvist formulas
[03B45, 03005, 03015, 06EI5,
06E25; 03B45, 03005, 03015, 06E15,
06E25]
(see: Sahlqvist identities)
Sahlqvist identities
(03B45, 03005, 03015, 06E15,
06E25; 03B45, 03005, 03015, 06E15,
06E25)
(refers to: Algebra of logic; modal
logic; Sahlqvist theorem)
Sahlqvist identity
[03B45, 03005, 03015, 06EI5,
06E25; 03B45, 03005, 03015, 06EI5,
06E25]
(see: Sahlqvist identities)
Sahlqvist tbeorem
(03B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E25;
03B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E25)
(referred to in: Sahlqvist identities)
(refers to: Boolean algebra; Kripke
models; Modal logic; modal logic)
Sahlqvist theorem
[03B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E25;
03B45, 03005, 06Exx, 06E25]
(see: Sahlqvist theorem)
Saks-Henstock lemma
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42]
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
Saks property see: Baemstein example of
a reflexive space not having the Banach-
-; Banach- -; stability of the Banach-
-; weak Banach- -
Saks sequence see: Banach--
salesman problem see: traveling--
Samarskff problem see: Bitsadze--
sample acceptance sampling plan see:
double- -
sample optimal see: fixed-
sample optimality see: fixed-
sampling see: Acceptance - ; Adaptive -;
Static -
sampling number curve see: average-
sampling plan see: Dodge -; double-
sample acceptance -; Romig -; sin-
gle -
sampling plan for attributes see: Accep-
tance -
sampling plan for variables see: Accep-
tance -
sampling plans see: Lot-sensitive compli-
ance -
sandwich theorem see: Ham--
Santal6 inequality see: Blaschke- -; in-
verse -
Sasakian geometry
[53C25, 53C55; 53C25, 53C55J
(see: Hopf manifold)
Sasakian manifold
(53C25; 53C25)
(referred to in: Bochner curvature
tensor)
(refers to: CR-submanifold; differen-
tiable manifold; Differential form;
Levi-Clvita connection; Riemannian
566
metric; tangent bundle; Tensor on a schedule see: annealing-
vector space; vector field) schedule of a tournament
Sasakian manifold [05C70; 05C70]
[53CI5, 53C25, 53C57, 58F05; (see: One-factorization)
53C15, 53C25, 53C57, 5SF05J scheduling see: Gain-
(see: Sasakian manifold; K -contact scheduling theory
flow) [60K25, 68M20; 60K25, 68M20]
Sasakian manifold see: anti-invariant sub- (see: Performance analysis)
manifold of a -; invariant submanifold of schema see: comprehension -; T - -
a -; semi-invariant submanifold of a -; schemata in genetic algorithms
submanifold of a - [6ST05, 90B40; 68T05, 90B40J
Sasakian space form (see: Genetic algorithm)
[53C25; 53C25] scheme see: association -; Euler -; H·
(see: Sasakian manifold) -; resolved group -; underlying H - -
satisfiability see: finite- Schensted construction see: Robinson--
saturated extension Schensted correspondence see: Robinson-
[03C50, 03C95; 03C50, 03C95]
(see: Existentially closed) Schensted insertion algorithm
saturated extension .'1ee: Ct-- [05EIO, 2OC30; 05EIO, 2OC30J
saturated model (see: Jeu de taquin)
[03C45; 03C45] Schensted insertion procedure
(see: Forking) [05E05, 05E I0, 05E 15,20005; 05E05,
saturation of water 05EIO, 05E15, 20005]
[76S05; 76S05] (see: Robinson-Schensted corre-
(see: Buckley-Leverett equation) spondence)
saturation theorem in approximation the- schlicht disc
ory [30D45; 30D45]
[4IAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40; (see: Bloch function)
4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40] Schmidt coefficient see: Gram--
(see: Baskakovoperators; Bernstein- Schmidt orthogonalization see: Gram--
Baskakov-Kantorovich operator) Schmidt reduction see: Lyapunov--
Sauer lemma Schmidt subspace theorem
[05A05, 60B12; 05A05, 60B12] [IIB37, 11041, IID61, 11186; IIB37,
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class) 11041,11061,11186]
Savage lemma see: Hewitt-- (see: Gel'fond-Baker method;
Savart kernel see: Biot-- Skolem-Mahler-Lech theorem)
Saxon-Hutner theorem Schmidt tensor product see: Hilbert--
(22E70, 81QIO, 81R05; 22E70, Schoenberl( cardinal spline theory
SIQIO, SIR05) [4IA05; 41A05]
(refers to: Dirac equation; Schriidinger (see: Box spline)
equation) Scholtens theorem see: Ditters--
scaffolding schoolgirl problem see: Kirkman-
[06C05; 06C05] Schoonschip
(see: Arguesian lattice) [68Q40; 68Q40]
scalar curvature problem see: pre- (see: Computer algebra package)
scribed - Schouten algebra
scalar invariant see: principal- [16W55, 17B56, 17B60, 17B70,
scalar product see: idempotent -; Peters- 17B81, 58AIO; 16W55, 17B56,
son - 17B60, 17B70, 17B81, 58A10]
scalarization method in multi-objective (see: Poisson algebra)
optimization Schouten bracket
[9OC29; 90C29] [16W30, 16W55, 17B37, 17B56,
(see: Multi-objective optimization) 17B60, 17B70, 17BSI, 22E60, 53C 15,
scale see: Sobolev- 58AIO, 58H15, 81R50; 16W30,
scale-invariant probability measure 16W55, I7B37, 17B56, 17B60,
[60Axx, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60Axx, 17B70, 17B81, 22E60, 53C15, 58A10,
60Exx, 62Exx] 58H15,81R50J
(see: Benford law) (see: Poisson algebra; Poisson Lie
scaling see: Friedrichs-van Have - group)
scan see: Straight- Schreier characterization of real·closed
scattering see: inverse- fields see: Artin--
scattering matrix see: factorizable multi- Schreier code see: Artin--
particle - Schreier curve see: Artin--
scattering transform see: inverse- Schreier curves see: Artin--
scenario Schreier operator see: Artin--
[60Hxx, 60J35, 90Axx, 92Dxx, 92Exx, Schreier polynomial see: Artin--
92Hxx, 92Kxx; 60Hxx, 60J35, 90Axx, Schreier theorem see: Artin--
92Dxx, 92Exx, 92Hxx, 92Kxx J Schreier theory see: Artin--
(see: Master equations in cooperative Schrodinger equation see: cubic -; non-
and social phenomena) linear -
scenario see: hawk-dove- Schur
Schanuel conjecture [6SQ40; 68Q40]
[03C60, 12JlO, 12Jl5; 03C60, 12JlO, (see: Computer algebra package)
12Jl5] Schur algorithm
(see: Model theory of the real expo- [26C I0, 30D55, 30E05, 41 A05,
nential function) 46E10, 47A57, 86A22; 26CIO, 30D55,
Schatten ideal behaviour for a Calder';n- 30E05, 41A05, 46EIO, 47A57, 86A22]
Toeplitz operator (see: Caratheodory interpolation)
[42Cxx, 47B35, 47B38; 42Cxx, Schur complement decomposition
47B35,47B38] [65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: Calderon-Toeplitz operator) (see: Acceleration methods)
Schatten operator ideal Schur extension problem see: Caratheo-
[46B70; 46B70] dory- -
(see: Calderon couples) Schur function
Schauder decomposition [05EI0, 20C30; 05EIO, 20C30]
[46Bxx, 47B07; 46Bxx, 47B07] (see: Skew Young tableau)
(see: Dunford-Pettis property) Schur function see: skew-
Schur lemma on operators commuting
with representation operators
[22C05, 22DIO, 22E70, 81R05;
22C05, 22DIO, 22E70, SIR05]
(see: Wigner-Eckart theorem)
Schur methodfor solving the Caratheodol)'
interpolation problem
[26C 10, 30D55, 30E05, 41 A05,
46EIO, 47A57, S6A22; 26CIO, 30D55,
30E05, 41A05, 46EIO, 47A57, S6A22J
(see: Caratheodory interpolation)
Schur number
[26CIO, 30D55, 30E05, 41A05,
46E I0,47 A57, 86A22; 26C I0, 30D55,
30E05, 41A05, 46EIO, 47A57, S6A22J
(see: Caratheodory interpolation)
Schur number
[30E05, 41A05, 47A57; 30E05,
4IA05,47A57]
(see: Caratheodory-Schur extension
problem; Commutant lifting theo-
rem)
Schur parametrization approach
[15-XX, 30E05, 47A57; 15-XX,
30E05,47A57J
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion of)
Schur polynomial
[05E05, 05E I0, 05E 15, 20005; 05E05,
05E 10, 05E 15, 2OG05]
(see: Robinson-Schensted corre-
spondence)
Schur polynomial
[05E05, 05EIO, 05E 15, 2OG05; 05E05,
05EIO, 05E15, 20005J
(see: Pictures)
Schur polynomial see: skew-
Schutzenberger characterization see:
Chomsky- -
Schiitzenberger lemma
[17BOI; 17BOI]
(see: Hall polynomial)
Schwartz claJs
[42B30; 42B30]
(see: Hardy spaces)
Schwartz kernel theorem for semi-
modules
[15A48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx, 44-
XX, 44AI5, 6SQIO, SI-XX, 9OC39,
93C30; 15A4S, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 2SCxx,
44-XX, 44AI5, 6SQIO, SI-XX,
90C39,93C30J
(see: Idempotent analysis)
Schwarz differential equation
[IIF20; IIF20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
Schwarz metbod
(35J35, 65Nxx, 65P05; 35J35, 65Nxx,
65P05)
(refers to: Schwarz alternating
method)
Schwarz method see: Alternating-
Schwarz method in numerical analYJis
[35J35, 65Nxx, 65P05; 35J35, 65Nxx,
65P05]
(see: Schwarz method)
score as a vector field
[53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx,
62Axx, 62Fxx]
(see: Statistical manifold)
score of a statistical distribution
[53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx,
62Axx, 62FxxJ
(see: Statistical manifold)
Scott theorem see: Q'Nan--
Scratchpad II
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
screening parameter
[8IVxx; 8lVxx]
(see: Hulthen potential)
screw-type strange attrQctor
[5SFI3; 58FI3J
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskil reac-
tion)
scroll see: elliptic-

search see: breadth-first -; Depth-first
-; graph -; random -; wave front in
graph -
Search algorithm
(9OC35; 90C35)
(refers to: algorithm; graph; Graph,
oriented; network; Totally ordered
set)
search algorithm see: stochastic-
Search algorithm on a graph
[90C35; 90C35]
(see: Search algorithm)
search method see: stochastic-
search theory
[90C35; 9OC35]
(see: Search algorithm)
second Arens product
[43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 470351
(see: Arens mUltiplication)
second case see: Fermat last theorem, -
second commutant of a set of operators
[46E05, 46Jxx; 46E05, 46Jxx]
(see: f -algebra)
second conjecture see: BeTlinson-
second digit law
[60Axx, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60Axx,
60Exx, 62Exx]
(see: Benford law)
second kind see: boundary conditions of
the -; boundary value problem of the -;
exsphere of the -; Feuerbach sphere of
the -; initial value problem of the -
second law of continuum thermodynamics
[73B30, 80A05, 80A97; 73B30,
80A05, 80A97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
second-order Bernstein algebra
[17092,92010; 17092,920101
(see: Bernstein algebra)
second-order elasticity theory
[73Cxx; 73Cxx]
(see: Betti reciprocal theorem)
second theorem see: Korovkin-
section see: 'P- -; hyperplane
Poincare -
section bundle see: hyperplane-
sectional curvature see: constant 'P- -;
'P--
sectional p-rank of a group
[2OC20, 200xx; 2OC20, 200xx]
(see: p-rank)
sections see: theorem on volume ratio and
Euclidean -
Segal-Faris additivity theorem
[46E35, 46L89, 47003, 58G03;
46E35, 46L89, 47003, 58G03]
(see: Hypercontractive semi-group)
Segre-Barlotti theorem
[5IB05; 51B05]
(see: Benz plane)
Segre theorem
[5IExx; 5lExx]
(see: Galois geometry)
Seiberg-Witten equations
[14020, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53, 58F07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14H52,
14K25, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35Q53,
58F07, 70H20]
(see: Calogero-Moser-Krichever
system)
Seidel method see: Gauss--
Seidenberg theorem see: Tarski--
Seifert fibred manifold
[53CI5, 53C57, 58F05; 53C15,
53C57,58F05]
(see: K -contact flow)
Seifert manifold
[53CI5, 53C57, 58F05; 53C15,
53C57, 58F05]
(see: K -contact flow)
Selberg trace formula
[11F20; IIF20]
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory
of modular forms)
selection
[68T05, 90B40; 68T05, 90B40]
(see: Genetic algorithm)
selection see: Additive-
selection rule
[68NI7; 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
selector {~f a contextual grammar
[03005, 68Q50, 68S05; 03005,
68Q50, 68S05]
(see: Contextual grammar)
self-adjoint linear operator see: bounded-
se~f-c()ncordan('e condition
[90C05, 90C20, 90C25; 90C05,
90C20, 90C25]
(see: Interior-point methods in math-
ematical programming)
self-exciting threshold auto-regressive
model
[62MI0; 62M10]
(see: Canadian lynx series)
self-intersection number
[14Kxx,58F07; 14Kxx,58F07]
(see: Abelian surface)
self-organization regime
[34-02, 34K15, 34K20, 34K25, 92-02;
34-02, 34K15, 34K20, 34K25, 92-02]
(see: Hutchinson equation)
se(f-organizing process
[60Hxx, 60135, 90Axx, 920xx, 92Exx,
92Hxx, 92Kxx; 60Hxx, 60135, 90Axx,
920xx, 92Exx, 92Hxx, 92Kxx]
(see: Master equations in cooperative
and social phenomena)
self-organizing process see: macro level of
a -; micro level of a -; micro process in
a-
self-reference paradox
[03B53; 03B53]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
seif-similar set
[28A80, 58FII, 60J05; 28A80, 58FII,
60J05]
(see: Iterated function system)
self-similar set see: mixed -; recurrent -
self-tuning adaptive control
[93C40, 93021; 93C40, 93021]
(see: Adaptive stabilization)
semantic soundness
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
semantics see: big-step natural -; small-
step structural operational -; uncom-
putable collecting -
semi-AFL
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: Trio)
semi-AFL see: full -; principal -
semi-algebra see: Stone-
semi-algebraic function
[03C60, 12J10, 12J15; 03C60, 12JIO,
12J15]
(see: Model theory of the real expo-
nential function)
semi-boundedness theorem see: Feder-
bush-Faris -
semi-character
[60G09; 60G09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
semi-continuous mapping see: upper-
semi-definite element in a C * -algebra see:
positive -
semi-field
[16Y60; 16Y60]
(see: Idempotent semi-ring)
semi-field see: idempotent-
semi-finite measure
[28A99, 62B 15, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62B 15, 62B20, 62C05]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
semi-group see: adjoint -; C o - -;
Hypercontractive idempotent -;
left-amenable -; Ressel characteri-
zation of completely positive-definite
bounded functions on an Abelian
right-amenable -
semi-group of operators see: Adjoint -;
strongly ergodic -
semi-group property of the Gauss kernel
[35K05, 41A35, 60135; 35K05,
41 A35, 60135]
(see: Gauss kernel)
semi-invariant subman!fold of a Sasakian
man!fold
[53C25; 53C25]
(see: Sasakian manifold)
semi-module see: A- -; idempotent-
semi-modules see: Schwartz kernel theo-
remfor-
semi-norm see: F--
semi-orthocentric tetrahedron
[5IM20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
semi-parametric modelling
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
semi-prime f -algebra
[46E05, 46Jxx; 46E05, 46Jxx]
(see: f -algebra)
semi-regular Banach algebra
[43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035]
(see: Arens regularity)
semi-ring see: boundedly complete idem-
potent -; commutative idempotent -;
Idempotent -; partial order on an idem-
potent -
semi-ring algorithm see: universal-
semi-ring with idempotent multiplication
[16Y60; 16Y60]
(see: Idempotent semi-ring)
semi-set
[03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
semi-simple BCI-algebra see: p--
semi-standard skew Young tableau
[05EIO, 20C30; 05E10, 20C30]
(see: Skew Young tableau)
semi-standard Young tableau
[05E I0, 20C30; 05E 10, 20C30]
(see: Jeu de taquin)
semi-standard Young tableau see: weight
ofa -
SENAC
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
sense
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
sense elementary class of algebras see:
wide- -
sense language
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
sense of complex variables see: differential
equation, integrable in the -; integrability
in the -
sense of Gromov see: Hyperbolic group in
the -; hyperbolic space in the -
sense of Reinhart-Molino see: Riemannian
foliation in the -
sense of Watanabe see: distribution in
the -
senses see: Adequacy theorem for -
sensitive compliance sampling plans see:
Lot- -
sensitive language see: context--
sensitive languages see: family of context-
sentence see: elementary-
sentence algebra see: Lindenbaum-
sentence with parameters see: existen-
tial-
separability measure
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exx]
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
separable Abelian group
[03Exx, 04-XX, 20K20; 03Exx, 04-
XX,20K20]
SET
(see: Whitehead problem)
separable polarization
[14Kxx, 58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07]
(see: Abelian surface)
separation between two distributions see:
measure of-
separation theorem see: Sturm-
separation theorem for convex cones see:
Hahn-Banach-type -
sequence see: Aliquot -; Atiyah-
Hirzebruch-type spectral -; Banach-
Saks -; Barker -; Barran-Federer
spectral -; bent function -; completely
monotone -; Connes-Gysin exact -;
degenerate recurrence -; EHP spectral
-; eventually periodic aliquot -; Fed-
erer spectral -; Gold -; Kasami -; m-
-; n-periodic -; normalized periodic
-; perfect periodiC -; Polya frequency
-; pseudo-Cauchy -; pseudo-noise - ;
recurrence -; recurring -; s-decimation
of an n-periodic -; shift register -; sig-
nature -; terminating aliquot -; Toda
version of the EHP spectral -; weakly
null-
sequence conjecture see: perfect-
sequence of measures see: generat-
ing function of a -; (m, n) -additive -;
symmetrically additive -
sequence of operators see: convergence
ofa -
sequence of random variables see: ex-
changeable -; m-dependent -; m-
symmetric -; symmetric -
sequence space see: multiplier-
sequence starting fro see: Aliquot-
sequences see: asymptotically optimal
family of periodic -; Correlation property
for-
sequential design
[4IA25, 41A46, 65C05, 65030,
65032, 65Y20, 68Q25; 41A25,
41 A46, 65C05, 65030, 65032, 65Y20,
68Q25]
(see: Adaptive quadrature)
sequential deSign see: non--
sequential filter see: alternating-
sequential grammar system
[68Q 10, 68Q45, 68Q50; 68Q I0,
68Q45,68Q50]
(see: Grammar system)
sequential machine see: generalized-
sequential transducer
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
sequential transducers see: closed un-
der-
series see: B- -; Butcher -; Cana-
dian lynx -; Chebyshev -; Delange -;
Dirichlet L- -; Eisenstein -; Fourier-
Chebyshev -; Fourier-Jacobi -; geo-
metric -; orthonormal -; Poincare -;
Poincaretheta- -; Volterra -; Walsh -;
Walsh-Fourier -
Series expansion
(26-XX, 30Bxx, 42Axx; 26-XX,
30Bxx,42Axx)
(referred to in: Carleman operator)
(refers to: Fourier series; Laurent se-
ries; Series; Taylor series)
series of a holomorphic function see:
Poincare -; theta- -
Serre bound see: p-adic-
server queue see: single--
set see: Abelian difference -; basic com-
mutator Hall -; blocking -; Blumberg
-; central element of a partially ordered
-; centre of a compact -; centre of a
partially ordered -; chain in a closed -;
chain in a partially ordered -; clopen -;
core of a partially ordered -; cylinder
-; dismantlable -; down-set in a par-
tially ordered -; feasible -; Flock of a
quadric -; Go - -; generalized Hada-
mard difference -; Hadamard difference
-; Hall -; incomparable elements of a
567
SET
partially ordered -; independent -; in-
dependent set in a partially ordered -;
invariant -; invisible shape of a -; irre-
ducible point of an ordered -; Jordan-
Dedekind property of a partially ordered
-; Julia -; k-independent -; Korovkin
-; Lazard -; level in a partially ordered
-; linear extension of a partially ordered
-; log-supermodular function on a par-
tially ordered -; logistic-type data -;
m-independent -; Mandelbrot -; Mc-
Farland difference -; mean of a function
over a -; mixed self-similar -; multi-
plier of an Abelian difference -; neutral
element of a partially ordered -; non-
decreasing function on a partially ordered
-; order automorphism of a totally or-
dered -; order-bounded -; Paley dif-
ference -; parametrically definable -;
Pesin -; polar -; radial limit -; random
closed -; rank of a -; recurrent -; re-
current self-similar -; regular -; retrac-
tion of a partially ordered -; rigid suban-
alytic -; self-similar -; semi- -; Sidon
- ; triadic Cantor -; type- -; up-set in a
partially ordered -; (v, k,)..) -difference
-; wandering -; width of a convex -
set) see: flow (action of the real number -
set along a vector see: width of a convex -
set difference operation see: Minkowski-
set functions see: Banach space of com-
plex bounded finitely-additive -
set in a normed space see: polar of a con-
vex -
set in a partially ordered set see: down- -;
independent -; up- -
set in an i-group see: polar-
set into chains see: k-norm of a part~ion
of a partially ordered -
set invariant under a function
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
set of a linear programming problem see:
feasible -
set of a permutation see: match-
set of an iterated function system see: in-
variant -
set of extreme points
[46J20; 46120]
(see: Choquet boundary)
set of guards see: polygon covered by a -
set of operators see: second commutant of
a-
set of optimal solution.. of a linear pro-
gramming problem
[9OCI0; 9OC10]
(see: Branch-and-bound algorithm)
set of points in Euclidean space see: Cen-
troid of a-
set of polynomials see: polynomial, re-
ducible with respect to a -; reducibility
with respect to a -
set of random variables see: Uniformly in-
tegrable -
set theory see: AHernative -; class in
aHernative -; countable class in aHerna-
tive -; dynamical alternative -; figure
in alternative -; monad in alternative -;
static alternative -; Zermelo-Frankel -
set with base in 71" H see: cylinder-
set with respect to zn see: width of a
convex -
sets see: Borel hierarchy of -; cancel-
lation theorem for partially ordered -;
empirical process indexed by -; equiv-
alence of difference -; equivalent dif-
ference -; Fixed-point property for (par-
tially) ordered -; isomorphic difference
-; isomorphism of difference -; relation
closure problem for finite -; shattering
collection of -; structure theorem for in-
finite partially ordered -; Viennot defini-
tion of Hall-
seventh problem see: Hilbert-
several complex variables see: functional
calculus of -
shadow
568
[4lAxx, 468xx, 47865, 53C20, Shil'nikov's theorem (see: Correlation property for se-
58FI7; 41 Axx, 468xx, 47865, 53C20, [58FI3; 58FI3J quences)
58F17] (see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac- sides of a tetrahedron see: opposite-
(see: Bohman-Korovkin theorem; tion) Sidon set
Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem) Shimura modularity conjecture see: 143AIO, 43A46, 43A62; 43AIO,
shadow see: Korovkin- Taniyama- - 43A46,43A62J
shadow lemma see: Sullivan- Shimura variety (see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
shadowing lemma (lIFxx, 11018, 14Mxx, 200xx; sis on locally compact)
[280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 58FI51 IIFxx, 11018, 14Mxx, 200xx) Siegel disc
(see: Pesin theory) (refers to: Adele; algebraic group; al- (30005, 58FI3, 58F23; 30005, 58FI3,
SMller construction see: Sz.-Nagy-- gebraic variety; complex manifold; 58F23)
Shannon entropy Galois group; Modular curve; Mod- (refers to: continued fraction; nor-
[608 I 0, 60Exx, 62Exx; 608 10, 60Exx, uli theory; Motives, theory of; Re- mal family; Quasi-conformal map-
62Exx] ductive group; symmetric domain) ping; Repelling set; Riemann sphere;
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance Shimura variety see: canonical model of a small denominators; vector field)
measures) -; Deligne definition of a -; mixed -; Siegel domain
Shannon inequality reflex field of a -; weight of a -; zeta- [30D05, 58FI3, 58F23; 30D05, 58FI3,
[6OB 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx, function of a - 58F23]
62ExxJ Shimura variety of Abelian type (see: Siegel disc)
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance IIIFxx, 11018, 14Mxx, 200xx; Siegel theorem
measures) II Fxx, II Gl8, 14Mxx, 200xx] 130005, 58FI3, 58F23; 30D05, 58FI3,
shape see: topological- (see: Shimura variety) 58F23]
shape of a set see: invisible- Shimura variety '!f Hodge type (see: Siegel disc)
Shapiro conjecture IIIFxx, 11018, 14Mxx, 200xx; Siegel-WaHisz prime number theorem see:
IIIB37; IIB37] IIFxx, 11018, 14Mxx, 200xxl Page- -
(see: Skolem-Mahler-Lech theorem) (see: Shimura variety) sieve see: graph-
share library (~f the general-purpo,\'e sys- Shirshov basis .• ight '!f a guard
tem (17BOI; 17BOI) 151M20; 51M20]
[68Q40; 68Q40J (referred to in: Lie polynomial; Lyn- (see: Art gallery theorems)
(see: Computer algebra package) don word) sigma algebra see: mantissa-
shattering col/ection of sets (refers to: alphabet; Hall set; Hall sigmoidal.function
[05A05, 60B 12; 05A05, 60B 12 J word; Lie algebra, free; Lyndon [62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68T 10;
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class) word; Totally ordered set; word) 62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68TIOI
sheaf see: symmetric invertible - Shirshov lemma (see: Neural network)
shear rate 117BOI; 17BOIJ sign change property
[73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 760xx J (see: Shirshov basis) [03C60, 12J15, 12L12; mC60, 12JI5,
(see: Bingham fluid) shock front 12LI2J
shear stress 165L60, 65N30, 65Y99; 65L60, (see: Real closed field)
[73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 76Dxx I 65N30, 65Y99 J sign-regular of order r see: kernel,-
(see: Bingham fluid) (see: ADINA system)
Sign-regularity
SHEEP shock wave
115-XX; 15-XXJ
[68Q40; 68Q40] [82840; 82B40 I
(see: Total positivity)
(see: Computer algebra package) (see: Broadwell model)
sign-regularity see: strict-
Shelah isomorphism theorem see: Keisler- Shokurov theorem see: Kawamata--
sign-regularity of order r
short vectors see: basis of -
115-XX; 15-XXJ
Shelah theorem shortest path in a network
(,<ee: Total positivity)
[20K20; 20K20] [9OC27; 90C27 I
signals see: frequency-hopping detection
(see: Gamma-invariant in the theory (see: Greedy algorithm)
in radar or sonar -
of Abelian groups) shortest path problem
signature see: metric of Lorentz -
Shelah theorem see: Gobel-- 116Y60, 49Lxx, 52855, 68Q20,
signature sequence
shen 68Q25, 68U05, 90C39; 16Y60, 49Lxx,
[15-XX; 15-XXJ
[31A30, 31B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO, 52B55, 68Q20, 68Q25, 68U05, 9OC39 I
(see: Total positivity)
73K 15; 31 A30, 31 B30, 73Cxx, 73K 10, (see: Computational geometry;
significant digit functions
73KI51 Idempotent algorithm)
(see: Von Karman equations) shortest path problems see: Bellman [60Axx, 6OExx, 62Exx; 60Axx,
Shen theorem see: Effros-Handelman-- method for solving - 60Exx, 62Exx]
Shepp inequality see: Fishburn-- shortest spanning free (see: Benford law)
Shepp theorem 105C05, 05C35, 51M16; 05C05, significant-digit law
[31 Cxx, 60005, 6OG60, 60J45; 31 Cxx, 05C35,51M16] [6OAxx, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60Axx,
60D05, 60060, 60J45] (see: Minimum spanning tree; 6OExx, 62ExxJ
(see: Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp Steiner tree problem) (see: Benford law)
theorem) Shuffle algebra Signorini problem
Shepp theorem see: Fitzsimmons- (20M05, 6W30; 20M05, 6W30) (35J85, 73Cxx; 35J85, 73Cxx)
Fristedt- - (referred to in: Leibniz-Hopf algebra; (refers to: Laplace operator; Sobolev
shift see: Bernoulli -; left -; right - Leibniz-Hopf algebra) space)
shift and invert method (refers to: free associative algebra; SIMATH
[65FIO; 65F10] Free semi-group; Hopf algebra; Lyn- [68Q40; 68Q40J
(see: Acceleration methods) don word) (see: Computer algebra package)
shift register see: linear feedback - shuffle algebra see: overlapping- similar set see: mixed self- -: recurrent
shift register sequence shuffle-cut Hopj" algebra self- -; self- -
[IIB37, IIB83, 94Bxx; IIB37, [20M05, 6W30; 20M05, 6W301 similarity reduction of a partial differen-
II B83, 94BxxJ (see: Shuffle algebra) tial equation to an ordinary differential
(see: Correlation property for se- shuffle product equation
quences) 120M05, 6W30; 20M05, 6W301 [58F07; 58F07J
shifting theorem see: pole- (see: Shuffle algebra) (see: Painleve test)
shifts see: isomorphic Bernoulli -; isomor- shuffle product see: overlapping- similarity solution
phism between Bernoulli - shl!ff/esofmin 158F07; 58F07]
Shilov boundary [60Exx, 60Jxx, 620xx, 62H20; 60Exx, (see: Painleve test)
[32E25, 46J10, 46J20; 32E25, 46J10, 60Jxx, 620xx, 62H20 J Simon spectral gap theorem see: Rothaus-
46120J (see: Copula)
(see: Bergman-Shilov boundary; side "f a tetrahedron simple BCI-algebra see: p-semi--
Choquet boundary) 151M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XXI simple group .,ee: almost--
Shilov boundary see: Bergman-- (see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom- simple homotopy type
Shil'nikov homociinic chaos etry of the) [20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
[58FI3; 58FI3] Sidel'nikov bound 57M20, 57Q051
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac- IIIB37, IIB83, 94Bxx; IIB37, (see: Collapsibility)
tion) II B83, 94Bxxl simple thermo-mechaniml material

[73B30, SOAOS, SOA97; 73B30,
SOAOS, SOA971
(see: Clausius--Duhem inequality)
simple type for a primitive permutation group
action see: almost- -; holomorphic -
simple universal algebra see: congruence-
simplex inequal~y see: n--
simplex method see: transportation-
simply-connected region see: non--
simply-connected topological 4-manifolds
see: classification of closed -
Simulated annealing
(9OCxx; 9OCxx)
(refers to: Algorithm, computational
complexity of an; Boltzmann equa-
tion; uniform distribution)
simultaneous approximation
[41Axx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
41Axx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A401
(see: Bernstein-Baskakov-Kantoro-
vich operator)
Sinai entropy see: Kolmogorov--
Sinal-Ruelle-Bowen measure
[2SDxx, SSFIS; 2SDxx, SSFISJ
(see: Pesin theory)
sine-Gordon model see: quantum-
Single-point crossover
[6STOS, 9OB40; 6STOS, 90B40J
(see: Genetic algorithm)
single sampling plan
[62N 10; 62N 10]
(see: Acceptance sampling)
single-server queue
[60JJS; 60JJSJ
(see: Bernoulli excursion)
singular Cauchy transform
[ISA66, 30030, 3OG3S; ISA66,
30030, 3003S1
(see: Clifford analysis)
singular integral see: Calderon-Zygmund-
-; Gauss-Weierstrass -
singular integral operator see: Cauchy-
singular perturbation problem
[33KS7, 3SB2S, SOA2S; 33K57,
3SB2S, SOA2SJ
(see: Activation energy)
singular perturbation problem see: outer
expansion for a -; regular expansion for
a-
singular point of an ordinary differential
equation see: fixed -; movable -
singular projective algebraic varieties see:
Riemann hypothesis for non- -
singular surface
[73Bxx, 73Cxx, 73Dxx, 73D40,
76D33; 73Bxx, 73Cxx, 73Dxx, 73D40,
76D33]
(see: Acceleration wave)
singular values of a matrix
[6SFxx; 6SFxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
singularities see: mild -; terminal -
Sinnott theorem
[lIrIS; IIrIS]
(see: Stickelberger ideal)
Sir.fovbasis
[17BOI; 17BOI]
(see: Shirshov basis)
SISYPHOS
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Sitter space see: Anti-de -; De -; in-
dex of an anti-de -; mean curvature of a
hypersurface in an anti-de -; space-like
hypersurface in an anti-de -
size and blow-up of the time-derivative see:
critical-
skeleton see: prime-
skeleton lattice
[06COS; 06COS]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
skeleton of a Brownian functional
[6OHOS, 6OH07, 6OJ6S; 60HOS,
60H07, 60J6S]
(see: Brownian functional)
skew diagram
[05EOS, OSEIO, OSEIS, 2000S; 05EOS,
05EIO, OSEI5, 2000SJ
(see: Pictures)
skew Ferrer,l' diagram
[OSEIO, 20C30; 05EIO, 2OC30J
(see: Skew Young tableau)
skew Room square
[OSB IS; OSB 15 J
(see: Room square)
skew Schur function
[OSEIO, 20C30; OSEIO, 20C30J
(,<ee: Skew Young tableau)
skew Schur polynomial
[OSEOS, OSE 10, OSE 15, 2OGOS; OSEOS,
OSEIO, OSEI5, 2000S[
(see: Pictures)
skew tableaux
[OSEOS, OSEIO, 05EI5, 20005; OSEOS,
OSEIO, OSEIS, 2000SJ
(see: Pictures)
skew Young diagram
[OSEIO, 20C30; OSEIO, 20C30J
(see: Skew Young tableau)
Skew Young tableau
(05E I0, 20C30; OSE I0, 20C30)
(referred to in: Jeu de taquin)
(refers to: Young diagram; Young
tableau)
skew Young tableau see: semi-standard -;
standard -
skewness tensor see: expected -; ob-
served -
Sklar theorem
[60Exx, 60Jxx, 620xx, 62H20; 60Exx,
60Jxx, 620xx, 62H20]
(see: Copula)
Skolem-Mahler-Lech theorem
(1IB37; IIB37)
(refers to: Arithmetic progression; re-
currence relation)
Skolem property see: local-
Skolem question on decidability of so-
lution of systems of polynomial equa-
tions
[03C60, 11035, II R58, 12LOS,
14025; 03C60, 11035, IIR5S, 12LOS,
1402S1
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
Skorokhod integral
(60H05, 60H07; 60H05, 60H07)
(referred to in: Skorokhod stochastic
differential equation)
(refers to: Brownian motion; Op-
tional random process; Stochastic
integral; stochastic process; white
noise; Wiener space, abstract)
Skorokhod metric
[60B 10, 60B 12; 60B 10, 60B 12]
(see: Skorokhod topology)
Skorokhod representation theorem
[60B05, 60B 10; 60BOS, 60B 10]
(see: Skorokhod theorem)
Skorokhod stochastic differential equa-
tion
(60H07, 60H10, 60H20; 60H07,
60H 10, 60H20)
(refers to: Brownian motion; Op-
tional random process; quantum
field theory; Skorokhod integral;
Stochastic integral; Wick product)
Skorokhod theorem
(60BOS, 60B 10; 60BOS, 60B 10)
(refers to: Convergence, almost-
certain; Lebesgue measure; metric
space; probability measure; proba-
bility space; Weak topology)
Skorokhod topology
(60BIO, 60B12; 60BIO, 60B12)
(refers to: convergence in distribu-
tion; metric space; Random variable;
topological structure (topology); uni-
form convergence)
Slack variable
(9OCOS, 9OC30; 90COS, 9OC30)
SOLVABLE WORD PROBLEM IN A OROUP
(refers to: linear programming;
mathematical programming)
Slater point
[90COS, 90C20, 9OC25; 9OC05,
90C20, 90C2S]
(see: Interior-point methods in math-
ematical programming)
Slater regularity condition
[90COS, 90C20, 9OC2S; 9OCOS,
9OC20, 9OC25]
(see: Interior-point methods in math-
ematical programming)
slender Abelian group
[03Exx, 04-XX, 20K20; 03Exx, 04-
XX,20K20]
(see: Whitehead problem)
slippage model
[62F3S; 62F3S]
(see: Outlier)
slippage outlier model
[62F3S; 62F35J
(see: Outlier)
slope see: Bahadur exact -
slope-intercept representation (~f a line
[68UIO; 6SUlOJ
(see: Hough transformation)
Los isomorphism theorem
[03C05, 03C07, 03C20; 03COS,
03C07,03C20]
(see: Keisler-Shelah isomorphism
theorem)
slow manifold
[S8FI3; S8F13]
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskil reac-
tion)
slowly oscillating function
[IIA2S, IIN37, IINS6; IIA2S,
IIN37,IINS6J
(see: Habisz mean value theorem)
slowly varying functions see: characteriza-
tion theorem for -; representation theo-
rem for -; uniform convergence theorem
for-
slowly varying measurable function
[26AI2; 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
Smale horseshoe
[S8FI4; 5SF14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
small-cancellation condition
[20F32; 20F32J
(see: Hyperbolic group)
small convolution algorithm see: Wino-
grad -
small denominator problem
[30DOS, SSFI3, S8F23; 30DOS, S8F13,
SSF23]
(see: Siegel disc)
small orthogonality defect
[IIH06, IIHI6, IIH31, IIH46,
IIHSO, SIMI I, SIMIS, 51MI6,
SIM20, SIM2S; I I H06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIH50, 51MII,
SIMI5, 51M16, SIM20, SIM2SJ
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
small solution
[IIH06, IIHI6, IIH31, IIH46,
IIH50, SIMII, SIMI5, 51M16,
SIM20, 51M25; I I H06, IIHI6,
IIH31, IIH46, IIHSO, SIMI I,
SIMI5, 51MI6, SIM20, SIM2S1
(see: LLL basis reduction method)
small-step structural operational seman-
tics
[6SQ20, 68QSS; 68Q20, 68Q5S]
(see: Analysis of programs)
smooth dynamical systems with non-
uniformly hyperbolic behaviour see: the-
ory of-
smooth transition auto-regressive model
see: logistic-
smoothness see: Ditzian-Totik modulus of
-; essential -
SMP
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Sobolev differential calculus
[60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H07[
(see: Malliavin calculus)
Sobolev inequality
[46E35, 580XX; 46E35, S80XXI
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
Sobolev inequality see: Hardy-Littlewood-
-; logarithmic -; two-point logarith-
mic-
Sobolev scale
[60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H071
(see: Malliavin calculus)
Sobolev spaces
[60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H071
(see: Malliavin calculus)
social phenomena see: Master equations
in cooperative and -
socle of a primitive permutation group
[20B IS; 20B 15]
(see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
Software see: ANU-
software see: Lie symmetry analysis with
symbolic -; validation of -
solid linear subspace
[4SP05, 46E30, 47B55; 45POS, 46E30,
47BSSJ
(see: Integral representations of lin-
ear operators)
solid subset "f a lattice
[28A99, 62B IS, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62B IS, 62B20, 62C05]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
soliton equation
[35Q53, S8F07, 76B15; 3SQ53,
S8F07,76B15]
(see: Benjamin-Feir instability)
Solomon algebra see: Orlik--
solution see: central -; completely opti-
mal -; efficient -; feasible -; maximum
entropy -; Pareto optimal -; quenching
-; similarity -; small -
solution locking
[65L60, 6SN30, 6SY99; 65L60,
65N30, 65Y99J
(see: ADINA system)
solution method for systems of linear equa-
tions see: iterative-
solution of a convex programming problem
see: optimal-
solution of a linear system see: minimal
least-squares -
solution of a Markov-Hurwitz equation see:
fundamental -
solution of a sparse system of equations
[65L60, 65N30, 65Y99; 6SL60,
6SN30, 65Y99J
(see: ADINA system)
solution of systems of polynomial equations
see: Skolem question on decidability
of-
solution of the Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev problem
see: regular-
solution of the Caratheodory-Toeplitz exten-
sion problem see: central-
solution '!f the classical Yang-Baxter
equation
[16W30, 17B37, 22E60, S3C15,
SSHIS, 81R50; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, 53CIS, S8HIS, 81R50J
(see: Poisson Lie group)
solution "f the generalized Yang-Baxter
equation
[16W30, 17B37, 22E60, S3CIS,
58HIS, SIRSO; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, 53CIS, S8HIS, 81R50J
(see: Poisson Lie group)
solution of the hydrogen atom see: Pauli
algebraic -
solutions see: travelling-wave-
solutions of a linear programming problem
see: set of optimal -
solutions of the transport problem see:
Dantzig theorem on integral -
solvable conjugacy problem in a group
[20F32; 20F32]
(see: Hyperbolic group)
solvable word problem in a group
569
 SOLVA8LE WORO PR08LEM IN A GROUP

[20F32; 20F32] chain -; rearrangement-invariant func- [14C20. 14E99. 14J99; 14C20. 14E99. 14K25. 22E67. 33E05. 34L05. 35Q53.
(see: Hyperbolic group) tion -; relative interpolation -; relative 14J99] 58F07. 70H20]
solver see: sparse- K - -; residual -; Riemann -; ring -; (see: Adjunction theory) (see: Calogero-Moser-Krichever
solving shortest path problems see: BeIl- space-like hypersuriace in an anti-de Sit- spanning matching in a graph system; Kowalewski top)
man method for - ter -; state -; strongly O-dimensional [05C70; 05C70] spectral factorization
solving the Carath9odory interpolation prob- topological -; totally order-disconnected (see: One-factor) [42A05. 47A56. 47A57. 47A68;
lem see: Schur method for - topological -; transformation generated ,t;panning tree 42A05. 47A56. 47A57. 47A68]
soma -; ultrametric -; weak chain -; weakly [05Cxx, 6SR 10; 05Cxx. 6SR 10] (see: 8and method; Fejer-Riesz the-
[6ST05. 92C20; 6ST05. 92C20] compactly generated Banach -; Wiener (see: Depth-first search) orem)
(see: Hebb rule) -; Wiener measure -; eech closure -; spanning tree see: Minimum -; monochro- spectral factorization see: left -; right -
sonar signals see: frequency-hopping de- BMO-- matic -; shortest - spectral gap theorem see: Rothaus-
tection in radar or - space. abstract see: Wiener- Sparr theorem Simon -
Sorinedry friction model space defect see: vector- [46870; 46870] spectral method see: pseudo--
[47H30; 47H30] space form see: Sasakian- (see: Calderon couples) spectral radius problem see: minimal-
(see: Hysteresis) space in the sense of Gromov see: hyper- Sparr theorem for weighted Lp spaces spectral sequence see: Atiyah-Hirzebruch-
SoJitaTSvili theorem bolic - [46870; 46870] type -; Berratt-Federer -; EHP -;
[5SFxx. 5SF14; 5SFxx. 5SF14] space-like hypersurface in an anti-de Sit- (see: Calderon couples) Federer -; Toda version of the EHP -
(see: Centre manifold) terspace Sparre Andersen theorem spectral subalgebra
Soule arHhmetic intersection pairing see: [53C20. 53C42; 53C20. 53C42] (05AI9. 60115. 60K05; 05A19. 60J 15. [43Axx. 46Hxx. 47027. 47035;
Gillet-- (see: Anti-de Sitter space) 6OK05) 43Axx. 46Hxx. 47027. 47035]
space-like hypersuriaces in an see: com- (refers to: Andersen theorem) (see: Arens multiplication)
sound see: syntactically-
plete maximal - sparse solver .•pectral value
soundness see: semantic-
space-like submanifolds in a see: com- [65L60, 65N30, 65Y99; 65L60. [14C20. 14E99. 14J99; 14C20. 14E99,
soundnes.. theorem
plete - 65N30.65Y99] 14J99]
[6SN17; 6SN17]
space not having the Banach-Saks property (see: ADINA system) (see: Adjunction theory)
(see: Logic programming)
see: Baernstein example of a reflexive - sparse system of equations see: solution spectrum see: Brown-Peterson -; limit
.",urce entropy
space of a linear mapping see: null- of a- -; pattern-
[94A29; 94A29]
space of a matrix see: null- spatial wave number Spectrum generating algebra
(see: Huffman code)
space of a statistical experiment see: L-- [65M05. 65MIO. 86-0S; 65M05. (8 I Rxx. 81R05; SIRxx. SIR05)
Souriau orbit see: Kostant-Kirillov--
space of absolutely p-summing operators 65M 10. S6-0S] (refers /0: Fock space; Hamiltonian;
Souriau Poisson structure see: Kirillov- Hydrogen-like atom; Kac-Moodyal-
see: Banach- (see: Absorbing boundary condi-
Kostant- - gebra; Lie algebra; quantum groups;
8p (8,R) see: symplectic Lie algebra- space '!f Calderon tran.~forms tions)
[42Cxx. 47835. 4783S; 42Cxx. Scbriidinger equation; Superalge-
space see: O-dimensional topological -; SPOE
47835. 4783S] [6SQ40; 6SQ40] bra; Universal enveloping algebra)
I-symmetric -; I-unconditional-; Aoo spectrum of a diffeomorphism at a point see:
(see: Calderon-Toeplitz operator) (see: Computer algebra package)
ring -; abstract L- -; abstract M- -; backward -; forward -
affine chain -; Anti-de Sitter -; Archi- space of complex bounded finitely-additive Spearman's mea.• ure 'if dependence
spectrum of an algebra see: prime-
medean -; asymptotic ray in a Gromov set functions see: Banach- [60Exx. 60Jxx. 62Gxx. 62H20; 60Exx.
speed see: AHven-
hyperbolic -; B 0 - - ; Banach function space offields 60Jxx, 62Gxx. 62H20]
Sperner family
-; basis constant in a normed -; Bers [SIR40. SITI7. S282S; SIR40. (see: Copula)
SITI7. S282S] [90AI4. 900xx. 928xx; 90A14.
-; Berwald -; BesoY-Triebe~izorkin special A ronszajn tree
900xx.928xx]
-; Bessel potential -; BK- -; blow-up (see: Renormalization group analy- [03E05. 05C05. 54H05; 03E05.
(see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
of affine -; Blumberg -; Boolean -; sis) 05C05. 54H05]
sphere see: edge-touching -; fake 3-
Borel -; Brelot harmonic -; Cameron- space '!ffunctions 'if bounded mean oscil- (see: Aronszajn tree)
dimensional -; isoperimetric inequalHy
Martin -; centre of a blOW-Up of affine lation special functions see: addition formula for
on the -; visibilHy -
-; Centroid of a set of points in Eu- [26A45. 32A37. 46Exx; 26A45. a family of -; Addition theorems in the
sphere of the first kind see: Feuerbach-
clidean -; Chain -; classical Lp- -; 32A37.46Exx] theory of -; q- -
sphere of the second kind see: Feuer-
classical Wiener -; Closure -; compact (see: BMO -space) special Lipschitz domain
bach -
O'-Stonean -; compact F - -; compact space 'if function.. of vanishing mean os- [33C 10. 35Sxx. 4783S; 33C 10. 35Sxx,
sphere packing see: densest-
Stonean -; conservative part of a mea- cillation 4783S]
sphere property see: empty-
sure -; contact -; continuous dual -; [26A45. 32A35. 32A37. 46Exx; (see: Bessel potential operator)
spheres see: exotic -; stem in the theory
convergence in a Gromov hyperbolic -; 26A45. 32A35. 32A37. 46Exx] special polyhedron
of homotopy of -
o-hyperbolic -; De Sitter -; Dedekind- (see: V MO -space) [20F05, 57M20. 57Q05; 20F05. spherical Bernstein problem
complete Riesz -; Dedekind completion space of functions on a homogeneous group 57M20. 57Q05] [53C42. 57R40. 57R42; 53C42.
of a Riesz -; diagonal -; dissipative see: real Hardy - (see: Collapsibility)
57R40. 57R42]
part of a measure -; distance -; dis- space of functions on a nilpotent Lie group special spine (see: Bernstein problem in differen-
tance in a chain -; distant points in a see: real Hardy - [20F05, 57M20. 57Q05; 20F05. tial geometry)
chain -; double dual -; E- -; equiva- space of homogeneous type see: Coifman- 57M20, 57Q05] spike
lence in an affine -; equivalent points in Weiss - (see: Collapsibility) [68T05. 92C20; 68T05. 92C20]
an affine -; F - -; finHely presentable space ,!f tempered distributions specific entropy (see: Hebb rule)
Riesz -; Flnsler -; FK- -; Frechet-; [42830; 42830] [73830. SOA05, SOA97; 73830. spin chain see: XYZ Heisenberg -
Frechet V - -; free Riesz -; geodesiC (see: Hardy spaces) SOA05. SOA97] spin manifolds see: Riemannian-
-; Gluskin -; Gromov hyperbolic -; space of the infinite general linear group see: (see: Clausius-Duhem inequality) spine
Grothendieck -; Hardy -; harmonic class~ying - specific-reaction rate constant [20F05. 57M20. 57Q05; 20F05.
function on a subset of a locally convex, space of type B 0 [33K57. 35825. 80A25; 33K57. 57M20.57Q05]
locally compact -; hyperbolic boundary [46Axx. 46A03. 46AI3; 46Axx. 35825. 80A25] (see: Collapsibility)
of a Gromov hyperbolic -; hyperconvex 46A03.46AI3] (see: Activation energy) spine see: special-
metric -; Ideal -; idempotent function (see: Frechet topology) specification limH see: lower -; upper - spinodal curve
-; index of an anti-de Sitter -; injec- space problem see: homogeneous- specified matrices, completion of see: Par- [35Q35. 76-XX; 35Q35. 76-XX]
tive metric -; interpolation -; Jordan- space without the approximation property tially - (see: Spinodal decomposition)
Dedekind -; K - -; 0-reflexive Banach see: Szarek finite-dimensional analogue spec~ied matrix see: completion of a par- Spinodal decomposition
-; Krylov -; L- -; LF- -; line in of Enflo's example of a - tially -; partially - (35Q35. 76-XX; 35Q35. 76-XX)
a chain -; Lions-Peetre real-method in- spaces see: basis problem for Banach -; spec~ied switching function see: incomple- (refers /0: diffusion equation; Laplace
terpolation -; locally bounded topologi- Calder6n monotonicity property for inter- tely- - operator)
cal vector -; locally Minkowski -; loop polation -; Calder6n theorem on inter- Spector theorem spinor theory see: Cartan-
-; Lorentz -; mantissa -; Maslov -; polation -; elliptiC isometry of hyperbolic [43AIO. 43A46. 43A62; 43AIO. spiral see: Parker-
mean curvature of a hypersuriace in an -; Hardy -; hyperbolic isometry of hy- 43A46.43A62] spiral-type strange attractor
anti-de Sitter -; Menger -; multiplier se- perbolic -; inequality in L p - - ; Mityagin (see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy- [58FI3; 58F13]
quence -; normed ideal -; B M 0 A - theorem on interpoation -; normal map- sis on locally compact) (see: Belousov-Zhabotinskil reac-
-;CAT(-l}- -; VMO--;Ock- ping of Riesz -; orthomorphism of or- .'pectral condition number tion)
ham -; p-normed -; parameter -; par- dered vector -; parabolic isometry of hy- [65Fxx; 65Fxx] Spitzer-Foata ba.• is
tial affine -; points in general posHion perbolic -; Quasi-isometric -; roughly (see: A priori and a posteriori bounds [17801.17835; 17801. 17835]
in -; polar of a convex set in a normed isometric metric -; Rudin-Carleson the- in matrix computations) (see: Lie polynomial)
-; pre-topological -; Priestley -; Prob- orem for function -; Sobolev -; Sparr spectral curve .•plice
abilistic metric -; probabilistic pseudo- theorem for weighted Lp -; Urysohn [14020. 14H40. 14H52. 14K25. [68S05. 92020; 6SS05. 92020]
metric -; pseudo-metrically generated theorem for function - 22E67. 33E05. 34L05. 35Q53. 58F07. (see: Splicing operation)
-; pure braid -; quadric model of a spanned line bundle 70H20; 14020. 14H40. 14H52. Splicing operation

570

(68S05, 92020; 68S05, 92020)
(refers to: Formal languages and au-
tomata)
splicing rule over an alphabet
[68S05, 92020; 68S05, 92020]
(see: Splicing operation)
spline see: (3- -; Bezier -; Box -; car-
dinal B- -; ,- -; rational Bezier -; uni-
formB- -
spline surface
[4IAI5, 41A50, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65010, 65015, 65017,
68U05, 68U07, 68UIO; 41A15,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07,68U1O]
(see: Bezier surface)
spline theory see: box -; Schoenberg
cardinal -
splitting see: Frobenius-
splitting field for a group
[160xx, 16L30, 2OC20, 20020;
160xx, 16L30, 20C20, 20020]
(see: Block)
splitting method
[06C05, 65FIO; 06C05, 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration methods; Argue-
sian lattice)
splitting theorem see: Cheeger-Gromoll-
spray curvature
[53C60; 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
spread
[5IE20; 51E20]
(see: Buekenhout-Metz unital)
spread
[5IExx, 51E15; 5lExx, 51E15]
(see: Baer group; Galois geometry)
spread see: regular-
spread of a translation plane
[5IExx, 51N15; 5lExx, 51N15]
(see: Flock)
spurious observation
[62F35; 62F35]
(see: Outlier)
square see: balanced Room -; gener-
alized Room -; incomplete Room -;
Kirkman -; magic -; perfect Room -;
Room -; skew Room -; standardized
Room-
squares solution of a linear system see:
minimal least- -
squeeze flow paradox
[73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 760xx]
(see: Bingham fluid)
stability see: A- -; BS- -; eventual-; L-
-; test equation of A- -
stability analysis see: linear-
stability for cyclic cohomology
[16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G12;
16E40, 46L85, 55N35, 58G 12]
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
stability in numerical analysis see: alge-
braic -; diagonal -
stability of a numerical algorithm
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
stability '!f a system 'if differential equa-
tions
[340xx, 93009; 340xx, 93009]
(see: Kharitonov polynomial theory)
stability of a system of differential equations
see: robust-
stability of the 8anach-Saks property
[46A22; 46A22]
(see: Banach-Saks property)
stability theoremforvaluedfunctionfields
[12J20, 14H05; 12120, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
stabilization see: Adaptive-
stabilization objective
[93C40, 93021; 93C40, 93021]
(see: Adaptive stabilization)
stabilizing transformations see: variance-
stable equilibrium see: asymptotically-
stable family of polynomials see: robustly-
stable field
[12J20, 14H05; 12120, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
stable group
[03C60; 03C60]
(see: Group of finite Morley rank)
stable interval polynomial see: robustly-
stable invariant manifold
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
stable leading eigenspace
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
stable leading eigenvalue
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
stable logical theory
[03C45; 03C45]
(see: Forking)
stable manifold see: global -; local -
stable numerical method see: A- -; L- -
stable polynomial see: Hurwitz-
stable strategy see: Evolutionarily-
stable with respect to a strategy see: evo-
lutionarily -
stack
[90C35; 90C35]
(see: Search algorithm)
stage adaptive Runge-Kutta method see:
s- -
stage Casson tower see: n--
stage Rosenbrock method see: s--
stage Runge-Kutta formula see: s--
standard displacement method
[65L60, 65N30, 65Y99; 65L60,
65N30, 65Y99]
(see: ADINA system)
standard factorization see: left -; right -
standard monomial
[13PIO,68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40]
(see: Buchberger algorithm)
standard polyhedron
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
standard polynomial of degree n
[16Rxx; 16Rxx]
(see: Amitsur-Levitzki theorem)
standard provability predicate see: Hilbert-
Bernays -
standard saddle
[35A47, 58Fxx, 58F14; 35A47, 58Fxx,
58F14]
(see: Centre manifold; Hopf bifurca-
tion; Saddle-node bifurcation)
standard skew Young tableau
rOSE 10, 20C30; 05E 10, 2OC30]
(see: Skew Young tableau)
standard skew Young tableau see: serni--
standard Young tableau
[05E05, 05EIO, 05E15, 20G05; 05E05,
05E 10, 05E 15, 20G05]
(see: Robinson-Schensted corre-
spondence)
standard Young tableau see: semi- -;
weight of a semi- -
StandardForm
[6SQ40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
standardized Room square
[05815; 05815]
(see: Room square)
Stark conjecture
[IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14C17, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Bemnson conjectures)
starter in an Abelian group
[05C70; 05C70]
(see: One-factorization)
starter in an Abelian group see: developing
a -; patterned -
starting fro see: Aliquot sequence -
state see: axiom of local -; ground -;
internal -; tracial -
state-dependent model
[62MIO; 62MIO]
(see: Canadian lynx series)
state feedback
[93855, 93C05, 93015; 93855,
93C05,93015]
(see: Pole assignment problem)
state lumping
[280 I0, 54H20, 5SFxx, SOA05;
2S01O, 54H20, 5SFxx, SOA05]
(see: Coarse graining)
state of a chemical reaction see: steady-
state (if a population
[17092, 92010; 17092, 92010]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
state on an ordered Abelian group
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46LSO; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46LSO]
(see: AF-algebra)
state space
[SI S20; SI S20]
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
state variable
[73830, SOA05, SOA97; 73830,
SOA05, SOA97]
(see: Clausius-Duhem inequality)
state variable see: extensive-
statement (if an Ie L -system
[03B40; 03840]
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
statement of an Ie L -system see: basis
of a -; derivable -
states of the massive Thirring model see:
bound -
static alternative set theory
[03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E70]
(see: Alternative set theory)
Static sampling
[62005; 62005]
(see: Adaptive sampling)
stationarity principle see: Bernstein-
stationary action potential
[35K57, 92C20; 35K57, 92C20]
(see: Action potential; Hodgkin-
Huxley system)
stationary Bellman equation see: general-
ized -
statistic see: Anderson-Darling -; Ba-
hadur efficient -; degree of a U - -;
EDF -; empirical distribution function -;
Hoeffding decomposition of an U- -; Ho-
effding form of a U - -; kernel of a U-
-; primitive kernel of a U- -; rank of a
U- -; weighted Cramer-von Mises -;
U--
statistical decision problem
[2SA99, 62815, 62820, 62C05;
2SA99, 62B15, 62820, 62C05]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
statistical distribution see: score of a -
statistical divergence
[53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx,
62Axx, 62Fxx]
(see: Statistical manifold)
statistical error
[60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05;
60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05]
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial differential equations)
statistical experiment see: L-space of a -
statistical inference
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
statistical inference see: Differential geom-
etry in-
Statistical manifold
(53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx,
62Axx, 62Fxx)
(referred to in: Yoke)
(refers to: connection; Differential ge-
ometry in statistical inference; in-
ner product; Kullback-Leibler-type
distance measures; Levi-Civita con-
nection; manifold; measure; random
STIEFEL TRANSFORMATION
variable; Riemannian metric; Vector
field; Yoke)
statistical manifold see: connection string
on a -; double derivative string on a -
statistical model see: parametric-
statistics see: central limit theorem for U-
-; equivalence principle in -; logistic
alternative in - ~ multivariate -; normal
alternative in -; parametric -
statistics) see: Outlier (in -; string (in -;
yoke (in-
STD 1050 see: MIL-
steady state of a chemical reaction
[92C45; 92C45]
(see: Michaelis-Menten equation)
Steenrod theorem see: Meyer--
steepest ascent algorithm
[9OC27; 90C27]
(see: Greedy algorithm)
steepest descent
[65FIO; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
steepest descent see: Kantorovich conver-
gence rate for -
steepest descent algorithm
[90C27; 90C27]
(see: Greedy algorithm)
Stein theorem see: Fefferman--
Steiner minimum tree
[05C35, 51M16; 05C35, 51M16]
(see: Steiner tree problem)
Steiner node
[05C35, 51M16; 05C35, 51M16]
(see: Steiner tree problem)
Steiner point
[05C35, 51M16; 05C35, 51M16]
(see: Steiner tree problem)
Steiner point
[52Axx, 54C60, 54C65; 52Axx,
54C60, 54C65]
(see: Additive selection)
Steiner problem
[05C35, 51M16; 05C35, 51M16]
(see: Steiner tree problem)
Steiner ratio
[05C35, 51M16; 05C35, 51M16]
(see: Steiner tree problem)
Steiner Rome surface
[5IM20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry ofthe)
Steiner tree
[05C35, 51M16; 05C35, 51M16]
(see: Steiner tree problem)
Steiner tree problem
(05C35, 51M16; 05C35, 51M16)
(refers to: convex body; metric space;
network; Steiner point; Tree)
Steiner tree problem see: regular point for
the -
stem in the theory of homotopy of spheres
[55Q40; 55Q40]
(see: EHP spectral sequence)
STENSOR
[68Q40; 6SQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
step natural semantics see: big--
step structural operational semantics see:
small- -
Stickel berger ideal
(I IriS; IlrlS)
(refers to: Class field theory; Cross
product; cyclotomic field; Galois
group; Gauss sum; Group algebra;
prime field; prime ideal)
Stickelberger ideal
[I IriS; IlrlS]
(see: Stickelberger ideal)
Stickelberger operator
[llrI8; IlrlS]
(see: Stickelberger ideal)
Stickelberger theorem
[1Ir1S; IIr1S]
(see: Stickelberger ideal)
Stiefel transformation see: Kustaanheimo-
571
STIELTJES INTEORAL
Stieltjes integral see: Laplace- -; Ward
Perron- -
Stieltjes transform see: bilateral Laplace-
-; Laplac&- -; two-sided Laplace- -
stif{problems
[65L06; 65L06]
(see: B-convergence)
stiffness
[65L06; 65L06]
(see: Rosenbrock methods)
Stinson algorithm see: Dinitz--
Stirling numbers
[05A19, 11883; 05AI9, 11883]
(see: Bell polynomial)
Stirling numbers
[05A15, 05AI9, 11883, 94825;
05AI5, 05AI9, 11883,94825]
(see: Bell numbers; Lah number;
MacWilliams identities)
stochastic bilinear form
[6OHxx, 6OJ65; 60Hxx, 60J65]
(see: Wiener measure)
stochastic calculus see: 1t6-
stocha,,/ic continuity
[60130; 60130]
(see: Additive stochastic process)
stochastic control
[6OK25, 68M20; 60K25, 68M20]
(see: Performance analysis)
stochastic differential equation see: Sko-
rokhod -
stochastic integral see: It6 -; 1t6-
Wiener-
Stochastic limit of quantum theory
(8IS20; 81S20)
(refers to: Cauchy problem; Con-
vergence in probability; Hilbert
space; perturbation theory; Quan-
tum probability; Self-adjoint opera-
tor; Unitary operator)
stochastic measure see: doubly--
stochastic Petri net
[60K25, 68M20; 60K25, 68M20]
(see: Performance analysis)
stochastic process see: Additive -; con-
jugate -; homogeneous add~ive -;
purely discontinuous -; stochastically
continuous -
stochastic process algebra
[6OK25, 68M20; 60K25, 68M20)
(see: Performance analysis)
stochastic processes and fields see: Abso-
lute regularity of -
stochastic search algorithm
[68T05, 90B4O; 68T05, 90840]
(see: Genetic algorithm)
stochastic search method
[90Cxx; 90Cxx]
(see: Simulated annealing)
stochastically continuous stochastic pro-
ce."s
[60130; 60130]
(see: Additive stochastic process)
Stokes wave
[35Q53, 58F07, 768 IS; 3SQS3,
58F07,76BI5)
(see: Benjamin-Feir instability)
Stone algebra
[06030; 06030]
(see: <Xkham algebra)
Stone compactum
[03Bxx, 03845, 03C62, 03Exx, 06Exx,
06E25, 088xx; 038xx, 03B45, 03C62,
03Exx, 06Exx, 06E2S, 088xx)
(see: Magari algebra)
Stone representation
[0384S, 0300S, 03015, 06Exx,
06EIS, 06E25; 0384S, 0300S, 03015,
06Exx, 06EIS, 06E2S]
(see: Sahlqvist identities; Sahlqvlst
theorem)
Stone representation theorem for 800lean
algebras
[06COS; 06COS]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
Stone semi-algebra
S72
[08COS, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx;
08COS, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18C05, 18Fxx]
(see: Jacobson category)
Stonean space see: compact a - -; com-
pact -
Straight scan
[62D05; 62D05]
(see: Adaptive sampling)
straightening law
[OSEOS, OSEIO, OSEI5, 20005; 05E05,
05EIO, OSEI5, 20005]
(see: Robinson-Schensted corre-
spondence)
strain in an elastic body
[73Cxx; 73Cxx]
(see: Betti reciprocal theorem)
strain tensor see: rate of -
strange attractor see: funnel-type
screw-type -; spiral-type -
strategy see: aggressive -; cooperate -;
defect -; Evolutionarily stable -; evolu-
tionarily stable with respect to a -
Stream function
(76Dxx; 76Dxx)
(referred to in: Convection equations)
(refers to: continuity equation)
stream function
[76Dxx; 76Dxx]
(see: Stream function)
stress see: Cauchy -; engineering -;
Piola-Kirchhoff -; shear -; use -
stress function
[31 A30, 31830, 73Cxx, 73K I O.
73K15; 31A30. 31830. 73Cxx, 73K 10.
73K15]
(see: Von Karman equations)
stress tensor see: deviatoric-
strict I-algebra
[06F2S; 06F2S]
(see: I-algebra)
strict Lyapunov function see: eventually-
strict "ign-regularity
[IS-XX; IS-XX]
(see: Total positivity)
strict SUffix (~f a word
[05Axx, 17801, 20MOS; 05Axx.
17801.20MOS]
(see: Lyndon word)
strict tran.~form (~f an algebraic variety
[14805, 14EIS; 14805, 14E15]
(see: Blow-up algebra)
strict transform (~f an ideal
[1480S. 14EIS; 1480S, 14E15]
(see: Blow-up algebra)
strictly defined bilinear functional
[3SAIS. 3S01S; 3SAI5, 3S015]
(see: Babuska-Lax-Milgram theo-
rem)
strictly negative functional
[3SAIS, 3S01S; 3SAI5, 35015]
(see: Babuska-Lax-Milgram theo-
rem)
strictly negative matrix
[35AIS, 3501S; 3SAIS, 3S015)
(see: Babuska-Lax-Milgram theo-
rem)
strictly positive functional
[3SAIS, 3501S; 3SAI5, 3501S]
(see: BabuSka-Lax-Milgram theo-
rem)
strictly positive matrix
[35A15, 3S015; 35AIS, 3S015]
(see: BabuAka-Lax-Milgram theo-
rem)
strictly pJeudo-convex manifold
[32CI6. S3C15; 32CI6, S3CIS]
(see: CR-manifold)
strictly totally positive kernel
[15-XX; IS-XX]
(see: Total positivity)
strictly totally positive matrix
[IS-XX; IS-XX]
(see: Total positivity)
string (in statistics)
[53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx.
62Axx, 62Fxx]
(see: Statistical manifold)
string on a statistical manifold see: connec-
tion -; double derivative -
string theory
]8IQ30. 81R25. 81T70; 81Q30.
8IR2S,81T70]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization))
strong accessibility property
]938xx; 93Bxx]
(see: Accessibility)
siron!: bllseMb pseud/J-prime
]IIASI. IIN25. IIYII; IIA5t.
IIN25.IIYII]
(see: Pseudo-prime)
strong coerciveness
]35AIS. 35015; 35A15. 3S015]
(see: Babuska-Lax-Milgram theo-
rem)
strong coercivity
]35AI5. 3S01S; 35AIS. 35015]
(see: Lax-Milgram lemma)
stnmg completeness
[030xx, 03015, 06Exx, 06E15;
030xx. 03015, 06Exx, 06E IS]
(see: Boolean algebra with operators)
strong consistency of the Bayesian esti-
mator
]62AI5; 62A15]
(see: Bernstein-von Mises theorem)
strong convergence
[468xx. 47807; 46Bxx. 47807]
(see: Dunford-Pettis property)
strong density point
]26A15; 26A15]
(see: Density topology)
stroll/.{ density (opology
]26AIS; 26A15]
(see: Density topology)
strong extension
]038xx; 038xx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
strong law of large numbers
]28Dxx. 60Fxx. 60009, 60K35;
28Dxx. 60Fxx. 60009. 60K35]
(see: Bernoulli measure)
strong limit theorem
]28Dxx, 60A10. 60D05, 60Fxx,
60060, 60Kxx; 28Dxx. 60AIO.
60DOS. 60Fxx. 60060. 60Kxx]
(see: Absolute regularity)
strong Parrott problem
[15-XX, 30E05. 47A57; 15-XX.
30E05, 47 A57]
(see: Partially specified matrices,
completion of)
strong prime test
]IIA51. IIYII. 68Q25; IIA51,
IIYII.68Q25]
(,<ee: Probabilistic primality test)
strong resonance
]58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
strong visibility property
]53C99; S3C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
strOll${ witnes.'1
]IIA51. IIN25. IIYII; IIA5t.
IIN25.IIYII]
(see: Pseudo-prime)
strongly O-dimensional topological space
]54D35; 54D35]
(see: Banaschewski compactifica-
tion)
Mrongly llccretive operator
147AIO. 49R10. 65FIO; 47AIO.
49R 10. 6SF 10]
(see: Anti-eigenvalue)
strongly coercive functional
[35AIS, 3501S; 3SAIS. 35015]
(see: Babuska-Lax-Milgram theo-
rem)
strongly continuous adjoint
147D03; 47D03]
(,<ee: Adjoint semi-group of opera-
tors)
strongly elliptic material
]738xx. 73Cxx. 73Dxx. 73040.
76D33; 738xx. 73Cxx. 73Dxx. 73040.
76033]
(see: Acceleration wave)
strongly ergodic semi-group "r operators
]46820.47807; 46820, 47807]
(see: Grothendieck space)
stnmgly form-equil'llient grammar.\'
]03D05. 68Q45. 68Q50; 03 D05.
68Q45.68Q50]
(see: Grammar form)
slnmgly interacting particles
[8IR05. 81V25; 8IROS. 81V25]
(see: Gell-Mann-Okubo formula)
strongly N J Jree group
]03Exx. 04-XX. 20K20; 03Exx. 04-
XX.20K20]
(see: Whitehead problem)
Stroock-Varadhan diffusion support the-
orem
]60H05. 60H07. 60J65; 60H05.
60H07,6OJ65]
(see: Brownian functional)
structural operational semantics see: small-
step -
Structure
(03C07; 03C(7)
(referred to in: Elimination of quanti-
fiers; Existentially closed; Group of
finite Morley rank; Model theory of
the real exponential function; Model
theory of valued fields; Real closed
field; Robinson test; o-minlmal)
(refers to: Algebraic system; alge-
braic system; Elimination of quan-
tifiers; Model theory)
structure see: affine -; algebra with band
-; almost contact -; almost contact
metric -; base axiom for a Bralot har-
monic -; Brelot harmonic -; cardinality
of a -; complex algebra of a relation -;
complex algebra of a relational -; con-
tact metric -; CR- -; diagonal in an al-
gebra with band -; Dirac -; double of a
Lie bialgebra -; dual of a Lie bialgebra
-; expansion of a -; graded Gersten-
haber algebra -; graded Poisson alge-
bra -; interval in an ordered -; Kirillov-
Kostant-Souriau Poisson -; L- -; nor-
mal almost contact -; normal contact
metric -; partial parallel -; Poincare ho-
moclinic -; Poisson -; Poisson algebra
-; realizable CR- -; reduct of a -; right
multiplicative diagonal in an algebra with
band -; universe of a -
structure constants of an algebra
]16A99. 17D92. 90DIO; 16A99.
17D92,90DIO]
(see: Baric algebra)
structure theorem "ee: Harrison-
structure theorem.f;" infinite partially or-
dered sets
[06A06; 06A06]
(see: Fixed-point property)
structures see: finiteness theorem for 0-
minimal-
structuring element in mathematical mor-
phology
[60D05, 68U10; 60DOS. 68U 10]
(see: Mathematical morphology)
Sturm comparison theorem
134C10; 34C10]
(see: Disconcugacy)
Sturm-Liouville operator
]34CIO; 34C10]
(see: Disconcugacy)
Sturm-Picone comparison theorem
]34CI0; 34CIO]
(see: Disconcugacy)
Sturm separation theorem
[34CI0; 34CIO]
(see: Disconcugacy)
sub-a-fields "ee: measure of dependence
between two arbitrary -
sub-interpretation
[03Cxx; 03Cxx]

(see: FraYsse characterization of ele-
mentaryequivalence)
subalgebra see: spectral-
subanalytic set see: rigid-
subbundle of the tangent bundle see: invo-
lutive -
subcritical Hopf bifurcation
[S8FI4; S8FI4J
(see: Hopf bifurcation)
subcritical Hopf bifurcation
[S8FI3; S8F13]
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac-
tion)
subdijfereflfial
[46A22, 52A07; 46A22, 52A07]
(see: Bishop-Phelps theorem;
Brllndsted-Rockafellar theorem)
subdifferential
[90C30; 90C30]
(see: Proximal point methods in
mathematical programming)
,mbdirectly irreducible algebra
[06030; 06030J
(see: Ockham algebra)
subgradient
[46A22, 52A07; 46A22, S2A071
(see: Bishop-Phelps theorem;
Brllndsted-Rockafellar theorem)
subgraph class see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis
-;VC -
subgraph of a function
[OSAOS, 60B 12; OSAOS, 60B 12]
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
subgroup see: convex 1- -; isolated -; 1-
-; locally finite -; normalizer of a -; p-
local -; parahoric -; perfect -; prime 1-
-; principal congruence -; transversal
ofa -; Ulm-
subgroup of a partially ordered group see:
Convex -
subgroup of an I-group see: convex-
subgroup property see: congruence-
subject reduction result
[68Q20, 68Q5S; 68Q20, 68Q55J
(see: Analysis of programs)
sublattice see: convex-
submanifold see: anti-invariant -; complex
-; contact CR- -; CR- -; holomorphic
-; totally real -
submanifold of a Sasakian manifold
[53C25; S3C25]
(see: Sasakian manifold)
submanifold of a Sasakian manifold see:
anti-invariant -; invariant -; semi-
invariant -
submanifolds in a see: complete space-
like-
submultiplicativity ('ondition
[46Hxx; 46Hxx]
(see: Frechet algebra)
suboptimal Nehari extension problem
[30EOS, 47A57; 30E05, 47A57]
(see: Nehari extension problem)
suboptimal Nevanlinna-Pick interpola-
tion problem
[30E05, 47A57, 93B36; 30E05,
47 A57, 93B36]
(see: Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation)
subplane see: Baer-
subproblem see: fathomed-
subquotient in a lattice
[06COS; O6C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
subset see: a-perfect -; ~-perfect -; ,-
perfect -; Korovkin -; perfect -; sub-
system of an interpretation, generated by
a-
subset auto-regres.'iive model
[62MIO; 62MIO]
(see: Canadian lynx series)
subset bilinear model
[62MIO; 62MIO]
(see: Canadian lynx series)
subset of a free magma see: closed-
subset of a function algebra see: boundary
fora -
subset of a graph see: edge-disjoint-
subset of a lattice see: solid-
subset of a locally convex, locally compact
space see: harmonic function on a -
subset property see: finite-
subspace see: solid linear -
subspace {~f a lattice geometry
[06C05; 06C05]
(see: Arguesian lattice)
subspace theorem see: Milman quotient-
of- -; Schmidt-
substitution
[03Gxx, O3G 15, 06Exx, 06E 15,
68N 17; 03Gxx, O3G 15, 06Exx, 06E 15,
68NI71
(see: Boolean algebra with operators:
Logic programming)
substitution see: computed answer -; dfl-
-; disjoint-finite-Ietter -; interpretation
of a grammar modulo a dfl- -; unification
by -; unifying -
substitution-dosed trio
[68Q45, 68S05; 68Q4S, 68S0S1
(see: Trio)
substitution with regular languages oper-
ation for languages
[68Q4S, 68S0S; 68Q45, 68S05]
(see: AFL operations)
substitutivity (~f synonymous expressions
[03Bxx; O3Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
substructure
[03C07; 03C07J
(see: Structure)
substructure see: elementary-
substructure complete logi('{/l formula
[03CIO, 03C95; 03C10, O3C95]
(see: Elimination of quantifiers)
substructure completeness
[03CI0, 03C95; O3CIO, 03C95 I
(see: Elimination of quantifiers)
subsystem
[03Cxx; 03Cxx]
(see: FraYsse characterization of ele-
mentaryequivalence)
subsystem (~f an interpretation, generated
bya subset
100Cxx; 03Cxx]
(see: FraYsse characterization of ele-
mentary equivalence)
subtraction see: Minkowski-
success.field
[68Q42, 68S05; 68Q42, 68S05]
(see: Regulated rewriting)
derivation (If a query relative
succes,~ful
to a logic program
[68NI7; 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
successive overrelaxation
[65FI0; 65FIO]
(see: Acceleration methods)
SUffix of a word
[05Axx, 17BOI, 20M05; 05Axx,
17BOI,20M051
(see: Lyndon word)
suffix of a word see: strict-
Sullivan classification theorem see: Fatou-
Sullivan construction see: Baas--
Sullivan measure see: Patterson--
Sullivan shadow lemma
[S3C20, 58F17; 53C20, S8F17J
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem)
Sullivan theorem see: Hopf-Tsuji--
sum see: character -; Oedekind -; gen-
eralized power -; Minkowski -; Rie-
mann -
sum minimization method see: weighted-
sum-of-products
103Bxx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94C10]
(see: Karnaugh map)
sum property
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exx]
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
sum rule see: Racah-
summability see: absolute Cesaro -; ab-
solute Euler -; absolute matrix -; ab-
solute Niirlund -; absolute Riesz -; ab-
solute VoronoT -
summabiliry by a matrix method
[40C05; 4OCOS]
(see: Mazur-Orlicz theorem)
summability method see: convergence-
preserving -; perfectly inconsistent per-
manent -; permanent -
summable multiplicative function see: uni-
formly-
summand see: direct-
summing see: absolutely p- -
summing operator see: Absolutely-
summing operators see: Banach space of
absolutely p- -
sums see: Jacobi -; Kloosterman -;
product-of- -; reciprocity relation for
Oedekind -
super-elliptic equation
[11041, 11061, 11186; 11041,
11061, 11186]
(see: Gel'fond-Baker method)
superalgebra see: Lie-
superb racket see: Lie-
superconductivity see: BCS theory of -
supercritical Hopf bifurcation
[S8FI4; 58F14]
(see: Hopf bifurcation)
supermanifold see: odd Poisson -
supermodularfunction see: log--
supermodularfunction on a partially ordered
set see: log--
supermodular probability measure see:
log--
supemptimal Nehari extension problem
[30E05, 47 A57; 30EOS, 47 AS7]
(see: Nehari extension problem)
superposed fluids see: Rayleigh-Taylor in-
stability of -
superposition principle
[15A48, 16Y60, 19Lxx, 28Cxx, 44-
XX, 44AIS, 49Lxx, 68QIO, 81-XX,
90C39,93C30; ISA48, 16Y6O, 19Lxx,
28Cxx, 44-XX, 44AIS, 49Lxx, 68QIO,
81-XX, 90C39, 93C30]
(see: Idempotent analysis; Idempo-
tent superposition principle)
superposition principle see: Idempotent -;
Maslov -
supervised learning
[62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68TOS, 68TlO;
62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68TlO]
(see: Neural network)
supervised training
[62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68Tl 0;
62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68TOS, 68T 10]
(see: Neural network)
supervisor
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
supervisor see: non-blocking-
supervi,,,,ry control theory
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
support functional
[46A22; 46A22]
(see: Bishop-Phelps theorem)
support point
[46A22; 46A22]
(see: Bishop-Phelps theorem)
support theorem see: Stroock-Varadhan
diffusion -
supremum norm
[4IAxx, 46Bxx, 47B65; 4lAxx,
46Bxx, 47B65]
(see: Bohman-Korovkin theorem)
sure convergence see: almost--
surface see: Abelian -; adjoint bundle of a
projective -; Bezier -; canonical bundle
of a projective -; Lipschitz -; polarized
Abelian -; rational Bezier -; singular
-; spline -; Steiner Rome -; tensor
SYMMETRIC INVERTIBLE SHEAF
product Bezier -; triangular BEizier -;
type of a polarized Abelian -
surface area inequality see: Petty geo-
minimal-
suljace area of a tetrahedron
[5IM20, S2-XX; 51M20, S2-XXI
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
surgery see: Oehn -; integer Oehn -
surplus variable
[90COS, 90C30; 90COS, 90C30]
(see: Slack variable)
Suslin tree
[03E05, 05C05, 54H05; 03EOS,
OSC05, 54H05]
(see: Aronszajn tree)
suspension
[S8Fxx,S8FI4;S8Fxx,58FI4J
(see: Centre manifold)
Sutherland-Krichever system see: Calo-
gero-Moser- -
Sutherland system see: trigonometric
Calogero--
swell see: intermediate expression -
Swinnerton-Oyer conjecture see: Birch--
switching circuit
[06E30; 06E30J
(see: Boolean differential calculus)
switching function
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 03Bxx,
O6Exx, 94C IOJ
(see: Karnaugh map)
switching function see: incompletely-
specified -; minimization of a -
Sylvester equation
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
Sylvester inclusion-and-exclusion princi-
ple
[IIN35; llN3SJ
(see: Bukhstab identity)
symbol see: arityof a function -; arity of a
relation -; constant -; function -; p-
-; Pochhammer -; Q- -; relation -;
variable -
symbol atom see: relation--
symbol (If a discrete Wiener-Hopf opera-
tor
[45EIO, 47A68, 47B35; 45EIO,
47A68,47B3S]
(see: Wiener-Hopf operator)
symbol of a Toeplitz operator
[45EIO, 47A68, 47B35; 45EIO,
47 A68, 47B35]
(see: Wiener-Hopf operator)
symbol of a Wiener-Hopf integral opera-
tor
[4SE 10, 47 A68, 47B3S; 45E 10,
47 A68, 47B3S1
(see: Wiener-Hopf operator)
symbol term see: closed function-
function- -
symbolic calculus see: Oixmier-
symbolic dynamics in the
[58FI3; S8F13]
(see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii reac-
tion)
symbolic software see: Lie symmetry anal-
ysis with -
symbols see: Levi-Civitil-
SYMOE
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
Symes theorem see: Adler-Kostant--
symmetric bilinearfunctional
[3SAI5, 35G15; 35A15, 35G15]
(see: Babuska-Lax-Milgram theo-
rem)
symmetric divergence
[60B 10, 6OExx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62Exx]
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
symmetric invertible sheaf
[14Kxx, 58F07; 14Kxx, 58F07]
(see: Abelian surface)
573
SYMMETRIC JOINT PROBABILITY OISTRIBUTION
symmetric joint probability distribution
[60G09; 60G09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
symmetric random variables see: De Finelli
theorem for m- -
symmetric rearrangement of functions
[46E35, 5BGXX; 46E35, 5BGXX]
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
symmetric sequence (~f random variables
[60G09; 60G09]
(see: De Finetti theorem)
symmetric sequence of random variables
see: m--
symmetric space see: 1--
Symmetriea
[6BQ40; 6BQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
symmetrically additive sequence of mea-
sures
[60B 10, 60Exx, 62Exx; 60B 10, 60Exx,
62ExxJ
(see: Kullback-Leibler-type distance
measures)
symmetries see: defining system for -;
determining system for -
symmetry see: conserved-
symmetry algebra see: conserved-
symmetry analysis see: Lie-
symmetry analysis with symbolic software
see: Lie-
symmetry breaking
[BIR40, BITl7, 82B28; 81R40,
81TI7,82B28]
(see: Renormalization group analy-
sis)
symmetry breaking see: continuous-
symmetry group of a system of differential
equations see: Lie-
symmetry (in quantum mechanics) see: dy-
namical -
symmetry property
[03C45; 03C45]
(see: Forking)
SYMMGRP.MAX
[68Q40; 6BQ40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
symplectic diffeomorphism
[58F36; 58F36]
(see: Birkhoff normal form)
symplectic Lie algebra sp (8,R)
[170xx, 53A50, 55R05, 70-XX,
70M20; 170xx, 53A50, 55R05, 70-
XX,70M20]
(see: Kustaanheimo-Stiefel transfor-
mation)
symplectic manifold see: almost co- -;
co- -
synapse
[68T05, 92C20; 68T05, 92C20J
(see: Hebb rule)
synapse see: local data encoding at a -
Synge world function
(B3Cxx; 83Cxx)
(refers to: affine parameter; curva-
ture; differential geometry; mani-
fold; Pseudo-Riemannian geometry;
Pseudo-Riemannian space; Riemann
tensor; Riemannian metric)
synonymous expressions see: substitutivity
of-
synonymy
[03Bxx; 03Bxx]
(see: Adequacy theorem)
syntactically complete
[6BQ20, 6BQ55; 6BQ20, 6BQ55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
syntactically sound
[6BQ20, 6BQ55; 6BQ20, 6BQ55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
Syracuse problem
(IIBxx; IIBxx)
system see: ADINA -; algebraic com-
pletely integrable -; algebraically com-
pletely integrable Hamiltonian -; al-
gebraically integrable dynamical -;
Anosov -; attractor of an iterated func-
tion -; automatic dynamic incremental
574
non-linear analysis -; basis of a state-
ment of an Ie L· -; billiard dynam-
ical -; Calogero-Moser-Krichever -;
Calogero-Moser-Sutherland-Krichever
-; CD grammar -; completely inte-
grable dynamical -; computer algebra
-; continuous-time time-invariant lin-
ear control -; cooperating distributed
grammar -; Curry Ie L - -; derivable
statement of an Ie L - -; Discrete event
-; discrete event dynamiC -; discrete
event dynamical -; discrete-time time-
invariant linear control -; eco-grammar
- ; elliptic Calogero-Moser-Krichever
-; event in a discrete event -; ex-
ample of a coefficient -; extended H-
-; feedback -; formal integral for a
Hamiltonian -; Garnier -; Grammar
-; Grzegorczyk -; Henon-Heiles -:
Hitchin -; Hodgkin-Huxley -; hyper·
bolic iterated function -; invariant set of
an iterated function -; Iterated function
-; Kovalevskaya integrable dynamical
-; Kowalewski integrable dynamical
-; Lindenmayer -; Liouville integrable
dynamical -; Lorenz -; minimal least-
squares solution of a linear -; Ie L .
-; parallel communicating grammar -;
parallel grammar -; PC grammar -:
Predator-prey -; projective -; rational
Calogero-Moser -; recurrent iterated
function -; Renault UNISURF CAD -;
Riesz -; Ruijsenaars -; sequential
grammar -; share library of the general-
purpose -; statement of an Ie L .
-; term of an Ie L - -; trigonometric
Calogero-Sutherland -; Vlasov-Enskog
-; Vlasov-Maxwell -; Vlasov-Poisson
-; Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-Planck -
system for symmetries see: defining -;
determining -
system in the plane see: autonomous non-
linear dynamical -
system of differential equations see:
symmetry group of a -; restriction of a
-; robust stability of a -; stability of a -
system of equations see: solution of a
sparse -
System reliability
(62N05; 62N05)
(relers to: Reliability theory)
system-reservoir picture
[BIS20; 81S20]
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
system with probabilities see: iterated func·
tion -
systems see: Equivalence of dynamical -;
minimal realization of boundary value -;
reliability of -; theory of non-uniformly
hyperbolic dynamical -
systems of linear equations see: iterative
solution method for -
systems of ordinary differential equations
see: locally topologically equivalent
-; locally topologically equivalent au-
tonomous -; topologically equivalent -:
topologically equivalent autonomous -
systems of polynomial equations .'iee:
Skolem question on decidability of so-
lution of-
systems with non-uniformly hyperbolic be-
haviour see: theory of smooth dynami-
cal -
systolic processor
[16Y60, 49Lxx, 90C39; 16Y60,
49Lxx, 90C39 J
(see: Idempotent algorithm)
Sz. -Nagy-Foias commutant /~fting theo-
rem
[30E05, 47 A57; 30E05, 47A57]
(see: Commutant lifting theorem)
Sz.-Nagy-Shiiffer construction
[30E05, 47A57; 30E05, 47A57]
(see: Commutant lifting theorem)
Szarek estimate see: Bourgain--
Szarek finite-dimensional analogue of En-
1I0's example of a space without the
approximation property
146Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21 J
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
Szasz-Mirakian operator
[4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
41Axx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40]
(see: Baskakov operators)
Szasz operators in approximation theory
[4lAxx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40;
41Axx, 41A27, 41A36, 41A40J
(see: Bernstein-Baskakov-Kantoro-
vich operator)
Szeg/f theorem
142A05, 47A56; 42A05, 47A56]
(see: Fejer-Riesz theorem)
Szeg(j theorem on determinants of
Toeplitz operators
[46E35, 58GXX; 46E35, 580XXJ
(see: Moser-Trudinger inequality)
___ T ___
t-c%urinR
[05-XX; 05-XXI
(see: Ramsey number)
t-norm
[54E70; 54E70 I
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
T ·property see: Kazhdan-
T-schema
[03B53; 03B53]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
T (1) -theorem
[26A45, 32A37, 46Exx: 26A45,
32A37,46ExxJ
(see: B MO -space)
Lie tableau see: semi-standard skew Young -;
semi-standard Young -; Skew Young -;
standard skew Young -; standard Young
-; weight of a semi-standard Young -
tableaux see: skew -; Young -
Tachihana theorem
[53C15, 53C57, 58F05; 53CI5,
53C57,58F05]
(see: K -contact flow)
tacit programming
[68NI5; 68NI5J
(see: APL)
tax
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A421
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
tail cr-alKehra
[60009; 60009J
(see: De Finetti theorem)
tail of a distribution
[60AH), 60BIO; 60AIO, 60B10]
(see: Uniformly integrable set of ran-
dom variables)
Takens bifurcation see: Bogdanov--
Takesaki theorem see: Pedersen--
Tamarkin operator see: Hille--
tame extension
[12J20,13BI5; 12J20, 13B15]
(see: Ramification theory of valued
fields)
tamefield
112J20,13BIS; 12J20, I3BI5]
(see: Ramification theory of valued
fields)
tame kernel
[IIS40, 19Cxx, 19F27: IIS40, 19Cxx,
19F27]
(see: Birch-Tate conjecture)
tamely ramifiedfield extension
[12J20, 13B15; 12J20, 13BI5J
(see: Ramification theory of valued
fields)
Tanaka invariant see: Chern-Moser--
tangency axiom
[5IB05; 51B051
(see: Benz plane)
tangent bundle see: involutive subbundle
of the -
Tangent indicatrix
(53A04; 53A04)
(refers to: Complete curvature; Cur-
vature; curve)
tangent indicatrix see: length of the -
tangent Lie bialgebra
[16W30, 17B37, 22E60, 53CI5,
58HI5, 81R50; 16W30, 17B37,
22E60, 53C 15, 58H 15, 81 R50]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
tangential maximal function see: non--
Taniyama-Shimura modularity conjec-
ture
[11041, 11005, 14H25, 14H52;
11D41,IIG05,14H25,14H52]
(see: Fermat last theorem)
tantrix
[53A04; 53A04]
(see: Tangent indicatrix)
taquin see: Jeu de -
Tarski-Davis theorem see: Knaster--
Tarski paradox see: Banach--
Tarski principle
[03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95, 12J IS,
12L 12; 03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95,
12J15, 12L12]
(see: Real closed field; Transfer prin-
ciple)
Tarski question
[03C60, 12J10, 12Jl5; 03C60, 12J10,
12J15J
(see: Model theory of the real expo-
nential function)
Tarski-Seidenberg theorem
[03CIO, 03C95; 03C10, 03C95J
(see: Elimination of quantifiers)
Tarski theorem
[68Q20, 6BQ55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
tat see: generous-tit-for- -; tit-for- -; two-
tits-for- -
Tate conjecture see: Birch--
Tate curve
[55N22, 55N35; 5SN22, 5SN351
(see: Elliptic genera)
Tate-Oort algebra
[16S34, 16W30; 16S34, 16W30J
(see: Hopf order)
Tate-Oort Oalois extension
[II R54, 13B05, 16W30; II R54,
13B05, 16W30]
(see: Hopf orders, applications 00
Tate-Oort-Larson order
[IIR54, 13B05, 16W30; IIR54,
13B05,I6W30J
(see: Hopf orders, applications 00
Tate point
[11040, 14CI7, 14Gxx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; IIG40, 14CI7, 14Gxx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27]
(see: Bemnson conjectures)
Tauberian theorem .~ee: Karamata-
Tay/or expansion
[26-XX, 30Bxx, 42Axx; 26-XX,
30Bxx, 42AxxJ
(see: Series expansion)
Taylor expansion see: invariant-
Taylor instability see: Rayleigh--
Taylor instability of superposed fluids see:
Rayleigh- -
technique see: multiplicative algebraic re-
construction -
Teichmiiller representative
[05E30, II S20, II S31, 94B35; 05E30,
IIS20,IIS31,94B35]
(see: Galois ring)
temperature see: initial -; thermodynami-
cal-
tempered distribution
[60Hxx; 60Hxx]
(see: Wiener space, abstract)
tempered distributions see: space of -
tempering kernel see: Pesin-

tensor see: AC-contact Bochner curva-
ture -; acoustic -; Berwald curvature
-; Bochnercurvature -; C-Bochner-;
Cartan torsion -; contact Bochner curva-
ture -; deviatoric stress -; Douglas -;
E-contact Bochner curvature -; EK-
contact Bochner curvature -; expected
skewness -; generalized Bochner cur-
vature -; observed skewness -; rate of
strain -; VH-torsion -; Weyl -; Weyl
conformal cu rvatu re -
tensor field
[53C25; 53C25]
(see: Sasakian manifold)
tensor field see: Nijenhuis-
tensor operator
[22C05, 22010, 22E70, 81 R05;
22C05,22010, 22E70, 81R05]
(see: Wigner-Eckart theorem)
tensor operator see: reduced matrix ele-
mentof a-
tensor product see: Hilbert-Schmidt-
tensor product Bt!zier surface
[41A15, 41A50, 41A63, 65005,
65007, 65010, 65015, 65017,
68U05, 68U07, 68UIO; 41AI5,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 65007,
65010, 65015, 65017, 68U05,
68U07, 68U 10]
(see: Bezier surface)
tensorial component of a yoke
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx]
(see: Yoke)
tenth problem see: Hilbert-
term see: closed F - -; closed function-
symbol -; closed logical -; F - -;
function-symbol -; Halasz theorem with
remainder -; leading -; negative logical
-; untied-
term completeness
[03Cxx; 03Cxx]
(see: Henkin construction)
term in illative combinatory logic
[03B40; 03B40]
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
term of an I C L -system
[03B40; 03B40]
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
terminal recursive class see: 3--
terminal singularities
[14C20, 14E99, 14J99; 14C20, 14E99,
14J99]
(.,ee: Adjunction theory)
terminating aliquot sequence
[II B37; II B37]
(see: Aliquot sequence)
termination theorem see: adjunction-
ternary Golay code
[05B05, 05B07, 94B25; 05B05,
05B07,94B25]
(see: Golay code)
Terry model see: Bradley--
test see: Krushkal-Wallis -; Las Ve-
gas primalrty -; likelihood ratio -;
maximum-likelihood ratio -; Monte-
Carlo primality -; Painleve -; prime
model -; Probabilistic primality
Robinson -; strong prime -
test equation of A-stability
[65L05; 65L05]
(see: Adaptive Runge-Kutta method)
test for zeros of polynomials see: Jury -;
Routh -
test problem see: Kaplansky-
testing see: Accelerated life -; life-time
-;outlier-
tetrahedron see: altitude of a -; centroid of
a -; circumcentre of a -; circumsphere
of a -; edge of a -; Euler notation for a
-; foot of an altitude of a -; height of a
- ; incentre of a -; insphere of a - ; iso-
dynamic -; isosceles -; median of a -;
Monge point of a -; opposite edges of a
-; opposite sides of a -; orthocentre of
a -; orthocentric -; semi-orthocentric
-; side of a -; surface area of a -; tri-
rectangular -; vertex of a -; volume of
a-
tetrahedron argument in continuum physics
see: Cauchy-
Tetrahedron, elementary geometry of
the
(51M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX)
(refers to: Affine space; Bodenmiller
theorem; centroid; convex body; Di-
hedral angle; Gauss theorem; graph;
Heron formula; hyperboloid; Nine-
point circle; Plane trigonometry;
Pythagoras theorem; Skew lines;
tetrahedron)
TEJ(
[68Q40; 68Q40]
(see: Computer algebra package)
theorem see: Abian-Brown-Pelczar -;
Adequacy -; adjunction termination
-; Adler-Kostant-Symes -; Akhiezer
-; algebraic addition -; Almgren-
Calabi -; Amitsur-Levitzki -; An-
dersen -; Archimedes -; Arrow im-
possibility -; Artin -; Artin-Schreier
~; Ascoli ~; atomic decomposition
-; Ax -; Babuska-Lax-Milgram -;
Baer-Fomin -; Baily-Borel -; Ba-
nach category -; Bauer-Fike -; Bell
-; Benz-Berens -; Berge-Cruse -;
Bernstein-von Mises -; Berwald -;
Betti reciprocal -; Bishop-Cannings -;
Bishop-Phelps -; Bloch -; Blumberg
-; Bodenmiller -; Bohman-Korovkin
-; Bombieri prime number -; Borel-
Weil -; Borsuk fixed-point -; Bor-
suk odd mapping -; Borsuk-Ulam -;
Bott -; Bradford-Goffman -; Brauer
first main -; Brody -; Brondsted-
Rockafellar -; Br0ndsted-Rockafellar
-; Brudny!-Kruglyak K -divisibility -;
Brun-Titchmarsh -; Bukhvalov -;
Carleson-Chang -; Carleson corona -;
Cauchy-Davenport -; centre manifold
~; centre-point ~; centre-transversal
-; Cheeger-Gromoll splitting -; Chen
-; Chen-Fox-Lyndon -; Chevalley-
Warning -; Choquet-Kendall-Matheron
-; Chvatal -; Chvatal watchman -;
Clifford -; closed graph -; Commutant
lifting -; compactness -; complete-
ness -; computational completeness
-; conditional De Finetti -; coordinati-
zation -; Corner -; Corner-Gobel -;
Cremer -; De Finelli -; Delange -;
Deuring-Eichler -; Dilworth -; Dirichlet
unit ~; Ditters-Scholtens -; divergence
-; Drop -; Dvoretzky -; Dvoretzky-
Rogers -; Dzharsheishvili -; edge
-; Effros-Handelman-Shen -; EGZ
-; Ellioll-Daboussi -; equi-partition-
of-mass -; Erdos-Ginzburg-Ziv -;
Erdos-Kac -; families index -; Fatou-
Sullivan classification -; Federbush-
Faris semi-bounded ness -; Federer-
Fleming deformation -; Fefferman -;
Fefferman duality -; Fefferman-Stein
-; Fejer-Riesz -; Fermat last -; fi-
nite De Finetti -; Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-
Shepp -; fixed-point -; Flatness -; for-
malized Lob -; Freedman -; Fresnel-
Hadamard -; Friedrich -; Frucht -;
Fujii-Furuta-Kamei -; Gabrielov -;
Gallai-Roy -; Gauss -; Gauss-Lucas
~; Gauss-Markov -; Girsanov -;
Gluskin -; Gobel-Shelah -; Godel first
incompleteness -; Grauert-Remmert
finiteness -; Green indecomposable
-; Greene -; Greene-Kleitman -;
Grothendieck -; Group completion -;
Halasz mean value -; Ham-sandwich
Hardy-Littlewood-Karamata -;
Hardy-Ramanujan -; Harrison struc-
ture -; Hasse-Weil -; Hilbert basis
-; Hildebrand -; Hinz-Bombieri multi-
dimensional prime number -; Hoeffding
decomposition -; homomorphism
Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan -; index -; in-
termediate value -; interpolation -;
inverse operator -; Isaacs -; Iwasawa
-; Jacobson-Bourbaki -; James -;
John -; K -divisibility -; Kaplansky -;
Karamata -; Karamata Tauberian -;
Kawamata -; Kawamata-Shokurov -;
Keisler-Shelah isomorphism -; Kempf
vanishing -; Kharitonov -; Khovan-
ski! finiteness -; Ki-Kim-Nakagawa
-; Kirk-Caristi fixed-point -; Knaster-
Tarski-Davis -; Knuth -; Kodaira
vanishing -; Kolmogorov-Prokhorov -;
Konig-Egervary -; Korovkin first -;
Korovkin second -; Korovkin third -;
Korovkin's -; Landweber exact functor
-; Lefschetz -; Lenstra polynomial-
time -; Lester -; Lifschitz-type -;
Lindemann-Weierstrass -; LozonovskiT
-; Luzin-Menshov -; Magari -;
Mazur-{)rlicz -; Meyer-Steenrod -;
Milman quotient-of-subspace -; Minty
-; monotone convergence -; Mordell-
Weil -; Mostow rigidity -; multilinear
form of the Cayley-Hamilton -; multi-
plier -; Myrberg -; Nakano -; non-
commutative Radon-Nikodym -; Okada
-; open mapping -; operator Fejer-
Riesz -; Ornstein -; O'Nan-Scott -;
Page-Siegel-Walfisz prime number -;
Pedersen-Takesaki -; Petersen -;
Petryshyn -; Poincare-Birkhoff-Witt -;
Poincare-Hopf -; Poincare recurrence
-; pole shifting -; Pontryagin-Thom -;
Popoviciu -; prime ideal -; prime num-
ber -; Prokhorov -; quantitative form
of the Korovkin -; Quillen -; Rad6 -;
Rad6-Andreascu-Valcan -; Ramsey
-; ratio ergodic -; Reider -; Riemann
mapping -; Rill quotient -; Roquette
unit density approximation -; Rosen-
blum -; Rosenthal t, -; Rothaus-
Simon spectral gap -; Rukimbira -;
ruled residue -; Rumely existence -;
Ryll-Nardzewski fixed-point -; Sahlqvist
-; Saxon-Hutner -; Schmidt subspace
-; Segal-Faris additivity -; Segre -;
Segre-Barlolli -; Shelah -; Shepp
-; Shil'nikov's -; Siegel -; Sinnott
-; Sklar -; Skolem-Mahler-Lech -;
Skorokhod -; Skorokhod representa-
tion -; los isomorphism -; Sosita!svili
-; soundness -; Sparr -; Sparre
Andersen -; Spector -; Stickelberger
-; strong limit -; Stroock-Varadhan
diffusion support -; Sturm compari-
son -; Sturm-Picone comparison -;
Sturm separation -; Sz.-Nagy-Foias
commutant lifting -; Szeg6 -; T(l)-
-; Tachibana -; Tarski -; Tarski-
Seidenberg -; Tomczak-Jaegermann
-; Tsfasman-Vladut-Zink -; Tutte -;
Ueda -; unification -; Valdivia -; Vitali
-; weak limit -; Weidong generalization
of the EGZ -; Weierstrass convergence
-; Wen-ling Huang -; Whitehead -;
Wigner-Eckart -; Will cancellation -;
Zil'ber -; Zil'ber indecomposability -
theorem, first case see: Fermat last -
theorem for AF-algebras see: classifica-
tion -
theorem for algebraic groups see: Borel-
theorem for Bo-algebras see: Gel'fand-
Mazur-type -
theorem for Boolean algebras see: Stone
representation -
theorem for convex cones see: Hahn-
Banach-type extension Hahn-
Banach-type separation -
theorem for function spaces see: Rudin-
Carleson -; Urysohn -
theorem for infinite partially ordered sets
see: structure-
theorem for LB-algebras see: Gel'fand-
Mazur-type -
theorem for m-symmetric random variables
see: De Finelli -
THEORY
theorem for Magari algebras see: duality
-; representation -
theorem for a-minimal structures see:
finiteness -
theorem for partially ordered sels see: can-
cellation -
theorem for semi-modules see: Schwartz
kernel -
theorem for senses see: Adequacy-
theorem for slowly varying functions see:
characterization -; representation -;
uniform convergence -
theorem for the Bairstow method see: local
convergence -
theorem for the Newton method see: local
convergence -
theorem for U-statistics see: central limit -
theorem for valued function fields see: in-
dependence -; stability -
theorem for weighted Lp spaces see:
Sparr -
theorem in algebraic topology see: Group
completion -
theorem in approximation theory see: in-
verse -; local inverse -; saturation -
theorem (in the geometry of numbers) see:
Flatness -
theorem, multi-dimensional see: Pytha-
gorean -
theorem of AFL-theory see: main-
theorem of algebra see: fundamental-
theorem on addition formulas see: Weier-
strass -
theorem on determinants of Toeplitz opera-
tors see: Szego-
theorem on integral solutions of the transport
problem see: Dantzig-
theorem on interpoation spaces see: Mitya-
gin -
theorem on interpolation spaces see:
Calder6n -
theorem on the Catalan equation see: Ti-
jdeman -
theorem (on the normal number of prime
factors of an integer) see: Hardy-
Ramanujan -
theorem on volume ratio and Euclidean
sections
[46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
theorem, second case see: Fermat last -
theorem with remainderterm see: Halasz-
theorems see: Art gallery -; Beckman-
Quarles-type -; Borsuk antipodal
Glivenko-Cantelli-type -; Korovkin -;
Korovkin-type -; Wirsing -
theorems in the theory of special functions
see: Addition-
theorems on representations see: Bern-
stein -
theory
[03Cxx; 03Cxx]
(see: Fralsse characterization of ele-
mentaryequivalence)
theory see: Abstract approximation -;
Accessibility in control -; Adjunction
-; AFL- -; Alternative set -; Artin-
Schreier -; asymptotically free field -;
Baskakov operators in approximation -;
box spline -; Cartan spinor -; chaos
-; class in alternative set -; Clifford
-; coding -; combinatorial group -;
complete -; complete elementary -;
completeness of an elementary -; con-
trol -; correlation function in field -;
countable class in alternative set -;
Credibility -; De Haan -; design -;
differential Galois -; dynamical alter-
native set -; E -expansion in field -;
equivariant cohomology -; error in in-
formation -; extreme value -; figure
in alternative set -; filtering -; free
field -; geometriC measure -; greatest
accuracy credibility -; H"'" control -;
higher algebraic K - -; inaccuracy in
information -; inconsistent -; inverse
575
THEORY

theorem in approximation -; Iwasawa [76C05, 76E 15; 76C05, 76E 151 (see: Hebb rule) I03Exx, 03E70; 03Exx, 03E701
-; Katman linear filtering -; Karamata (see: Convection equations) timed event graph (see: Alternative set theory)
-; Kharitonov polynomial -; Korovkin- thennal explosion model [69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx, topological space see: O-dimensional -;
type approximation -; limited fluctuation [35K57, 35K60, 35K65; 35K57, 93A30] pre- -; strongly O-dimensional -; totally
credibility -; local cohomology -; local 35K60, 35K651 (see: Discrete event system) order-disconnected -
hidden-variable -; local inverse theorem (see: Quenching) timed Petri net topological tree
in approximation -; location -; Lupas thermo-mechanical material see: simple- [69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30: 69Fxx, 908xx, 120F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
operators in approximation -; main the- thermodynamic formalism see: Ruelle- 93A30] 57M20, 57Q05]
orem of AFL- -; model-complete -; thermodynamical admis.,ibility (see: Discrete event system) (see: Collapsibility)
model completeness of an elementary [73830, 80A05, 80A97; 73830, titJor-tat topological vector space see: locally
-; monad in alternative set -; Morava 80A05, 80A97] [90A14, 900xx, 92Bxx: 90AI4, bounded -
K - -; multi-attribute utility -; optimiza- (see: Clausius-Duhem inequality) 900xx, 92Bxxl topologic'ally equivalent autonomous sys-
tion -; pairing of cyclic cohomology with thermodynamical evolution see: mathemat- (see: Evolutionarily stable strategy) tems of ordinary differential equations
K - -; Pesin -; Plancherel-Godement ical constraint on - tit-for-tat see: generous-- I34C20, 58Fxx; 34C20, 58Fxx I
-; probabilistic number -; Ramsey -; thermodynamical temperature Titchmarsh divisor problem (see: Equivalence of dynamical sys-
real-variable HP -; Risk -; Robbins [73B30, 80A05, 80A97; 73B30, [IINJ3,IIN36; IIN13.IIN361 tems)
empirical Bayes -; saturation theo- 80A05,80A971 (see: Bombieri prime number theo-
topologically equivalent autonomous sys-
rem in approximation -; scheduling -; (see: Clausius-Duhem inequality) rem) tems of ordinary differential equations
Schoenberg cardinal spline -; search thermodynamics see: Coleman-Noll -; Titchmarsh theorem see: Brun-- see: locally-
-; second-order elasticity -; stable logi- extended irreversible -; first law of -; ir- Tits building see: Bruhat-- topologically equivalent systems of ortli-
cal -; static alternative set -; Stochastic reversible -; second law of continuum - tits-for-tat see: two--
Illlry d~fferential equatio/l.\'
limij of quantum -; string -; supervisory theta-series see: Poincare- Tits ovoid
134C20, 58Fxx; 34C20, 58Fxx]
control -; SZ8SZ operators in approxi- theta-series ,!f a holomorphicfu11ction 151E20; 51E201 (see: Equivalence of dynamical sys-
mation -; trivial logical -; valuation -; [30F35; 30F351 (see: Buekenhout-Metz unital)
tems)
Yang-Mills -; Zermelo-Frankel set -; (see: Bers space) Toda fibration
topologically equivalent systems of ordinary
zero-sum Ramsey - thin triangles (,ondition [55Q40; 55Q40]
differential equations see: locally-
theory) see: integral limit property (in prob- [53C99; 53C991 (see: EHP spectral sequence)
topology see: Borel u-algebra gener-
ability -; local limit property (in probabil- (see: Gromov hyperbolic space) Toda lattice
ated by the hit-or-miss -; convergence
ity -; p-rank (in group - third kind see: Boundary value problem of 158F07; 58F071
in the hit-or-miss -; deep :r -density -;
theory (for group representations) see: Clif- the -; modified Bessel function of the - (see: Goryachev-Chaplygin top)
Density -; epigraph -; exponential -;
ford - third theorem see: Korovkin- Toda version of the EHP spectral se-
FrEichet -; Group completion theorem in
theory of see: real-variable- Thirring model see: bound states of the quence
algebraic -; Hit-or-miss -; :r -density
theory of Abelian groups see: Gamma- massive -; Massive - 155Q40; 55Q40]
-; localization in algebraic -; Mackey
invariant in the - Thorn theorem see: Pontryagin-- (see: EHP spectral sequence)
-; myope -; normal -: ordinary den-
theory of algebraically closed fields see: Thomas prime-factor fast Fourier transform Toeplitz dual see: K6the--
sity -; Skorokhod -; strong density -;
completeness of the - see: Good-- Toeplitz extension problem see: band
transfer in algebraic -; weak -
theory of algebraically closed valued fields threshold auto-regressive model .•ee: self- extension of the CarathEiodory- -:
toroidal compactification
see: elementary- exciting - Caratheodory- -; central solution of
threshold parameter the Caratheodory- - IIIFxx, IIGI8, 14Mxx, 20Gxx;
theory of completely regular growth of entire
[62J 15, 62K05; 62J 15, 62K051 Toeplitloperator
IIFxx, IIGI8, 14Mxx, 20Gxxl
functions see: Levin-Pfluger-
(see: Paired comparison model) 145EIO, 47A68, 47B35: 45EJO, (see: Shimura variety)
theory of differential equations see:
Riquier-Janet - throughput 47A68,47B351 toroidal imbedding
theory of fields see: elementary- [69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx, (see: Wiener-Hopf operator) IIIFxx, IIGI8, 14Mxx, 20Gxx:
theory of finite groups see: Modular repre- 93A30] Toeplitz operator see: boundedness for a IIFxx, IIGI8, 14Mxx, 20Gxxl
sentation - (see: Discrete event system) Calder6n- -: Calder6n- -; compact- (see: Shimura variety)
theory of homotopy of spheres see: stem Thue equatio11 ness for a Calder6n- -; correspondence torsion-generated acyclic group
in the - [11041, 11061, I JJ86; IID41, principle for a Calder6n- -: eigenvalue 1190xx,20Jxx; 190xx, 20Jxx]
theory of integration of arithmetic functions 11061, I JJ86j bounds for a Calder6n- -; Schanen (see: Acyclic group)
see: Novoselov- (see: Gel'fond-Baker method) ideal behaviour for a Calder6n- -; sym- torsion tensor see: Cartan -; VH- -
theory of modular forms .,ee: automorphic Thurs(one model bolofa - torus see: invariant-
invariant in the -; Gamma-invariant in [62JJ5, 62K05; 62JJ5, 62K051 Toeplitz operators see: Szeg6 theorem on torus route to chaos see: fractal-
the - (see: Paired comparison model) determinants of - total curvature
theory of non-negative matrices see: tight distribution law tolerance see: block of a - 153A04; 53A04]
Perron-Frobenius - [60BI0, 60B12; 60BIO, 60BI21 tolerance percent defective see: lot- (see: Tangent indicatrix)
theory of non-uniformly hyperbolic dy- (see: Skorokhod topology) tolerance relation total differential of a Boolean functio11
namical systems 7ljdema11 theorem on the Catalan equa- 106C05, 54E70; 06C05, 54E701 106E30; 06E30j
[28Dxx, 58F15; 28Dxx, 58FI5 j tion (see: Arguesian lattice; Probabilistic (see: Boolean differential calculus)
(see: Pesin theory) [11041, 11061, IJJ86; 11041, metric space) total order
theory of real closed fields see: complete- 11061, I JJ86J Tmnczak-Jaegermanntheorem I06FI5, 20F60; 06FI5, 20F601
ness of the elementary -; decidability of (see: Gel'fond-Baker method) 146Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 468xx. (see: I-group)
the -; model completeness of the - tiling see: Penrose- 46B20, 52A211 Total positivity
theory (~f smooth dynamical systems with tilings see: projection method for - (see: Banach-Mazur compactum) (15-XX; 15-XX)
non-uniformly hyperbolic behaviour time see: arrow of -; initial -; inverse top see: Euler -; Goryachev-Chaplygin
(refers co: approximation theory;
[28Dxx, 58F15; 28Dxx, 58FI5j local -; long -; polynomial -; quench- -; Kovalevskaya -; Kowalewski -; La-
birth-and-death process; Diffusion
(see: Pesin theory) ing - grange -
process; matrix; Minor; spline;
theory of special functions see: Addition time Chazelle triangulation algorithm see: topological4-manifold
statistics; Vandermonde determi-
theorems in the - linear- - [57N13, 57RIO; 57NI3, 57RJOI nant)
theory of superconductivity see: BCS- time derivative see: material ~ (see: Casson handle)
totally non-negative keroel
theory of the p-adic numbers see: elemen- time-derivative see: critical size and blow- topological 4-manifolds see: classification
115-XX; 15-XXJ
tary - up of the - of closed Simply-connected -
(see: Total positivity)
theory of the real exponential function see: time driven topological mllapsibilitv
totally non-negative matrix
Model- [69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx, 120F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q051 115-XX; 15-XXI
theory of the ring of algebraic integers see: 93A301
(see: Total positivity)
decidabilijy of the elementary - ; elemen- (see: Discrete event system) (see: Collapsibility)
totally order-disconnected topological
tary - time factorization of integer polynomials see: topological entropy
1280xx, 58F15; 280xx, 581'151 space
theory of valued fields see: Model -; Ram- polynomial- -
ification - time-invariant linear control system see: (see: Pesin theory) 106030; 06030J
theory of i .'ee: elementary- continuous-time -; discrete-time - topological equivalence (see: Ockham algebra)
theory on Bernoulli measures see: Perco- time testing see: life-- 134C20, 58Fxx; 34C20, 58Fxxl totally ordered group
lation - time theorem see: Lenstra polynomial- - (see: Equivalence of dynamical sys- 106F15, 06F20; 06FI5, 061'201
thermal conductivity time time-invariant linear control system see: tems) (see: o-group)
[76C05, 76E15; 76C05, 76EI51 continuous- ~ ~ discrete- ~ topological equivalence see: local- totally-ordered I-algebra
(see: Convection equations) time to failure t(}p(}logi('al l)(}lyhedro1l I06F25; 06F25]
thermal equilibrium [62N05, 90B25; 62N05, 90B251 120F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05, (see: I-algebra)
[90Cxx; 90Cxxj (see: Accelerated life testing) 57M20, 57Q05] totally ordered set .'ee: order automor-
(see: Simulated annealing) time window (see: Collapsibility) phismofa -
thermal expansion [68T05, 92C20; 68T05, 92C201 t(}/}(}Iogi('al shape totally p -adic

576

[03C60, 11G35, IIR58, 12L05,
14025; 03C6O, 11035, IIR58, 12LOS,
14025]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
totally p-adicfield element
[03C60, 11035, II RS8, 12LOS,
1402S;03C60,11G35,IIRS8,12LOS,
14025]
(see: Algebraic Diophantine equa-
tions)
totally positive function
[15-XX; 15-XX]
(see: Total positivity)
totally positive kernel
[IS-XX; 15-XX]
(see: Total positivity)
totally positive kernel see: strictly-
totally positive matrix
[15-XX; 15-XX]
(see: Total positivity)
totally positive matrix see: strictly-
totally positive of order r see: kernel,-
totally real distribution
[53C 15, S3C40, S3C56; 53C 15,
53C40, 53C56]
(see: CR-submanifold)
totally real submanifold
[53C15, 53C40, S3CS6; S3CI5,
53C40, 53C56]
(see: CR-submanifold)
totient see: Euler-
Totient function
(IIAxx; IIAxx)
(referred to in: Bombieri prime num-
ber theorem)
(refers to: Euler function; Miibius
function)
totient function see: Carmichael conjec-
ture on the Euler -; Euler -; Jordan -;
Lehmer problem on the Euler -
Totik modulus of smoothness see: Ditzian-
touching sphere see: edge--
tour see: Euler -; Hamiltonian -
tournament see: round in a -; round robin
-; schedule of a -
tower see: binate -; n-stage Casson -
towers of Hanoi puzzle
[05C45, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94860;
05C45, 68Pxx, 6SRxx, 94860 I
(see: Gray code)
trace-class operators see: ideal of -
trace formula see: Selberg-
trace inequality
[47A63; 47A631
(see: Furuta inequality)
trace inequality see: Kosaki-
trace mapping see: relative-
trace on a C' -algebra
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46L80]
(see: AF-algebra)
trace property
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46LSO; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46L80]
(see: AF-algebra)
tracia/functional
[I6E40, 46L85, 5SN35, 58012;
16E40, 46L85, S5N35, 58012]
(see: Cyclic cohomology)
tradal stare
[I9Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46LSOI
(see: AF-algebra)
track group
[55T99; 55T99]
(see: Federer spectral sequence)
training see: supervised -; unsuper-
vised -
training rule
[62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 6ST05, 68TIO;
62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 6ST05, 68TI01
(see: Neural network)
trajectory see: non-uniformly hyperbolic -;
non-uniformly partially hyperbolic -; uni-
formly hyperbolic -; uniformly partially
hyperbolic -
transcendence d~fect
[12120, 14H05; 12120, 14HOS]
(see: Valued function field)
transcendence defect see: valued field
without -
transcendent see: Painleve-
transducer
147H30; 47H301
(see: Hysteresis; Hysteron)
transducer see: sequential-
transducers see: closed under sequen-
tial-
transduction see: rational-
transfer see: Becker-Gottlieb -; Becker-
Gottlieb-Dold -; Dold fixed-point --
transfer in algebraic topology
[ 19L20, 55Q20; 19L20, S5Q20]
(see: Adams conjecture)
Transfer principle
(03C3S, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95;
03C35, 03C60, 03C75, 03C95)
(referred to in: Real closed field)
(refers to: algebraic geometry; al-
gebraic system; algebraically closed
field; elementary theory; model the-
ory of valued fields; p-adically closed
field; prime field; Real closed field)
transform see: Bergman-type integral -;
bilateral Laplace-Stieltjes -; Cauchy -;
Foata - ; Good-Thomas prime-factor
fast Fourier -; integral -; inverse scat-
tering -; Laplace-Stieltjes -; singular
Cauchy -; two-sided Laplace-Stieltjes
-; Vekua-type integral -
transform algorithm see: Cooley-Tukey
fast Fourier -; divide-and-conquer fast
Fourier -; Winograd fast Fourier -;
Winograd Fourier -; Winograd large
Fourier-
transform of an algebraic variety see:
strict -
transform of an ideal see: strict-
transformation see: Backlund -; Box-Cox
-; completely dissipative -; conserva-
tive -; ergodic -; gauge -; Hough
-; Hurwitz -; Kustaanheimo-Stiefel
-; measure-preserving invertible -;
Nielsen -; order-preserving linear -;
PrOfer -; triangle -
fran.~f'(}rmation generated space
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
tran.~formation model
[53Cxx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx, 62Fxx]
(see: Differential geometry in statis-
tical inference)
transformations see: normalizing
variance-stabilizing -
transforms see: space of Calder6n -
tran.\,;tion amplitude
181S20; 81S20]
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
transition auto-regressive model see: logis-
tic smooth-
transitive geometry see: lIag--
transitive order
[06AIO, 60E15; 06AIO, 60E15]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
transitive orientation on a graph
10SCxx; 05Cxx]
(see: Acyclic orientation)
translation plane
ISIExx, 51N15; 51Exx, 51N15]
(see: Flock)
translation plane see: spread of a -
transport operator
[60HIO, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05;
60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05]
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial differential equations)
transport operator see: parallel-
transport problem see: Dantzig theorem on
integral solutions of the -
transportation simplex method
[90806, 90880, 9OC05; 90806,
90880,9OC05]
(see: Assignment problem)
transposition
120Cxx, 2OO0S, 22A25, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3-j, 6-j, and
9 - j coefficients)
transversal
120C15; 2OC15]
(see: Brauer characterization of
characters )
transversal homoclinic bifurcation see: non-
transversal '!f a subgroup
[ 16W20, 2OC20; 16W20, 20C20]
(see: Defect group of a block)
transversal theorem see: centre--
transverse metric for a foliation see:
holonomy-invariant -
traveling-salesman problem
[90Cxx; 90Cxx]
(see: Simulated annealing)
travelling-wave solutions
[92C20; 92C20]
(see: Action potential)
treatment parameters
[62J 15, 62K05; 621IS, 62K05]
(see: Bradley-Terry model; Paired
comparison model)
tree
[65Lxx; 65Lxx]
(see: Butcher series)
tree see: Aronszajn -; Binary -; com-
plete binary -; confluent of two points
in a -; dendritic -; elementary differ-
ential associated with a rooted -; /<-
Aronszajn -; Kurepa -; metric -; Mini-
mum spanning -; monochromatic span-
ning -; Wl- - ; wI-Aronszajn -; or-
der of a rooted -; regular Aronszajn -;
rooted -; rooted planar binary -; short-
est spanning -; spanning -; special
Aronszajn -; Steiner -; Steiner mini-
mum -; Suslin -; topological -
tree problem see: regular point for the
Steiner -; Steiner -
trees see: bracket notation for rooted -;
equivalent -; isomorphic -; percolation
on -; random -; rooted planar binary -
Trench canonical/orm
[34C 10; 34C 10]
(see: Disconcugacy)
tri-rectangular tetrahedron
[51M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
triadic Cantor set
[28A80, SSFII, 60J05; 2SASO, 5SFII,
6OJ05]
(see: Iterated function system)
triangle see: Bezier - ; geometry of the -;
Heron formula for the area of a -
triangle anomaly
[81Q30, SIR25, SIT70; 81Q30,
81R2S,81T70]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
triangle coefficient
[2OCxx, 20005, 22A2S, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3 - j, 6 - j, and
9 - j coefficients)
triangle conditions
[2OCxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3-j, 6-j, and
9 - j coefficients)
triangle/unction
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
triangle graph see: divergent-
triangle inequality
[54E70; 54E70]
(see: Probabilistic metric space)
TRUNCATION ERROR
triangle monomial
[20Cxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9- j coefficients)
triangle trans/ormation
[2OCxx, 20005, 22A2S, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3-j, 6-j, and
9- j coefficients)
triangles condition see: thin-
triangular Bezier surface
141AI5, 41A50, 41A63, 6500S,
65007, 65010, 65015, 6S017,
6SUOS, 68U07, 68U10; 41AIS,
41A50, 41A63, 65005, 6S007,
6S010, 650lS, 6S017, 68UOS,
68U07, 68U 10]
(see: Bezier surface)
triangular pattern
[15-XX, 30E05, 47A57; IS-XX,
30E05, 47 AS7]
(.,ee: Partially specified matrices,
completion of)
triangular r-matrix
[I6W30, 17837, 22E60, 53CIS,
S8HI5, 8IRSO; 16W30, 17837,
22E60, 53C IS, S8H 15, 81 RSO]
(see: Poisson Lie group)
triangular r-matrix see: quasi--
triangulation see: Collapsibility of a -; De-
launay -; Delone -
triangulation algorithm see: linear-time
Chazelle -
Tri£'omi~Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev problem
[35Mxx, 76N15; 35Mxx, 76NI51
(see: Bitsadze-Lavrent'ev problem)
Triebef-Lizorkin space see: Besov--
trigonometric Calogero-Sutherland ,,-vs-
tern
114020, 14H40, 14H52, 14K25,
22E67, 33E05, 34LOS, 3SQ53, 58F07,
70H20; 14020, 14H40, 14HS2,
14K2S, 22E67, 33E05, 34L05, 35QS3,
58F07,70H20]
(see: Calogero--Moser-Krichever
system)
trigonometric identity
[44A99, 47 A05; 44A99, 47 AOSI
(see: Algebraic analysis)
trigonometry see: operator-
trihedral angle
151 M20, 52-XX; SI M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
trimmed mean
[62F35; 62F351
(see: Outlier)
Trio
(68Q45, 68S0S; 68Q4S, 68S05)
(referred to in: Abstractfamily oflan-
guages; AFL operations; Contextual
grammar; Regulated rewriting)
(refers to: Abstract family of lan-
guages; AFL operations; Formal lan-
guages and automata)
trio
[6SQ45, 68S0S; 68Q45, 68S051
(see: Trio)
trio see: full -; principal -; substitution-
closed -
triple see: KKT--
triples see: pythagorean-
triplet "f predictable characteristics
[60130; 60130 I
(see: Additive stochastic process)
trivia/logical theory
[03853; 038531
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
Trudinger inequality see: exponential-class
Moser- -; linearized Moser- -; Moser-
truncated normal form
IS8FI4; SSFI4]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
truncation error
[6SFxx; 65Fxxl
577
TRUNCATION ERROR
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
truth under a logical relation
[03BS3; 03BS3]
(see: Paraconsistent logic)
Tsfasman-Vladut-Zink theorem
[12E20, 14H2S, 94B27; 12E20,
14H2S, 94B27]
(see: Artin-Schreler code)
TsujHlullivan theorem see: Hopf--
Tucker condition see: extended Kuhn- -
Tucker conditions see: Karush-Kuhn- -;
Kuhn- -
Tucker optimalijy conditions see: Karush-
Kuhn- -
Tukey fast Fourier transform algorijhm see:
Cooley- -
tuning adaptive control see: self--
Turan-Kubilius inequality
[IIN37; IIN37]
(see: Delange theorem)
Tulle theorem
[OSC70; OSC70]
(see: One-factor)
twist see: Dehn-
twisted wreath product type for a primitive
permutation group action
[20BIS; 20BIS]
(see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
two arbitrary sub-u-fields see: measure of
dependence between -
two bifurcations see: Codimension--
two bffurcations of equilibria see: codimen-
sion- -
two distributions see: measure of dis-
tance between -; measure of divergence
between -; measure of separation be-
tween -; measure of variation-distance
between -
two-element Boolean algebra
[06E30; 06E30]
(see: Boolean ditTerential calculus)
two generators see: free group on -
two law see: Zero--
two-point logarithmic Sobolev inequality
[46E3S, 46L89, 47D03, S8003;
46E3S, 46L89, 47D03, S8003]
(see: Hypercontractive semi-group)
two points in a tree see: confluent of -
two rooms see: house wijh -
twlHided Laplace-Stieltje., tran.'form
[44AIO; 44AIO]
(see: Laplace-Stieltjes transform)
two-tits10r-tat
[90AI4, 9ODxx, 92Bxx; 90AI4,
90Dxx, 92Bxx]
(see: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
type-2 constant
[46Bxx, 46B20, S2A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, S2A21]
(see: Banach-Mazur compactum)
type see: Algebra of finite representa-
tion -; Baer group, maximal of elation
-; Baer group, maximal of homology -;
boundary value problem of mixed -; But-
ler group of Richman -; Coifman-Weiss
space of homogeneous -; complete -;
differential equation of P -; differential
equation of Painleva -; distance mea-
sure of Kullback-Leibler -; n- -; prod-
uct action of a wreath product -; Shimura
variety of Abelian -; Shimura variety of
Hodge -; simple homotopy -
type acceleration function see: power--
type approximation theory see: Korovkin-
type Bo see: algebra of -; space of-
type data set see: logistic--
type differential equation see: P- -;
Painleva- -
type distance measures see: Kullback-
Leibler- -
type equations see: Painleva--
type extension theorem for convex cones
see: Hahn-Banach--
type F see: algebra of -
S78
type for a primitive permutation group ac-
tion
[20B IS; 20B IS]
(see: O'Nan-Scott theorem)
type for a primitive permutation group action
see: affine -; almost-Simple -; diag-
onal -; holomorphic simple -; twisted
wreath product -
type induction argument see: Bertini--
type inequalities see: Bonferroni- -;
Markov-Bernstein- -; method of poly-
nomials for proving Bonferroni- -
type inequality see: Bernstein- -; Markov-
type integral transform see: Bergman- -;
Vekua- -
type interaction see: mean field -
type of a code
[IIHS6,94B3S; IIHS6, 94B3S]
(see: Octacode)
type of a polarized Abelian surface
[14Kxx, S8F07; 14Kxx, S8F07]
(see: Abelian surface)
type of a residue in a geometry
[SIE24; SIE24]
(see: Diagram geometry)
type of individuals
[17D92, 92DIO; 17D92, 92DIO]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
___ v ___
U -statistic
(60Fxx, 62Exx; 60Fxx, 62Exx)
(refers 10: central limit theorem; Con-
vergence, types of; Hermite polyno-
mials; HoetTding decomposition; law
of large numbers; law of the iterated
logarithm; martingale; measurable
space; Random variable; stochastic
integral; unbiased estimator)
U -statistic see: degree of a -; Hoeffding
decomposition of an -; Hoeffding form
of a -; kernel of a -; primitive kernel of
a-;rankofa-
U-statistics see: central limit theorem for -
Ueda theorem
[32H20; 32H20]
(see: Kobayashi hyperbolicity)
UHF-algebra
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46L80; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46L80]
(see: AF.algebra)
Uhlenbeck operator see: Ornstein--
Ulam problem
[IIBxx; IIBxx]
(see: Syracuse problem)
Ulam theorem see: Borsuk--
Ulam-type recurrence see: Fermi-Pasta-
Ulm subgroup
[20Kxx; 20Kxx]
(see: Cotorsion group)
uRrametric inequality see: 0--
ultrametric space
[60DOS; 60DOS]
(see: Dvoretzky problem)
uitrapower
[03COS, 03C07, 03C20; 03COS,
03C07,03C20]
(see: Keisler-Shelah isomorphism
theorem)
ultrapower
[03C4S; 03C4S]
(see: Forking)
ultraproduct
[03C05, 03C07, 03C20; O3C05,
03C07,03C20]
(see: Keisler-Shelah isomorphism
theorem)
ultraviolet divergences
[58F07, 81TIO, 81T20, 83C47; 58F07,
81TIO, 81T20, 83C47]
(see: Massive Thirring model)
unbiased estimator see: Best linear -;
linear-
uncertainty value
[03B48, 68T99; 03B48, 68T99]
(see: Incidence calculus)
uncomputable co/lecting semantics
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
uncondijional space .'ee: I--
uncontrollable event
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
underlying H -.• cheme
[68S05, 92D20; 68S05, 92D20]
(see: Splicing operation)
understanding of human brain
[62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68TOS, 68TIO;
62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68TOS, 68TIO]
(see: Neural network)
undominated experiment
[28A99, 62B IS, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62B IS, 62B20, 62COS]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
unification by substitution
[68NI7; 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
unification theorem
[68NI7; 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
unifier
l68N17; 6SN17]
(see: Logic programming)
unifier see: most general -
uniform algebra
[46JlO, 46J20; 46JIO, 46J20]
(see: Banach function algebra; Cho-
quet boundary)
uniform B-..pline
l4IAOS; 41A05]
(see: Box spline)
unifi>rm convergence theorem for .. lowly
varying function ..
[26AI2; 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
uniform Gray code
lOSC4S, 6SPxx. 68Rxx, 94B60;
05C4S, 68Pxx, 68Rxx, 94B60]
(see: Gray code)
uniform metric
[47H30; 47H30]
(see: Hysteron)
uniform probability mea.. ure
[06AIO, 6OEIS; 06AIO, 60EIS]
(see: Correlation inequalities)
uniformly hyper-finite algebra
[ 19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46LSO; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46LSO]
(see: AF-algebra)
uniformly hyperbolic behaviour see: theory
of smooth dynamical systems with non-
uniformly hyperbolic diffeomorphism see:
non- -
uniformly hyperbolic dynamical systems see:
theory of non- -
uniformly hyperbolic trajectory
[28Dxx, SSFIS; 2SDxx, 5SF15]
(see: Pesin theory)
uniformly hyperbolic trajectory see: non--
Uniformly integrable set of random
variables
(60AIO, 60BIO; 60AIO, 60BIO)
(refers 10: Convergence in probabil-
ity; probability space; Random vari-
able)
unif()fmly integrable ..et '!f random vari-
ables
l60AIO, 60BIO; 60AIO, 60BIO]
(see: Uniformly integrable set of ran-
dom variables)
uniformly partially hyperbolic diffeomor-
phism see: non--
uniformly partially hyperbolic trajectory
[2SDxx, 5SF15; 2SDxx, S8F15]
(see: Pesin theory)
uniformly partially hyperbolic trajectory see:
non- -
uniformly .. ummable multiplicative func-
tion
lllA25, IIN37, IINS6; IIA2S,
IIN37, IINS6]
(see: Halasz mean value theorem)
unifying ..ub..titution
[68NI7; 68N17]
(see: Logic programming)
unimodular group see: unitary-
union see: closed under -
union operation for language..
[6SQ4S, 68S0S; 68Q4S, 68S0S)
(see: AFL operations)
uniquely decipherable D-ary code
194A29; 94A29]
(see: HotTman code)
uniqueness of an asymptotic centre for Bn
see: non--
uniqueness property see: regular function
having the -
uniquene.... property l!f a regular function
[12120, 14HOS; 12J20, 14HOS]
(see: Valued function field)
uniserial ring
[06COS; 06COS]
(see: Argueslan lattice)
UNISURF CAD system see: RanauR-
unit see: order-
unit density approximation theorem see:
RoqueUe -
unit equation see: S - -
unit theorem see: Dirichlet-
Unital
(OSBOS, 20040, SIE20; OSBOS,
20040, SlE20)
(referred to in: Buekenhout-Metz uni-
tal)
(refers 10: Block design; Buekenhout-
Metz unital; Desargues geometry;
polarity)
unital
[SIExx; SIExx]
(see: Galois geometry)
unital see: Buekenhout-Melz -; classical
-; Hermitian -; Ree -
unitality for cyclic cohomology see: H - -
unitary unimodular gmup
[20Cxx, 2OO0S, 22A2S, 22E70;
20Cxx, 2OO0S, 22A2S, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3-j, 6-j, and
9 - j coefficients)
units see: S - -
universal algebra .'ee: congruence-
simple -
universal domains
[03C3S, 03C60, 03C7S, 03C95;
03C3S, 03C60, 03C7S, 03C9S]
(see: Transfer principle)
univer..al morphi.,m
[08COS, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18COS,18Fxx;
08COS, 13Fxx, 14Axx, 18COS, 18Fxx]
(see: Jacobson category; Zariski cat-
egory)
universal product see: co--
universal semi-ring algorithm
[16Y60, 49Lxx, 9OC39; 16Y60,
49Lxx, 9OC39]
(see: Idempotent algorithm)
universe see: Herbrand-
univer..e l!f a ..tructure
[03C07; 03C07]
(see: Structure)
unmixing
[3SQ3S, 76-XX; 3SQ3S, 76-XX]
(see: Spinodal decomposition)
unpe~forated ordered Abelian group
[19Kxx, 46Lxx, 46LSO; 19Kxx,
46Lxx, 46LSO]
(see: AF-algebra)
unrestricted domain
[90AOS, 9OA08, 9OA28; 90AOS,
90A08, 90A28]
(see: Arrow impossibility theorem)
unstable invariant manifold

[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
unstable leading eigenspace
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
unstable leading eigenvalue
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Homoclinic bifurcations)
unstable manifold see: global -; local -
unsupervised learning
[62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68TIO;
62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68TlOI
(see: Neural network)
unsupervised training
[62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68TIO;
62-07, 62Hxx, 62H30, 68T05, 68Tl 0 I
(see: Neural network)
untied term
[03B45, 03G05, 03G 15, 06E 15,
06E25; 03B45, 03G05, 03G 15, 06E 15,
06E25]
(see: Sahlqvist identities)
untyped lambda-calculus
[03B40; 03B40J
(see: Illative combinatory logic)
up-.vet in a partially ordered set
[06D30; 06D30J
(see: Ockham algebra)
upper bound operator
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q551
(see: Analysis of programs)
upper Boyd index
[46B20; 46B20J
(see: Boyd index)
upper Karamata index
[26AI2; 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
upper Lyapunov exponent see: backward
-; forward-
upper Lyapunov exponent at a point see:
value of a forward -
upper Matuszewska index
[26AI2; 26A12]
(see: Karamata theory)
upper semi-continuous mapping
[54Bxx, 68U1O; 54Bxx, 68UIOI
(see: Hit-or-miss topology)
upper specification limit
[62NIO; 62NIOJ
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
variables)
Urysohn theorem for function spaces
[4IA35, 41A36, 41A65; 41A35,
41A36,41A65J
(see: Abstract approximation theory)
use ,\'tress
[62N05, 90B25; 62N05, 90B251
(see: Accelerated life testing)
USL
[62N 10; 62N I0]
(see: Acceptance sampling plan for
variables)
utility theory see: multi-attribute-
___ v___
V -space see: Frechet-
v-valuations see: ostensive-
(v ,k,A)-difference set
[05B 10, 1I B 13, 20KO 1; OSB 10,
lIBI3,20KOII
(see: Abelian difference set)
Vahlen matrix
[15A66, 30G30, 30G3S; 15A66,
30G30, 30G3S J
(see: Clifford analysis)
Valcan theorem see: Rad6--Andreascu--
Valdivia theorem
[26AI5, 54C30; 26A15, 54C30]
(see: Blumberg theorem)
validation of software
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55J
(see: Analysis of programs)
validatory approach see: cross--
validity see: internal-
valuation see: Henselian -; ostensive -;
ostensive 1- -; p-Henselian -
valuation theory
112J 10, 12120, 13J IS; 12JlO, 12120,
13JI5J
(see: Henselian)
valuations see: fundamental inequality for
extensions of -; ostensive c- -; osten-
sive 1,}- -
value see: cutting -; discordant -; spec-
tral -; uncertainty -
value group
IIISI5, 12J20; IISI5, 12J20J
(see: Defect)
value qla.forward upper Lyapunov expo-
nent at a point
128Dxx, 58F15; 28Dxx, 58FI51
(see: Pesin theory)
value of an arithmetic function see:
mean -
value of an arithmetical function see:
mean -
value problem see: first initial-boundary
-; focal boundary -; free boundary -;
initial- -; Riemann boundary -
value problem for an elliptic operator see:
boundary -
value problem of mixed type see: bound-
ary -
value problem of the first kind see: bound-
ary -
value problem of the second kind see:
boundary -; initial -
value problem of the third kind see: Bound-
ary -
value systems see: minimal realization of
boundary -
value theorem see: Halasz mean -; inter-
mediate -
value theory see: extreme-
valued field
112J 10, 12J20, 13B40, 13J15; 12JlO,
12120, 13B40, 13J15]
(see: Henselization of a valued field)
valuedfield without transcendence d~fect
112J20, 14H05; 12J20, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
Valued function field
(12J20, 14HOS; 12120, 14H(5)
(referred to in: Defect; Model theory
of valued fields)
(relers to: Algebraic function; alge-
braic variety; Defect; elementary
theory; Existentially closed; Ex-
tension of a field; field; Finiteness
theorems; Henselian; Henselization
of a valued field; Kaplansky field;
Model theory of valued fields; model
theory of valued fields; Prime model;
Ramification theory of valued fields;
Rigid analytic space; Robinson test;
Tate algebra; Ultrafilter: valuation)
values of a matrix see: singular-
van Have scaling see: Friedrichs--
Vlllldermonde matrix
liS-XX; IS-XXI
(see: Total positivity)
vanishing mean oscillation see: function of
-; space of functions of -
vanishing theorem see: Kempf -: Ko-
daira -
Vapnik-Chervonenkis class
(05A05, 60B 12; OSAOS, 60B 12)
(refelTed to in: Empirical process)
(relers co: axiom of choice: Boolean
algebra; central limit theorem;
Empirical process; law of large
numbers; law of the iterated loga-
rithm; mathematical statistics; met-
ric space; probability theory; vector
space)
Vapnik-Chervonenkis class
IOSA05, 60B 12; 05AOS, 60B 12]
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
Vapnik-Cherwmenkis index
[05A05, 60B12; 05A05, 60B12]
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
Vapnik-Chervonenkis major class
[OSA05, 60B12; 05A05, 60B12]
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
Vapnik-Chervonenkis property
[05AOS, 60B12; 05A05, 60B12]
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
Vapnik-Chervonenkis subgraph class
[05A05, 60B12; OSA05, 60B12]
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
Vapnik-CenJ()nenkis ('lass
[05A05, 60B 12; 05A05, 60B 12J
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
Varadhan diffusion support theorem see:
Stroock- -
variable see: Accessible random -; en-
tered -; extensive state -; map -; ra-
pidity -; Slack -; state -; surplus -
variable-entered Karnaugh map
[03Bxx, 06Exx, 94C 10; 03Bxx,
06Exx, 94C I0]
(see: Karnaugh map)
variable HP theory see: real--
variable in Boolean calculus see: differen-
tialofa -
variable in linear programming see: logi-
cal-
variable symbol
[68NI7; 68NI71
(see: Logic programming)
variable theory see: local hidden- -
variable theory of see: real--
variables see: a-mixing random -; Ac-
ceptance sampling plan for -; ,6-mixing
random -; De Finetti theorem for m-
symmetric random -; differential equa-
tion, integrable in the sense of complex
-; exchangeable sequence of random
-; functional calculus of several complex
-; integrability in the sense of complex
-; m-dependent sequence of random
-; m-symmetric sequence of random
-; symmetriC sequence of random -;
Uniformly integrable set of random -
variance function see: power-
variance-stabilizing transformations
[62E20; 62E20]
(see: Box-Cox transformation)
variation see: bounded -; index of regular
-; quadratic -; regular -
variation-distance between two distributions
see: measure of -
variation formula see: Polyakov-Onofri log
determinant -
variation of a function see: index of regular
-; regular-
variational characterization of eigenvalues
see: Rayleigh-Ritz-
variational inequality see: elliptic-
variational inequality problem
[90C30; 90C30]
(see: Proximal point methods in
mathematical programming)
variational norm
[28A99, 62B 15, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99, 62B 15,62820, 62C05]
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
variational principle see: Ekeland-
varieties see: Riemann hypothesis for non-
singular projective algebraic -
variety see: canonical model of a Shimura
-; Oeligne definition of a Shimura -;
generalized flag -; Grassmann -; Jaco-
bian -; locally closed -; mixed Shimura
-; moduli -; projective algebraic -;
reflex field of a Shimura -; Shimura
-; strict transform of an algebraic -;
Veronese -; weight of a Shimura -;
zeta-function of a Shimura -; t- -
variety of Abelian type see: Shimura-
variety of algebras see: canonical -; com-
plex -; elementary -
variety of Hodge type see: Shimura-
variety of normal-valued I-groups
VERTEX OF A TETRAHEDRON
[06FI5, 08Bxx, 20F60; 06F15, 08Bxx,
20F60]
(see: I-variety)
variety of representable I-groups
106FIS, 08Bxx, 20F60; 06F15, 08Bxx,
20F60]
(see: I-variety)
Varshamov bound see: Gilbert--
varying function see: extended regularly
-; O-regularly -; regularly-
varying functions see: characterization the-
orem for slowly -; representation theo-
rem for slowly -; uniform convergence
theorem for slowly -
varying measurable function see: slowly-
VAXIMA
168Q40; 68Q40J
(see: Computer algebra package)
VC class
105A05, 60B 12; OSA05, 60B 121
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
VC major class
[05A05, 60B 12; 05AOS, 60B 121
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
VC subgraph class
[05AOS, 60B 12; OSA05, 60B 121
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
VCM class
[05AOS, 60B 12; 05A05, 60B 121
(see: Vapnik-Chervonenkis class)
vector see: cyclic -; gradient -; voting
-; weight of a -; width of a convex set
along a-
vector bundle see: automorphic-
vector field see: characteristic -; Hamilto-
nian -; normal form of a -; prolonged
-; score as a-
vector in Boolean calculus see: differential
ofa -
vector lattice
[46E05, 46Jxx; 46E05, 46JxxJ
(see: i-algebra)
vector lattice see: Archimedean-
vector of an acceleration jump see: ampli-
tude -
vector optimization problem
[90C29; 90C29]
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
vector space see: locally bounded topolog-
ical-
vector space defect
[12120, 14H05; 12120, 14H05]
(see: Valued function field)
vector spaces see: orthomorphism of or-
dered -
vectors see: basis of short - ; inner product
of -
Vegas primality test see: Las-
Veitch diagram see: Marquand--
Vekua-type integral transform
[35CIS; 35CISJ
(see: Bergman integral operator)
velocity gas see: discrete-
velocity model see: discrete-
Verhulst logistic process see: Pearl--
Verhulst-Pearl logistic process
192D25; 92D2SJ
(see: Pearl-Verhulst logistic process)
verification see: program-
Veronese variety
[5IExx; 51ExxJ
(see: Galois geometry)
version of a Brownian motion see: continu-
ous -
version of the EHP spectral sequence see:
Toda -
version of the Leibniz rule see: graded-
version of the Riemann hypothesis see: ex-
tended -
vertex function see: discrete-
vertex guard
151M20; 51M20J
(see: Art gallery theorems)
vertex (~l a tetrahedron
[5IM20, S2-XX; SIM20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry of the)
579
VERTICAL COVARIANT OERIVATIVE
vertical covariant derivative
[53C60; 53C6O]
(see: Berwald connection)
VH-torsion tensor
[53C6O; 53C60]
(see: Berwald connection)
VI (T,C)
[9OC30; 9OC30]
(see: Proximal point methods in
mathematical programming)
vibron model
[8lRxx, 81R05; 81Rxx, 81R05]
(see: Spectrum generating algebra)
Viennot definition of Hall sets
[17BOI; 17BOI]
(see: Hall set)
ViI'koviskiT algebra see: Batalin--
Virasoro group
[81Q30, 81R25, 81T70; 81Q30,
8IR25,81T70]
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
virtual character
[2OCI5; 2OC15]
(see: Brauer characterization of
characters)
visco-plastic materials see: numerical
methods lor -
viscos"y see: effective -; kinematic -
viscosity model see: bi--
viscous Burgers equation
[60HIO, 6OK35, 65C05, 65U05;
60H 10, 60K35, 65C05, 65U05]
(see: Monte-Carlo methods for par-
tial differential equations)
viscous creep
[73Cxx, 760xx; 73Cxx, 760xx]
(see: Bingham lIuid)
visibility compactijication
[53C99; 53C99]
(see: Gromov hyperbolic space)
visibil"y property see: strong-
visibility sphere
[53C20, 58F17; 53C20, 58F17]
(see: Hopf-Tsuji-SuIlivan theorem)
Vitali theorem
[26A39, 26A42; 26A39, 26A42]
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
Vladut bound see: Drinlel'd--
Vladut-Zink theorem see: Tslasman--
Vlasov-Enskog equation
[78A35; 78A35]
(see: V1asov-Maxwell equation)
Vlasov-Enslwg system
[78A35; 78A35]
(see: Vlasov-Maxwell equation)
Vlasov-Fokker-Planck equation
[35H05, 35Q60, 35Q72, 78A35,
82C31, 83-XX; 35H05, 35Q60,
35Q72, 78A35, 82C31, 83-XX]
(see: Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-
Planck system)
Vlasov-Maxwell equation
(78A35; 78A35)
(refers to: Vlasov kinetic equation)
Vlasov-Maxwell system
[78A35; 78A35]
(see: Vlasov-Maxwell equation)
Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-Planck sys-
tem
(35H05, 35Q60, 35Q72, 78A35,
82C31, 83-XX; 35H05, 35Q60,
35Q72, 78A35, 82C31, 83-XX)
(referred to in: Monte-Carlo methods
for partial differential equations)
(refers to: Green function; Poisson
equation; Wiener process)
Vla.wv-Poi.mm system
[35H05, 35Q60, 35Q72, 78A35,
82C31, 83-XX; 35H05, 35Q6O,
35Q72, 78A35, 82C31, 83-XX]
(see: Vlasov-Poisson-Fokker-
Planck system)
VMO-space
(26A45, 32A35, 32A37, 46Exx;
26A45, 32A35, 32A37, 46Exx)
(referred to in: Dunford-Pettis prop-
erty)
580
(refers to: B M 0 -space; Analytic
function; Hardy spaces; Hilbert
transform; Uniform continuity)
Volterra equation see: Abstract-
Volterra integral operator
[47Bxx, 93Axx. 93B28; 47Bxx.
93Axx.93B28]
(see: Abstract Volterra operator)
Volterra integro-differential predator-prey
model
[92025,92040; 92025, 920401
(see: Predator-prey system)
Volterra operator see: Abstract-
Volterra series
147Bxx, 93Axx. 93B28; 47Bxx,
93Axx, 93B281
(see: Abstract Volterra operator)
volume see: Bezier-
volume of a tetrahedron
151M20, 52-XX; 51M20, 52-XX]
(see: Tetrahedron, elementary geom-
etry ofthe)
volume ratio
]46Bxx, 46B20, 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A2 I]
(see: Banach-Mazur compaclum)
volume ratio and Euclidean sections see:
theorem on-
Von Karman equations
(31A30, 31B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73K15; 31A30, 31B30. 73Cxx, 73K 10,
73K15)
(refers to: bifurcation; Biharmonic
function; Elasticity, mathematical
theory of; Elasticity theory, planar
problem of; Elliptic partial differ-
ential equation; Euler-Lagrange
equation; Monge-Ampere equation;
Quasi-linear equation; Shell theory)
lim Ktirmlin equations for plates
[3 I A30, 3 I B30, 73Cxx, 73K 10,
73K15; 31A30, 3 I B30, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73KI5J
(see: Von Karman equations)
von Misesfunctionai
[60Fxx, 62Exx; 60Fxx, 62Exx]
(see: U -statistic)
von Mises statistic see: weighted Cramer-
von Mises theorem see: Bernstein--
von Neumann enveloping algebra
[43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035;
43Axx, 46Hxx, 47027, 47035J
(see: Arens multiplication)
limmorceli
[68U05; 68U051
(see: Voronoi diagram)
Voronoi diagram
(68U05; 68U05)
(referred to jn: Computational geom-
etry; Delaunay triangulation)
(refers to: computational geometry;
Delaunay triangulation; Quadratic
form)
Voronol summability .,ee: absolute-
vortex method see: Chorin random -
vorticity
j76C05, 76E15; 76C05, 76EI51
(see: Convection equations)
vorticity equation
[76C05, 76E I 5; 76C05, 76E I 51
(see: Convection equations)
Voting paradoxes
(90A28; 90A28)
(refers to: Arrow impossibility theo-
rem)
voting procedure see: Laplace question on
the optimal choice 01 a -
voting vector
190A28; 90A28J
(see: Voting paradoxes)
Vries equation see: cylindrical Korteweg-
de -; generalized cylindrical Korteweg-
de -; modilied Kortweg-de -
___ w___
Wallisz prime number theorem see: Page-
Siegel- -
walks see: equivalence principle lor ran-
dom-
Wallis test see: Krushkal--
Walsh-Dirichlet kernel
142CIO, 43A75; 42CIO, 43A751
(see: Walsh functions)
Walsh-Fourier .\'eril~.\·
142C I 0, 43A 75; 42C I 0, 43A 751
(see: Walsh series)
Walsh functions
(42CIO, 43A75; 42CIO, 43A75)
(referred to in: Walsh series)
(refers to: Complete system; Haar
system; harmonic analysis; or-
thonormal system; probability the-
ory; Rademacher system)
Walsh series
(42CIO, 43A75; 42CIO, 43A75)
(refers to: Banach space; Genetic al-
gorithm; martingale; Orthonormal
system; series; trigonometric series;
Walsh functions)
wandering set
[28015, 58FJ7; 28015, 58FI71
(see: Hopf alternative)
Wang libering see: Boothby--
Wllr (~r attrition
190A14. 900xx, 92Bxx; 90A14,
900xx, 92Bxx I
(,<ee: Evolutionarily stable strategy)
Ward Perron-Stieltjes integral
126A39, 26A42; 26A39. 26A421
(see: Kurzweil-Henstock integral)
Warning theorem see: Chevalley--
Watanabe see: distribution in the sense
01 -
Watanabe distributioll
160H05, 60H07, 60J65; 60H05,
60H07,60J651
(see: Brownian functional)
watchman theorem see: Chvatal-
water sec: saturation of -
wlive
173Bxx. 73Cxx, 730xx. 73040,
76033; 73Bxx, 7JCxx, 730xx. 73040,
760331
(see: Acceleration wave)
wave see: Acceleration -; shock
Stokes -
wave equation see: acoustic -; one-way
- ~ paraxial one-way -
wave front in graph search
190C35; 90C351
(see: Search algorithm)
wave number
165M05, 65MIO, 86-08; 65M05.
65MIO, 86-08J
(see: Absorbing boundary condi-
tions)
wave number see: spatial-
WAVEpliradigm ofcommunicafion
168QIO, 68Q45. 68Q50; 68QIO,
68Q45.68Q501
(see: Grammar system)
wave solutions see: travelling--
wavelet see: Haar-Clifford -; piecewise-
constant -
wavelets see: Clifford-
waves see: Allven-
WeG co~{ficients
12OCxx, 20005. 22A25, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20005, 22A25, 22E701
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
WCG coefficients see: generalized -; gen-
erating lunction 01 the -
weak Banach-Sab property
146A22; 46A22J
(see: Banach-Saks property)
weak Bernoulli ('()~{fi";ellt
1280xx. 60AIO. 60005, 60Fxx.
60060, 60Kxx; 280xx, 60A10.
60005, 60Fxx. 60G60, 60Kxx I
(see: Absolute regularity)
weak chain space
151B05; 51B05]
(see: Chain space)
weak coerciveness
135A15, 35G15; 35A15, 350151
(see: Babuska-Lax-Milgram theo-
rem)
weak convergence
I54E70. 60B05. 60B 10, 60B 12. 60Fxx.
62Exx; 54E70, 60B05, 60B 10. 60B I 2.
60Fxx, 62Exx I
(see: Probabilistic metric space; Sko-
rokhod theorem; Skorokhod topol-
ogy; U -statistic)
weak coupling
[8 I S20; 81S20J
(see: Stochastic limit of quantum the-
ory)
weak distance
[46Bxx. 46B20. 52A21; 46Bxx,
46B20, 52A2 I J
(see: Banach-Mazur compaclum)
weak exchange property
[05B35, 06Bxx; 05B35, 06Bxxl
(see: Jordan-Dedekind space)
weak extension
I03Bxx; 03Bxxl
(see: Adequacy theorem)
weak integration see: Burkill-Cesari-
weak law of large numbers
[280xx, 6OFxx. 60G09, 60K35;
280xx, 6OFxx, 60009, 60K351
(see: Bernoulli measure)
weak Leopold! conjecture
IIIR23. IIR37. IIR42; IIR23.
IIR37,IIR42J
(see: Leopoldt conjecture)
weak limit theorem
1280xx. 60A 10, 60005. 60Fxx,
60060. 6OKxx; 280xx, 60AIO.
60005, 6OFxx, 60G60, 60Kxx]
(see: Absolute regularity)
weak Pareto optimality
[9OC29; 9OC29J
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
wellk topology
140H05, 46A45; 40H05. 46A45]
(see: Kothe-Toeplitz dual)
weak white no;,~e measure
[60Hxx; 60HxxJ
(see: Wiener space, abstract)
weakly coen'ivefullctiollal
135A15, 35G15; 35A15. 35GI51
(see: BabuSka-Lax-Milgram theo-
rem)
weakly compact operator
146Bxx, 46B20, 47B07; 46Bxx.
46B20, 47B071
(see: Dunford-Peltis property; Gro-
thendieck space)
weakly compllctly generated Ballach
,Ipace
146B20, 47B07; 46B20, 47B071
(see: Grothendieck space)
wellkly dominllted experiment
128A99. 62B 15, 62B20, 62C05;
28A99. 62B15, 62B20, 62C051
(see: L-space of a statistical experi-
ment)
weakly null sequence
146A22; 46A22]
(see: Banach-Saks property)
Weidonl! gelleralization '!f the EGZ theo-
rem
[05C55. 05010. 20KOl; 05C55_
05010,20KOIJ
(see: Erd~inzburg--Ziv theorem)
Weierstrass convergence theorem
[15A66, 30G30. 30G35; 15A66.
30G30, 30G35]
(see: Clifford analysis)
Weierstrass kernel see: n-dimensional-

Weierstrass singular integral see: Gauss-
Weierstrass theorem see: Lindemann--
Weierstrass theorem on addition formulas
[22Exx, 33-XX, 42Cxx; 22Exx, 33-
XX,42Cxx]
(see: Addition theorems in the theory
of special functions)
weight conjecture see: Alperin-
weight distribution '!f a code
[94B25; 94B25]
(see: MacWilliams identities)
weight enumerator
[94B25; 94B25J
(see: MacWilliams identities)
weight equation for Bessel polynomials
[33C 10; 33C IOJ
(see: Bessel polynomials)
weight function '!f a weighted algebra
[I6A99, 17092, 90010; 16A99,
17092,90010]
(see: Baric algebra)
weight of a circuit see: mean-
weight ofa group algebra in positive char-
acteristic
[19Cxx,20C20; 19Cxx, 2OC20]
(see: Alperin conjecture)
weight of a path
[69Fxx, 90Bxx, 93A30; 69Fxx, 90Bxx,
93A30]
(see: Discrete event system)
weight of a path see: mean-
weight of a semi-standard Ytmng tableau
[05E05, 05E 10, 05E 15, 20G05; 05E05,
05EIO, 05EI5, 20G05]
(see: Robinson-Schensted corre-
spondence)
weight of a Shimura variety
[llFxx, IIGI8, 14Mxx, 20Gxx;
IIFxx, IIG 18, 14Mxx, 20Gxx]
(see: Shimura variety)
weight of a vector
[94B25; 94B25]
(see: MacWilliams identities)
weight of an automorphic form
[30F35; 30F35]
(see: Bers space)
weight of an integer
[2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
20Cxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70J
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
weight one see: bracketed word of -;
bracketed words of -
weight - 2q for a group see: automorphic
formof-
weighted algebra
[16A99, 17092, 90010; 16A99,
17092,900lOJ
(see: Baric algebra)
weighted algebra
[17092, 92010; 17092, 92010]
(see: Bernstein algebra)
weighted algebra see: weight function of
a-
weighted algebras see: category of -;
morphism of -
weighted Cramer-von Mises statistic
[62Fxx, 62Gxx, 62G30; 62Fxx,
62Gxx, 62030]
(see: Anderson-Darling statistic)
weighted Lp spaces see: Sparr theorem
for-
weighted mean see: linearly-
weighted sum minimization method
[90C29; 9OC29J
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
weights of a group algebra of positive char-
acteristic see: equivalent-
Weil bound see: Bombieri--
Weil conjectures
[IIT22, IIT23, IIT24, IITII, 14GI5,
94B27; IIT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT71,
14015,94B27]
(see: Bombieri-Weil bound)
Weil construction
[43AIO, 43A46, 43A62; 43AIO,
43A46, 43A62]
(see: Hypergroups, harmonic analy-
sis on locally compact)
Weil curve
[ 11D41, II G05, 14H25, 14H52;
11041, IIG05, 14H25, 14H52]
(see: Fermat last theorem)
Weil Riemann hypothesis
[IIT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT71, 14GI5,
94B27; IIT22, IIT23, IIT24, IIT71,
14G15,94B27]
(see: Bombieri-Weil bound)
Weil theorem see: Borel- -; Hasse- -;
Mordell- -
Weinstein conjecture on contact flows
[53C15, 53C57, 58F05; 53CI5,
53C57,58F05]
(see: K -contact flow)
Weiss space of homogeneous type see:
Coifman- -
Welch bound
[IIB37, IIB83, 94Bxx; IIB37,
IIB83,94BxxJ
(see: Correlation property for se-
quences)
Welch construction
[05B30; 05B30]
(see: Costas array)
well founded ordering
[13PIO, 68Q40; 13PIO, 68Q40]
(see: Buchberger algorithm)
Wen-ling Huang theorem
[51M05, 51MIO; 51M05, 51M10]
(see: Beckman-Quarles-type theo-
rems)
Weyl conformal curvature tensor
[53A45, 53B35, 53CI5, 53C25;
53A45, 53B35, 53C 15, 53C25]
(see: Bochner curvature tensor)
Weyl tensor
[53C21; 53C21]
(see: Yamabe problem)
WFT algorithm
165T20; 65T20]
(see: Winograd Fourier transform al-
gorithm)
white noise measure see: weak-
Whitehead constructive definition
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
Whitehead group
[03Exx, 04-XX, 20K20; 03Exx, 04-
XX,20K201
(see: Whitehead problem)
Whitehead problem
(03Exx, 04-XX, 20K20; 03Exx, 04-
XX,20K20)
(referred to in: Gamma-invariant in
the theory of Abelian groups)
(refers to: continuum hypothesis;
Free Abelian group; Giidel con-
structive set; Homology; Set theory;
Suslin hypothesis)
Whitehead theorem
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05]
(see: Collapsibility)
Whitney level
[54Exx; 54Exx]
(see: Whitney mapping)
Whitney mapping
(54Exx; 54Exx)
(refers to: Hausdorff space; Metriz-
able space)
Whitney mapping
[54Exx; 54Exx]
(see: Whitney mapping)
Whitney property
[54Exx; 54Exx]
(see: Whitney mapping)
wide-sense elementary class of algebras
[03C05, 03C07, 03C20; 03C05,
03C07,03C20J
(see: Keisler-Shelah isomorphism
theorem)
widening operator
[68Q20, 68Q55; 68Q20, 68Q55]
(see: Analysis of programs)
width of a convex body
[IIH06; 11H06]
(see: Flatness theorem)
width of a convex set
[I I H06; I I H06]
(see: Flatness theorem)
width '!f a convex set along a vector
[IIH06; IIH06]
(see: Flatness theorem)
width '!f a convex set with respect to Zn
[IIH06; I I H06]
(see: Flatness theorem)
width path problem see: maximal-
Wiener algebra
[30E05, 47 A57, 93E II ; 30E05,
47A57,93EII]
(see: Caratheodory-Toeplitz exten-
sion problem; Nehari extension
problem)
Wiener algebra
[47A57, 47A68; 47A57, 47A68J
(see: Band method)
Wiener-Hopffactorization
[45EIO, 47A68, 47B35; 45EIO,
47 A68, 47835]
(see: Wiener-Hopf operator)
Wiener-Hopf integral operator
[45EIO, 47A68, 47B35; 45EIO,
47 A68, 47B35]
(see: Wiener-Hopf operator)
Wiener-Hopf integral operator see: symbol
ola-
Wiener-Hopf operator
(45EIO, 47A68, 47B35; 45EIO,
47 A68, 47835)
(refers to: Aleksandrov compactifica-
tion; Fredholm operator; linear op-
erator; Singular integral; Toeplitz
matrix; winding number)
Wiener-Hopi operator see: discrete -;
symbol 01 a discrete -
Wiener integral
[60Hxx, 6OJ65; 60Hxx, 60J65]
(see: Wiener measure)
Wiener-Ito integral
[60H05, 60H07, 6OJ65; 60H05,
60H07,60J65J
(see: Brownian functional)
Wiener-Levy process
[35K05, 41 A35, 60J35; 35K05,
4IA35,60J35]
(see: Gauss kernel)
Wiener measure
(60Hxx, 60J65; 60Hxx, 60J65)
(referred to in: Accessible random
variable)
(refers to: Borel field of sets; Brow-
nian motion; Fock space; Gaussian
process; Hilbert space; measure
space; orthonormal system; proba-
bility distribution; probability space;
Stochastic integral)
Wiener measure space
[60Hxx, 60J65; 60Hxx, 60J65]
(see: Wiener measure)
Wiener space
[60Hxx, 60H07; 60Hxx, 60H07J
(see: Malliavin calculus)
Wiener space see: classical-
Wiener space, abstract
(6OHxx; 60Hxx)
(referred to in: Brownian functional;
Malliavin calculus; Skorokhod inte-
gral)
(refers to: Banach space; Brownian
motion; Complete space; Construc-
tive quantum field theory; Cylinder
set; Generalized function; Hilbert
space; measure space; nuclear space;
probability distribution; rigged
Hilbert space; White noise)
Wiener stochastic integral see: It6--
Wigner-Clebsch-Gordan coefficients
WITHOUT LARGE COMPLEX DISCS
[20Cxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx,20G05,22A25,22E70J
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
Wigner-Clebsch--{3ordan coefficients see:
generalized -
Wigner coefficient
[20Cxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70;
2OCxx, 20G05, 22A25, 22E70]
(see: Racah, Wigner, 3- j, 6- j, and
9 - j coefficients)
Wigner contraction see: InonO--
Wigner-Eckart theorem
(22C05, 22010, 22E70, 81R05;
22C05, 22010, 22E70, 81 R05)
(refers to: compact group; Hilbert
space; irreducible representation;
Lie algebra; Lie group; Schur
lemma)
Wigner-Eckart theorem
[22C05, 22010, 22E70, 81 R05;
22C05, 22010, 22E70, 81 R05J
(see: Wigner-Eckart theorem)
Wigner, 3 - j, 6 - j, and 9 - j coefficients
see: Racah,-
Wilkinson factor
[65Fxx; 65Fxxl
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
Wilkinson 1/ S i factor
[65Fxx; 65Fxx]
(see: A priori and a posteriori bounds
in matrix computations)
Wilson line
[8ITxx; 8lTxx]
(see: Bohm-Aharonov effect)
Wilson loop
[8lTxx; 8lTxx]
(see: Bohm-Aharonov effect)
window see: time-
Winograd bilinear algorithm
[12005, 65T20; 12005, 65T20]
(see: Winograd small convolution al-
gorithm)
Winograd fast Fourier fran.\:t()rm algo-
rithm
[65T20; 65T20]
(see: Winograd Fourier transform al-
gorithm)
Winograd FFT algorithm
[65T20; 65T20]
(see: Winograd Fourier transform al-
gorithm)
Winograd Fourier transform algo-
rithm
(65T20; 65T20)
(refers to: Chinese remainder theo-
rem; Fourier transform; Winograd
small convolution algorithm)
Winograd large FFT algorithm
[65T20; 65T20]
(see: Winograd Fourier transform al-
gorithm)
Winograd large Fourier tran.~f(}rm algo-
rithm
[65T20; 65T20]
(see: Winograd Fourier transform al-
gorithm)
Winograd small convolution algorithm
(l2005,65T20; 12005, 65T20)
(referred to in: Winograd Fourier
transform algorithm)
(refers to: Chinese remainder theo-
rem)
Wintner conjecture see: Erdos--
Wirsing theorems
(lIN37; IIN37)
(referred to in: Delange theorem;
Halasz mean value theorem)
(refers to: de la Vallee-Poussin the-
orem; Delange theorem; Elliott-
Daboussi theorem; Halasz mean
value theorem; Multiplicative arith-
metic function; Tauberian theorems)
without large complex discs see: domain-
581
WITHOUT THE APPROXIMATION PROPERTY
without the approximation property see:
Szarek lin~e-dimensional analogue 01
Enllo's example 01 a space -
w~hout transcendence delect see: valued
lield -
witness see: Euler -; Fermat -; strong -
Witt cancellation theorem
[I IE81; IIE81)
(see: Abstract Witt ring)
Witt formula
[05Axx, 17801, 20M05; 05Axx,
17801,20M05)
(see: Lyndon word)
Witt ring see: Abstract-
Witt theorem see: PoincarS-Birkhoff--
Witten conjecture
[55N22, 55N35; 55N22, 55N35)
(see: Elliptic genera)
Witten equations see: Seiberg--
Wolfe duality
[9OC29; 9OC29)
(see: Multi-objective optimization)
word see: bracketing 01 a -; code -;
complete bracketing 01 a -; completely
bracketed -; elementary -; Hall -;
length 01 a -; letter in a -; Lyndon -;
proper right lactor 01 a -; strict suffix 01
a-;sullixola-
word-hyperbolic gmup
[20F32, 53C99; 20F32, 53C99)
(see: Gromov hyperboUc space; Hy-
perbolIc group)
Word metric
(20F32, 57M07; 20F32, 57M07)
(referred to in: Asymptotic invariant
ofagroup)
(~f~rs to: finitely-generated group;
Flmtely-presented group; funda-
mental group; HyperbolIc group;
metric; Polynomial and exponen-
tial growth in groups and algebras'
quasi.lsometry) , 81R25,81T70)
word metric
[20F32, 57M07; 20F32, 57M07)
(see: Word metric)
word of weight one see: bracketed-
word problem in a group see: solvable-
words see: completely bracketed -; con-
catenation 01 -; Lazard -
words 01 weight one see: bracketed-
world function
[83Cxx; 83Cxx)
(see: Synge world function)
world lunction see: Synge-
worst-case complex~ see: polynomial-
wreath product type see: product action 01
a-
wreath product type lor a primitive permuta-
tion group action see: twisted-
Wunderli basis see: Meier--
582
__ x __
XYZ Hei..enberg spin chain
[58F07, 81TIO, 81T20, 83C47; 58F07,
81TIO, 81T20, 83C47)
(see: Massive Thirring model)
xyz inequality
[06A06, 06AIO, 60E15; 06A06,
06AIO,60EI5)
(s,ee: Correlation inequalIties;
Flshburn-Shepp inequality)
---y---
Yamabe functional
[53C21; 53C21)
(see: Yamabe problem)
Yamabe problem
(53C21; 53C21)
(refers to: Conformal-differential ge-
ometry; Euler equation; harmonic
function; Imbedding theorems; iso-
metric mapping; Laplace opera-
tor; metric; Poincare conjecture;
Riemannian manifold; scalar curva-
ture)
Yang-Baxter equation see: classical -'
mod Hied -; solution 01 the classical -:
solution of the generalized - ' (see: Group of finite Morley rank)
Yang-Mills theory
[81Q30, 81R25, SIT70; 81Q30,
(see: Anomalies (in quantization»
Yoke
(53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx)
(referred to in: DilTerential geome-
try in statistical inference; Statistical
manifold)
(refers to: affine connection; Christof-
fel symbol; Differential geome-
try in statistical inference; mani-
fold; Maximum-Ukelihood method;
Riemannian manifold; Statistical
manifold)
yoke
[53Cxx, 62Axx; 53Cxx, 62Axx)
(see: Yoke)
yoke see: dual -; expected likelihood -;
normalized -; observed likelihood
tensorial component 01 a -
yoke (in statistics)
[53Cxx, 62Axx, 62Fxx; 53Cxx,
62Axx, 62Fxx)
(see: Statistical manifold)
Yoneda extension
[11040, 14CI7, 140xx, 190xx,
19Exx, 19F27; 11040, 14CI7, 140xx,
190xx, 19Exx, 19F27)
(see: Bemnson conjectures)
Yoshida convolution see: Moreau--
Young diagram see: skew-
Young functions see: conjugate-
Voung modulus of a plate
[3 I A30, 31830, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73K15; 31A30, 31830, 73Cxx, 73KIO,
73K15]
(see: Von Karman equations)
Voung plasticity modulus
[47H30; 47H30]
(see: Hysteron)
Young tableau see: semi-standard '
semi-standard skew -; Skew -; stan:
dard -; standard skew -; weight of a
semi-standard -
Young tableaux
[05E05, 05E I0, 05E 15, 20005; 05E05,
05E10, 05E15, 20005)
(see: Pictures)
___ z ___
(-Iunction see: p-adic-
Zn see: width 01 a convex set with respect
to-
i see: elementary theory of -
Zp -extension
[IIR23, IIR37, IIR42; IIR23,
IIR37,IIR42]
(see: Leopoldt conjecture)
Zp-extension see: cyclotomic-
Z-gmup
[03C60, 12J10, 12L12; 03C60, 12JIO,
12L12)
(see: p-adically closed field)
Zamolodchikov differential equations see:
Knizhnik- -
Zariski category
(I4Axx, 18Fxx; 14Axx, 18Fxx)
(referred to in: Jacobson category)
(refers to: algebraic geometry; cate-
gory; Commutative algebra; coprod-
uct; flat morphism; Morphism)
Zeeman conjecture
[20F05, 57M20, 57Q05; 20F05,
57M20, 57Q05)
(see: Collapsibility)
Zeeman conjecture see: extended
lull-
Zel'dovich number
[33K57, 35825, 80A25; 33K57,
35825, 80A25)
(see: Activation energy)
Zenmelo-Frankel set theory
[03Exx, O4-XX, 20K20; 03Exx, 04-
XX,20K20)
(see: Whitehead problem)
zero see: block 01 defect -; group of
genus -
zem-Hopf bijun'ation
[58FI4; 58F14]
(see: Codimension-two bifurcations)
zero-one law see: Kolmogorov-
zem-"um Ramsey theory
[05C55, 05010, 20KOI; 05C55,
050lO,20KOI)
(see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem)
Zero-two law
(47838; 47838)
(refers to: contraction)
zeros of polynomials see: Jury test for -;
Routh test for -
zeta-function of a Shimura variety
[I I Fxx, IIGl8, 14Mxx, 2OOxx;
I IFxx, IIGl8, 14Mxx, 2OOxx]
(see: Shimura variety)
Zhabotinskil reaction see: Belousov--
Zil'ber conjecture see: Cherlin--
Zit'ber indecomposability theorem
[03C60; 03C60]
(see: Group of finite Morley rank)
Zit'ber theorem
[03C60; 03C60]
Zink theorem see: Tsfasman-Vladut--
Ziv constant see: ErdOs-Ginzburg--
Ziv theorem see: Erd6s-Ginzburg--
zone-coen'ive Bregman function
[52Axx, 9OCxx, 9OC05, 9OC25;
52Axx,9OCxx,9OC05,9OC25]
(see: Bregman function)
zone consiMent with a Bregmanfunction
[52Axx, 9OCxx, 9OC05, 9OC25;
52Axx, 9OCxx, 9OC05, 9OC25]
(see: Bregman distance)
zone of a Bregmanfunction
[52Axx, 9OCxx, 9OC05, 90C25;
52Axx, 9OCxx, 9OC05, 9OC25]
(see: Bregman function)
zonoid
[52A40; 52A40]
(see: 8laschke-SantaI6 inequality)
Zygmund operator see: Calder6n--
Zygmund-singular integral see: Calder6n-
--------___ AUTHORINDEX ___________
___ A ___
Abel, N.H. see: Fermat last theorem
Ablowitz, M.I. see: Painleve-type equa-
tions
Abraham, V.M. see: Bernstein algebra
Adams, D.R. see: Moser-Trudinger in-
equality
Adams, J.E see: Adams conjecture;
Adams-Hilton model
Adleman, L.M. see: Probabilistic pri-
mality test
Adler, M. see: Abelian surface;
Kowalewski top
Aiyama see: De Sitter space
Akutagawa, K. see: De Sitter space
Alford, W.R. see: Carmichael number
Almgren, E see: Bernstein problem in
differential geometry
Alon, N. see: Acyclic orientation;
ErdOs-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem
Amari, S.-I. see: Statistical manifold
Amitsur, S. see: Amitsur-Levitzki the-
orem
Andersen, H. see: Kempf vanishing the-
orem
Anderson, A. see: Paraconsistent logic
Ando, T. see: Furuta inequality
Andre, Y. see: G-function
Andrews, J.I. see: Collapsibility
Andronov, A.A. see: Homoclinic bifur-
cations
Anstice, R.R. see: Room square
Arens, R. see: Arens multiplication;
Arens regularity; Frechet algebra
Amor d, V.1. see: Siegel disc
Aronszajn, N. see: Collapsibility
Arrow, K. see: Arrow impossibility the-
orem
Artin, E. see: Artin-Schreier theory;
Bombieri-Weil bound; p-adically
closed field; Real closed field
Asimow, L. see: Abstract approxima-
tion theory
Asplund, E. see: Banach-Mazur com-
pactum
Atkin, A.O.L. see: Probabilistic primal-
ity test
Aubin, T. see: Yamabe problem
Ax, J. see: Model theory of valued
fields; p-adically closed field
___ B___
Babuska, I. see: Babu§ka-Lax-
Milgram theorem; Lax-Milgram
lemma
Baemstein II, A. see: Banach-Saks
property
Bagchi, B. see: Unital
Bagchi, S. see: Unital
Bahri, A. see: Yamabe problem
Baker, A. see: Gel'fond-Baker method;
Leopoldt conjecture
Bakhvalov, N.S. see: Adaptive quadra-
ture
Baldwin, J.T. see: Morley rank
Baldwin, S. see: Blumberg theorem
Ball, K. see: Blaschke-Santalo inequal-
ity
Banach, S. see: Banach limit; Banach-
Mazur compactum; Banach-Saks
property; Frechet topology
Baragar, A. see: Hurwitz equation
Barban, M.B. see: Bombieri prime num-
ber theorem
Bamdorff-Nielsen, O.E. see: Statistical
manifold
Barreira, L. M. see: Pesin theory
Basarab, S. see: Model theory of valued
fields
Baskakov, VA. see: Baskakov op-
erators; Bernstein-Baskakov-
Kantorovich operator
Bass, H. see: Bianchi group
Bateman, P.T. see: Bunyakovskil con-
jecture
Batten, L.M. see: Jordan-Dedekind
space
Bauer, H. see: Brelot harmonic space
Beauzamy, B. see: Banach-Saks prop-
erty
Beaver, R.I. see: Bradley-Terry model;
Paired comparison model
Bechlivanidis, C. see: Goryachev-
Chaplygin top
Becker, J. see: Adams conjecture;
Model theory of valued fields
Beckman, ES. see: Beckman-Quarles-
type theorems
Beckner, W. see: Moser-Trudinger in-
equality
Bellinson, A. see: Bellinson conjectures
Bejancu, A. see: CR-submanifold
Bell, E.T. see: Bell numbers; Bell poly-
nomial
Bell, J .S. see: Bell inequalities
Bellman, R. see: Rayleigh-Taylor insta-
bility
Belnap, N. see: Paraconsistent logic
Benjamin, T.B. see: Benjamin-Feir in-
stability
Benyamini, Y. see: Banach-Mazur com-
pactum
Benz, W. see: Beckman-Quarles-type
theorems; Benz plane; Chain geome-
try
Berenger, J.P. see: Absorbing boundary
conditions
Berezanskil, Yu. see: Hypergroups,
harmonic analysis on locally com-
pact
Berge, C. see: One-factor
Bergman, S.
boundary
see: Bergman-Shilov
Bernstein, S. N. see: Bernstein algebra;
Bernstein-Baskakov-Kantorovich
operator; Bernstein problem in dif-
ferential geometry; Bernstein-von
Mises theorem; Markov-Bernstein-
type inequalities
Bers, L. see: Bers space
Berwald, L. see: Berwald space
Betti, E. see: Betti reciprocal theorem
Beukers, E see: E-function
Beurling, A. see: Moser-Trudinger in-
equality
Bezier, P. see: Bezier curve; Bezier
spline
Bhansali, R.I. see: Canadian lynx series
Bhattacharyya, A. see: Bhattacharyya
distance
Bialostocki, A. see: ErdOs-Ginzburg-
Ziv theorem
Bianchi, L. see: Bianchi group
Billard, P. see: Billard method; Dvoret-
zky problem
Billingsley, P. see: Skorokhod topology
Birkhoff, G. see: !-algebra; Keisler-
Shelah isomorphism theorem
Birkhoff, G.D. see: Birkhoft' normal
form; Walsh functions
Bitsadze, A. V. see: Bitsac1ze-Lavrent'ev
problem
Blaesild, P. see: Statistical manifold
Blaschke, W. see: Banach-Mazur com-
pactum; Blaschke-Santalo inequal-
ity
Bliedtner, J. see: Brelot harmonic space
Bloch, S. see: Bellinson conjectures
Blumberg, H. see: Blumberg theorem
Boboc, N. see: Brelot harmonic space
Bochner, S. see: Bochner curvature ten-
sor
Bohman, H. see: Bohman-Korovkin
theorem; Korovkin theorems
Bohr, N. see: Idempotent analysis;
Idempotent correspondence princi-
ple
Bojanic, R. see: De Haan theory
Bombieri, E. see: Bernstein problem
in differential geometry; Bombieri
prime number theorem; Bombieri-
Weil bound; G-function
Bonferroni, C.E. see: Bonferroni in-
equalities
Bonotto, C. see: Adequacy theorem
Bony, J.M. see: Brelot harmonic space
Borda, J.c. see: Voting paradoxes
Borel, A. see: Bellinson conjectures;
Leopoldt conjecture
Borel, E. see: Dvoretzky problem
Borsuk, K. see: Borsuk fixed-point the-
orem
Bose, R.C. see: Unital
Bott, R. see: Elliptic genera
Bourgain, J. see: Banach-Mazur
compactum; Banach-Saks prop-
erty; Blaschke-Santalo inequality;
Dunford-Pettis property
Boyd, D. W. see: Boyd index
Bradford, J.c. see: Blumberg theorem
Bradley, R. A. see: Bradley-Terry
model; Paired comparison model
Brauer, R. see: Alperin conjecture;
Block; Brauer characterization of
characters; Brauer homomorphism
Brelot, M. see: Brelot harmonic space
Bressan, A. see: Adequacy theorem
Broadwell, J.E. see: Broadwell model
Brown, E.H. see: Brown-Peterson spec-
trum
Brown, J.B. see: Blumberg theorem
Brownawell, W.D. see: E-function
Brudnyl, Yu.A see: Calderon couples
Brumer, A. see: Leopoldt conjecture
Bryuno, A.D. see: Siegel disc
Bucur, Gh. see: Brelot harmonic space
Biihlmann, H. see: Credibility theory
Bukhvalov, A. V. see: Integral represen-
tations of linear operators
Bulmer, M.G. see: Canadian lynx data
Bunyakovskil, V see: Bateman-Horn
conjecture; Bunyakovskil conjecture
Burkholder, D.L. see: Burkholder-
Davis-Gundy inequality
Bush, C.A. see: Dirichlet process
Butzer, P.L. see: Bernstein-Baskakov-
Kantorovich operator
___ c ___
Cahn, J. W. see: Spinodal decomposition
Calabi, E. see: De Sitter space
Calder6n, A.P. see: Calderon couples
Cameron, R.H. see: Wiener space, ab-
stract
Campbell, M.I. see: Canadian lynx se-
ries
Cantor, D. see: Algebraic Diophantine
equations
Carleson, L. see: Moser-Trudinger in-
equality
Carmichael, R.D. see: Carmichael num-
ber
Camap, R. see: Adequacy theorem
Caro, Y. see: ErdOs-Ginzburg-Ziv the-
orem
Carre, B.A. see: Idempotent algorithm
Cartan, E. see: CR-manifold
Cassels, J.W.S. see: Skolem-Mahler-
Lech theorem
Casson, A. see: Casson handle
Castelnuovo, G. see: Adjunction theory
Catalan, E. see: Binary tree
Cauchy, A.L. see: Algebraic analysis;
CR-manifold
583
tECH,E.
tech, E. see: Probabilistic metric space
Cedar, J. see: Blumberg theorem
Cesari, L. see: Burkill-Cesari integral
Chandrasekhar, S. see: Vlasov-Poisson-
Fokker-Planck system
Chang, S.-Y.A. see: Moser-Trudinger
inequality
Chaplygin, S.A. see: Goryachev-
Chaplygln top
Chazy, J. see: Painleve-type equations
Cheng, B. see: Canadian lynx series
Cheng, Q.M. see: Anti-de Sitter space;
De Sitter space
Cheng, S. Y. see: De Sitter space
Cherlin, G.L. see: Group of finite Mor-
ley rank; Model theory of valued
fields; Real closed field
Chern, S.S. see: Bernstein problem in
differential geometry; CR-manifold
Cherrier, P. see: Yamabe problem
Chudnovsky, G.V. see: G-function
Chilman, G. see: Bochner curvature
tensor
Church, A. see: Adequacy theorem;
Illative combinatory logic
Chvatal, V. see: Acyclic orientation;
Chvatal theorem
Ciarlet, P.G. see: Von Karman equations
Civin, P. see: Arens regularity
Clarke, C.J.S. see: Synge world function
Clauser, J.F. see: Bell inequalities
Clausius, R. see: Clausius-Duhem in-
equality
Clifford, A.H. see: Clifford theory
Clifford, W.K. see: Clifford analysis
Coates, J. see: Gel'fond-Baker method
Cohen, M. see: Collapsibility
Cohen, P. ..ee: Model theory of valued
fields
Cohn, P.M. see: Bianchi group
Coleman, B.D. see: Clausius-Duhem
inequality
Collatz, L. see: Syracuse problem
Connes, A. see: Cyclic cohomology
Constantinescu, C. see: Brelot harmonic
space
Conway, J.H. see: Syracuse problem
Cornea, A. see: Brelot harmonic space
Costas, J.P. see: Costas array
Cox, D.R. see: Canadian lynx series
Cruse, A.B. see: One-factor
Curry, H.B. see: Illative combinatory
logic
Curtis, M.L. see: Collapsibility
da Costa, N. see: Paraconsistent logic
___ D ___
Daboussi, H. see: Delange theorem;
Elliott-Daboussi theorem
Dade, E.C. see: Alperin conjecture
Dall' Aglio, G. see: Copula
Dashen, R. ..ee: Gell-Mann-Dashen al-
gebra
Davenport, H. see: Davenport constant
Davet, J.-L. see: Von Karman equations
Davey, B.A. see: Ockham algebra
Davidson, R.R. see: Paired comparison
model
Day, M.M. see: Banach limit
de Casteljau, P. see: Bezier curve; Bezier
spline
de Felice, F. see: Synge world function
de Fermat, P. see: Fermat last theorem
de Haan, L. see: De Haan theory
Dedekind, R. see: Dedekind eta-
function; Dedeklnd sum; Gamma-
invariant in the theory of modular
forms
DeGiorgi, E. see: Bernstein problem in
differential geometry
Delange, H. see: Delange theorem;
Halasz mean value theorem
584
Delaunay, B.N. see: Delaunay triangu-
lation
Deligne, P. see: Bellinson conjectures;
Shimura variety
Delon, F. see: Kaplansky field
Delsarte, 1. see: Hypergroups, har-
monic analysis on locally compact
Demazure, M. see: Kempf vanishing
theorem
Dembowski, P. see: Benz plane
Denef, J. see: Model theory of valued
fields; p-adically closed field
Deninger, C. see: Bellinson conjectures
Denjoy, A. see: Density topology
Derriennic, M.M. see: Bernstein-
Baskakov-Kantorovich operator
Deuring, M. see: Valued function field
Dickmann, M. see: Real closed field
Dierker, P. see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem
Diestel, J. see: Dunford-Peltis property
Dinitz, J.H. see: One-factorization
Diophantus see: Fermat last theorem
Dirichlet, P.G.L. see: Fermat last theo-
rem; Voronoi diagram
Douglas, J. see: Alternating-direction
implicit method
Drewnowski, L. see: Blumberg theorem
Dubiner, M. see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem
Dubois, D. W. see: Real closed field
Duffin, R.S. see: Markov-Bernstein-
type inequalities
Duhem, P. see: Clausius-Duhem in-
equality
Dunford, N. see: Dunford-Peltis prop-
erty
Durrmeyer, J. L. see: Bernstein-
Baskakov-Kantorovich operator
Duval, J.P. see: Lyndon word
Dvoretzky, A. see: Dvoretzky problem
Dym, H. see: Lie symmetry analysis
___ E___
Eckart, C. see: Clausius-Duhem in-
equality
Edelman, P.H. see: Acyclic orientation
Efrat, I. see: p-adically closed field
Ehrenfeucht, A. see: Frai'sse character-
ization of elementary equivalence
Eklof, P. see: Transfer principle
El Helou, Y. see: Dvoretzky problem
Elliott, P.D.T.A. see: Delange theorem;
Elliolt-Daboussi theorem
Endo, H. see: Bochner curvature tensor
Enflo, P. see: Walsh series
Engquist, B. see: Absorbing boundary
conditions
Enriques, E see: Adjunction theory
Erdos, P. see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem; Erdiis-Heilbronn prob-
lem; Hardy-Ramanujan theorem;
Ramsey number
Ershov, Yu. see: Model theory of valued
fields; p-adically closed field
Escobar, M. see: Dirichlet process
Etherington, I.M.H. see: Baric algebra
Euler, L. see: Fermat last theorem;
Siegel disc
___ F ___
Faa di Bruno, E see: Bell polynomial
Fainlelb, A.S. see: Wirsing theorems
Fan Ai-hua see: Dvoretzky problem
Fano, G. see: Adjunction theory
Farrahi, B. see: Beckman-Quarles-type
theorems
Fatou, P. see: Siegel disc
Federer, H. see: Federer-Fleming de-
formation theorem
Fetferman, C. see: Fefferman-Garsia
inequality; Hardy spaces
Feigin, B. see: Cyclic cohomology
Feir, J.E. see: Benjamin-Feir instability
Fejer, L. see: Fejer-Riesz theorem;
Markov-Bernstein-type inequalities
Fekete, M. see: Markov-Bernstein-type
inequalities; Total positivity
Felix, Y. see: Adams-Hilton model
Feller, W. see: Karamata theory
Feron, R. see: Copula
Fichera, G. see: Signorini problem
Fine, B. see: Bianchi group
Fine, N.J. see: Walsh functions
Fisher, R.A. see: De Haan theory
Fisk, S. see: Chvatal theorem
Fitzsimmons, P. see: Dvoretzky problem
Fleming, W.H. see: Bernstein problem
in differential geometry; Federer-
Fleming deformation theorem
Aoris, P.G.A. see: Hypergroups, har-
monic analysis on locally compact
Fontaine, J.-M. see: Bellinson conjec-
tures
Ford, L.R. see: Bradley-Terry model
Forney, G.D. see: Octacode
Fra'iss", R. see: Frai'sse characterization
of elementary equivalence
Frank-Kamenetskii, D.A. see: Activation
energy
Franke, J. see: Elliptic cohomology; El-
liptic genera
Frechet, M. see: Copula; Frechet topol-
ogy
Freedman, M. see: Casson handle
French, Ch. see: Canadian lynx data
Frey, G. see: Fermat last theorem
Friedlander, E. see: Adams conjecture
Frisch, K.R. see:Interior-pointmethods
in mathematical programming
Fristedt, B. see: Dvoretzky problem
Frobenius, G ..,ee: Boolean algebra with
operators
Frohmann, C. see: Bianchi group
Frucht, R. see: Frucht theorem
Fuchs, W.H.J . .'ee: Painleve-type equa-
tions
Ftiredi, Z. see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem
Furuta. T. see: Furuta inequality
___ G ___
Gabr, M.M. see: Canadian lynx series
Galambos, J. see: Hardy-Ramanujan
theorem
Gallagher, P.X. see: Bombieri prime
number theorem
Galoschkin, A.!, see: G-function
Gambier, B. .,ee: Painleve-type equa-
tions
Gantmacher, ER. see: Total positivity
Garsia, A.M. see: Fefferman-Garsia in-
equality
Gauss, C.E see: Bombieri-Weil bound;
Fermat last theorem; Voronoi dia-
gram
Gegenbauer, L. see: Addition theorems
in the theory of special functions
Gelatt, C.D. see: Simulated annealing
Gell-Mann, M. see:Gell-Mann-Dashen
algebra; Gell-Mann-Okubo formula
Gerfand, I.M. see: Hypergroups, har-
monic analysis on locally compact;
Wiener space, abstract
Gerfond, A.O. see: Gel'fond-Baker
method
Germain, S. see: Fermat last theorem
Geweke, J. see: Canadian lynx series
Gillman, D. .'ee: Collapsibility
Giusti, E. see: Bernstein problem in dif-
ferential geometry
Gluskin, E.D. see: Banach-Mazur com-
pactum
Giibel. R. see: Cotorsion-free group
Giidel, K. see: Paraconsistent logic
GotTman, C. see: Blumberg theorem;
Density topology
Gokhale, D. V. see: Paired comparison
model
Golay, M.J.E. see: Golay code
Goldwasser, S. .,ee: Probabilistic pri-
mality test
Gordon, Y. see: Banach-Mazur com-
pactum
Goryachev, D. see: Goryachev-
Chaplygin top
Gottlieb, D. see: Adams conjecture
Gould, H.W. see: Brafman polynomials
Graham, R. see: Erdiis-Heilbronn prob-
lem
Granville, A. see: Carmichael number
Grauert, H. see: Valued function field
Gravett, K.A.H. see: Kaplansky field
Gray, E .'ee: Gray code
Grayson, D. see: Bellinson conjectures
Green, B. see: Valued function field
Green, J. see: Brauer characterization
of characters
Green, M. see: Kobayashi hyperbolicity
Greene, C. see: Acyclic orientation;
Greene-Kleitman theorem
Gromov, M. see: Asymptotic invari-
ant of a group; Banach-Mazur com-
pactum; Gromov hyperbolic space
Gross, L. see: Accessible random vari-
able; Hypercontractive semi-group;
Wiener space, abstract
Grosser, M. see: Arens regularity
Grothendieck, A. .<ee: Bellinson conjec-
tures; Dunford-Peltis property
Grtinbaum, EA. see: Calogero-Moser-
Krichever system
Gruson, L. see: Valued function field
Gundy, R.E see: Burkholder-Davis-
Gundy inequality
Gustavson, EG. see: Birkhoff normal
form
Gyory, K. see: Gel'fond-Baker method
___ H ___
Haboush, W.J. .'ee: Kempf vanishing
theorem
Haggan, V. see: Canadian lynx series
Hahisz, G. see: Hahlsz mean value the-
orem; Wirsing theorems
Halin, R. see: Halin graph
Hall, M. see: Hall set; Lazard set
Hall, P. see: Hall polynomial
Halmos, P.R. see: Boolean algebra with
operators
Halperin, S. see: Adams-Hilton model
Hamidoune, Y.O. see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-
Ziv theorem
Hamilton, W.R. see: Clifford analysis
Han, S.S. see: Bessel polynomials
Hansen, W. see: Brelot harmonic space
Harborth, H. see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem
Hardy, G.H. ..ee: Bateman-Horn con-
jecture; Model theory of the real ex-
ponential function
Harris, T.E. see: Bernoulli measure
Hasse, H ..•ee: Bombieri-Weil bound
Haunsperger, D. see: Voting paradoxes
Haupt, O. ..ee: Density topology
Hazewinkel, M. see: Brown-Peterson
spectrum
Hebb, D.O. see: Hebb rule
Heckman, G. see: E-function
Heilbronn, H. see: Erdiis-Heilbronn
problem

Heilmann, M. see: Baskakov operators
Heinz, E. see: Heinz inequality
Heise, W. see: Benz plane
Henkin, L. see: Henkin construction
Hennefeld, J. see: Arens regularity
Henstock, R. see: Kurzweil-Henstock
integral
Heravi, S.M. see: Canadian lynx series
Herman, M.R. see: Siegel disc
Hermite, Ch. see: Gamma-invariant in
the theory of modular forms; LLL
basis reduction method
Herzberg, N.P. see: Hurwitz equation
Hiai, F. see: Furuta inequality
Hildebrand, A. see: Wirsing theorems
Hilton, PJ. see: Adams-Hilton model
Hintikka, J. see: FraYsse characteriza-
tion of elementary equivalence
Hoeffding, W. see: U -statistic
Htlffding, W. see: Copula
Hotl'mann-J~rgensen, J. see: Dvoretzky
problem
Holley, R. see: Holley inequality
HopI', E. see: Hopf alternative; Hopf-
Tsuji-Sullivan theorem
Hopf, H. see: Poincare-Hopf theorem
Hopper, A. T. see: Brafman polynomials
Hom, R. see: Bunyakovskii conjecture
Home, M.H. see: Bell inequalities
Howell see: Room square
Huang, M.-D. see: Probabilistic primal-
ity test
Hutl'man, D. see: Huffman code
Hurwitz, A. see: Hurwitz equation;
Kustaanheimo-Stiefel transforma-
tion
___ 1___
Igusa, J.1. see: Elliptic genera
Imai, Y. see: BCI-algebra; BCK-
algebra
Indlekofer, K.-H. see: Halasz mean
value theorem
Inkeri, K. see: Fermat last theorem
Isaacs, R. see: Clifford theory
Isbell, J. see: Collapsibility
Iseki, K. see: BCI-algebra; BCK-
algebra
Ishak, S. see: Fefferman-Garsia in-
equality
Ishihara, S. see: Anti-de Sitter space; De
Sitter space
It6, K. see: Wiener space, abstract
---J---
Jacobson, N. see: Jacobson-Bourbaki
theorem
James, I.M. see: EHP spectral sequence
Jannsen, V. see: Beilinson conjectures;
p-adically closed field
Janssens, D. see: Bochner curvature
tensor
Jaskowski, S. see: Paraconsistent logic
John, F. see: Banach-Mazur com-
pactum; Karush-Kuhn-Tucker con-
ditions; BMO -space
Johnson, S.M. see: Gray code
J6nsson, B. see: Boolean algebra with
operators
Julia, G. see: Siegel disc
___ K___
Kac, V. see: Kempf vanishing theorem
Kaerlain, G. see: Benz plane
Kahane, J.-P. see: Dvoretzky problem
Kahn, TJ. see: Benz plane
Kakutani, S. see: Banach-Saks prop-
erty; Dunford-Pettis property
Kahon, NJ. see: Calderon couples
Kantorovich, L.V. see: Bernstein-
Baskakov-Kantorovich operator
Kaplansky, I. see: Kaplansky field; Val-
ued function field
Karamata, J. see: De Haan theory;
Karamata theory
Karlin, S. see: Total positivity
Karmarkar, N. K. see: Interior-point
methods in mathematical program-
ming
Karush see: Karush-Kuhn-Tucker
conditions
Katok, A. see: Pesin theory
Katz, N. see: Elliptic genera
Keisler, HJ. see: FraYsse charac-
terization of elementary equiva-
lence; Henkin construction; Keisler-
Shelah isomorphism theorem
Kelley, J.L. see: Whitney mapping
Kellog, O.D. see: Total positivity
Kempf, G. see: Kempf vanishing theo-
rem
Kendall, D.G. see: Choquet-Kendall-
Matheron theorem
Kesten, H. see: Bernoulli measure
Kharitonov, Y.L. see: Kharitonov poly-
nomial theory
Ki, V.-H. see: Anti-de Sitter space
Kilian see: Probabilistic primality test
Kim, H.S. see: Anti-de Sitter space
Kim, S.S. see: Bessel polynomials
Kimura, K.-1. see: Beilinson conjectures
Kirby, R. see: Dehn surgery
Kirkman, T.M. see: Room square
Kirkpatrick, S. see: Simulated annealing
Kisin, M. see: Erdos-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem
Klee, Y. see: Chvatal theorem
Kleene, S.c. see: Idempotent algo-
rithm; Illative combinatory logic
Klein, F. see: Gamma-invariant in the
theory of modular forms
Kleinstein, J. see: Abstract Witt ring
Kleitman, DJ. see: Erdos-Ginzburg-
Ziv theorem; Greene-Kleitman the-
orem
Knight, J.F. .'ee: a-minimal
Kniirr, R. see: Alperin conjecture
Knuth, D. see: Jeu de taquin
Kochen, S. see: FraYsse characterization
of elementary equivalence; Model
theory of valued fields; p-adically
closed field
Koenigsmann, J. see: p-adically closed
field
Kohn, R. see: Canadian lynx series
Kolmogorov, A.N. see: Absolute regu-
larity; Siegel disc
Konig, D. see: Frucht theorem
Kooperberg, C. see: Canadian lynx se-
ries
Koornwinder, T.H. see: Addition theo-
rems in the theory of special func-
tions; Hypergroups, harmonic anal-
ysis on locally compact
Korkin, A. see: LLL basis reduction
method
Korovkin, P.P. see: Bohman-Korovkin
theorem; Korovkin theorems
Kostant, B. see: Amitsur-Levitzki the-
orem
Kovalevskaya, S. see: Kowalewski top;
Painleve test; Painleve-type equa-
tions
Krein, M.G. see: Total positivity
Kronecker, L. see: Gamma-invariant in
the theory of modular forms
Kruglyak, N.Ya. see: Calderon couples
Krull, W. see: Kaplansky field
Kruskal, M.D. see: Lie symmetry anal-
ysis
Kruyswijk, D. see: Davenport constant
Kuhlmann, F.-Y. see: Model theory of
valued fields
Kuhn, H. W. see: Karush-Kuhn-Tucker
conditions; Kuhn-Tucker conditions
Kullback, S. see: Kullback-Leibler-
type distance measures
Kummer, E.E. see: Fermat last theorem
Kupper, L.L. see: Paired comparison
model
Kurzweil, J. see: Kurzweil-Henstock in-
tegral
Kustaanheimo, P. see: Kustaanheimo-
Stiefel transformation
Kwon, K.H. see: Bessel polynomials
___ L___
Lagrange, J.L. see: Bombieri-Weil
bound; Tetrahedron, elementary
geometry of the
Lagrange, J.P. see: Algebraic analysis
Lai, D. see: Canadian lynx series
Lake, B.M. see: Benjamin-Feir insta-
bility
Lakshmi Bai see: Kempf vanishing the-
orem
Lame, G. see: Fermat last theorem
Landau, E. see: Markov-Bernstein-type
inequalities
Landweber, P.S. see: Elliptic cohomol-
ogy
Lang, S. see: Gel'fond-Baker method
Langlands, R. see: Shimura variety
Laplace, P.S. see: Addition theorems
in the theory of special functions;
Bernstein-von Mises theorem; Vot-
ing paradoxes
Lascoux, A. see: Jeu de taquin
Laugwitz, D. see: Beckman-QuarIes-
type theorems
Lavrent'ev, M.A. see: Bitsadze-
Lavrent'ev problem
Lawson, H.B. see: Bernstein problem in
differential geometry
Lax, P.D. see: Babuska-Lax-Milgram
theorem; Lax-Milgram lemma
Le Cam, L. see: Bernstein-von Mises
theorem
Lebesgue, H. see: Banach limit
Lech, C. see: Skolem-Mahler-Lech
theorem
Ledrappier, F. see: Pesin theory
Lee, P.-Y. see: Kurzweil-Henstock in-
tegral
Lefmann, H. see: Erdos-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem
Lefschetz, S. see: Transfer principle
Legendre, A.M. see: Fermat last theo-
rem
Lehmer, D.H. see: Pseudo-prime
Leibler, R.A. see: Kullback-Leibler-
type distance measures
Lempel, A. see: Costas array
Lenstra, A.K. see: LLL basis reduction
method
Lenstra, H. W. see: LLL basis reduction
method
Leontovich, E.A. see: Homoclinic bifur-
cations
Leopoldt, H.-W. see: Leopoldt conjec-
ture
Lester, J. see: Beckman-Quarles-type
theorems
Levi-Civita, T. see: Benjamin-Feir in-
stability
Levin, B. Y. see: Wirsing theorems
Levitan, B. see: Hypergroups, har-
monic analysis on locally compact
Levitzki, J. see: Amitsur-Levitzki the-
orem
MASTYLO, M.
Levizov, S. V. see: Walsh functions
Levy, P. see: Bessel processes; Wiener
space, abstract
Levy, R. see: Blumberg theorem
Lie, S. see: Lie symmetry analysis
Lim, K.S. see: Canadian lynx series
Lin, Y.c. see: Canadian lynx series
Lindenstrauss, J. see: Banach-Mazur
compactum
Lindman, E.L. see: Absorbing bound-
ary conditions
Lipshitz, L. see: Model theory of valued
fields
Littlewood, J.E. see: Bateman-Horn
conjecture
Liu I-Shih see: Clausius-Duhem in-
equality
Liulevicius, A. see: Brown-Peterson
spectrum
Lord Rayleigh see: Rayleigh-Taylor in-
stability
Lorentz, G.G. see: Bernstein-Baskakov-
Kantorovich operator
Los, J. see: Keisler-Shelah isomor-
phism theorem
Lotka, AJ. see: Pearl-Verhulst logistic
process
Lotspeich, M. see: Erdos-Ginzburg-
Ziv theorem
Lovasz, L. see: Hedetniemi conjecture;
LLL basis reduction method
Lowdenslager, D. see: Fejer-Riesz the-
orem
Lowner, K. see: Lowner-Heinz inequal-
ity
Lozonovskii, G. Ya. see: Integral repre-
sentations of linear operators
Lubotzky, A.E. see: Bianchi group
Lucas, H.E. see: Jeu de taquin
Liineberg, H. see: Unital
Lyndon, R.C. see: Lyndon word
Lyubich, Yu.1. see: Bernstein algebra
___ M ___
MacEachern, S.N. see: Dirichlet process
Macintyre. A. see: Model theory of the
real exponential function; Model the-
ory of valued fields; a-minimal; p-
adicaIIy closed field
Maciulis, A. see: Halasz mean value
theorem
Maclachlan, C. see: Bianchi group
MacShane, EJ. see: Kurzweil-
Henslock integral
Mahler, K. see: Blaschke-Santalo in-
equality; Gel'fond-Baker method;
Skolem-Mahler-Lech theorem
Maier, W. see: E-function
Majda, A. see: Absorbing boundary
conditions
Malliavin, P. see: Brownian functional;
MaIIiavin calculus
Mandelbrot, B. see: Dvoretzky prob-
lem; Fitzsimmons-Fristedt-Shepp
theorem
Mane, R. see: Pesin theory
Mankiewicz, P. see: Banach-Mazur
compactum
Margulis, G.A. see: Quasi-isometric
spaces
Marker, D. see: a-minimal
Markov, A.A. see: Hurwitz equation;
Markov-Bernstein-type inequalities
Markov, V.A. see: Markov-Bernstein-
type inequalities
Marquand see: Karnaugh map
Marshall, M. see: Abstract Witt ring;
Hall polynomial
Martin, W.T. see: Wiener space, ab-
stract
Maslov, Y.P. see: Idempotent analysis
Mastylo, M. see: Calderon couples
585
MATHERON, G.
Matheron, G. see: Choquet-Kendall-
Matheron theorem; Mathematical
morphology
Mathon, R. see: Unital
Matignon, M. see: Valued function field
Matiyasevich, Yu. V see: Algebraic Dio-
phantine equations
Matsumoto, M. see: Bochner curvature
tensor
May, C.P. see: Baskakov operators
Mazur, S. see: Banach-Saks property;
Mazur-Orlicz theorem
McDowell, R.H. see: Blumberg theorem
McGregor, J.L. see: Total positivity
Medrano, G. see: Yamahe prohlem
Mehta, VB. see: Kempf vanishing the-
orem
Mendeleev, D. see: Markov-Bernstein-
type inequalities
Menger, K. see: Probabilistic metric
space
Menten, M.L. see: Michaelis-Menten
equation
Mestre, J.-E see: Bellinson conjectures
Metropolis, N. see: Simulated annealing
Meyer, M. see: Blaschke-Santal6 in-
equality
Meyer, P.A. see: Malliavin calculus
Michaelis, L. see: Michaelis-Menten
equation
Milgram, A.N. see: Bahuska-Lax-
Milgram theorem; Lax-Milgram
lemma
Milman, VD. see: Banach-Mazur com-
pactum; Blaschke-Santal6 inequal-
ity
Milnor, J. see: Bianchi group
Mimura, Y. see: Dunford-Pettis prop-
erty
Minkowski, H. see: LLL basis reduction
method
Minty, GJ. see: Acyclic orientation
Mityagin, B.S. see: Calder6n couples
Mogyorodi, J. see: Fefferman-Garsia
inequality
Monge, G. see: Tetrahedron, elemen-
tary geometry of the
Montiel, S. see: De Sitter space
Morain, E see: Probabilistic primality
test
Moran, P.A.P. see: Canadian lynx series
Mordell, L.J. see: Hurwitz equation
Mori, H. see: Bochner curvature tensor
Morin, U. see: Adjunction theory
Morley, M. see: Morley rank
Moscovici, H. see: Cyclic cohomology
Moser, J. see: Birkhoff normal form;
CR-manifold; Moser-Trudinger in-
equality; Siegel disc
Motzkin, T.S. see: Total positivity
MUller, I. see: Clausius-Duhem in-
equality
Mullin, R.c. see: Room square
Murre, J.P. see: Bellinson conjectures
Musili, C. see: Kempf vanishing theo-
rem
___ N___
Nagao, H. see: Brauer homomorphism
Nagata, M. see: Valued function field
Nakagawa, H. see: Anti-de Sitter space
Nakano, H. see: Integral representa-
tions of linear operators
Ne'eman, Y. see: Gell-Mann-Okubo
formula
Nelson, E. see: Hypercontractive semi-
group
Nemirovskil, A.S. see: Interior-point
methods in mathematical program-
ming
Nesterov, Yu. see: Interior-point meth-
ods in mathematical programming
586
Neukirch, J. see: p-adically closed field
Neustadt, L. see: Abstract Volterra op-
erator
Newell, A. see: Painleve-type equations
Nicholls, D.E see: Canadian lynx series
Niebur, D. see: Bers space
Nielsen, J. see: Collapsibility
Nirenberg, L. see: B M 0 -space
Nishiura, T. see: Banach-Saks property
Noll, W. see: Clausius-Duhem inequal-
ity
Novikov, S.P. see: Brown-Peterson
spectrum; Calogero-Moser-Kricheve
system
Novoselov, E. V. see: Delange theorem
___ 0 ___
Ogus, A. see: Bellinson conjectures
Ohm, 1. see: Valued function field
Okubo, S. see: Gell-Mann-Okubo for-
mula
Okumura, M. see: K -contact flow
Oldroyd, J.G. see: Bingham fluid
Olson, J .E. see: Davenport constant;
Erdos-Ginzburg-Ziv theorem
Onofri, E. see: Moser-Trudinger in-
equality
Orlicz, W. see: Mazur-Orlicz theorem
Oseledets, V. see: Pesin theory
Ostrowski, A. see: Kaplansky field
Ovchinnikov, VI. see: Calderon couples
Ozaki, T. see: Canadian lynx series
---p--- ___ R ___
Painleve, P. see: Painleve-type equa-
tions
Pajor, A. see: Blaschke-Santalo in-
equality
Paley, R.E.A.C. see: Walsh functions
Palm, G. see: Hebb rule
Pan Cheng Dong see: Bombieri prime
number theorem
Panitchpakdi, P. see: Collapsibility
Partington,l.R. see: Banach-Saks prop-
erty
Passman, D.S. see: Modular group al-
gebra
Patterson, SJ. see: Conformal measure
Pauc, Ch. see: Density topology
Peaceman, D.W. see: Alternating-
direction implicit method
Pearl, R. see: Pearl-Verhulst logistic
process
Peetre, 1. see: Calderon couples
Peiczynski, A. see: Banach-Mazur
compactum
Pennington, R. see: Rayleigh-Taylor in-
stability
Penrose, R. see: Penrose tiling
Perrin-Riou, B. see: Bellinson conjec-
tures
Pesin, Ya.B. see: Pesin theory
Peterson, EP. see: Brown-Peterson
spectrum
Petryshyn, W. V. see: Lax-Milgram
lemma
Pettis, BJ. see: Dunford-Peltis prop-
erty
Petty, C. see: Blaschke-Santalo in-
equality
Pierce, R.S. see: f -algebra
Pillay, A. see: o-minimal
Pinch, R.G.E. see: Carmichael number
Pinelis, I.E see: Best linear unbiased
estimator
Piotrowski, Z. see: Blumberg theorem
Pitman, 1. .<ee: Bessel processes
Poincare, H. see: CR-manifold;
Poincare-Hopf theorem; Siegel disc
Poizat, B. see: Group of finite Morley
rank
Palya, G. see: Total positivity
Pomerance, C. see: Carmichael number
Pommerenke, Ch. see: Bers space
Pop, E see: p-adically closed field; Val-
ued function field
Popoviciu, T. see: Korovkin theorems
Povzner, A. see: Hypergroups, har-
monic analysis on locally compact
Prakasa Rao, B.L.S. see: Bernstein-von
Mises theorem
Prestel, A. see: Algebraic Diophantine
equations; p-adically closed field
Price, 1J. see: Walsh functions
Priest, G. see: Paraconsistent logic
Priestley, M.B. see: Canadian lynx se-
ries
Procesi, C. see: Amitsur-Levitzki theo-
rem
Pruesse, G. see: Acyclic orientation
Puig, L. see: Brauer homomorphism
Pym, 1.S. see: Arens regularity
---Q---
Quarles, D.A. .<ee: Beckman-Quarles-
type theorems
Quillen, D. see: Adams conjecture;
Brown-Peterson spectrum; p-rank;
Plus-construction
Quinn, D.G. see: Canadian lynx series
Racah, G. see: Racah, Wigner, 3~ j,
6 ~ j, and 9 ~ j coefficients
Rachford, H.H. see: Alternating-
direction implicit method
Rader, C. see: Winograd Fourier trans-
form algorithm
Rada, E see: Beckman-Quarles-type
theorems
Ramakrishnan, D. see: Bellinson conjec-
tures
Ramanan, S. see: Kempf vanishing the-
orem
Ramanathan. A. see: Kempf vanishing
theorem
Ramanathan, K.G. see: De Sitter space
Ramsey, EP. see: Ramsey number
Rao, C.R. see: Statistical manifold
Rao, P. V see: Paired comparison model
Ravenel, D.C. see: Elliptic cohomology
Razmyslov, Yu.P. see: Amitsur-Levitzki
theorem
Reed, L.l. see: Pearl-Verhulst logistic
process
Regge, T. .<ee: Racah, Wigner, 3 ~ j,
6 ~ j, and 9 ~ j coefficients
Reid, A. see: Bianchi group
Reimer, D. see: Bernoulli measure
Remmert, R. see: Valued function field
Renaut, R.A. see: Absorbing boundary
conditions
Renyi, A. see: Bombieri prime number
theorem; Delange theorem
Ressayre,l.P. see: Model theory of the
real exponential function
Ribet, K. see: Fermat last theorem
Riemann, B. see: CR-manifold;
Dedekind eta-function
Riesz, E see: Fejer-Riesz theorem
Riley, R. see: Bianchi group
Robinson, A. see: Model theory of
valued fields; p-adically closed
field; Real closed field; Robinson-
Schensted correspondence
Robinson, G.R. see: Alperin conjecture
Robinson, 1. see: Algebraic Diophantine
equations
Robinson, R. see: Model theory of val-
ued fields
Rochberg, R. see: Calderon-Toeplitz
operator
Rodriguez-Palacios, A. see: Arens reg-
ularity
Rolfsen, D. see: Collapsibility
Room, T.G. see: Room square
Raquette, P. see: Algebraic Diophan-
tine equations; p-adically closed
field; Valued function field
Rosenberg, A. see: Abstract Witt ring
Rosenberger, G. see: Hurwitz equation
Rosenblum, M. see: Fejer-Riesz theo-
rem
Rosenbluth, A. .<ee: Simulated anneal-
ing
Rosenbluth, M. see: Simulated anneal-
ing
Rosenbrock, H.H. see: Rosenbrock
methods
Rosser, 1.B. see: Illative combinatory
logic
Rosset, S. see: Amitsur-Levitzki theo-
rem
Rossler, O.E. see: Belousov-Zhabotinskii
reaction
Rozanov, Yu.A. see: Absolute regular-
ity; Best linear unbiased estimator
Rudelson, M. see: Banach-Mazur com-
pactum
Rukimbira, P. see: K -contact flow
Rumely, R..'ee: Algebraic Diophantine
equations
Ruse, H.S. see: Synge world function
Ruskey, E see: Acyclic orientation
Russo, L. see: Bernoulli measure
___ s___
Saari, D. see: Voting paradoxes
Sabidussi, G. .'ee: Frucht theorem
Sahi, S. see: Kirillov conjecture
Saint Raymond, 1. see: Blaschke-
Santal6 inequality
Saks, S. see: Banach-Saks property
Samarov, A.M. see: Best linear unbiased
estimator
Sandberg, I. W see: Abstract Volterra
operator
Santala, L. see: Banach-Mazur com-
pactum; Blaschke-Santal6 inequal-
ity
Sarason, D. .'ee: Commutant lifting the-
orem
Schaal, D. see: Erdos-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem
Schacherrnayer, W. see: Banach-Saks
property
Schappacher, N. see: Bellinson conjec-
tures
Schechtman, D. see: Penrose tiling
Schep, A. see: Integral representations
of linear operators
Schinzel, A. see: Bunyakovskii conjec-
ture
Schlenk, W see: Banach-Saks property
Schlickewei, H.P. see: Gel'fond-Baker
method
Schmeling, 1. see: Pesin theory
Schmidt, EK. see: Henselian
Schmidt, 1. see: Algebraic Diophantine
equations
Schmidt, WM. see: Gel'fond-Baker
method
Schoen, R. see: Yamabe problem
Schoenberg, 1.J. see: Total positivity
Schonberger, T. see: One-factor

SchOnfinkel, M. see: Illative combina-
tory logic
Schoutens, H. see: Model theory of val-
ued fields
Schreier, J. see: Banach-Saks property
Schreier, O. see: Real closed field
Schur, I. see: Caratheodory interpola-
tion; Caratheodory-Schur extension
problem
Schiitzenberger, M.-P. see: Jeu de
taquin; Robinson-Schensted cor-
respondence
Schwinger, J. see: Racah, Wigner, 3 - j,
6 - j, and 9 - j coefficients
Segal, I.E. see: Accessible random vari-
able; Wiener space, abstract
Segre, B. see: Galois geometry
Segur, H. see: Painleve-type equations
Serra, J. see: Mathematical morphology
Serre, J. -P. see: Bianchi group;
Bombieri-Weil bound; Fermat last
theorem
Seshadri, C.S. see: Kempf vanishing
theorem
Shaeffer, A.C. see: Markov-Bernstein-
type inequalities
Shanin, N.A. see: Banaschewski com-
pactification
Sheingorn, M. see: Bers space
Shelah, S. see: Cotorsion-free group;
Forking; Gamma-invariant in the
theory of Abelian groups; Keisler-
Shelah isomorphism theorem; Mor-
ley rank; Whitehead problem
Shepp, L. see: Billard method; Dvoret-
zky problem
Shennan, S. see: Arens regularity
Shidlovskil, A.B. see: E-function
Shilov, G.E. see: Bergman-Shilov
boundary
Shil'nikov, L.P. see: Homoclinic bifur-
cations
Shimura, G. see: Shimura variety
Shteinberg, A. see: Calderon couples
Sidel'nikov, V.M. see:Correlationprop-
erty for sequences
Siegel, C.L. see: E-function; G-
function; Gel'fond-Baker method
Signorini, A. see: Signorini problem
Simons, J. see: Bernstein problem in
differential geometry
Singer, I.M. see: Bochner curvature ten-
sor
Singh, S.P. see: Baskakov operators
Sirvint see: Dunford-Pettis property
Sitaramayya, M. see: Bochner curvature
tensor
Skeel, R. see: A priori and a posteriori
bounds in matrix computations
Sklar, A. see: Copula
Skolem, Th. see: Algebraic Diophan-
tine equations
Skorokhod, A. V. see: Skorokbod inte-
gral; Skorokhod topology
Sloane, NJ.A. see: Octacode
Smid, L.J. see: Benz plane
Sommese, AJ. see: Adjunction theory
Sparre Andersen, E. see: Andersen the-
orem
Spiegel, E. see: Galois ring
Springall, A. see: Bradley-Terry model;
Paired comparison model
Springer, T.A. see: Kempf vanishing
theorem
Stanley, R.P. see: Acyclic orientation
Stegall see: Dunford-Pettis property
Stein, E.M. see: Hardy spaces
Steinborn, C. see: o-minimal
Stem, H. see: Paired comparison model
Stickel berger, L. see: Stickel berger ideal
Stiefel, E. see: Kustaanheimo-Stiefel
transformation
Stinson, D.R. see: One-factorization
Stokes, G.G. see: Benjamin-Feir insta-
hility
Stone, CJ. see: Canadian lynx series
Stong, R.E. see: Elliptic cohomology
Stromquist, W see: Hanach-Mazur
compactum
Stroock, D. see: Brownian functional
Struik, DJ. see: Benjamin-Feir insta-
bility
Subba Rao, T. see: Canadian lynx series
Sullivan, D. see: Conformal measure;
Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan theorem; Siegel
disc
Swan, R. see: Bianchi group
Swan, R.G. see: Amitsur-Levitzki the-
orem
Synge, J.L. see: Synge world function
Szankowski, A. see: Banach-Mazur
compactum
Szarek, SJ. see: Banach-Mazur com-
pactum
Szego, G. see: Fejer-Riesz theorem
Szymanski, A. see: Blumberg theorem
___ T___
Tachibana, S. see: Bochner curvature
tensor
Talagrand, M. see: Dunford-Pettis
property
Tanaka. N. see: CR-manifold
Tanaka, S. see: BCK-algebra
Tannaka, S. see: BCI-algebra
Tanno.S. see: Bochner curvature tensor
Tarski. A. see: Boolean algebra with
operators; Keisler-Shelah isomor-
phism theorem; Real closed field
Taubes, C. see: Elliptic genera
Taylor, R. see: Fermat last theorem
Teller, A. see: Simulated annealing
Teller, E. see: Simulated annealing
Terlisvirta, T. see: Canadian lynx series
Terry, M.E. see: Bradley-Terry model;
Paired comparison model
Terui, N. see: Canadian lynx series
Thanoon. B. Y. see: Canadian lynx series
Thevenaz, J. see: Alperin conjecture
Thoma, E. see: Hypergroups, harmonic
analysis on locally compact
Thomas, J.-c. see: Adams-Hilton model
Thorpe, J.A. see: Bochner curvature
tensor
Thue, A. see: E-function
Thurston, W see: Quasi-isometry
Tietlivliinen, A. see: Golay code
Tippett, L.H.C. see: De Haan theory
Toda, H. see: EHP spectral sequence
Todoreevic, S. see: Blumberg theorem
Tomczak-Jaegennann, N. see: Banach-
Mazur compactum
Tomter, P. see: Bernstein problem in
differential geometry
Tonelli, L. see: Abstract Volterra equa-
tion; Abstract Volterra operator
Tong, H. see: Canadian lynx series
Toupin, R.A. see: Clausius-Duhem in-
equality
Tricerri, F. see: Bochner curvature ten-
sor
Trott, M.D. see: Octacode
Trotter, H.F. see: Gray code
Trudinger, N. see: Moser-Trudingerin-
equality; Yamabe problem
Truesdell, C.A. see: Clausius-Duhem
inequality
Truong, Y. K. see: Canadian lynx series
Tsay. R.S. see: Canadian lynx series
Tsuji, M. see: Hopf-Tsuji-Sullivan the-
orem
Tsygan, B. see: Cyclic cohomology
Tucker. A.W. see: Kuhn-Tucker condi-
tions
Tucker, J.W see: Karush-Kuhn-
Tucker conditions
Tutte, W.T. see: One-factor
Tuza, Zs. see: Acyclic orientation
Tykhonov. A.N. see: Abstract Volterra
operator
___ v ___
Ueda, T. see: Kobayashi hyperbolicity
Urquhart, A. see: Ockbam algebra
___ v___
Vaisman. I. see: Hopf manifold
Valdivia, M. see: Blumberg theorem
van Berkum, E.E.M. see: Paired com-
parison model
van den Berg, J. see: Bernoulli measure
van den Dries, L. see: Algebraic Dio-
phantine equations; o-minimal
van der Waerden, B.L. see: Benz plane
van Lint, J.H. see: Golay code
van Moerbeke, P. see: Abelian sur-
face; Goryachev-Chaplygin top;
Kowalewski top
Vandiver, H. see: Fermat last theorem
Vanhecke, L. see: Bochner curvature
tensor
Varadhan. S.R. see: Brownian func-
tional
Vaughan. R.C. see: Bombieri prime
number theorem
Vecchi, M.P. see: Simulated annealing
Veitch see: Karnaugh map
Velttnan, T. see: Computer algebra
package
Verhulst, P.F. see: Pearl-Verhulst logis-
tic process
Viennot, X. see: Hall set; Lazard set
Vilenkin, N.Ya. see: Walsh functions;
Wiener space, abstract
Vinogradov, A.l. see: Bombieri prime
number theorem
Volkonskii, V.A. see: Absolute regular-
ity
Volterra, V. see: Abstract Volterra op-
erator; Predator-prey system
von Karman, T. see: Von Karman equa-
tions
von Mises, R. see: Bernstein-von Mises
theorem
von Neumann, J. see: Arguesian lattice;
Integral representations oflinear op-
erators
von Staudt, Ch. see: Chain geometry
Voronol, G.F. see: Computational ge-
ometry; Vorono! diagram
Voronovskaya, E. see: Bernstein-
Baskakov-Kantorovich operator
Vrem, R. see: Hypergroups, harmonic
analysis on locally compact
___ w___
Walker, A.M. see: Canadian lynx series
Wallis, W.D. see: Room square
Walsh, J.L. see: Walsh functions
Wang, L. see: Hurwitz equation
Ware, R. see: p-adically closed field
Watennan, D. see: Banach-Saks prop-
erty; Density topology
Wedin, P. see: A priori and a posteriori
bounds in matrix computations
ZYGMUND,A.
Wegman, M. see: Adaptive sampling
Weidong Gao see: Erdiis-Ginzburg-Ziv
theorem
Weierstrass, K. see: Addition theorems
in the theory of special functions
Weil, A. see: Bombieri-Weil bound;
Hypergroups, harmonic analysis on
locally compact; Transfer principle
Weinstein, A. see: K -contact flow
Weispfenning, V. see: Existentially
closed; Model theory of valued fields
Weiss, WA.R. see: Blumberg theorem
Welch, L. R. see: Correlation property
for sequences
Welge, H.J. see: Buckley-Leverett
equation
West, M. see: Dirichlet process
Whaples, G. see: Kaplansky field
White, H.E. see: Blumberg theorem
Whitehead, J.H.C. see: Collapsibility;
Whitehead problem
Whitfield see: Room square
Whitney, A.W see: Credibility theory
Whitney, H. see: Whitney mapping
Wielandt, H. see: A priori and a poste-
riori bounds in matrix computations
Wiener, N. see: Wiener space, abstract
Wilczynski, W see: Density topology
Wiles, A. see: Fermat equation; Fermat
last theorem
Wilkie, A. see: Model theory of the real
exponential function; o-minimal
Wilkinson, J. see: A priori and a poste-
riori bounds in matrix computations
Wingberg, K. see: p-adically closed field
Winograd, S. see: Winograd Fourier
transform algorithm; Winograd
small convolution algorithm
Wirsing, E. see: Hallisz mean value the-
orem; Wirsing theorems
Wolfart, J. see: G-function
Wong, C. see: Canadian lynx series
Wschebor, M. see: Dvoretzky problem
Wu-yi Hsiang see: Bernstein problem in
differential geometry
---y---
Yamabe, H. see: Yamabe problem
Yamada, M. see: Galois ring
Yau, S.T. see: De Sitter space
Yoccoz, J.-c. see: Siegel disc
Yood, B. see: Arens regularity
Yosida, K. see: Dunford-Pettis prop-
erty
Young, L.-S. see: Pesin theory
Young, N.J. see: Arens regularity
Yu, G.H. see: Canadian lynx series
Yuen, H.C. see: Benjamin-Feir insta-
bility
___ z ___
Zagier, D. see: Hurwitz equation
Zaslavsky, T. see: Acyclic orientation
Zeeman, E.C. see: Collapsibility
Zel'dovich, Yu.B. see: Activation en-
ergy
Zhang, G. see: Blaschke-Santal6 in-
equality
Ziegler, M. see: Model theory of valued
fields
ZiI'ber, B.1. see: Group of finite Morley
rank
Zolotarev, G. see: LLL basis reduction
method
Zygmund, A. see: Walsh functions
587