Vladimir Antchak - Olivia Ramsbottom - The Fundamentals of Event Design-Routledge (2019)

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF
EVENT DESIGN
The Fundamentals of Event Design aims to rethink current approaches to event design
and production. The textbook explores the relationship between event design and
multiple visitor experiences, as well as interactivity, motivation, sensory stimuli and
co-creative participation.
Structured around the key phases of event design, the book covers all the critical
dimensions of event concepting, atmospherics, the application of interactive tech-
nologies, project management, team leadership, creative marketing and sustainable
production. The concepts of authenticity, creativity, co-creation, imagineering and
storytelling are discussed throughout, and practical step-by-step guidance is provided
on how to create and deliver unique and memorable events. The chapters include
industry voices offering real-life insight from leading international event practitioners
and individual and/or team assignments to stimulate learners’ creativity, visualisation
and problem solving.
This is the first textbook in event design that integrates areas of anthropology, social
psychology, management, marketing, graphic design and interactivity. Focusing on
bringing theory into practice, this is essential reading for all Events Management
students.
Vladimir Antchak is Senior Lecturer in Applied Management at the University of

Derby, UK. His research interests focus on event portfolio design and management,
place experience, destination branding and strategic storytelling. He has over ten years
of experience in events management, including organisation of business forums and
conferences, cultural exhibitions, international business visits and presentations. The
geography of his completed projects includes Austria, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands
and Russia.
Olivia Ramsbottom is Senior Lecturer in Business and Management at the University

of Derby, UK. She has significant project and event management experience in vari-
ous organisations, from a membership body to a university. She is also an experienced
trainer and consultant, offering workable solutions to make business improvements,
as well as recommending and carrying out appropriate staff training and development
activities. Her areas of expertise are in strategic, project and people management, and
her research focuses on the transferability of management skills from general concepts
to specific application.
“Confused about event design? How is it different from management? Where does
design fit in the planning process? Are event designers artists or engineers? This book
provides a comprehensive, state-of-the-art perspective on experience design applied to
events. The authors and contributors provide the concepts and tools to make the reader
an effective, creative designer. Tools include storytelling, concepting, how to utilize
all five senses, interactive technologies, project and team management, pitching and
winning ideas, and creative marketing. Exercises built around real cases will stimulate
creativity. The overall theme is about becoming a ‘design thinker’. Through constant
observation, collaboration, visualisation of ideas, rapid concept prototyping and test-
ing, design thinkers will distinguish themselves and their events.”
Donald Getz, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus at the
University of Calgary, Canada
“The addition of this text for the teaching of events management will be invaluable.
The emphasis on the successful event design process in its own right will offer students
a comprehensive background to topics such as design thinking and Imagineering,
storytelling, technology and event design, and event experiences. Not only does this
volume offer this theoretical background, it also gives students the tools and tech-
niques to operationalise these as part of their programmes and when they enter the
work place and must deliver pitches, manage projects, and integrate good design into
sustainable event management. A much-needed textbook for all event management
students.”
Louise Platt, Senior Lecturer in Festival and Event Management,
Manchester Metropolitan University, UK
THE
FUNDAMENTALS
OF EVENT
DESIGN
VLADIMIR ANTCHAK
AND
OLIVIA RAMSBOTTOM
First published 2020
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2020 Vladimir Antchak and Olivia Ramsbottom
The right of Vladimir Antchak and Olivia Ramsbottom to be
identified as authors of this work, and of the contributors for their
individual chapters has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Antchak, Vladimir, author. | Ramsbottom, Olivia, author.
Title: The fundamentals of event design/Vladimir Antchak and
Olivia Ramsbottom.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2020. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019039083 (print) | LCCN 2019039084 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780815350910 (hardback) | ISBN 9780815350927 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781351142083 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Special events–Management.
Classification: LCC GT3405 .A67 2020 (print) | LCC GT3405 (ebook) |
DDC 394.2068–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019039083
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019039084
ISBN: 978-0-8153-5091-0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-8153-5092-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-351-14208-3 (ebk)
Typeset in ITC Stone Serif and Rockwell
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/antchak
Contents
List of figures ix
List of tables x
List of boxes xi
Authors xii
Contributors xiii
Acknowledgements xiv
1 Event design unpacked 1

Defining event design 1
Design thinking in events 3
An event designer’s personality 6
Imagineering 7
Designing events: An integrative framework 8
Summary 10
Further reading 11
References 11
2 Events as an experience industry 13

Experience industry 13
From commodities to transformations 14
Commoditisation versus customisation 16
Value of authentic experience 17
Shareability of experiential offerings 20
Know your consumers: Generations Y and Z 20
CRUSH event brand 21
Summary 23
Further reading 24
References 25
3 Event experience 27
What is experience? 27
Product experience 29
Interactive experience 29
Realms of experience 30
Meaningful experience 32
Immersion in events 33
v
Contents
How the audience becomes immersed 35

Summary 40
Further reading 41
References 41
4 Storytelling and event concepting 43

From event idea to event concept: The 5Ws 43
Storytelling in business 45
Key parameters of a good story 46
Event story planning process 49
Creative tools for event concept development 50
Summary 53
Further reading 55
References 55
5 Atmospherics and servicescapes 57

Defining atmospherics and servicescapes 57
Spatial planning 62
Visitor flow 63
Summary 75
Further reading 76
References 76
6 Five senses in event design 79

Sarah Jones and Vladimir Antchak
The five senses and event experience 79
How to apply the five senses in event design 84
Summary 92
Further reading 93
References 93
7 Interactive technologies 97
What is interactivity? 97
Value of interactive technologies 98
Interactive solutions in event design 100
Summary 107
Further reading 108
References 108
8 Pragmatic team management 111

Evolution of management and leadership styles 111
Key components of pragmatic team management 113
vi
Contents
Event design management framework 115

Summary 122
Further reading 123
References 123
9 Project management tools and budgeting 125

Project objectives 125
Design breakdown structure 126
Responsibility assignment matrix 127
Calculating the duration and dependencies of tasks 128
Gantt chart 129
Risk assessment and management 130
Costs 131
Drawing up a budget from costs 132
Monitoring costs 133
Reporting costs and progress 136
Summary 137
Further reading 139
References 139
10 Pitching and winning 141

Business case and evaluation 141
Business proposal 144
Business pitching 145
Communications 145
Preparation 146
Rehearsal 147
Delivery 147
Main part 148
Conclusion 148
Dos and don’ts of a pitch presentation 149
Visual aids 149
Voice and body 150
Questions 150
Summary 151
Further reading 152
References 152
11 Creative marketing 153

Valentina Gorchakova
Defining creative marketing 153
The “P”s 154
The ambition and value of an event 156
vii
Contents
The audience 158

Audience centricity and market segmentation 158
“Core” and “peripheral” audience 159
The art of marketing communications 161
Digital marketing 162
Social currency 163
Digital authenticity 165
Online platforms 167
Summary 173
Further reading 175
References 175
12 Environmentally sustainable event design 177

Aurore Julien and Clare Mackay
A six-step methodology for environmentally sustainable event design 177
Summary 192
Further reading 193
References 193
Index 195
viii
FIGURES
1.1 Event design thinking 4

1.2 Event designer’s personality profile 6
1.3 Design, content and experience in events 9
1.4 Event design framework. 9
2.1 The progression of economic value 15
2.2 CRUSH event brand 21
3.1 The four realms of experience 30
3.2 Liminality in events 36
3.3 Event experience 38
5.1 Empty conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz, Berlin, Germany 61
5.2 Jaguar presentation, conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz,
Berlin, Germany 61
5.3 Corporate dinner, conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz,
Berlin, Germany 61
5.4 Different venue layouts 62
5.5 The axis layout 65
5.6 The centrepiece layout 67
5.7 The theatre layout 68
5.8 The fortress layout 69
5.9 The conglomeration layout 70
5.10 The plaza layout 72
6.1 Applying the five senses in event design 85
8.1 Key management theories 1990s–2010s 112
8.2 Effective event design team management 116
9.1 A design breakdown structure for a planned event 127
9.2 A simple consideration of time duration and dependencies of tasks 129
9.3 A Gantt chart 130
10.1 Four stages of a pitch presentation 146
10.2 Elements of a successful pitch presentation 149
11.1 The Ps of the marketing mix for events 155
11.2 Events attendee value model 157
11.3 Tweet posted by the organisers of Glastonbury Festival 164
11.4 Four pillars of digital authenticity 166
11.5 The Facebook page of Manchester International Festival in the UK 168
11.6 Twitter page of the World of Wearable Art Show 169
11.7 Instagram account of Roland Garros 170
11.8 A page of the International Hotel Investment and Design Conference
on LinkedIn 171
11.9 YouTube channel of the Wimbledon Tournament 172
11.10 Live broadcast on Wimbledon’s YouTube channel 173
12.1 The six-step methodology for environmentally sustainable event design 178
ix
TABLES
3.1 The Three Contexts of Interactive Experience 30

3.2 The Quadrants of the Experience Realms 31
3.3 Items to Measure Event Experience 31
4.1 Archetypes, Story Gists and Examples 46
5.1 Sensory Channels and Dimensions 58
5.2 Servicescape Dimensions 59
5.3 Six Layouts. A Comparison Chart 73
6.1 Colour Meaning 87
8.1 Employee Skills Level and Relevant Management Style 116
9.1 SMART Objectives 126
9.2 A RAM with a Detailed Description of the Tasks Allocated 128
9.3 A RAM with a Basic Allocation of Tasks 128
9.4 RACI Method in Action 128
9.5 A Simple Excel Spreadsheet for an Event Design Budget 133
9.6 A Simple Excel Spreadsheet to Monitor an Event Design Budget 133
9.7 An Action Checklist to Monitor an Event Design Budget 134
x
BOXES
3.1 Industry voice: Bertie Watkins, Artistic Director, COLAB Theatre, London 38
5.1 Industry voice: Courtesy of Exhibitor Magazine. Illustrations by Sachel
Josefson and Chris Rotondo 64
6.1 Industry voice: Dr Rob Davidson, Managing Director, MICE Knowledge.
Education, Research and Consultancy Services for the MICE Industry 91
7.1 Industry voice: Dominic Sutton, freelance promoter, social media and
digital marketing manager 104
7.2 Industry voice: Cathryn Peach-Barnes, freelance creative producer and
event mediator 105
7.3 Industry voice: Karen Sutton, freelance production manager 106
7.4 Industry voice: Dr Rob Davidson, managing director, MICE Knowledge 106
9.1 Industry voice: Clare Ruby, co-founder, RubyBlosse Events, UK 137
12.1 Industry voice: Christopher Johnson, operations director and senior
sustainable events consultant at Kambe Events, UK 191
xi
Authors
Vladimir Antchak is Senior Lecturer in Applied Management at the University of

Derby, UK. His research interests focus on event portfolio design and management,
place experience, destination branding and strategic storytelling. He has over ten years
of experience in events management, including organisation of business forums and
conferences, cultural exhibitions, international business visits and presentations. The
geography of completed projects includes Austria, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and
Russia.
Olivia Ramsbottom is Senior Lecturer in Business and Management at the University

of Derby, UK. She has significant project and event management experience in vari-
ous organisations, from a membership body to a university. She is also an experienced
trainer and consultant, offering workable solutions to make business improvements,
as well as recommending and carrying out appropriate staff training and development
activities. Her areas of expertise are in strategic, project and people management and
her research focuses on the transferability of management skills from general concepts
to specific application.
xii
Contributors
Valentina Gorchakova is Senior Lecturer at the University of Derby, UK, teaching

and leading an online business and management programme. She returned to aca-
demia after spending more than ten years working in business, not-for-profit organisa-
tions and the UN Development Programme. Her research interests lie within service
and arts marketing, branding, place-making and cultural and event tourism. She is also
exploring the area of online learning and learning in adulthood.
Sarah Jones is a graduate student from the BA (Hons) Events Management programme
at the University of Derby and now an event and visitor services coordinator at the
Devonshire Dome in Buxton, UK.
Aurore Julien is Senior Lecturer in Environmental Design at the School of Architecture

at the University of East London and technical tutor at the Royal College of Art, UK.
She also carries out environmental assessments for “A Greener Festival”, an interna-
tional not-for-profit organisation committed to helping events to reduce their envi-
ronmental impacts and become more sustainable. She previously was a sustainability
consultant for 17 years, a lecturer at University College London, and a course provider
for the World Green Building Council. Her research interests relate to buildings and
events sustainability.
Clare Mackay is Senior Lecturer in Events Management at the University of West

England, UK, and an assessor for “A Greener Festival”. She has worked on international,
national, civic and community events across the public, private and not-for profit
sectors.
xiii
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge Sarah Jones for contributing to Chapter 6, Valentina

Gorchakova for contributing Chapter 11 and Aurore Julien and Clare Mackay for con-
tributing Chapter 12.
We are very grateful for the contributions of our “Industry Voices”, people who took
the time to offer ideas, tips and thoughts from their experience to enrich this book:
Dr Rob Davidson, managing director of MICE Knowledge;

Christopher Johnson, operations director and senior sustainable events consultant at
Kambe Events, UK;
Cathryn Peach-Barnes, freelance creative producer, event mediator and festival
manager;
Clare Ruby, co-founder, RubyBlosse Events, UK;
Travis Stanton, editor of Exhibitor Magazine, and his team of experts;
Dominic Sutton, freelance promoter and social media and digital marketing manager;
Karen Sutton, freelance production manager;
Bertie Watkins, artistic director, COLAB Theatre, London.
We also would like to thank our graduate students, Selena Howell-Williams, Katie
Howie and Aleksandra Jaworska, who applied and tested design tools and techniques
discussed in this book, and shared their ideas on events design and production with us.
Vladimir and Olivia

15 July 2019
xiv
1 Event design unpacked
Chapter outline Key words

•• Diverse spectrum of definitions of event design; event design
•• Key principles of design thinking in events; design thinking
•• Personal characteristics and skills of an event designer;
creativity
•• Concept of imagineering and its application in event design and
imagineering
production;
•• Key elements of the event design framework.
This chapter sets the pace for the book. We will define event design and discuss its key
principles. We will explore event design from a new perspective with a focus on design
thinking, creativity and imagineering. The chapter examines new approaches in the
event industry to orchestrate authentic and extraordinary experiences for the event
audience. The outline of the book will be introduced and explained.
Defining event design

The Fundamentals of Event Design is a book about the successful orchestration of the
processes behind the creation of interesting, engaging and extraordinary events. An
event is a “temporary and purposive gathering of people” (Bladen, Kennell, Abson
and Wilde, 2012, p. 3) “generally lasting from a few hours to a few days, designed to
celebrate, honour, discuss, sell, teach or learn about, encourage observe or influence
human endeavours” (Matthews, 2016, p. 3).
1
1
CHAPTER Vladimir Antchak and Olivia Ramsbottom
The field of event studies is overwhelmed by texts about event management, where
event design is often introduced as a part of project management along with event
marketing, budgeting, stakeholder networking, logistics, operations and event evalua-
tion (Allen, O’Toole, Harris and McDonnel, 2008; Bowdin, Allen, O’Toole, Harris and
McDonnel, 2011; Ferdinand and Kitchin, 2017). However, more and more debates have
emerged around the socially constructed nature of planned events and the capabil-
ity of event managers to design for unique and authentic customer experiences. This
paradigmatic shift from managing to designing has generated a new area of explora-
tion (Brown, 2014), namely the integrative role of event design in delivering positive
impacts for an event’s audience. This is the focus of this book.
Design, as a concept, has become a critical function in today’s businesses, strategically

linking creativity and innovation. Creativity is the generation of new ideas, or a new
way of dealing with existing problems, or the exploration of new opportunities (Best,
2006). Innovation is “the process that carries a new concept through to new products,
services, or ways of operating the business” (Best, 2006, p. 18). Design, in its turn,
“shapes ideas so that they become practical and attractive propositions for users and
customers” (Best, 2006, p. 18).
Folkmann (2013, p. 15) explores design as a means “of creating meaning and expe-
rience and for giving shape and structure to the world through material forms and
immaterial effects”. Events play a role of a medium in the construction and commu-
nication of meaning through the material (venue, décor, furniture) and immaterial
(escapism, immersion, transformation).
In event studies, there is no one universally agreed definition of what constitutes event
design. Event design can be seen as a concept of a structure for an event (Berridge,
2012). Richards, Marques and Mein (2014) argue that designing in events config-
ures the relationships between different event dimensions, stakeholder interests and
community perceptions. O’Toole (2011, p. 183) describes event design as a “purpose-
ful arrangement of elements of an event to maximise the positive impression of the
attendees and other key stakeholders”. Sonder (2004, p. 411) considers design in events
as “the incorporation of a themed message along with audio-visual, entertainment and
musical elements”. Summarising key elements of event design, Getz (2012) emphasises
the role of themes, settings, services, consumables and programmes that deliver a posi-
tive experience. We also can add entertainment (Silvers, 2004), ambience (Shone and
Parry, 2004), creativity (Sonder, 2004) and décor (Monroe, 2005) as essential compo-
nents of event design.
Despite the diversity of the design elements, what unites all the above-mentioned
definitions is a strategic focus on developing a “purposeful space” or “value creating
platform” where intentionally designed activities and relationships produce specific
behaviour (Orefice, 2018). The event design process requires thinking with the empha-
sis on feelings, fantasy, imagination, perception, associations and mental stimuli.
2
Event design unpacked CHAPTER 1
RESEARCH NOTE
Orefice, C. (2018). Designing for events: A new perspective on event design. International Journal of Event
and Festival Management, 9(1), 20–33.
Abstract:
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the paradigm shift towards event design–
predominant research by presenting an analysis of how the concept of event design has devel-
oped in the events literature and by exploring a new perspective based on its contribution to value
co-creation.
Design/methodology/approach – Theory from design management and service design is discussed
to provide insights on the role of event design as contributing to the creation of value in social systems.
Findings – A new framework for categorising the role of event design is proposed, called the “event
design ladder”. Event design is no longer considered as a problem-solving activity, but as a contribu-
tor to value creation and an ongoing pursuit carried out over time and space. Stakeholders become
co-designers of value systems.
Research limitations/implications – Service design and design management literature offer inter-
esting potential for event researchers to advance the conceptualisation of event design. Considering
events as platforms for long-term stakeholder engagement implies that the concept of design becomes
strategic. Design as strategy is identified as a new area of event research.
Originality/value – This paper proposes a new perspective on events considered as catalysts of value
systems, where the role of design is not only to orchestrate meaningful experiences but also to facilitate
collaboration across projects, integrating resources and building on stakeholders’ skills and knowledge.
Theories of practice are explored as a way to theorise and carry out research on how value is co-created
by actors.
Keywords: design thinking, co-creation, event design, social systems, event value
As will be discussed in the following chapters, consumers are less focused nowadays on
satisfying their primary needs and are more focused on the experiential outcomes of
consumption. To design an experience is to integrate the knowledge of human behav-
iour, the designer’s imagination and business modelling into a holistic framework.
There is an approach that can facilitate this process, namely design thinking.
Design thinking in events

Design thinking is a human-centred process of developing new products and services.
It emphasises constant observation, collaboration, visualisation of ideas, rapid concept
prototyping and testing. The objective is to involve your customers, your colleagues
and industry experts in an integrative process of idea generation and evaluation in
3
1
order to imagine and predict future trends and bring new products, services and expe-
riences to market (Lockwood, 2010).
The process of thinking as an event designer (Figure 1.1) can be split into four stages.
During the first stage, fieldwork and information, the task is to understand the consum-
er’s or client’s needs, expectations or issues and to collect information. The best way
to do this is to communicate with your target audience directly, with an open mind
and willingness to learn from them. This stage involves fieldwork research, including
observation, watching, listening and discussing. These methods are common data-
collection methods in anthropology and sociology, and they can also be successfully
used by event designers. If you have an idea of an event (it can be your own idea or a
request from your client), spend some time exploring the target audience, their wishes,
expectations and perceptions. You can create a short questionnaire or interview poten-
tial attendees of your event. You also can use social media, asking your audience to
share their experience and thoughts. This is the key stage on your way to delivering an
interesting and memorable event. It involves collaboration with the final users of your
product (event) as well as with your partners, suppliers and, of course, clients.
The second stage, inspiration and imagination, involves visualisation, experimentalism

and prototyping. As some experts say, “the goal is to fail quickly and frequently so the
learning can occur” (Lockwood, 2010, p. xi). At this stage, the objective is to “make the
intangible become tangible” (Lockwood, 2010, p. xii). You should brainstorm and con-
sider several, sometimes alternative, ideas, options or solutions. You can use sketches,
mind maps, mood boards, story boards or event role-playing. Visual explanations will
help to make your event concepts come alive and be grounded in context.
Fieldwork and
Evaluation
Information
Business
Inspiration and
Modelling and
Imagination
Implementation
Figure 1.1 Event design thinking. Adapted from Lockwood (2010).
4
Event design unpacked CHAPTER 1
The third stage, business modelling and implementation, stands for the integration of
business analysis in your design thinking and application of the approved design.
Events are a big industry. Your event projects should be financially successful and
deliver a number of positive outcomes to all the involved stakeholders. Every attractive
event idea should be tested at this stage on its feasibility. You should be able to evaluate
the resources you may require, the financial risks, the environmental issues and the
overall success of the project. The aim is to achieve a balance between creativity and
business pragmatism. After the feasibility of the project has been approved, you enter
the implementation phase, where you execute your event design.
During the final stage of evaluation, you should reflect on the achieved outcomes and
the overall effect of the event design project. The project data should be collected and
examined in order to identify any emerged issues and future directions.
Each stage of event design thinking is iterative and repetitive, which means that it can
be reviewed and changed at any time. What is also important is that design thinking is
an ongoing process (Figure 1.1), so the results of evaluation should call for new research
and fieldwork to improve the design and, as a result, the overall event experience.
RESEARCH NOTE
Liedtka, J. (2015). Perspective: Linking design thinking with innovation outcomes through cognitive bias
reduction. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 32(6), 925–938.
Abstract:
“Design thinking” has generated significant attention in the business press and has been heralded as
a novel problem‐solving methodology well suited to the often‐cited challenges business organizations
face in encouraging innovation and growth. Yet the specific mechanisms through which the use of design,
approached as a thought process, might improve innovation outcomes have not received significant
attention from business scholars. In particular, its utility has only rarely been linked to the academic lit-
erature on individual cognition and decision‐making. This perspective piece advocates addressing this
omission by examining design thinking as a practice that is potentially valuable for improving innovation
outcomes by helping decision‐makers reduce their individual level cognitive biases. In this essay, I first
review the assumptions, principles and key process tools associated with design thinking. I then establish
its foundation in the decision‐making literature, drawing on an extensive body of research on cognitive
biases and their impact. The essay concludes by advancing a set of propositions and research implica-
tions, aiming to demonstrate one particular path that future research might take in assessing the utility of
design thinking as a method for improving organizational outcomes related to innovation. In doing so, it
seeks to address the challenge of conducting academic research on a practice that is obviously popular
in management circles but appears resistant to rigorous empirical inquiry because of the multifaceted
nature of its “basket” of tools and processes and the complexity of measuring the outcomes it produces.
5
1
An event designer’s personality

Tim Brown, the CEO and president of IDEO, an innovation and design company, has
constructed a personality profile of a design thinker who applies design methods to
problem solving (Brown, 2008). As an event designer, you should develop and master
the skills and qualities of empathy, integrative thinking, optimism, experimentalism
and collaboration (Figure 1.2).
Empathy is the ability to see and explore the world from different perspectives,
those of your clients, customers, colleagues and partners. The skill of empathy
helps you to imagine, concept and implement solutions that are desirable and meet
the expectations or “latent” needs of your target audience.
Integrative thinking. Martin (2009, p. 15) defines integrative thinking as “the abil-
ity to face constructively the tension of opposing ideas”. Instead of choosing one
alternative, you as a design thinker should exhibit the ability to generate a creative
solution by crafting a new idea that contains valuable points of the opposing ideas
but also goes beyond and improves them.
Optimism. No matter how challenging the problem or the task is, you should have
an optimistic mindset to identify and explore at least one potential solution which
is better than existing alternatives.
Experimentalism in event design refers to an enduring testing and adjusting of
event concepts and design patterns. New directions and trends can emerge only
through the exploration of constraints in creative ways.
Empathy
Integrative
Collaboration
Thinking
Event
Designer
Experimentalism Optimism
Figure 1.2 Event designer’s personality profile. Adapted from Brown (2008).
6
Event design unpacked 1
CHAPTER
Collaboration. Event designers do not work in isolation or solitude. They collaborate

with colleagues from other disciplines to share knowledge, to create a sense of com-
munity and to facilitate decision-making. Contributions from multiple sources can
make your event and its design more innovative, attractive and interesting.
Creativity on its own does not create new products or experiences. It is an artistic pro-
cess of exploring things differently. Innovation is the realisation of a business idea. But
again, without creativity, you cannot be innovative. There is a strategy that unites both
phenomena: this is imagineering.
Imagineering
Imagineering is a trendy buzzword and concept today. More and more enterprises are
trying to implement the principles of imagineering in their product development and
customer relationship strategies. As is clear from the etymology of this word, imagi-
neering absorbs the meanings of “imagination” and “engineering”. Imagination stands
for the ability of our mind to be creative and resourceful. Engineering is the act of
working artfully to produce something. Hence, the overall meaning of imagineering
is to use the power of our imagination to craft new products, processes or services.
Walt Disney went further and defined imagineering as the process of creating new
experiences for the visitors of Disney parks through thematic stories, technologies and
theatrical elements.
Van Gool and van Lindert (2008), cited in Kuiper and Smit (2014), introduce imagi-
neering as an innovative strategy focused on fulfilling the emotional needs of consum-
ers through communicating the symbolic value of a product or service. Nowadays,
people look for meaning that helps them to develop or redevelop their own identity.
Moreover, they should be able to share this meaning. Happiness and satisfaction have
to be measurable and shareable.
As part of the experience industry, events directly affect the attendees’ emotions,
mood and overall level of satisfaction. How can imagineering be applied in Event
Design? Kuiper and Smit (2014) argue that imagineering can be employed as a strategy,
a process and an instrument.
At the level of strategy, imagineering can be used as a means to develop cohesion

between an event brand and its social significance. It is important to offer an experi-
ence that can transform the audience from being just consumers to becoming follow-
ers of a brand’s corporate ideology and values. This can be done through the process of
imagineering, where the combined power of imagination, technologies and innovative
solutions is applied. As an instrument, imagineering is tasked to reach synergy between
creativity and rational analysis.
7
CHAPTER 1 Vladimir Antchak and Olivia Ramsbottom
ABOUT IMAGINEERING
Walt Disney Imagineering is the unique, creative force behind Walt Disney Parks and Resorts that dreams
up, designs and builds all Disney theme parks, resorts, attractions, cruise ships, real-estate develop-
ments and regional entertainment venues worldwide. Imagineering’s unique strength comes from a
dynamic global team of creative and technical professionals building on the Disney legacy of storytell-
ing to pioneer new forms of entertainment through technical innovation and creativity. Building upon the
legacy of Walt Disney, imagineers bring art and science together to turn fantasy into reality and dreams
into magic.
Disney Imagination https://disneyimaginations.com/about-imaginations/about-imagineering/
The refocus from a product to consumers and their willingness to explore, enjoy and
share is described as concepting. Concepting differs from positioning, which is the place
a product or brand occupies in the customer’s mind. Concepting is designed around
communication where brand value, vision and range of thoughts are intensively and
collaboratively defined by both producers and consumers. As a result of this dialogue, a
new product emerges with a focus on profitability and the lifecycle of the client (Kuiper
and Smit, 2014).
Designing events: An integrative framework

As a creative process, event design should be focused not on the amorphous “audi-
ence”, but on the individual participants or attendees. Step by step, an event designer
should compose and orchestrate the emotional and intellectual stimuli of the event to
deliver a meaningful and transformative experience. The challenge with experiences
is that “the designers do not directly control the experience, and no two experiences
are identical even when the same props and script are used” (Candi and Beltagui, 2016,
p. 226). The event design proposal reflects the intended experience; however, each
customer brings their own perceptions and expectations, which are usually grounded
in their previous experiences and their cultural, religious or social background. As a
result of the interaction between the event design and different individuals’ minds, a
unique customer experience emerges. Thus, Svabo, Larsen, Haldrup and Berenholdt
(2013) state that it is only possible to design for experience.
The design, play and experience (DPE) framework (Winn, 2009), created for com-
puter games, depicts and explains the relationship between the game designer and the
player. This framework seems to be relevant and applicable in events (Figure 1.3).
The event designer develops and plans every critical element of the event, having direct
control over the event design. The process of consuming the event through participating
8
CHAPTER
or attending is a mediated experience and is greatly influenced by the event consumer

and their social, cultural and experiential background. The event content component
may include all the activities during the course of the event, for example, welcome
drinks, an award ceremony, dancing, etc. Experience reveals the overall impression from
the event, including participation, emotional response and interaction. The arrow
from experience to event design reflects the influence of the objectives of the initial
design and the iteration on the design once it has been experienced.
The process of event design is very complex. There is no way it can be structured in a
linear way – in an agreed order of steps. Actually, any suggested structure might kill the
event designer’s imagination and creativity. Bearing this in mind, we suggest a flexible
framework (Figure 1.4) which covers key phases of event design, but does not restrict
the design process. The framework consists of three thematic areas: event design context,
event design concepting and event design implementation. This framework also reflects the
structure of the book.
Event Event
Designer Event Design Event Content Experience Consumer
Figure 1.3 Design, content and experience in events. Adapted from Winn (2009).
Event Event
Design Design
Context Concepting
Event Design
Implementation
Figure 1.4 Event design framework.
9
1
Event design context refers to the contextual environment in which event designers
operate. Thus, Chapter 2 explores the experiential nature of events and their place
and role in the current economic environment. Chapter 3 introduces and explores
diverse concepts and theories of event experience.
Event design concepting deals with the process of event concept development. In
Chapter 4, we will discuss storytelling as an innovative strategy for event design.
Several creative tools for concept development, including mind mapping and
sketching, will be introduced. Chapter 5 is focused on atmospherics and services-
capes and on space planning. Chapter 6 explores the use of the five senses in event
design. Chapter 7 discusses interactivity and the application of technologies to
optimise event design.
Event design implementation includes pragmatic team management (Chapter 8), pro-
ject management tools and budgeting (Chapter 9), pitching and winning (Chapter
10), creative marketing (Chapter 11) and sustainability in event design, which is
discussed in Chapter 12.
Summary
This chapter introduced the idea of event design as an essential field of event studies.
Event design was defined as a creative and purposeful arrangement of event elements
to deliver a memorable and transformative experience. The concepts of design think-
ing and imagineering were explored. These are human-centred processes of creating
new products and services using imagination. The chapter introduced an integrative
framework for event design and outlined the structure of the book. In the next chapter,
we will explore an experiential nature of events and critically review the conditions of
experience economy and experience industry.
Hot takeaways for event designers

•• The design process links creativity, imagination and innovation.
•• Design thinking is an integrative process of idea generation and is always centred
around your customer’s needs.
•• As an event designer, you should develop and master skills and qualities of empa-
thy, integrative thinking, optimism, experimentalism and collaboration.
•• Event design is a complex, nonlinear process, which includes concepting, content
development and ongoing reflection on the experiences obtained by the event’s
audience.
Discussion questions and activities

•• You have been asked to organise a 1-day business conference for the IT industry.
Please apply a design thinking framework (Figure 1.1) and explain what activities
you plan to do in order to collect enough data and make a proposal.
10
CHAPTER
•• In teams, discuss the elements of the personality profile (Figure 1.2) and how you
can develop or improve the qualities and skills required.
•• How can imagineering be employed as a strategy, a process and an instrument?
Provide examples.
Further reading
•• Kuiper, G. and Smit, B. (2014). Imagineering: Innovation in the experience economy. Boston,
MA: CABI.
Great introduction to the world of imagineering. Essential reading for those who want
to apply innovative and creative approaches in any areas of business and life.
•• Lockwood, T. (2010). Design thinking: Integrating innovation, customer experience, and

brand value. New York, NY: Allworth Press.
A very good collection of academic research texts which explore and discuss different
aspects of design thinking in different areas of business.
•• Martin, R. (2009). The opposable mind: Winning through integrative thinking. Boston, MA:
Harvard Business School Press.
This book introduces the concept of integrative thinking, using theory and insights from
business leaders.
References
Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R. and McDonnel, I. (2008). Festival and special event management
(4th ed.). Milton, QLD: John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd.
Berridge, G. (2012). Designing event experience. In S.J. Page and J. Connell (Eds.), The
Routledge handbook of events (pp. 273–288). New York, NY: Routledge.
Best, K. (2006). Design management: Managing Design strategy, process and implementation.
Lausanne, Switzerland: AVA Publishing.
Bladen, C., Kennell, J., Abson, A. and Wilde, N. (2012). Events management: An introduction.
Abingdon, England: Routledge.
Bowdin, G., Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R. and McDonnel, I. (2011). Events management (3rd
ed.). Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Brown, S. (2014). Emerging professionalism in the event industry: A practitioner perspective.
Event Management, 18(1), 15–24.
Brown, T. (2008). Design thinking. Harvard Business Review, 84–92.
Candi, M. and Beltagui, A. (2016). Designing services that sing and dance. In M. Luchs, S. Swan
and A. Griffin (Eds.), Design thinking: New product development essentials from the PDMA
(pp. 223–236). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons.
Ferdinand, N. and Kitchin, P. (2017). Events management: An international approach (2nd ed.).
Sage.
Folkmann, M. (2013). The aesthetics of imagination in design. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Getz, D. (2012). Event studies: Theory, research and policy for planned events (2nd ed.). London,
England: Routledge.
Kuiper, G. and Smit, B. (2014). Imagineering: Innovation in the experience economy. Boston,
MA: CABI.
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Liedtka, J. (2015). Perspective: Linking design thinking with innovation outcomes through
cognitive bias reduction. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 32(6), 925–938.
Lockwood, T. (2010). Design thinking: Integrating innovation, customer experience, and brand
value. New York, NY: Allworth Press.
Martin, R. (2009). The opposable mind: Winning through integrative thinking. Boston, MA:
Harvard Business School Press.
Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The process (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Monroe, J. (2005). Art of the event: Complete guide to designing and decorating special events.
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Orefice, C. (2018). Designing for events: A new perspective on event design. International
Journal of Event and Festival Management, 9(1), 20–33.
O’Toole, W. (2011). Events feasibility and development: From strategy to operations. Oxford,
England: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Richards, G., Marques, L. and Mein, K. (2014). Event design: Conclusions and future research
directions. In G. Richards, L. Marques and K. Mein (Eds.), Event design: Social perspectives
and practices (pp. 198–212). Abingdon, England: Routledge.
Shone, A. and Parry, B. (2004). Professional event management: A practical handbook. London,
England: Thomson.
Silvers, J. (2004). Professional event coordination. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Sonder, M. (2004). Event entertainment and production. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Svabo, C., Larsen, J., Haldrup, M. and Berenholdt, J. (2013). Experience spatial design. In
J. Sundbo and F. Sørensen (Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 310–324).
Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar.
van Gool, W. and van Lindert, C. (2008). Imagineering. Breda: NHTV Internal Publications.
Winn, B. (2009). The design, play and experience framework. In R. Ferdig (Ed.), Handbook of
research on effective electronic gaming in education, Vol. 3 (pp. 1010–1024). New York:
Information Science Reference.
12
2 Events as an
experience industry

•• Changes in the economy from an emphasis on commodities to experience economy
transformative experiences; co-creation
•• Principles of the experience economy;
authenticity
•• Aspects of authenticity, co-creation and shareability of experiences;
transformative
•• CRUSH brands for Generations Y and Z.
experiences
This chapter provides an introduction to some of the critical debates around the value
of planned events and their experiential nature. In this chapter, we will discuss the
changing focus of economic values towards offering unique and authentic customer
experiences. We will explore the philosophy of the experience economy and analyse
events as part of the experience industry. We will also explore the changed relation-
ship between brands and consumers and how this change affects contemporary event
business. The concepts of authenticity, co-creation and shareability will be unpacked
and explained. Finally, we will discuss event brand perspectives in light of the wants,
needs and expectations of a new generation of consumers.
Experience industry
In this book, we debate that events should be considered as an inseparable part of the
experience industry. Pine and Gilmore (2013, p. 31) argue that
Economically, you are what you charge for. A company that charges for undif-
ferentiated stuff is in the commodities business. One that charges for tangible
things is in the goods business. One that charges for the intangible activities
13
2
its people execute is in the service business. But if it charges for the time its
customers spend with it, then economically it is in the experience business.
The experience industry is seen as an industry “where experiences are the main prod-
uct, that is, a product that gives the customer a unique, personal, out-of-the ordinary
and memorable event” (Nilsen and Dale, 2013, p. 80). The key characteristics of the
experience industry are that:
•• It involves the simultaneous presence of producer and consumer;

•• Consumer participation is required;
•• It involves uniqueness and innovation;
•• It is technologically oriented;
•• It is non-material and cannot be stored (Nilsen and Dale, 2013, p. 75).
Contemporary, highly innovative and technologically advanced events in music,

business, culture and sport fit into this definition. Current global trends suggest that
with their focus on user or customer satisfaction and even transformation, the expe-
rience industry is a fast-growing sector with huge potential. In order to understand
the experiential nature of the event industry and its trends, we will need to start
with a discussion on the broad general process of the experience economy, where
businesses begin operating within an experiential domain to increase product or
service value.
From commodities to transformations
THE ORIGIN OF THE EXPERIENCE ECONOMY CONCEPT
Late one night … Joe [Joseph Pine] had made enough progress in his thinking to get out a piece of paper
and write down all of the distinctions he could think of between each of the four economic offerings at
the core of the four economies – commodities, goods, services and experiences – plus a fifth (and as
it turns out, final) economic offering, transformations…. Joe knew he really had something – something
that would change how executives saw the world of business. So, the next morning he typed it all up into
a table, [and flew off] to see his favourite client – Jim Gilmore, then head of CSC Consulting’s process
innovation practice…. They soon knew they would have to write about it – culminating in the 1999 book
The Experience Economy: Work Is Theatre and Every Business a Stage (Pine and Gilmore, 1999) and later
decided to join together to found Strategic Horizons LLP, a thinking studio dedicated to helping com-
panies conceive and design new ways of adding value to their economic offerings (Pine and Gilmore,
2013, p. 23).
14
Events as an experience industry 2
CHAPTER
Every economy is defined by its type of economic offering – what a buyer obtains from
a seller in exchange for money. In their model of the progression of economic value,
Pine and Gilmore (2011, p. 245) identify five such offerings: commodities, goods, services,
experiences and transformations (Figure 2.1).
An agricultural economy is focused mainly on planting, growing and producing com-

modities. A commodity (extracted) is an undifferentiated offer, such as apples, pota-
toes, coffee beans and so on. Such offerings are usually purchased on the basis of
price.
Goods (made) are physical objects such as equipment, clothing, furniture and cars.
Goods emerged through the development of mass production during the
Industrial Revolution. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
goods became the predominant economic offering on the market. Mass produc-
tion means standardisation. Industrial products are market-oriented with a goal
to provide every customer with a standardised product, be it a car or a hammer.
Services (delivered) are defined as “intangible activities performed on behalf of another
individual, such as cooking meals, distributing and merchandising goods, repair-
ing tools or equipment, cleaning clothes, cutting hair …” (Pine and Gilmore, 2013,
p. 25). The economic value was originally designed around providing a particular
service and developing a positive customer relationship. Eventually, it was not
enough just to produce good products; the task of a producer became also to offer
value-added services: repair programmes, contract warranties, loyalty programmes
and so on. By the second half of the twentieth century, more people were employed
in the service sector than in goods production.
N
TIO
M ISA
S TO
CU Transformations
Experiences
Services
Goods
N
TIO
ISA
DIT
Commodities
O
MM
CO
Figure 2.1 The progression of economic value. Adapted from Pine and Gilmore (2011, p. 245).
15
2
Experiences (staged) are memorable occurrences that engage an individual on a per-

sonal level. Examples include a sporting event, an art exhibition, a theatrical
play or a festival. Research by Carter and Gilovich (2010) found that experienc-
ing something makes people much happier than buying goods or services. The
production or staging of experiences has overtaken the service economy in
terms of investment, employment and overall value.
The idea of staging experiences lies at the heart of event design. The key reason for pur-
chasing a ticket to an event is the anticipated experience. By consuming event experi-
ences, event attendees strive to create a “state of internal pleasure or wellbeing” (Nilsen
and Dale, 2013, p. 71), and the task of event designers is to facilitate the production
and consumption of these positive emotions, inviting the participants and attendees
to become co-producers or co-creators of their own experience.
The final element from Figure 2.1 is guided transformations, whereby “experiences are
used to guide customers to change” (Pine and Gilmore, 2013, p. 32). An example might
be a tour of India. The experience of local traditions, religious rituals and authentic
cuisine can affect an individual’s worldview, change their preconceptions and trans-
form them as a person. After the trip, they will see the world differently. Mobile tech-
nologies have also affected our lives and have hence transformed us. It is difficult to
imagine our daily routine without the Internet and smart apps.
How can an event experience become transformative? Kuiper and Smit (2014) suggest
layering different experiences. Multiple layers of an event experience (décor, catering,
performers, music, engaged staff) are interlinked through the attendee’s interpretation
and interaction. The consumer of an event not only experiences the event, but also
integrates the experience into their life. As a result, the event causes transformation to
some extent.
Commoditisation versus customisation

The model of the progression of economic value (Figure 2.1) also demonstrates the rela-
tionship between two processes of commoditisation and customisation. Commoditisation
refers to a situation in the market when particular services or products become simple
commodities in the eyes of the consumers (smart phones, cleaning, laundry, hairdress-
ing). They are consumed without any additional value attached. Commoditisation
removes the unique characteristics of the brand.
Applying customisation, companies create offerings to meet the needs and wants of
individual clients. This strategy leads to differentiation and value creation. For exam-
ple, several sports brands like Nike and Adidas offer their clients an opportunity to cus-
tomise footwear or clothing, which makes their offer very attractive and personalised.
The customer is engaged in the process and it becomes a memorable event.
16
CHAPTER
The next step of the principles of the experience economy is mass customisation,
which “breaks apart a company’s offerings into modules that then can be brought
together in different ways for different customers like LEGO building bricks” (Pine and
Gilmore, 2013, p. 28). A relevant example is insurance companies. Usually, they use a
number of offerings, including car, household, life and travel insurance, but customise
them according to their clients’ needs and expectations. As a result, insurance consult-
ants can offer a variety of bundled products and services. These offerings are unique to
a particular client but do not require any extra cost from the company.
The future of event businesses lies in this direction. Rather than developing a new pro-
ject from scratch every time a new client approaches with a great idea for a family party
or cultural celebration, it is strategically more effective to have a portfolio of already
developed “modules”, which can be mixed and presented as a unique value proposi-
tion. Such an approach will inevitably lead to a niche specialisation and expertise.
Event companies without a clear vision and value proposition are unlikely to succeed
in the current and future economic conditions with a focus on authenticity and co-
creation of experience.
Value of authentic experience

Any staged experience should meet the consumer’s requirement of authenticity. To be
authentic, an experience should be “real” or “true to itself”. Pine and Gilmore (2013,
p. 29) define authenticity as “purchasing on the basis of conformance to self-image”.
As buyers, we all possess self-images or visions of who we are and who we want to be.
When purchasing a product, service or experience, we want this purchase to correlate
with this self-image. If the experience generates a “sympathetic vibration”, it is seen as
authentic and real. If not, it is fake.
Kuiper and Smit (2014) add that authenticity usually correlates with the professional-
ism of the service providers or experience designers. A company client, a hotel or res-
taurant guest or an event attendee should be engaged in interaction with the staff who
play different roles depending on the business scenario.
Goffman’s (1959) metaphor of theatre, which sociologically describes how we, as human
beings, give performances and play different roles in front of each other, has become a
dominant paradigm in the current changing economic conditions. The designers and
producers of experience should act in such a way as to create and maintain the atten-
tion and engagement of the customers. An event manager who helps their guests to
become familiar with the venue, a restaurant worker who helps with the choice from
a menu, a night manager who is ready to discuss the latest football results with you
and support you before an important corporate presentation the following morning –
all act in a manner to draw their customers into an experience which, in turn, builds
trust, connection and a positive relationship with the company and its brand.
17
2
Authenticity of experience is a pivotal element of the experience economy. Customers

are looking for experiential and emotive values in the offerings they buy and consume.
A pint of Guinness in a traditional (and authentic) Irish pub could cost three times
more in comparison to a bottle of the same brew in a supermarket. However, the owner
of the pub is capable of charging a higher price because in addition to the stout, he/she
provides a unique experience of wining and dining. Every visit to an Apple store can
bring a new, extraordinary experience because of the way the products are showcased
in the hi-tech interior and the overall atmosphere of luxury, quality and inspiration.
Interestingly, Apple designers are inspired by the design of the hospitality experience
in the Ritz-Carlton and several boutique hotels (Pine and Gilmore, 2013). The hoteliers
were among the first to understand that they can no longer sell bed-nights and provide
basic hospitality services. The guests demand an “experience” and are ready to pay a
premium for it.
Co-creation
Due to the oversupply in the market, which is caused by producers’ relatively easy
access to their target audiences and low investment costs, consumers are challenged by
the increased “communication noise” and time constraints when making a valuable
choice (Kuiper and Smit, 2014). Usually, we make decisions based on the influence of
RESEARCH NOTE
Sukalakamala, P. and Boyce, J. B. (2007). Customer perceptions for expectations and acceptance of an
authentic dining experience in Thai restaurants. Journal of Foodservice, 18(2), 69–75.
Abstract:
Multiculturalism is an intrinsic part of the historical formation and development of the USA. The USA
is a multiethnic and multilingual society, a trend expected to increase in the future. One component
of ethnicity is expressed in the manner by which ethnic groups prepare and serve their food. Today,
Americans are more accepting of international cuisines. However, because of the high rate of restaurant
failures, the importance of restaurateurs knowing consumer preferences and demands is essential to
success. This research study investigated customers’ perceptions, acceptance and expectations related
to an authentic Thai dining experience. Additionally, this research assessed the degree of authenticity
customers expect from the dining experience. One of the major goals of this research is to provide infor-
mation for ethnic restaurant owners/managers based on customer expectations for an authentic ethnic
cuisine experience.
Keywords: authentic dining, customer perceptions and expectations, Thai restaurant, Thai food
18
CHAPTER
the brand associations. Because of this subconscious decision-making, it is difficult for

new firms and their products to attract our attention and persuade us to try and buy a
new offering. A creative solution for this problem is to follow the changing perceptions
of consumers: from consuming to co-creating.
Whereas producers base the price of their product on the exchange value (money),
consumers consider the user value (experience, transformation, status, image). To help
consumers realise the value of a product, they should be involved in the production
process, during which they co-produce or co-create a desirable experience.
The idea of co-creation was introduced by Ramaswamy and Prahalad in a series of publi-
cations between 2000 and 2004 (Ramaswamy and Gouillart, 2010). The authors argued
for the implementation of a new business strategy with a connected and empowered
customer in the centre and networking as an essential competence of any enterprise.
Ramaswamy (2011, p. 195) defines co-creation as “the process by which mutual value
is expanded together, where value to the participating individuals is a function of their
experiences, both their engagement experiences on the platform, and productive and
meaningful human experiences that result”.
As is clear from the definition, co-creation builds long-term relationships between

multiple stakeholders. Reic (2017) argues that because events are temporal occurrences
and rather limited in terms of creating long-term impacts, it is important for event
designers to extend the impacts and design conditions to engage the audience before,
during and after the event.
During co-creation, a consumer plays an active role within the process of product
development. This can be done through focus-group meetings, discussion panels,
brainstorming sessions or online surveys. This collaboration with the customer can
be applied at any stage of product development, realisation or feedback collection.
Co-creation can also be utilised in the form of crowd sourcing via the Internet. The
key advantage is the ability to reach a wider audience to generate innovation and fund
raise.
Co-creation leads to the development of a community of followers who share the

brand’s values and demonstrate loyalty to the firm’s offerings. Godin (2008) intro-
duced the concept of “tribal marketing” where a group of followers is created, their
needs are interlinked and a new product is developed to meet the group’s wants and
needs. Eventually, a fun club emerges around the product. For many cultural and
music events and festivals, productive communication with the tribes and clubs of
fans and supporters is a critical element of success. Without their support and partici-
pation in the content development, it is unlikely to deliver an interesting and desir-
able event.
19
2
RESEARCH NOTE
Crowther, P. and Donlan, L. (2011). Value-creation space: The role of events in a service-dominant market-
ing paradigm. Journal of Marketing Management, 27(13–14), 1444–1463.
Abstract:
This paper provides a new conceptual contribution to our understanding of the value of events, examin-
ing their potential through the lens of service dominant logic. Through a conceptual analysis and discus-
sion, augmented by a small-scale and exploratory empirical study using semi-structured interviews,
it evaluates the growing resonance of events in modern-day marketing. The paper advances the con-
ception of “value-creation space” as an overarching term to coalesce the otherwise disparate range of
organisational events that have marketing imperative and/or impact. The underpinning virtues of events
are recognised and used to build a discussion that can provide a coherent basis for further conceptual
development. The findings depict considerable synergy between the collaborative nature of events and
the service dominant logic notions of co-creation (or co-destruction) and co-production. However, an
intuitive and well-executed event marketing approach is critical to events’ continued success as value-
creation spaces.
Keywords: service dominant logic, marketing events, co-creation, co-destruction, qualitative interviews
Shareability of experiential offerings

In the era of social media and smart apps, the offered experience must be shareable,
otherwise it is unlikely to attract customers’ attention and convince them to pay. A
new generation of consumers requires shareability. It is not enough to absorb and
enjoy an experience. It should be captured and shared, liked and reviewed by friends,
colleagues and subscribers. It is imperative for event designers to carefully design the
shareable qualities of a planned event, be it a city-scale festival or a business confer-
ence. Videos, images or tweets from an event are often seen as a more reliable and
truthful representation of what is happening or has happened in comparison to very
formal press-releases or radio and TV adverts and interviews.
Know your consumers: Generations Y and Z

Events as part of the experience industry should consider Millennials/Generation Y
and Generation Z as one of their primary audiences. Millennials or Generation Y are
those born between 1980 and 1996. By 2025, approximately 75% of the world’s work-
force will be Generation Y. Generation Z are people born from the mid-1990s to the
20
CHAPTER
early 2000s. Both groups are social media generations. They depend on visual learn-
ing. They are the consumers who “live in the moment” (Smilansky, 2017) and demand
quick, almost immediate responses in communication with brands. They are emo-
tional consumers. They value emotional engagement with a product or service rather
than its functional characteristics. They also look for authenticity, uniqueness and the
opportunity to self-identify with a particular brand.
To be accepted, explored and embraced by the new generation of consumers, a brand

should have its own style, deliver a positive emotional experience, stay up-to-date, pro-
vide a safe feeling and be ecologically friendly (Van der Bergh and Behrer, 2016).
CRUSH event brand

The basic building blocks of a successful event brand for the new Generations Y and
Z can be summarised in the CRUSH acronym (Coolness, Realness, Uniqueness, Self-
Brand Identification and Happiness) (Van den Bergh and Behrer, 2016). Figure 2.2
depicts the event brand leverage model where leverage is defined as “a combination
of brand satisfaction, recommendation and closeness to ideal” (Van den Bergh and
Behrer, 2016, p. 47). Brand leveraging guarantees that an event will remain “hot” for
a long time.
Cool
Happiness Real
Event Brand
Leverage
Self-brand
Unique
Identification
Figure 2.2 CRUSH event brand. Adapted from Van den Bergh and Behrer (2016).
21
2
What coolness means

The research conducted by Van den Bergh and Behrer (2016) on brand coolness
identified three key components of being “Cool”. These are originality, which stand
for an original way of servicing, performing or communicating with the audience;
p opularity, which refers to the general public agreement that “this is in fact very
cool”; and appeal, which describes the overall attractiveness and positive personal
experience of communicating with an event. The main channels through which
the standard of coolness is defined and disseminated are friends, TV, magazines
and advertising. To meet the requirements of being “Cool”, an event should offer
an original theme or attractive and interesting activities to achieve popularity and
public recognition.
Realness
We have already discussed the value of authenticity in the experience economy. It is
about being true to yourself, not imitating or being fake. Generations Y and Z value
honesty. Good event design is about being respectful, listening and discussing ideas
with your audience. A brand should become a friend, transparent, open and friendly.
As an event designer, you should think about the ways and rules of communication
with the target audience of your event. What content do you share? Do you respect the
audience’s feedback and critical comments? How do you introduce the original value of
your event?
Uniqueness
Van den Bergh and Behrer (2016, p. 147) suggest that brand managers think about and
answer a series of questions which shed light on the uniqueness of the brand and its
identity:
•• Who are you?

•• What is your unique brand DNA; your identity that makes you stand out from
competition?
•• What are you?
•• What ‘brand meaning’ do you offer me? What’s your brand’s vision?
Clear and straightforward answers to these questions will help Generations Y and Z to
understand whether they share your values and interests and are willing to identify
themselves with your vision. It is not easy to formulate and correctly communicate
your event’s identity. What is so special in your event that other people should pay
attention and spend their money and time attending or participating in it?
22
CHAPTER
Self-identification with the brand

To help a target audience identify themselves with an event brand, it is important to
make sure that the brand values reflect the central themes in the lives of Generations
Y and Z:
•• Celebrating and enjoying youth, “party-cipation” and desire to feel part of the
crowd;
•• Killing boredom;
•• Sharing good stories which are funny, unpredictable, reliable and bring emotions;
•• Live and learn, which means exploring new domains, making mistakes, trying
again and developing one’s own identity;
•• Being a global citizen with a local identity (Van der Bergh and Behrer, 2016).
Happiness
Van den Bergh and Behrer (2016) argue that happiness is “the most important emotion
evoked by hot brands because this emotion caters for youths’ needs of hedonism and
escapism” (p. 208). An event brand should be capable of arousing happiness, gratifica-
tion and challenging experiences. An event brand should attract full attention and
provide opportunities for individuals to connect with their peers.
Summary
The chapter explored the world of the experience economy. Events have been intro-
duced as part of the experience industry, where consumers pay for obtaining intangi-
ble but meaningful experiences. The principles of mass customisation were discussed.
Attention was also paid to the value of authenticity. The argument is that nowadays,
the meaning of authenticity has been transformed. It is no longer about history, herit-
age or traditions. Authenticity is about being true to yourself and your brand values,
transparency and professionalism. This chapter calls for the application of creative
and innovative strategies to meet the demands of consumers. Thus, co-creation puts
a customer at the centre of the design process and creates an environment of ongoing
productive conversation with the target audience. In this chapter, we also explored the
CRUSH brand model and how this model correlates with the values, desires and dreams
of Millennials and Generation Z.
In the world of the experience economy and co-creative experience, where customers
equally participate in creating and sharing unique experiences, events play an integral
role. Event attendees are looking for new ways of participating and expressing their
identities. There is a strong demand for new patterns of engaging and entertaining the
audience. The competitive advantage and distinctiveness of an event lies in its ability
to generate immersion and escapism, creating a unique and visitor-friendly environ-
ment that entices us to explore. While planning an event, event designers should
23
2
consider multiple aspects of audience satisfaction and engagement. Interactivity, moti-

vation, sensory stimuli and co-creative participation – all these aspects should be taken
into consideration and thoroughly explored to deliver an enjoyable, captivating and
transformative experience.
The next chapter will follow on from the discussion of current trends in the experience
economy and explore different relevant concepts of human experience and how they
can be employed while designing events.

•• Events are part of the experience industry. Attendees pay for a ticket to immerse
themselves and absorb a unique and authentic experience.
•• The progression of economic value calls for the design of transformative experiences.
•• Customisation of offerings is a strategic solution for event companies.
•• Co-creation is a process of building long-term relationships with customers by
inviting them to participate in concept or product design.
•• A designed experience should be shareable. Consumers should be able to capture
it, keep it for memories and share it with a wider audience.
•• An event brand should be Cool, Real, Unique, help with Self-identification and pro-
vide Happiness.

•• What are the key characteristics of a planned event that demonstrate its experien-
tial nature?
•• How do commoditisation and customisation work in the event industry? Develop
your statement and provide some arguments and examples.
•• Choose any event you attended in the past and provide some examples of a share-
able experience. What devices and social media did you use to share the experience
with your subscribers and followers?
•• You are about to launch a new event company. Apply a CRUSH model and explain
the value of your company’s proposition.
Further reading
•• Boswijk, A., Thijssen, T. and Peelen, E. (2007). The experience economy: A new perspective.
Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Pearson Education.
This text provides an overview of the Experience Economy concept and its evolution.
Contains a lot of case-studies and experts’ opinions.
•• Van der Bergh, J. and Behrer, M. (2016). How cool brands stay hot: Branding to Generations
Y and Z. London, England: Kogan Page Limited.
Interesting exploration of brand development and promotion for new generations of
consumers.
24
CHAPTER
References
Carter, T. J. and Gilovich, T. (2010). The relative relativity of material and experiential purchases.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(1), 146–159.
Crowther, P. and Donlan, L. (2011). Value-creation space: The role of events in a service-
dominant marketing paradigm. Journal of Marketing Management, 27(13–14), 1444–1463.
Godin, S. (2008). Tribes: We need you to lead us. London, England: Little Brown.
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
MA: CABI.
Nilsen, B. and Dale, B. (2013). Defining and categorising experience industries. In J. Sundbo
and F. Sorensen (Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 65–83). Cheltenham,
England: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Pine, B. J. and Gilmore, J. H. (1999). The experience economy. Boston, MA: Harvard Business
Review Press.
Pine, B. J. and Gilmore, J. H. (2011). The experience economy: Updated edition. Boston, MA:
Harvard Business Review Press.
Pine, B. J. and Gilmore, J. H. (2013). The experience economy: Past, present and future.
In S. J. and F. Sorensen (Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 21– 46).
Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Ramaswamy, V. (2011). It’s about human experiences … and beyond: To co-creation. Industrial
Marketing Management, 40, 195–196.
Ramaswamy, V. and Gouillart, F. (2010). The power of co-creation: Build it with them to boost
growth, productivity and profits. London, England: Free Press.
Reic, I. (2017). Events marketing management: A consumer perspective. Abingdon, England:
Routledge.
Smilansky, S. (2017). Experiential marketing: A practical guide to interactive brand experiences.
London, England: Kogan Page Limited.
Sukalakamala, P. and Boyce, J. B. (2007). Customer perceptions for expectations and acceptance
of an authentic dining experience in Thai restaurants. Journal of Foodservice, 18(2), 69–75.
Van der Bergh, J. and Behrer, M. (2016). How cool brands stay hot: Branding to Generations Y
and Z. London, England: Kogan Page Limited.
25
3 Event experience

•• Definitions of experience; experience
•• Theories of product, interactive and meaningful experiences; escapism
•• The nature of immersive experience;
immersion
•• Liminality and communitas in event design;
interaction
•• Event experience framework.
meanings
Event participants and attendees are interested in the emotions, feelings and memories
that an event leaves. Thus, it is imperative for event designers to address these needs
to create a unique and extraordinary experience. Designing both physical and sensory
experiences, event designers should put a customer at the centre of any design model,
with consideration of their motives, perceptions and expectations. It is not enough just
to plan an event. What is important is to compose and deliver the authentic experien-
tial value of an event, taking into account its personality and meaning. This chapter
explores several of the most important experience concepts, including product and
interactive experiences, meaningful experiences and immersion. We propose a new
framework of event design that synergises immersion, the event environment and
symbolic interaction, to create the optimum experience.
What is experience?
Different positive experiences have become an extremely important element of busi-
ness, with consumers demanding quality and unique experiences from products and
services. Experiences provide people with greater happiness than material goods and
possessions (Bhattacharjee and Mogilner, 2014). This change in consumer expectation
should be carefully considered by all industries, particularly the events industry, as
27
3
events are a medium of experience (Swaminathan, 2018) that can provide a “unique
special moment” and memories to event attendees (Berridge, 2007, p. 5).
Generically, the term “experience” can be either a noun or a verb and therefore there
is already scope for a multifaceted interpretation. Tynan and McKechnie (2009) argue
that the word “experience” as a construct is problematic, as it operates as both a noun,
such as the “event experience”, and a verb, as in “to experience an event”. There is no
single agreed definition of what constitutes “experience”. Instead, there appear to be
multiple definitions.
Dewey (1938) understands experience to be a result of individual interaction with the

environment. Nilsen and Dale (2013) define it as an increase in value, either personal
or economic, from different goods and services. Kuiper and Smit (2014) see experi-
ence as a psychological process of attaching meaning and emotions to a product or
service which leads to both an emotional response and rational thinking. An emo-
tional response entails activation, which is the intensity of the emotion activated by
an encounter with a product; impression, which can be described as the inner feelings
that emerge while encountering a product; and expression, which is a visible, physical
expression of emotions (Kuiper and Smit, 2014).
O’Sullivan and Spangler (1999, p. 120) formulate the following key components of an
experience:
•• Involvement and participation of the individual in the consumption;

•• The state of being physically, mentally or emotionally derived through such
participation;
•• A change in knowledge, skill, memory or emotion derived through such experience;
•• The conscious perception of having intentionally encountered, gone to or lived
through an activity or event;
•• An effort directed at addressing a psychological or internal need of the participant.
Event industry trends have changed over several years, with post-modern event con-
sumers now expecting personalised, memorable, unique and extraordinary experi-
ences at events. We are witnessing a significant move towards more experientially
led events with more engaging activities and new creative formats. Events will always
produce some form of emotional outcome for attendees, whether this be behavioural
or cognitive, satisfaction, or disappointment (Geus, Richards and Toepoel, 2016). Thus,
an event experience can be seen as an emotional encounter with the event content that
affects an individual’s perceptions, mood and pre-, during- and post-event behaviour.
There is an array of theories and concepts that describe and explain multiple aspects
of product, service and event experience. In the following sections, some of the most
important frameworks will be discussed.
28
Event experience 3
CHAPTER
Product experience
Brassington and Pettitt (2006, p. 228) define a product as “a physical good, service, idea
or place that is capable of offering tangible and intangible attributes that individuals
or organisations regard as so necessary, worthwhile or satisfying that they are prepared
to exchange money, patronage or some other unit of value in order to acquire it”. As
events provide a form of service as well as tangible and intangible attributes and often
require an exchange of money to attend, they are products.
Product experience is a result of interacting with products (Hekkert and Schifferstein,

2008). Focusing on the emotions of consumers whilst interacting with a product (or
event), Desmet and Hekkert (2007) identify three types of experiences:
Emotional experience – A personal attachment or connection, leading to either positive

or negative emotions;
Aesthetic experience – A characteristic that is appealing to the human senses;
Experience of meaning – Personal ethical or symbolic value.
A combination of all three types of product experience will lead to the formation of
a core emotion, which can be either positive or negative (Desmet and Hekkert, 2007).
Different elements of a planned event can instigate positive emotions, for example,
astonishment, curiosity, desire and inspiration; or they can cause boredom, sadness
and disappointment.
Interactive experience
The interactive experience framework contains of three contexts that facilitate a suc-
cessful individual perception of experience. These are personal, social and physical
contexts (Falk and Dierking, 1992). The framework claims that individual experiences
are developed based on personal, social and physical environments. Through these
contexts, experiences are different for every individual, and therefore individuals are
partly responsible for developing their own experiences, something that should be
remembered when designing an event experience. Each of the contexts are detailed in
Table 3.1.
McKenna-Cress and Kamien (2013) call for advocacy for the visitor experience, which
should involve setting cognitive and affective goals and deep exploration of visitor
perceptions, their learning styles and behaviour within the designed physical environ-
ment. An event or an exhibition project should be “for someone” and not just “about
something” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 26).
29
3
Table 3.1 The Three Contexts of Interactive Experience
Context Experiences
Personal Personal interests, motivations, emotions, memories and knowledge etc.

These characteristics enable the individual to select the experience
based on what it means to them.
Social Concerned with shared experiences, completing this experience as part of
a group. Experiences can be influenced and enhanced through sharing
and interacting with others.
Physical Includes the environment, location and sensory stimuli of the experience.
This should be a balance of spontaneity and a controlled situation.
Adapted from Kuiper and Smit (2014).
Realms of experience
As explained in Chapter 2, the experience economy has become a new business para-
digm that outlines a shift from the consumption of products to the consumption of
services and experiences. Pine and Gilmore (1999) present a framework that captures
the multiplicity and inter-connectedness of individual experiences. It includes the four
realms of entertainment, education, escapism and aesthetics (see Figure 3.1).
ABSORPTION
Entertainment Education
PASSIVE ACTIVE
Aesthetics Escapism
IMMERSION
Figure 3.1 The four realms of experience. Adapted from Pine and Gilmore (1999, p. 51).
The realms are defined by the level of an individual’s participation and the degree to
which they are either absorbed or immersed in the experience. Table 3.2 summarises
the key characteristics of each of the quadrants of the framework.
In addition to the four individualistic experience realms, Ayob, Wahid and Omar
(2011) add a new, fifth dimension, festivity to illustrate and explore the attendee’s
experience within planned event settings. The dimension of festivity is of a collective,
shared and communal nature. Festivity is introduced as a “shared feeling or spirit”
which creates a sense of connection and togetherness. As special happenings, events
30
Event experience 3
CHAPTER
Table 3.2 The Quadrants of the Experience Realms
Quadrant Experiences
Passive and Immersive Referred to as aesthetic experience. Individuals do not play an

active role, such as a sight-seeing tour with a driver.
Passive and Absorptive Experiences through entertainment. Individuals choose the
experience but are a passive aspect and have no influence
(e.g., listening to a band).
Active and Absorptive The educational aspect where individuals take an active part in
the experience, such as an educational lecture, quiz or game.
Active and Immersive Individuals actively participate to become immersed in their
environment and escape daily reality, known as escapism.
An example is where individuals become so focused and
involved in a computer game that all external factors are
forgotten.
Adapted from Pine and Gilmore (1999).
are capable of intertwining individualistic experiences with shared festivity, allowing

the participants and attendees to weave their own narrative and achieve their own
desired level of participation, absorption and immersion within the settings of com-
munal celebration.
Ayob et al. (2011) also suggest a measurement scale of event experience to understand
the totality of emotions and feelings the attendees obtain on-site (Table 3.3).
Table 3.3 Items to Measure Event Experience
Entertainment •• Activities here were amusing to watch

•• Watching others perform was captivating
•• I really enjoyed watching what others were doing
•• Activities here were fun to watch
Education •• My experience here has made me more knowledgeable
•• I learnt a lot
•• It stimulated my curiosity to learn new things
•• It was a real learning experience
Escapism •• I felt I played a different character here
•• I felt like I was living in a different time or place
•• The experience here let me imagine being someone else
•• I completely escaped from reality
Aesthetics •• I felt a real sense of harmony
•• Just being here was very pleasant
•• The setting was very attractive/pretty bland
Festivity •• The environment here was full of joy and cheerfulness
•• People at the event seemed to be in high spirits and festive
•• The event was a meeting point for community to enjoy
•• I felt the celebration at this event
Adapted from Ayob et al. (2011, p. 8).
31
3
RESEARCH NOTE
Geus, S. De, Richards, G. and Toepoel, V. (2016). Conceptualisation and operationalisation of event and
festival experiences: Creation of an event experience scale. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and
Tourism, 16(3), 274–296.
Abstract:
Experiences are becoming increasingly important in events and festivals, which are prime manifesta-
tions of the experience economy. However, research on event experiences has generally been con-
cerned with economic impacts and visitor motivations (Gursoy, D., Kim, K. and Uysal, M. [2004]. Perceived
impacts of festivals and special events by organisers: An extension and validation. Tourism Management,
25(2), 171–181). Few studies have attempted to operationalise and quantitatively analyse experiences,
and there is no consensual definition regarding the essence of experiences (Walls, A. R., Okumus, F.,
Wang, Y. and Kwun, D. J.-W. [2011]. An epistemological view of consumer experiences. International
Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(1), 10–21). This article develops an Event Experience Scale (EES)
for event experiences. In this exploratory study, the item generation and selection for this scale are
presented in three phases, specifying the domain of construct and generation of items, item selection
and scale purification. An 18-item scale, comprising four dimensions – affective engagement, cognitive
engagement, physical engagement and experiencing newness – with satisfactory values for Cronbach’s
alphas (.83, .86, .86 and .87), emerged. Implications for theoretical and practical research are discussed.
Keywords: events, event experiences, festivals, scale development, leisure experiences, experience
measurement
Meaningful experience
Boswijk, Thijssen and Peelen (2007) ague that meaningful experience entails sensory
perception, emotion, two types of experience (Erlebnis and Erfarung) and the final stage of
giving meaning to an experienced object or activity.
The process of experiencing something begins with the activation of our senses. To under-
stand environmental surroundings and process signals to the brain for interpretation
and reactions, the human body relies on the faculties of sight, sound, touch, taste and
smell, known as the five senses (Ackerman, 1990; Hellier, 2017). The five senses are
responsible for everything we feel, taste, hear, smell and see. The brain processes each
of the senses, enabling us to explore and make sense of the outside world. Ackerman
(1990, p. 11) argues “there is no way in which to understand the world without first
detecting it through the radar-net of our senses … our senses define the edge of con-
sciousness”. The way all five senses can be applied in event design will be thoroughly
discussed in Chapter 6.
32
Event experience 3
CHAPTER
Sensory perception leads to emotion, both positive and negative. Emotions are “an
involuntary, unintended, non-deliberate way of dealing with the outside word” (Frijda,
1986 cited in Boswijk et al., 2007, p. 21). Emotions manifest themselves through feel-
ings, expressive and motivated behaviour and physiological changes.
When you enter an event venue, you will start to immediately evaluate the surround-
ings. You will explore the space design and meet the event designers and other attend-
ees. This first encounter with the event will generate feelings (positive or negative), and
these feelings will guide your behaviour and possible physiological changes during the
course of the event. This is a dynamic process; the emotions and behaviour can change
several times, depending on the context and atmosphere at the event.
Experience (Erlebnis) is “an immediate, relatively isolated occurrence with a complex

of emotions that make an impression and represent a certain value for the individual
within the context of a specific situation” (Boswijk et al., 2007, p. 22). This is a direct
result of sensing and feeling. If you are not welcomed at an event, you feel unhappy
and upset, and thus you have a negative experience. If a performance is colourful and
engaging, you have an overall positive experience. The overall feeling of playfulness
and pleasure in the activity gives rise to positive emotions through positive immediate
experience (Erlebnis).
The meaningful experience (Erfarung) can be described as obtaining
•• Knowledge through observation;

•• Practical skills;
•• Conscious knowledge (Jantzen, 2013).
Hence, the meaningful experience, when you experience and attach meanings, is an
interactive process of action and reflection, of cause and effect, which has meaning for
the individual in different contexts (Boswijk et al., 2007).
Meaningful experiences of an event involve all senses, increase the level of concentra-
tion and focus, touch a person emotionally and alter their sense of time. This process
is unique and has an intrinsic value. While experiencing the event context, attendees
interact with the event elements and zones, reflect on their feelings and emotions and
construct meanings.
Immersion in events
Immersion is one of the key prerequisites of a positive and rich event experience. As
indicated in the previous section, Pine and Gilmore (1999) regard immersion and
absorption as contrasting qualities. However, other authors, for example, Mainnemelis
(2001), do not emphasise the difference and use both terms as synonyms.
33
3
We will follow Hansen and Mossberg (2013) and define immersion as “a form of spatio-
temporal belonging in the world that is characterised by deep involvement in the
present moment. Immersion involves a lack of awareness of time and a loss of self-
consciousness” (p. 212).
As a concept, immersion is highly relevant and widely applied in computer games.

Players become totally immersed in the game, and the line between reality and virtual
reality becomes blurred. In gaming, individuals can become so focused and involved
in the game itself that all external factors and environments are forgotten (Cheng, She
and Annetta, 2015). Toft-Nielsen (2014) identifies three different types of immersive
gaming experiences:
Sensory immersion – When the game’s surface features leave a perceptual impact on the
gamer;
Challenge-based immersion – The cognitive element of wanting to meet the challenges
set by the game;
Imaginative immersion – The gamer’s absorption in the game story.
These forms of immersion leave emotional impacts on the gamer, whether it be adrena-
line, excitement, anxiety, confusion, enjoyment or stress release (Oswald, Prorock and
Murphy, 2014).
An immersive event is thought to involve an increased amount of participation and

interaction from the audience. The immersive environment encourages the participants
to become more involved within the experience, which leads to an increased level of sat-
isfaction with the event and therefore results in a positively influenced event experience.
Caru and Cova (2007) argue that immersion occurs within an enclavised, secure and
thematised context. An enclavised context of a planned event should have specific
boundaries which help the participants and attendees to contrast this “territory” and
the obtained experience with their daily routine. The “start” and “finish” points help
the audience to switch off from their daily life and enter a liminal zone with unfamiliar
rules, new roles and unexpected encounters. The consumers “get into a separate world
of enhancement where all the worries and hardships that they face in their ordinary
life disappear” (Caru and Cova, 2007, p. 41). The proper design of welcoming activities,
the decoration of entrances and exits and a well thought out “farewell” ritual could
facilitate the process of immersion.
In the enclaved environment of an event, the consumers expect the event planners to
take control of the situation. They allow themselves to be guided and led. That is why
a sense of security is paramount (Hansen and Mossberg, 2013). Usually, event goers
treat events as risk-free spaces where they can enjoy their time. The itineraries, guides
and programmes and friendly staff can facilitate the creation of a safe and relaxed
atmosphere.
34
Event experience 3
CHAPTER
The theme is understood as a “symbolic packaging of the context” (Caru and Cova,
2007, p. 41). The event theme should communicate the relevant content in an under-
standable, meaningful and memorable way (Hansen and Mossberg, 2013). Again, the
key task of the event designer is to facilitate the process of absorption and immersion,
to stimulate the visitors’ senses and imagination, so they can escape from their every-
day life and enjoy an extraordinary experience which is intensive, positive and intrinsi-
cally enjoyable (Arnould and Price, 1993).
How the audience becomes immersed

Caru and Cova (2007) identify three stages of immersion: nesting, investigating and
stamping. The nesting stage includes familiarisation with the event environment and
a sense of comfort and membership. During the investigating stage, the participants
explore new elements and extend their comfort zone. Stamping deals with imagination
and involves visitors’ creativity and meaning making.
Another theory which explains the origins of the immersive experiential domain
in events is the theory of liminality. A French anthropologist, van Gennep (1960),
identified and explained the structure of traditional rites of passage, which define
and accompany a person’s transition from one social category to another (birth rites,
wedding rituals, adulthood, funeral rituals). He argued that the structure of such rites
incorporates the phases of separation, transition and reintegration. For example, during
religious pilgrimage, pilgrims leave their homes and relatives; they detach from their
normal life. This is separation. During transition, when all the statuses and ranks have
been stripped away, pilgrims experience fellowship with other pilgrims and shared per-
formance. Reintegration occurs when, because of the adventurous experience, a trans-
formed person returns and reintegrates into their community and family (Arnould and
Price, 1993). The transitional phase belongs to liminal people, who exist in a “moment
in and out of time”. Liminality is a creative space, where no structural relations exist. It
creates an opportunity of “becoming other” through experiencing new norms, a new
environment and a new way of living.
One of the central activities within a liminal space is the experiencing of communitas,
which is a feeling of oneness and flow. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) developed a theory of
flow or optimal experience, which describes the conditions when we literally lose a
sense of time because of an interesting activity, task or challenge we are involved in.
Several conditions should be met to experience this flow:
•• An activity should have a clear direction, structure and goal;

•• The participant must have a good balance between his or her skills and observed
challenges;
•• Fast and clear feedback should be provided to the participant to allow them to
adapt to the requirements of the task and remain involved in the flow.
35
3
Liminal Zone and

Pre-event Communitas Return
communication Change in attitude and
Tickets Enclaved, themed, behaviour
secure
Travel Post-event
Physical Environment communication
Interaction and
Celebration
Separation from Re-Integration
Everyday Life with Everyday Life
Figure 3.2 Liminality in events.
Liminality and communitas are the critical requirements for immersion. Let’s take an
example of a music festival (Figure 3.2). Before the event, you prepare to attend the
festival. You communicate with your friends and you read reviews and feedback about
the chosen event. You consider particular needs, expectations and motives. Finally, you
buy a ticket. And then you enter a separation zone. You take a day off from work or
from study, you pack your belongings, you leave your home and quite often your city
or town. You are on the way. Upon arrival at the festival, you enter the liminal zone. As
Getz (2012) argues, this is a cognitive and affective dimension of the experience. This
is a special place, where you and the rest of the audience have put aside your social
statuses; everyone is equal, every attendee is a part of the festivity. The transition from
your routine life to the event space and then between different experiencescapes within
this space affects the process of immersion into the festival activities and overall aura of
celebration. After the festival ends, you return home and reintegrate with normal life as
a transformed and renewed person.
In a so-called “bubble of consumption”, inside the liminal zone, consumer immersion

is supervised by facilitators. Such facilitators include the personnel (event designers,
volunteers and security officers), other consumers (event attendees), tangible products
involved in the experience (gifts, handouts at a business conference, merchandising)
and the physical environment (event venue, accommodation, layouts) (Hansen and
Mossberg, 2013).
36
Event experience CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH NOTE
Pielichaty, H. (2015). Festival space: Gender, liminality and the carnivalesque. International Journal of
Event and Festival Management, 6(3), 235–250.
Abstract:
Purpose – Contemporary outdoor rock and popular music festivals offer liminoidal spaces in which
event participants can experience characteristics associated with the carnivalesque. Festival goers cel-
ebrate with abandonment, excess and enjoy a break from the mundane routine of everyday life. The
purpose of this paper is to explore the way gender is negotiated in the festival space.
Design/methodology/approach – The rock and popular music tribute festival known as
“Glastonbudget” provides the focus for this conceptual paper. A pilot ethnographic exploration of the
event utilising photographic imagery was used to understand the way in which gender is displayed.
Findings – It is suggested that liminal zones offer space to invert social norms and behave with aban-
donment and freedom away from the constraints of the everyday, but that neither women nor men actu-
ally take up this opportunity. The carnivalesque during Glastonbudget represents a festival space which
consolidates normative notions of gender hierarchy via a complicated process of othering.
Research limitations/implications – This is a conceptual paper which presents the need to advance
social science-based studies connecting gender to the social construction of event space. The ideas
explored in this paper need to be extended and developed to build upon the research design estab-
lished here.
Originality/value – There is currently a paucity of literature surrounding the concept of gender within
these festival spaces especially in relation to liminality within events research.
Keywords: gender, fantasy, events, festival, liminality, carnivalesque
Overall, the process of experiencing an event is dynamic and complex. Figure 3.3
introduces a holistic framework of event experience where an interplay of immersion,
event environment and symbolic interactions sets the ground for a positive, meaning-
ful and transformative event experience.
During the course of an event, attendees symbolically interact with one other and the
overall environment of the event. To meet the expectations of the participants and
attendees, planned events should be provocative and stimulating through tangible
and intangible elements of the event environment (Getz, 2012). Tangible elements of
events are things you can touch, such as food, beverages and merchandise. Intangible
element of events are things you cannot physically touch, such as the event dimen-
sions, the event flow and aspects of service such as performances. Environmental prop-
erties, including music, video and audio effects, noise, décor and layout, set an event
apart from being something that is merely observed and make it instead an interactive
37
3
Immersion
Event Experience
Event Environment Symbolic Interactions
Figure 3.3 Event experience. A conceptual framework.
and immersive experience. Sensory stimuli “set the scene” for the event experience;
they captivate the audience.
Liminality and communitas and the overall atmosphere of festivity create unique
conditions for symbolic interaction. At a festival or business event, the community
of participants and attendees co-create extensively through meaning creation and
interpretation. Active participation, interactivity and engagement lead to audience
satisfaction.
BOX 3.1: INDUSTRY VOICE: BERTIE WATKINS,

ARTISTIC DIRECTOR, COLAB THEATRE, LONDON
Bertie set up COLAB Theatre six years ago and has since produced seven immersive shows. He also set up
and is Artistic Director of the COLAB Factory, which is London’s first ever immersive specific theatre space.
Bertie is discussing the immersive performance Montagues and Capulets set in a warehouse squat during
the 1990s, when rave culture was massive.
In what way was the performance designed to educate

the audience and stimulate their thinking?
Well as a theatre production, its primary focus is to entertain the audience. As the production is an alter-
native take on a classic play, the audience will be expected to make comparisons between the original
and the adaptation, which will stimulate thought process and in some respects educate them as to how
classic stories can be just as relevant today and how the narrative of the play can be equally as relatable
and enjoyable when put into a more contemporary context. I would say that the way the actors engage
38
Event experience CHAPTER 3
with the audience would stimulate thinking as they’re [the audience] presented with a question or task
and would need to respond, not as themselves, but in a way relevant to the context of the performance,
which would require quick thought processes and remaining engaged with the surroundings.
Could you describe the intended atmosphere and how you aimed to
achieve this through the use of sensory stimuli?
So first of all, it was important to create an environment that the audience could get completely lost in
and almost lose themselves and become a part of the performance. We wanted it to be a completely
immersive experience to the point where the audience felt so consumed by the atmosphere that they
take on personas of fictional characters to blend in with their surroundings.
In relation to the performance specifically, we wanted to create or promote a feeling of animos-
ity between the two houses [Montagues and Capulets] to further immerse the audience and give the
impression that there is a genuine hatred between the characters and impose this upon the audience.
With the adaptation being set in the thick of 1990s rave culture, we tried to portray this by heavily
embedding the environment with visual props, and the stage itself was an old warehouse, which we felt
gave the impression of a bare, industrial environment which adds to the aesthetic of the environment.
And we tried to appeal to the audience’s senses through a heavy focus on audio-visual effects, like
strobe lights and lasers to reinforce the concept of a rave atmosphere. Sound and lighting was a really
useful tool in creating ambiance and transitioning between scenes.
What was the intended outcome for the audience?

The main aim was to expose the audience to a completely immersive theatre production that turned the
tables on a traditional theatre setting to produce an experience that is made unique by their own inter-
actions with the performance and by engaging in activities that have the potential to alter the outcome
of the play. And through a sense immersion within the environment, the audience could experience an
escape from reality and feelings of release and happiness with the performance.
In what way was the audience participation expected to influence

their individual experience?
I think being actively involved within the performance it makes the experience that bit more exciting
in comparison to a traditional theatre production. As the audience are encouraged to interact and join
in with the play, they’re expected to feel like a part of the performance and through their contribution
they’re expected to feel more invested with the outcome of the play. But of course, the audience are
encouraged to interact at whatever level feels comfortable for them. So, there will be individuals who
experience the performance from a more observational standing point; however, they’ll still feel the
effects of the immersive atmosphere and be able to move around and explore the environment freely.
Overall, I think through actively engaging with the performance, the audience are able to develop a
sense of fulfilment and satisfaction and because they had the power to control their own experience in
some respects, rather than simply being the receiver of a simulated or constructed reality, they were able
to influence their surroundings. This was expected to encourage self-expression and a sense of freedom
to break away from the rigid confines of their everyday lives and even potentially act as catharsis for them.
39
3
Summary
This chapter follows on from the discussion of the experience economy and experi-
ence industry in Chapter 2. We have explored different aspects of experience theory.
we have reviewed dominant concepts of product and interactive experience, as well as
the evolution of a seminal model of the four realms of experience. It became evident
from the discussion that experience is a complex but essential aspect of any planned
event. As with tangible and intangible products, events can enhance experiences
through having personal and meaningful connections with attendees. The chapter has
explored the process of producing meaningful experience through sensory perception
and emotion. We have also introduced a concept of immersion and examined how it is
applied in the realm of planned events. We have discussed anthropological concepts of
liminality and communitas and explained how they can be employed by event design-
ers. Finally, a new model of event experience design has been introduced. The model
deals with immersion, event atmosphere and diverse symbolic interactions which lead
to meaning creation. The next chapter will explore the power of a good story and how
to apply storytelling in event concepting.

•• Experience is a psychological process when we attach meaning and emotions to a
product, service or event.
•• A state of immersion is a key component of a meaningful experience at any event.
It includes familiarisation, exploration and imagination.
•• An anthropological theory of liminality can be used as a guide for event design. It
explains how attendees feel before, during and after the planned event.
•• Event experience is guided and depends on the quality of immersion, event envi-
ronment and symbolic interaction of the attendees.

•• What are the conditions for designing a unique and meaningful event experience?
•• Choose any event you have attended or participated in (a festival, a sporting com-
petition, a business conference) and discuss the quality and value of the event
experience using one of the experience theories (product experience, interactive
experience or realms of experience).
•• Choose another event and apply a suggested event experience framework
(Figure 3.3). How did event environment affect your perceptions and expecta-
tions? Provide some evidence of an immersive experience. How did you interact
with the other attendees?
40
Event experience 3
CHAPTER
Further reading
•• Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY:
Harper Collins.
A famous investigation of “optimal experience”. The author explores the conditions
that make experience genuinely satisfying and memorable. In the state of “flow”, people
experience enjoyment, creativity and mindfulness.
•• van Gennep, A. (1960). The rites of passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
A seminal anthropological investigation of the nature of the ritual ceremonies and
rites that accompany the landmarks of human life. The underpinnings of liminality are
introduced and discussed.
References
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Arnould, E. J. and Price, L. L. (1993). River magic: Extraordinary experience and the extended
service encounter. Journal of Consumer Research, 20(1), 24–45.
Ayob, N., Wahid, N. and Omar, A. (2011). A measurement model of event experience within
festival and special events. In Proceeding of the 5th international conference of the Asian
Academy of Applied Business (AAAB). Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Berridge, G. (2007). Events design and experience. Oxford, England: Elsevier.
Bhattacharjee, A. and Mogilner, C. (2014). Happiness from ordinary and extraordinary
experiences. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(1), 1–17.
Boswijk, A., Thijssen, T. and Peelen, E. (2007). The experience economy: A new perspective.
Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Pearson Education.
Brassington, F. and Pettitt, S. (2006). Principles of marketing. Essex, England: Pearson Education.
Caru, A. and Cova, B. (2007). Consumer immersion in an experiential context. In A. Caru and B.
Cova (Eds.), Consuming experience (pp. 34–47). London, England: Routledge.
Cheng, M.-T., She, H.-C. and Annetta, L. A. (2015). Game immersion experience: Its hierarchical
structure and impact on game-based science learning. Journal of Computer Assisted
Learning, 31(3), 232–253.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper
Collins.
Desmet, P. and Hekkert, P. (2007). Framework of product experience. International Journal of
Design, 1(1), 57–66.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, NY: Touchstone.
Falk, J. and Dierking, L. (1992). The museum experience. Washington, DC: Howels House.
Frijda, N. (1986). The emotions: Studies in emotion and social interaction. New York, NY:
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Getz, D. (2012). Event studies: Theory, research and policy for planned events (2nd ed.). London,
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Geus, S. De, Richards, G. and Toepoel, V. (2016). Conceptualisation and operationalisation of
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Hansen, A. and Mossberg, L. (2013). Consumer immersion: A key to extraordinary experiences.
In J. Sundbo and F. Sorensen (Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 209–227).
Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Hekkert, P. and Schifferstein, H. (2008). Introducing product experience. In H. Schifferstein and
P. Hekkert (Eds.), Product experience (1st ed.). New York, NY: Elsevier.
Hellier, J. (2017). The five senses and beyond: The encyclopaedia of perception. CA: ABC-CLIO,
Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood.
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Jantzen, C. (2013). Experiencing and experiences: A psychological framework. In J. Sundbo

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MA: CABI.
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Sons, Inc.
Nilsen, B. and Dale, B. (2013). Defining and categorising experience industries. In J. Sundbo
England: Edward Elgar Publishing.
O’Sullivan, E. and Spangler, K. (1999). Experience marketing: Strategies for the new millennium.
Abingdon, England: Spon Press.
Oswald, C., Prorock, C. and Murphy, S. (2014). The perceived meaning of the video game
experience. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(2), 110–126.
Pielichaty, H. (2015). Festival space: Gender, liminality and the carnivalesque. International
Journal of Event and Festival Management, 6(3), 235–250.
Pine, B. J. and Gilmore, J. H. (1999). The experience economy. Boston, MA: Harvard Business
Review Press.
Swaminathan, D. (2018). The art of building experiential events: An event designer’s almanac.
Chennai: Notion Press.
Toft-Nielsen, C. (2014). Worlds at play: Space and player experience in fantasy computer games.
Nordicom Review, 35, 237–249.
Tynan, C. and McKechnie, S. (2009). Experience marketing: A review and reassessment. Journal
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van Gennep, A. (1960). The rites of passage. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
42
4 Storytelling and event
concepting

•• Event concepting strategies; storytelling
•• Key principles of storytelling in event design; event concept
•• Value of brainstorming: planning and facilitating a brainstorming
event idea
session;
value creation
•• Creative tools for event designers: mind maps, mood boards and
visualisation
sketching.
brainstorming
mind maps
This chapter will thoroughly discuss the application of storytelling

principles while creating the concept for a new event. The advantages of storytelling
will be presented by comparing it to a conventional 5Ws approach. The basic principles
and elements of storytelling will be explained and discussed. The second part of the
chapter will focus on the application of several design techniques to organise and visu-
alise event concepts and design ideas. Firstly, brainstorming methods will be explored.
Secondly, creative tools such as mind mapping, mood boards and sketching will be
introduced and explained.
From event idea to event concept: The 5Ws

Every event begins with an idea. An event idea can be described as a simplistic descrip-
tion of what the event is about; what the event is planned to achieve; and its basic
objectives, target audience, place and time. Event ideas usually lack details. They
inspire, emphasise new directions and suggest unusual event themes. But it is unlikely
they can be used to evaluate an event project’s feasibility or financial requirements.
43
EVENT IDEAS
•• A party on a roof to celebrate the end of the academic year

•• A lantern festival in the park sometime in June
•• A fundraising marathon to support a local cancer society
In order to do so, an event idea should be transformed into an event concept, a clear
statement that shapes the event into a feasible business project. The concept connects
separate elements of the event idea or ideas to create a whole. As Kuiper and Smit (2014)
state, “[T]he concept works like an umbrella: the binding factor between all the prede-
termined goals, requirements, conditions, needs, starting position and expectations of
people that become a part of the concept” (p. 93).
The most conventional way to transform any interesting event idea into a concept is by
using a 5Ws framework, suggested by Goldblatt (2005). The proponents of this method
emphasise its strategic nature and easy applicability. Event creators should provide
answers to five questions: who, what, why, when and where? Thus, who refers to the event
target audience and any involved stakeholders. What helps to identify the overall event
experience, event goals and mission statements. Why explains the reasons behind the
event. When and where determine the event timing and location.
EVENT CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT – APPLYING THE 5WS
Event idea: End of the Year Award Party for students at the University of Derby.
Who: Undergraduate and postgraduate university students and academic team.
What: An award ceremony followed by a gala dinner and dance. Key theme: New York in the 1920s. Black
and white décor, theme-inspired dress code.
Why: To celebrate the end of the academic year in the university.
When: 14th of April 2018.
Where: Buxton Campus, Buxton, UK.
The 5Ws model sets the direction for the event project by identifying and strategising
its key components. The next step is to allocate a team of professionals, conduct a mar-
ket and feasibility study and implement project management tools to plan, deliver and
evaluate the event project.
However, this model has a significant limitation. Being purely focused on the event
management aspect, the concepts created by applying the 5Ws quite often are not
44
Storytelling and event concepting 4
CHAPTER
easily conveyable and meaningful. To put it simply, they do not appeal to people’s
imagination.
As discussed in the previous chapters, nowadays businesses operate within a very

competitive and changing environment, where creativity, co-creation and imagineer-
ing determine the overall success or failure of new products and services. The current
business focus on customers’ meaningful and transformative experiences dictates new
rules and approaches. If an event concept does not inspire or motivate, no one will
attend or participate. Hence, a new approach is required for event concepting, with a
focus shift from event management to event design.
Pink (2008) has introduced new terms to reflect the changes in the perceptions and
expectations of consumers. These terms are “High Concept” and “High Touch”. High
Concept “involves the ability to create artistic and emotional beauty, to detect patterns
and opportunities, to craft a satisfying narrative, and to combine seemingly unrelated
ideas into a novel invention” (Pink, 2008, pp. 51–52). High Touch “involves the ability
to empathise, to understand the subtleties of human interaction, to find joy in one’s
self and to elicit it in the others, and to stretch beyond the quotidian, in pursuit of
purpose and meaning” (Pink, 2008, p. 52). The outcome of a High Concept with High
Touch in events is a transformation of the participating or attending group of people
with a lasting effect (Kuiper and Smit, 2014). It is obvious that a 5Ws model does not
work anymore if the task is to create a long-lasting experience and not just a project to
be completed. It is necessary to search for another, more creative method. One of the
trending approaches in the business world is storytelling, which is designing brands or
entire businesses around an interesting and captivating story.
Storytelling in business
Human memory is story based (Schank, 1990, p. 12). Story-based memories facilitate
learning and understanding. Guber (2007, p. 54) defines storytelling as “a force for
turning dreams into goals and then into results”. Stories generate more positive feel-
ings in customers. They sound more convincing than facts. They raise awareness and
increase brand trust. For example, recent research in marketing indicates that the story
content in a TV advertisement increases positive emotions (Escalas, 2004) and cre-
ates expectations (Rosen, 2000). Good stories stimulate imagination, and also awake
archetypes and stimulate archetypal behaviour. An archetype represents an idea that
is not learnt but is with us from birth. It is a part of the collective human subcon-
scious (Megehee and Woodside, 2010). The Hero, the Creator, the Ultimate Strength,
the Antihero – these are the examples of popular archetypes which are successfully
employed by famous brands through storytelling. Table 4.1 provides several examples.
Primarily, people make their decisions through their emotions, and only after the deci-
sion is made do they try to justify it using logic (Mooney, 2018). Stories facilitate these
processes of decision making and justification.
45
4
Table 4.1 Archetypes, Story Gists and Examples
Archetype Story gist Brand examples
Ultimate When an obstacle is there, it must be Timex – “It takes a licking

Strength overcome; strength must be proven in use. and keeps on ticking”
The Hero Fortitude, courage and victory; a journey Michael Jordan and Nike
and transformation. shoes
The Antihero Universal message of destruction and Che Guevara,
attraction of evil; the bad dude. Harley-Davidson
The Creator Creative inspiration and the potency of Walt Disney, Apple
imagination; originality, authenticity.
Adapted from Megehee and Woodside (2010, p. 607).
INDUSTRY EXAMPLE: HARLEY-DAVIDSON
It is one of the world’s enduring brands. It is the midlife crisis brand. ‘What we sell,’ a Harley-
Davidson marketing executive once famously said, ‘is the ability of a 43-year-old account-
ant to dress in black leather, ride through small towns and have people be afraid of him’. A
Harley rider’s love for his motorcycle has nothing to do with how fast it goes or how much
it costs. It has to do purely and simply with the Harley story: when that accountant rides his
Harley, he is unleashing himself from his family and work commitments and, even if only
for three hours a week, becoming somebody he has never been and never will be – except
when he gets his Harley.
(Papadatos, 2006, p. 382)
A study by Lundqvist, Liljander, Gummerus and van Riel (2013) demonstrates that a
good story creates positive associations with a brand and may increase consumers’ will-
ingness to pay for it. A brand, experienced through a story, retains positive associations
which affect the overall customer value of its products and services.
Key parameters of a good story

Your event story should be simple, unique, concrete and emotional. Simple stands for
your ability to create and tell a story that is easily comprehended by the audience.
Unique refers to the authentic qualities of the story and the event you create. Concrete
means that you have identified a clear goal, aim and objectives and have communi-
cated them accordingly. And finally, emotional refers to the ability of your story and
event to target emotional levels of your audience by using all senses and offering an
extraordinary and creative design.
46
CHAPTER
Fog, Budtz, Munch and Blanchette (2010) identify four key elements of any good story,
be it a fairy tale or a commercial advertisement on TV. These are message, conflict, char-
acters and plot.
The message. Storytelling in event design should be applied not for the sake of a good
story only, but also to communicate key values of the event, its authentic charac-
teristics and uniqueness of experience. Hence, a clearly defined message should be
developed. What is the central theme of your event? How does it correlate with the
demands and expectations of your target audience? The creators of the immersive
interactive game Sherlock Escape Game, inspired by a famous BBC series, send the
following message to the fans of the franchise: “London needs Sherlock: unfortu-
nately, it has you. Can you step into the shoes of the legendary detective? Good
luck: The Game Is Now”. The meaning of the message is clear. You are invited to
buy a ticket and escape into the universe of Sherlock’s London and “dive into an
all-new mystery”.
The conflict. Fog, Budtz, Munch and Blanchette (2010) argue that every good story
contains a tension between the unpredictable chaos and predictable harmony of
a described situation. Something should happen and change the ordinary world.
Look at your event idea. What is the purpose of the event? What does it offer? For
example, if you aim at organising an evening for senior retired people where they
can mix and mingle, learn dancing or listen to music, you are definitely solving
one of the most serious issues in their life, which is loneliness. Retired lonely peo-
ple quite often suffer from lack of attention and communication. Your event can
help solve this problem by providing a place where they can be engaged in interest-
ing activities and feel attention and care. Another example is a fundraising event
to support one of the local charity organisations. The conflict is obvious: we have
so many people around us who need support and care, but usually we are too busy
with our own problems and we do not have time to think about other people’s
needs. Your event can help attract attention to a charity and support it financially.
The characters. As Fog, Budtz, Munch and Blanchette (2010, p. 41) mention, “a success-
ful conflict needs a hero”. Who are the main characters in your story/event? The
audience? The performers? You as a company? One of the very useful and success-
ful techniques of identifying your event target audience is creating stories around
them. Take your notepad or use a whiteboard. Sketch a person, a male or a female.
And invent a story about them. Ask yourself, who are they? What are their names?
Where do they live? Where do they work? What do they like? How much money do
they earn? What music do they listen to? What food do they prefer? What are their
problems? What makes them happy? What events do they attend? Why? What
attracts them? This exercise will help you to visualise your audience, to understand
what they expect from an event that is similar to yours, how they can be reached,
what sort of message you should send and what method of communication you
should choose.
The plot. The plot unites all the critical elements of your story into a consistent narra-
tive with a nice flow. The plot is responsible for the progress of the story. A good
47
story often begins by creating a scene: the hero is introduced and certain details
are uncovered so we get an idea of what to expect. A presentation of conflict then
follows. The story develops over time until the story reaches its climax and the hero
contributes something that solves the conflict. The hero reaches a goal. When pro-
jecting this process onto your event and its story, consider the key idea behind your
event – the core message you plan to communicate. The event should have a purpose
which helps to resolve a particular conflict. Who are the characters or maybe only
one main hero? For example, when you design for a launch event where a new model
of Ferrari should be presented, Ferrari could be your main character, or it could be a
person who drives the car. It all depends on the event content and its context.
STORYTELLING TIPS FROM PIXAR
•• Choose an idea. What is the core idea of your story? Does it offer many possibilities for dramatic
moments? Do all of your characters, narrative decisions, scenes and themes pertain to your core
idea? Are you constantly exploring and expanding the seed of your story as it progresses? Have you
branched off in directions that aren’t part of your core idea?
•• Creating compelling characters. What is important to them? What do they believe in? How can you
use their values and history to make the events of your plot have stronger impact on your characters?
•• Drama and conflict. What is the most dramatic question in your story? What is the answer the audi-
ence must stick around to see? (Movshovits, 2015)
RESEARCH NOTE
Mossberg, L. (2008). Extraordinary experiences through storytelling. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality

and Tourism, 8, 195–210.
Abstract:
A global trend in the experience industry is to build an entire business or parts of a business around a
story. This might apply to a single product, an organization or a destination. The purpose of this concep-
tual paper is to discuss and highlight critical issues to reveal new insights into conceptualizing tourism
and hospitality organizations as stories. For the consumer to be immersed in the story and to have an
extraordinary experience, two preconditions are proposed which relate to the type of service and the
setting: one is the need for the experience to take place in a hedonic service consumption setting and
the other is a servicescape that allows the consumer to step away from everyday reality. It is also pro-
posed that involvement and co-creation, as well as a guide, can be used to facilitate a tourist's immersion
in a story and a servicescape. Should the organization succeed in creating a unique story, the benefits
include the difficulty other organizations face copying the achievement and attention from the media.
Keywords: storytelling, servicescape, dramaturgy, extraordinary experiences, strategy, hospitality
48
CHAPTER
There are several aspects of storytelling that event designers can adapt from computer
games. Game designers distinguish three different storytelling dimensions:
•• Out-of-game: Any storytelling that is done on the computer while the game is run-
ning, but when the players are not actually playing the game;
•• In-game: Covers any storytelling that occurs while players are actually playing the
game;
•• External materials: Any storytelling done completely outside of the computer, such
as in an introduction written in the manual, maps or a collection of artefacts
(Rouse, 2005).
Interestingly, the same dimensions can be designed and applied in events. Out-of-game
(out-of-event) storytelling can stand for all the activities and communication you run
with the target audience. It can include promotional materials, adverts, presentations
and so on. The purpose of the out-of-event story is to create a positive and engag-
ing aura around the event, to attract attention and to build trust and rapport with
the event audience. In-game (in-event) storytelling is responsible for everything that
happens at the event. It is not an itinerary but the meaningful narrative your event
delivers. If it is the award ceremony, what is the content of the event? What do you
want your guests to experience? Whom do you want them to meet? Finally, external
materials can consist of souvenirs, beautifully designed event programmes and so on.
Event story planning process

In this section, we will discuss the process of crafting an original, interesting and
attractive story around and about your event. There are three key stages in this process:
research, imagination and testing and implementation.
Research
This is the initial stage of story development. This is where you can apply the 5Ws
framework discussed at the beginning of this chapter. The task for your design team
is to collect as much information as possible about the event, whether it is your own
event or an external project requested by a client. Consider the location, the dates, a
core theme for the event, its target audience, the event objectives and the key stake-
holders. Make some preliminary financial calculations, conduct initial market analysis
and learn about your competitors. The research stage provides you with the basic data
and determines the thematic orientation of your event project. At the end of this stage,
you should have a clear understanding of what sort of event you want to create (a music
concert, a sporting competition, a club night, a business workshop, a new product pres-
entation). A client brief, which is a generic description of an event they want you to
organise, can already contain all the required information. If this is your own project,
you will need to spend several hours or days collecting and structuring all the neces-
sary data about a new event.
49
4
Imagination
At this stage, storytelling is actually happening. Imagination consists of the develop-
ment of the key elements of your story and its overall design. Make sure that you have
formulated and explored all four key elements of a good story: message, conflict, char-
acters and plot.
Testing and implementation

The final stage of a storytelling design involves testing and implementation. First, the
task is to test a new story, to evaluate the emotional reaction of the audience to the
content of the story and to measure its social and business value. Share a story you cre-
ated about the event with your colleagues, your client and other relevant stakeholders.
Try to co-create with them, as co-creation is the best strategy to produce meaningful
products and services. After you have adjusted the plot of the story and added more
details about the conflict or main characters, the story is ready to be communicated
to the wider population. The implementation stage should always be accompanied by
reflection and evaluation of the success of the applied storytelling strategy. There are at
least three areas you should pay attention to:
•• Meaning – Has your event story communicated all the meanings you attached to it?
•• Purpose – Has the audience fully understood and approved the overall purpose of
your event based on the story you shared?
•• Outcome – Have you achieved what you planned to achieve with this particular
story? (adapted from Mooney, 2018)
Creative tools for event concept development

This part of the chapter will explore different techniques and tools that facilitate idea
generation and concept formulation. We will discuss how brainstorming, mind map-
ping, sketching and other methods can positively affect the event design process while
working on event concepts.
Brainstorming
The transformation of an idea into an event concept is a creative process. It requires
“big thinking”, an open mind and the willingness to explore alternatives and a friendly
and supportive environment. Nowadays, when we say “idea generation process”, we
mean brainstorming. Brainstorming is defined as “attacking a problem from many
directions at once, bombarding it with rapid-fire questions in order to come up with
viable solutions” (Lupton, 2011, p. 16). The basic steps for a brainstorming session are:
1. Appoint a moderator. The moderator is a leader of the session responsible for recording
new ideas (on a whiteboard, big pads of paper, etc.) and engaging other participants
50
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to share their thoughts. Another role of the moderator is to define a time limit for
the brainstorm session. You cannot create and discuss ideas all day long. Ideally,
the duration of the session should be around 15–20 minutes.
2. State the topic. It is pointless to share ideas in general, for the sake of sharing. Assume
you want to design a new cultural event. This is the topic for discussion. Now every
participant in the session should rapidly reflect on the topic and suggest one or sev-
eral ideas of what this event could look like. Is it a cultural fair or a music festival? Do
you want to celebrate the diversity of the world’s cultures or only local traditions?
3. Note down everything. Only by writing down all the suggested ideas, even if they
sound unrealistic, can you create a full picture of possibilities and opportunities.
During the session, no idea should be rejected as this can create tension between
the participants and limit the number of opportunities to solve a problem or cre-
ate an interesting event concept. In addition, recording of the ideas helps your
mind to focus on new thinking. And finally, if the idea is not written down, it does
not exist as an opportunity, only as an assumption.
4. Follow up. Later, some of the ideas can be combined to provide a richer description
or possible solution. Other ideas can be discarded or saved for future projects. You
can rank ideas depending on their feasibility, cost effectiveness, novelty and over-
all attractiveness.
There are three types of ideas, namely:
•• NOW ideas, feasible ideas with low risk and high acceptability;
•• HOW ideas, future ideas, not yet feasible, but challenging and inspiring; and
•• WOW ideas, innovative ideas, energetic and feasible (Kuiper and Smit, 2014, p. 179).
As a result of a successful brainstorm session, you should be able to identify at least

several WOW ideas which are beneficial from the perspective of event concept
development.
Visual organisation of event concepts

Ideas and concepts for events should be properly organised and documented. There are
several techniques that facilitate the process of a concept visualisation. These are mind
maps, mood boards and sketching.
Mind maps
The mind map is “a loose visual composition of the concepts and their connections”
(McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 224). Mind mapping can be used:
•• To explore all the creative possibilities of a given subject;

•• To clear the mind of previous assumptions about the subject, thus providing space
for new creative thought;
51
4
•• To generate ideas that result in specific action being taken, or physical reality being
created or changed;
•• To encourage more consistent creative thinking;
•• To create a new conceptual framework within which previous ideas can be
reorganised;
•• To capture and develop “flashes” of insight when they occur;
•• To plan creatively (Buzan and Buzan, 2003, pp. 132–133).
To begin mind mapping your event concept, take a large piece of paper and several
different coloured pens and write down a central word or image. Then create a web of
associations around this core element of your mind map. Use simple drawings or words
to describe the event, for example, event objectives, settings, elements of décor, target
audience, key facts, key terms, event genre, venue locations, different experiences,
colour schemes and so on. Use different colours for different branches and use lines to
link some elements from different branches. This will help you to identify similarities
and differences between categories. The task is to summarise the discussion of a brain-
storm session, to highlight and visualise key findings.
The next step is to transform your initial, often a bit chaotic, map into a concept dia-
gram, which “refines the broader concepts and connections made in the mind map,
and … is drawn and labelled in more detail to establish clusters of ideas that make
sense working together” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 226).
Mood boards
A mood board is an arrangement of sets of visual data which event designers use to
visualise different event experiences they design for. A mood board can be used for
personal and team inspiration and for discussing and communicating key event design
ideas to a client or any other stakeholder involved in the process. Mood boards pro-
vide “a ‘space’ to arrange the collected visuals in a meaningful manner to the designer
that enables the flow of thoughts, inspirations, and creativity for design outcomes”
(Cassidy, 2011, p. 230).
The mood board development process begins after the event concept has been brain-
stormed and several WOW ideas have been identified, agreed upon and mind mapped.
Now the task is to visually capture the sensory experience of the event audience. Mood
boarding employs so-called soft and hard tools. The soft tools refer to intangible quali-
ties such as awareness, observation, intuition and inspiration. Hard tools include all
tangible data available (Cassidy, 2011). This can be objects, shapes, textures, figures,
colours and so on. Some of the images, for example, can have a visual quality, others,
cultural importance.
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There are no prescribed rules on how to create a mood board. McDonagh, Bruseberg
and Haslam (2002) advise using abstract images as they provoke a more intensive emo-
tional response than literal images. Your mood boards should be “active” and change
and transform with the project (McDonagh and Storer, 2004). They should provide
visual stimuli to encourage discussion and facilitate communication between event
designers and clients.
Sketching
The purpose of sketching is to activate your visual thinking and communicate possi-
bilities, visual options and thoughts in an interactive and playful way. The process of
visual thinking consists of four simple steps: look, see, imagine and show (Roam, 2012).
Look stands for collecting information and screening. You can take visual information
from everywhere. For example, you can look through a client brief and sketch the
requirements, venue ideas, number of guests, style of music and so on. You can also
summarise key suggestions at the end of a brainstorm session. See refers to selecting
and clumping. At this stage, we are selecting the best ideas and conducting a more
detailed investigation. Such questions as “How many?” “When?” and “How?” help us
to visualise each of the important details of the event project. Imagine reflects a skill
of seeing something that is not there. This is an act of pure creativity. Manipulate the
ideas; analyse the event from different perspectives; add emotions, experiences and
feelings to your sketch. Show is responsible for making it all clear. Find the best frame-
work to present the results of sketching to your colleagues and clients. Of course, this is
not a linear process. Roam (2012) suggests seeing it as a series of loops, which continue
again and again until you clearly see what event you want to develop. It could be a
portrait, a chart, a map, a flowchart or a storyline.
There is no need to be a professional artist to start sketching your ideas. All you need is
a pen or pencil, a paper or a whiteboard and a rubber. You can use simple shapes, lines
and forms to create an interesting and easy-to-communicate sketch.
Summary
This chapter explored the peculiarities of event concepting. It introduced storytelling, a
relatively new creative approach in event design. By applying key elements of storytell-
ing, which are the message, the conflict, the characters and the plot, you can significantly
improve the attractiveness and value of your event concepts. “Story is a basic principle
of mind” (Turner, 1996, p. v); thus, telling stories about/around your event is the best
way to communicate your values, intentions and objectives to the audience. This chap-
ter also introduced and discussed several important design tools, which should be in
the arsenal of any event designer. Brainstorming can be employed for idea sharing and
problem solving. Mind mapping helps to summarise and categorise the discussion. Mood
53
4
boards are used to introduce and communicate the experiences and feelings you plan to
design for. And sketching is a good way to visualise the design ideas. In the next chapter,
we will discuss the key principles of atmospherics and servicescapes. The fundamentals
of spatial planning will be also explored.

•• Event concepting is a creative process. Storytelling provides an event designer with
an opportunity to attract and engage the audience at the initial stages of event
development.
•• A good story should be simple, unique and emotional.
•• Storytelling involves research, imagination, and testing and implementation.
•• Visual organisation of event ideas and concepts provides visual stimuli to encour-
age discussion and creative solutions.
•• Sketching and mood boards are used to introduce and communicate diverse expe-
riences you plan for your event.

•• Storytelling in action
You have been hand-picked by the well-known perfume brand “Dior” to design
and launch a promotion campaign for its new product, Sauvage fragrance for men.
Please brainstorm and design a story for the brand.
•• Introduce the main characters. Tell the audience about their past, lifestyle,
habits and hobbies.
•• Put your story into a context. Where and when is your story happening?
•• Surprise the audience. What is the message? What is the conflict?
•• Have a clear picture of who your audience is.
•• Do not just retell the narrative; visualise it.
Stories must have meaning. What is the main takeaway from your story? Ideally,
your audience should be convinced enough to go and buy the product you pro-
mote. As a storyteller, you should be able to help them to associate themselves with
the main characters, their image and charisma. Because we live in the era of the
experience economy (see Chapters 1 and 2), we do not want to just buy a product,
a new fragrance; we want to have access to a new captivating experience.
•• Ideas for a surreal event
You have been contacted by a client who admires Salvador Dali and his paintings.
He wants to organise a birthday party for his wife and to design the event around
two themes: Dali’s surrealism and the Alice in Wonderland story.
Please run a brainstorm session, apply all the basic steps discussed in this sec-
tion and come up with several WOW ideas about the concept of a birthday party
themed around surrealism and the Alice in Wonderland book. Consider décor,
venue design, catering, entertainment and other activities.
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CHAPTER
•• Sketching in practice
•• Tea Party
•• Disco Night
•• Grandmother’s Birthday
Select an event from the list, brainstorm and sketch your design ideas.
Further reading
•• Mooney, M. (2018). Trust me, I’m a human: Why storytelling works at work. Red Fox Books.
A short interesting text about the value of storytelling in business.
•• Movshovits, D. (2015). Pixar storytelling: Rules for effective storytelling based on Pixar’s
greatest films. Bloop Animation.
An exploration of Pixar’s storytelling techiques.
•• Roam, D. (2012). The back of the napkin: Solving problems and selling ideas with pictures.
Singapore: Marshall Cavendish International.
An outstanding guide to how to solve problems and create and sell new ideas using
sketching.
References
Buzan, T., & Buzan, B. (2003). The mind map book. London, England: BBC Worldwide.
Cassidy, T. (2011). The mood board process modeled and understood as a qualitative design
research tool. Fashion Practice: The Journal of Design Creative Process & the Fashion
Industry, 3(2), 225–252.
Escalas, J. (2004). Imagine yourself in the product: Mental simulations, narrative transportation,
and persuasion. Journal of Advertising, 33(2), 37–48.
Fog, K., Budtz, C., Munch, P. and Blanchette, S. (2010). Storytelling: Branding in practice (2nd
ed.). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Goldblatt, J. (2005). Special events: Event leadership for a new world. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley &
Sons.
Guber, P. (2007). The four truths of the storyteller. Harvard Business Review, 85(12), 53–59.
MA: CABI.
Lundqvist, A., Liljander, V., Gummerus, J. and van Riel, A. (2013). The impact of storytelling
on the consumer brand experience: The case of a firm-originated story. Journal of Brand
Management, 20, 283–297.
Lupton, E. (2011). Graphic design thinking: Beyond brainstorming. New York, NY: Princeton
Architectural Press.
McDonagh, D., Bruseberg, A. and Haslam, C. (2002). Visual product evaluation: Exploring
users’ emotional relationships with products. Applied Ergonomics, 33(3), 231–240.
McDonagh, D. and Storer, I. (2004). Mood boards as a design catalyst and resource: Researching
an under-researched area. The Design Journal, 7(3), 16–31.
Megehee, C. and Woodside, A. (2010). Creating visual narrative art for decoding stories that
consumers and brands tell. Psychology and Marketing, 27(6), 603–622.
McKenna-Cress, P. and Kamien, J. (2013). Creating exhibitions. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
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Mooney, M. (2018). Trust me, I’m a human: Why storytelling works at work. Red Fox Books.
Mossberg, L. (2008). Extraordinary experiences through storytelling. Scandinavian Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism, 8, 195–210.
Movshovits, D. (2015). Pixar storytelling: Rules for effective storytelling based on Pixar’s greatest
films, Bloop Animation. Independently Published, 2015.
Papadatos, C. (2006). The art of storytelling: How loyalty marketers can build emotional
connections to their brands. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 23(7), 382–384.
Pink, D. (2008). A whole new mind: Why right-brainers will rule the future. London, England:
Marshall Cavendish International.
Roam, D. (2012). The back of the napkin: Solving problems and selling ideas with pictures.
Singapore: Marshall Cavendish International.
Rosen, E. (2000). The anatomy of buzz: How to create word-of-mouth marketing. London,
England: Harper Collins.
Rouse, R. (2005). Game design: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Worldware
Publishing.
Schank, R. (1990). Tell me a story: A new look at real and artificial memory. New York, NY:
Charles Scribner & Sons.
Turner, M. (1996). The literary mind: The origins of thought and language. Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press.
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5 Atmospherics and
servicescapes

•• Key elements of atmospherics; atmospherics
•• Successful servicescapes; servicescapes
•• Design of spatial layouts and visitor flows.
venue layout
visitor flow
In this chapter, we will explore the concepts of atmospherics and

servicescapes and understand how they can be successfully applied in event design. The
intended and perceived atmosphere of festivity will be defined. The key dimensions
of a servicescape, such as ambient conditions, spatial functionality and artefacts and
symbols will be discussed. We will introduce the fundamentals of event space planning,
including spatial layouts and visitor flows. The purpose of the chapter is to offer solu-
tions on how to design a desirable event space and to meet the expectations of different
target groups.
Defining atmospherics and servicescapes

The event experience is produced as a result of the event environment (Berridge, 2007),
which in turn is shaped by the event atmosphere. Environmental psychology, which stud-
ies the interplay between our behaviour and the built and natural environment, main-
tains that a change in surroundings significantly affects our behaviour, experience and
wellbeing (Gifford, 2002). Atmosphere determines the quality of the environment and
entails factors that facilitate production of the desired conditions. Thus, we can discuss
“good”, “busy”, “encouraging” or “depressing” atmospheres in a café, park, hotel or event.
Atmospherics is a term coined by Kotler (1973) to describe a deliberate design and

manipulation of space in order to create certain positive emotional effects in buyers
to enhance their purchase probability. The properties of an atmosphere are taken in
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5
Table 5.1 Sensory Channels and Dimensions
Visual dimension Aural dimension Olfactory dimension Tactile dimension
•• Colour •• Volume •• Scent •• Softness

•• Brightness •• Pitch •• Freshness •• Smoothness
•• Size •• Temperature
•• Shapes
Adapted from Kotler (1973, p. 51).
through an individual’s senses, resulting in features of the atmosphere commonly

being described in terms of sight, sound, scent and touch (see Table 5.1) (Kotler, 1973).
Kotler (1973) argues that taste, the fifth sense, does not apply directly to atmosphere.
However, in Chapter 6, we will discuss how to design a meaningful and memorable
event experience using this particular sensory channel.
Kotler (1973) also distinguishes between the intended atmosphere and the perceived
atmosphere. The intended atmosphere entails the set of sensory qualities which an
event designer intends to use while creating an experiential environment for clients.
For example, one may think of applying elements of virtual reality, artificial scents,
background music and specific décor to create an atmosphere of celebration, interactiv-
ity and festivity at an event.
On the other hand, the perceived atmosphere is due to individual reaction to the sen-
sory stimuli, clients’ expectations and cultural preferences. The event attendees can
have a very different attitude to the designed surroundings, tangible objects, smells,
sounds and visual elements at an event venue.
A strategic use of atmospherics can affect the event audience in three ways:
•• Attention creation. To stand out from the competitors, a combination of colours,

noise, extravagant décor and technological solutions can be applied by event
designers to emphasise the uniqueness of the event product and experience offered.
•• Message creation. The atmosphere at an event is able to communicate the event
designer’s intentions, values, passion and level of concern for the attendees.
•• Affect creation. Sensory and visual stimuli can captivate the audience and directly
arouse visceral reactions and trigger sensations (Kotler, 1973).
A servicescape is a built surrounding where production and consumption of services

occur simultaneously (Bitner, 1992). At any event, both event designers and event
attendees produce and consume the content at the same time. The quality of the mate-
rials used in the construction of the service or eventscapes can communicate specific
symbolic meanings and affect the overall impression of the service [event] provided.
The most important elements of a servicescape design are outlined in Table 5.2.
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Atmospherics and servicescapes 5
CHAPTER
Table 5.2 Servicescape Dimensions
Dimension Components
Ambient conditions •• Temperature

•• Lighting
•• Noise
•• Music
•• Scent
Spatial layout and •• Machinery
functionality •• Equipment
•• Furnishings
•• Size and shape
•• Spatial relationships
Signs, symbols and •• Signage
artefacts •• Walls
•• Artwork
•• Certificates and diplomas
•• Photographs
•• Personal items
•• Floor coverings
•• Tablecloths
•• Lighting
•• Furniture
Adapted from Bitner (1992) and Nelson (2009).
A combination of atmospherics and servicescape provides conditions that create a

unique experience for attendees. The key task of an event designer is to thoroughly
plan and implement every useful element of an eventscape to engage the participants
and attendees in a unique immersive experience.
RESEARCH NOTE
Nelson, K. B. (2009). Enhancing the attendee’s experience through creative design of the event envi-
ronment: Applying Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 10(2),
120–133.
Abstract:
Environmental psychologists who have studied transactions between individuals and their physical
settings have known for almost 40 years that when an individual’s environment is changed, his/her
behavior and experience are also changed by the environment (Gifford, 2002). This article explores the
relationship between the design elements utilized in experience creation and emotional connection
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5
for event attendees, as well as for those who provide the experiences including the service, through
the application of Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective (1959) and the components of atmospherics
(Kotler, 1973) and servicescapes (Bitner, 1992). Relevant design elements of these existing models are
then applied to the event environment, where the dramatic elements of an event unfold in an interactive
theatrical setting.
Keywords: dramaturgy, atmospherics, servicescape, event design, environmental psychology
A typical scenario for event designers is to think of the event space as four bare walls
or an empty space (see Figure 5.1). A space is a three-dimensional location where an
event can take place. It might be an open field, a park, a stadium, a conference hall,
a ballroom, a lobby or a foyer at a hotel.
The task is to temporarily transform this space into a place, a location in space to which
people assign meaning (Lehtovuori, 2010). An event designer should consider what has
to take place in this space to create a meaningful event experience. Something has to
fill the space: objects or settings which trigger emotions and positive behaviour (see
Figures 5.2 and 5.3).
One of the first steps is to define the size and the scope of the space and examine the
existing conditions. Lower ceilings, for example, can give a sense of intimacy, but
could also feel tight and claustrophobic (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013). Matthews
(2016) advises paying attention to the already available constructions and objects in
the chosen event space. Columns, obstructive corners, overhanging balconies, air
walls and unmovable furniture as well as doors and windows may require your careful
consideration and extra work. What is your main intention in this particular event?
How will your guests feel after they enter your event venue? Will they perceive joy and
playfulness? What about graphic styles, shapes of objects and overall sensory percep-
tions? These are just a few questions your design team should consider while designing
the atmospherics and eventscape.
The event designer’s creativity and knowledge of atmospherics and servicescapes helps
to transform boring empty venues into authentic places of experience, joy and hap-
piness. The event design elements, such as the venue’s size and scope, décor, colour
schemes, lighting, acoustics and sound, should provide emotional connection with the
event. This, in turn, delivers a desirable “wow” effect. As Ali, Ferdinand and Chidzey
(2017, p. 74) mention, “being ‘wowed’ and constantly reminded of the unforgettable is
an emotional response to a significant occurrence in one’s life”.
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CHAPTER
Figure 5.1 Empty conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz, Berlin, Germany. Courtesy of

Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz.
Figure 5.2 Jaguar presentation, conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz, Berlin, Germany.

Courtesy of XE meets Berlin/Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz.
Figure 5.3 Corporate dinner, conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz, Berlin, Germany.

Courtesy of Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz.
61
5
RESEARCH NOTE
Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The resources. New York, NY: Routledge.
Special events are emotional and sensory experiences. The more an event can appeal to the emotions and
the five senses, the more memorable and successful it will be. People attend events to be transported into
an environment that is different from their everyday life, whether it is a concert, a championship football
game or a formal dinner. Frequently, these events are held in what would ordinarily be venues that are not
conducive to such a fantasy environment unless they are transformed through the magic of well-designed
décor. Successful event décor design needs talent and considerable thought to be effective. It has become
a speciality in itself and the designer is a key member of the production team, with the producer and
designer working together to bring the wow factor of décor into the event (Matthews, 2016, p. 53).
Spatial planning
Another key aspect to consider and thoroughly develop is spatial planning and venue
layout. Every section in your event space, as well as the venue as a whole, should be
explored as a three-dimensional physical experience (McKenna-Cress and Kamien,
2013). The selection and implication of the right layout can significantly improve the
overall attendee experience and their willingness to stay and enjoy the event.
When you apply spatial design to a conference or a symposium, the following options
can be considered (Figure 5.4):
Figure 5.4 Different venue layouts.
62
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A chosen layout should reflect the genre of an event. For example, if the key intention is
to brainstorm and discuss, the most appropriate layout is boardroom. This layout facilitates
idea sharing and sense of equality. If your task is to design a space for a workshop or inter-
esting talk, then you can consider a crescent or U-shaped option to facilitate interactivity
and communication with the audience. Finally, if you organise a more formal event, with
several speakers and a lot of tasks and activities, it is reasonable to apply a classroom option.
Nowadays you can find a lot of useful space design tools online, for example,
Meetingmatrix (https://online.meetingmatrix.com/) or Socialtables (www.socialtables.
com/). Such software helps in producing professional venue designs in both 2D and
3D formats.
Visitor flow
A visitor f low is the planned route you design to engage event attendees with the
venue space and the content of the event. Approaches differ: some events offer very
flexible and open visitor paths; others restrict the audience to particular venue
zones. It is possible to outline four types of visitor flows: directed, radial, random and
open (McKenna-Cress & Kamien, 2013):
Directed visitor flow. This flow gives a very limited choice to the attendees. Usually such
flows are applied in museums and art galleries. The attendees are led through a lin-
ear single route with little or no deviation. It is ideal for exhibitions where every-
one gets a similar experience, encountering the storyline of the event. You can also
apply a directed flow while planning some city events, for example parades or car-
nivals. A directed flow provides event designers with more control over the crowd,
which is critically important when you design for large-scale city celebrations.
Radial visitor flow. This plan has a central event area from which other supportive thematic
spaces radiate. For example, at a Christmas celebration, you will probably choose to
place a Christmas tree in the very centre of the venue to emphasise the central theme
of your event. And then you can design other elements of the event layout, including
a bar, a dance floor and a stage, and adjust them in relation to the core attraction.
Random visitor flow. This plan allows greater freedom and provides the audience with
the possibility of exploring the event at their own pace. There is less control over
the attendees; they are free to follow self-determined routes and experience the
event from different angles and perspectives. To help the audience to become
familiar with the event space, you can provide them with a map or written instruc-
tions. This is ideal for B2B (business to business) or B2C (business to customer)
trade shows and expositions.
Open visitor flow. Imagine a large evening reception or a wedding celebration. The
guests are wandering around, chatting with each other, and they are free to go
anywhere within the venue. This is an open visitor flow plan which provides the
audience with a free choice of movement and exploration.
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5
Many successful event designers apply different visitor flows in one event. If you design
an eventscape for an open-air large festival, what options do you have? You can offer a
radial plan with a big stage at the centre. You can also design either an open or a ran-
dom flow, depending on the security requirements and the overall theme of the event.
Spatial and visitor flow planning are critically important at business events, for exam-
ple, trade shows and exhibitions. Space design can affect how many people enter your
space and are interested in and engaged with your products or services.
BOX 5.1: INDUSTRY VOICE: COURTESY OF EXHIBITOR

MAGAZINE. ILLUSTRATIONS BY SACHEL JOSEFSON
AND CHRIS ROTONDO
The key objective of Exhibitor Media Group is to be the indispensable source of expert education on trade
show and corporate event marketing, through the delivery of high value and demonstrably superior solu-
tions via seminars, conferences, publications and its website (www.ExhibitorOnline.com).
While floor plans (aka layouts) are almost an afterthought for many exhibitors, picking the wrong one
can impact your program’s effectiveness, influencing everything from your brand to your lead count.
Plus, one false move in floor-plan selection – which can create critical problems your company likely
has to endure for the life of the exhibit (which could be as much as eight years or more) – can mean the
demise of your program. In fact, according to Erick Gustafson, senior exhibit designer at Rochester,
NY-based RES Exhibit Services LLC,
The layout you choose dramatically affects the degree to which you achieve your exhibiting goals.
Since it often impacts everything else in your booth to one degree or another, layout selection is
potentially more important than the graphics, messaging, and products you choose to display in
your space.
Giles Rickett, creative and marketing director at Pinnacle Exhibits in Hillsboro, OR, concurs and adds
that floor plans have a large effect on brand perception:
The way your visitors circulate in the space and the size, shape, and location of the structures all cre-
ate a very specific dialogue about your brand. Plus, the layout can impact how many attendees enter
your space, where they go and don’t go, what messages they see, and how long they remain in the
booth.
Given the importance of layouts, one would assume that exhibit managers have all been trained in the
fine art of floor plans. But the opposite is true, as very few classes, articles, books, or seminars even
touch on the topic. As a result, exhibit managers are more likely to grasp the benefits of a Queen Ann
home versus a New Orleans shotgun than they are to understand the high points of a plaza layout or the
drawbacks of a theatre-centric space.
64
Atmospherics and servicescapes CHAPTER 5
What’s more, whether they’re for booths or living abodes, layouts offer as much variation as mobile calling
plans. So choosing between a fortress-style floor plan and a centrepiece layout, for example, is a shot in
the dark unless you have at least a bare-bones understanding of what each option has to offer. Matt Hill,
president of The Hill Group of San Jose, CA, also asserts that this lack of knowledge keeps some exhibitors
stuck in a rut with the same-old exhibit floor plan year after year simply because it’s all they know.
Granted, some people might argue that exhibit designers, not exhibit managers, should be responsi-
ble for floor-plan selection. But Tony Castrigno, owner and designer at Design Contact in New York, says
that’s simply not always the case. He maintains that good designers will offer their clients a crash course
in layouts if prompted or allowed. “But simply relying on your exhibit house or independent design firm
to select your layout doesn’t ensure you a successful outcome”, he says.
Exhibitors need to understand that they hold the key to a good floor plan by virtue of their knowl-
edge of their brand, products, and customers. Along with that, exhibitors should come to the
design table armed with a general understanding of the most common layouts.
To help you select the best option given your objectives, we explain six of the most common booth lay-
outs, including the benefits and drawbacks of each.
The Axis
With this layout, which is particularly effective for companies with numerous products or divisions of
equal importance, a central structure acts as an axis while independent elements surround it. The axis is
often an identification tower or maybe a core component featuring storage and hospitality areas, infor-
mation desks, conference rooms, etc. Typically this structure is relatively tall, perhaps even a double-
deck element, offering ample room on its exterior for branding, logos, etc., along with top-tier graphics
(e.g., the company/product name or logo). The surrounding elements might include product displays,
additional graphics, activity stations, product-demo pods, kiosks, etc. (Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5 The axis layout.
65
Advantages
•• The layout offers the ability to display a messaging hierarchy, with first- and second-tier messaging
available on the central structure and third-tier graphics on the aisle-side components.
•• Given the sizeable structure and impressive feel of this layout, it can turn even a so-so show-floor
location into a strong presence.
•• The height of the central structure makes the booth easy to spot on a crowded show floor.
•• Its corporate feel can lend a sense of permanence and authority to almost any exhibitor.
•• Multiple entry and exit points exist to create free-flowing traffic into and out of the space.
Disadvantages
•• Due to the large central structure, only one half of the booth elements are visible from any given
vantage point, and traffic tends to enter and exit from the same side as opposed to circling the axis.
Thus, attendees can easily miss key activities or products unless designers devise ways (e.g., staff-
ing, signage placement) to combat the issue.
•• The monolithic structure may be intimidating or too “corporate” for some attendees and/or
industries.
•• Traversing the space to the central structure requires a much larger attendee commitment than
merely interacting with aisle-side exhibitry. Thus, luring attendees in from the aisles may be
challenging.
•• Highly effective staffers are needed to direct attendees to various areas of the booth – or to other
staffers – that are not visible from attendees’ current vantage point.
•• Given the limited sight lines, attendees may not grasp the connections between products, messages
and divisions.
The axis layout is best suited to exhibitors with somewhat distinct but equal products, divi-
sions, or messages. It’s a good way for a pharmaceutical company, for example, to display a
diverse portfolio, or for a manufacturer to show several distinct product lines, each with their
own third-tier marketing messages.
(Tony Castrigno, owner/designer, Design Contact, New York)
The Centrepiece
One product, message, or activity is the star, i.e., the centrepiece, of this layout and is featured almost
exclusively. Any additional components – information desks, graphic banners, storage rooms, meeting
spaces, etc. – play second fiddle and are usually located on the outer edges of the footprint. The manner
in which the central element is displayed varies, from a large, key product attached to a pedestal to a
huge graphic mural proclaiming a brand statement. The floor plan is best for companies with an iden-
tity centred on a single product, message, or service, or for those launching a new product. But to avoid
potentially expensive refurbishment costs, the exhibitor’s singularly focused marketing strategy should
remain fairly consistent for the life of the booth (Figure 5.6).
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Figure 5.6 The centrepiece layout.
Advantages
•• All eyes are on the “star”, ensuring that anyone that views the booth will see the main message,
product, etc.
•• Attendees can quickly and effortlessly access the centrepiece.
•• The simplicity and strength of this uncluttered, singular experience offers a refreshing change for
attendees and fosters conversations.
Disadvantages
•• With the layout’s tight focus on one activity, product, or message, attendees will typically vacate the
booth as soon as their interest in that element wanes, resulting in shorter dwell times.
•• Attendees will likely beeline to the main attraction and “park” in its vicinity – resulting in a traffic
jam that prevents attendees from viewing anything else in the booth and/or entering the space.
•• If the “star” changes – perhaps the product is discontinued or the brand message is altered – the
exhibit may need to undergo an expensive transformation to remain relevant.
•• Should the exhibitor need to focus on multiple elements for a specific show (or indefinitely), there’s
little flexibility in the design.
•• Depending on the structures used, there may not be ample room for graphics, making it difficult to
establish a multitiered messaging hierarchy.
This design is best suited to exhibitors that want to highlight a single new product or capa-
bility – or to those with a series of products that are somehow unified under one central
product or capability, allowing the design to tell a story of connectivity.
(Erick Gustafson, senior exhibit designer, RES Exhibit Services LLC, Rochester, NY)
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The Theatre
The core purpose of this floor plan is to offer some type of presentation – e.g., product demo, multime-
dia presentation, audience-survey activity, performance – as a prominent activity. The location of the
theatre within the space varies, and additional elements, perhaps monitors showing the presentation
schedule, product-info stations, and a storage/identification tower, may surround it. The layout is ideal
for exhibitors hoping to communicate complex product information, which makes it well suited to the
high-tech industry. However, a lacklustre presentation, minimal attendance, and/or lengthy “down time”
can deter attendees from visiting the booth – and can reflect poorly on the exhibitor’s products and
brand (Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7 The theatre layout.
Advantages
•• A properly sized theatre will appear crowded, which in turn will attract more attendees.
•• The mere presence of numerous chairs can draw people to the space simply to rest their feet (and
absorb messaging in the process).
•• While graphic messaging isn’t typically this layout’s strong point, the theatre can communicate myr-
iad messages to a wide swath of people at one time.
•• Given the increased brand-immersion and dwell time associated with presentations, the layout can
positively impact brand awareness and message retention.
Disadvantages
•• With a presentation dominating the space, attendees who prefer other communication methods or are
unwilling to commit considerable time to your activity may opt out of your booth experience entirely.
•• Exhibitors must plan attractions and activities for attendees whenever the presentation is not taking
place; otherwise, the number of booth visitors will plummet.
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CHAPTER
•• If the theatre is too big for the quantity of attendees it attracts, the space may reflect badly on the
exhibitor and inhibit other attendees from entering the space.
•• The interaction is more about the exhibitor than the attendee, which may alienate some visitors.
An exhibitor introducing a new product that’s conducive to emotive storytelling or any exhibitor
needing to relay a body of research or significant product information would benefit from this
layout.
(Jeff Janes, creative director, Global Experience Specialists Inc., Minneapolis)
The Fortress
A fortress floor plan uses a solid or semitransparent material (laminated panels, opaque or semitrans-
parent fabric, beaded curtains, graphic-adorned foam core, etc.) to create a fully or semi-enclosed envi-
ronment. The goal is often to keep new products and proprietary designs shielded from competitors,
journalists, and the general public and/or to offer VIPs access to private meeting spaces, products, food
and beverages and more. Given the layout’s formidable character, the majority of attendees won’t enter
unless they’re lured inside via promotions or invitations. While the structure can house anything from
conference rooms to high-tech demos, the design offers both a sense of exclusivity (for those allowed
inside) and an off-putting sense of exclusion (for those turned away) (Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8 The fortress layout.
Advantages
•• Attendees within the space become a captive audience, resulting in longer dwell times and
increased intimacy of one-on-one conversations.
69
•• The layout’s implied exclusivity makes visitors feel valued.

•• By carefully designing entrance and exit points, exhibitors can route traffic past specific products
or messages.
•• The perimeter walls offer ample space for graphics, and can be used to attract attention to the space.
Plus, they often buffer the noise and frenetic atmosphere of the show floor to create a tranquil oasis.
Disadvantages
•• The floor plan is suitable only for exhibitors hoping to limit attendance (at least to some degree), as
many attendees will be intimidated by the exterior walls and minimal entry points.
•• Unless care is taken to prevent it, traffic within the structure can clog up, thereby subtly or literally
pushing people out of the space.
•• The inside must truly offer something of value to attendees, as a disappointing experience likely
won’t be forgotten.
The fortress floor plan offers optimal privacy for product viewing, meetings, and more. Plus,
by limiting admittance to certain attendees, you can efficiently direct your resources (e.g.,
staffers, hospitality offerings, and giveaways) to targeted attendees.
(Todd Schwartz, design engineer and estimating manager, Steelhead Productions, Las Vegas)
The Conglomeration
The conglomeration is an arbitrary arrangement of shapes, activities and elements that subtly invites
attendees to explore at their own pace and to set their own course. Born out of the modern design school,
this layout deconstructs formal floor plans in an effort to look unique and cutting edge. Given the lay-
out’s multiple points of interaction, attendees often linger in the booth, creating longer dwell times. The
Figure 5.9 The conglomeration layout.
70
number and size of elements within the space varies, but too many graphics and activities can dilute the
overall message and hinder memorability. Plus, the random traffic patterns may confuse visitors, and
without the aid of directional tools, attendees may completely miss key elements (Figure 5.9).
Advantages
•• Atypical compared to many other exhibits on the floor, this unconventional layout can tempt attend-
ees to stop and consider your offerings.
•• Numerous product and messaging opportunities exist.
•• Attendee interactions with exhibit elements can be choreographed via careful traffic-flow planning,
or attendees can be left to seek out areas of interest at their leisure.
•• With multiple interaction points, dwell time is typically lengthened.
•• Individual elements can be changed out periodically without incurring significant refurbishment
charges. Thus, the layout is a decent solution for exhibitors with frequent marketing-strategy changes.
Disadvantages
•• Unless cohesion is considered in the design and messaging, the booth can resemble a garage sale
filled with mismatched elements.
•• Attendee attention is scattered as opposed to focused. While multiple products or messages may be
viewed, memorability is lessened given the shotgun approach.
•• Effective signage is critical to assist attendees in finding specific elements and understanding what
they are viewing.
•• The traffic flow can seem haphazard and confusing, and traffic may clog in high-interest areas.
The conglomeration is the perfect solution for a company plagued by mergers and/or acqui-
sitions. With minimal rebranding and refurbishment, existing exhibitry from multiple com-
panies can be combined into an effective random display.
(Matt Hill, president, The Hill Group, San Jose, CA)
The Plaza
With all structures pushed out toward the aisles, the plaza layout features an open, expansive, central
space – perfect for a lounge – that lures attendees inside for casual conversations, low-pressure product
displays, etc. Well suited to lengthy conversations and relationship building, it provides booth activities,
products, etc. with equal emphasis. The welcoming air beckons attendees to wander in and manoeuvre
within the exhibitor’s world, where they have unrestricted access to, and likely a full visual view of, all
offerings. The antithesis of a closed floor plan, the plaza fosters lengthy dwell times and multitiered
messaging opportunities. However, it can lack cohesion between elements, and attendees may view too
many open areas as dead space or handy “cut throughs” to other exhibitors (Figure 5.10).
71
Figure 5.10 The plaza layout.
Advantages
•• Welcoming and open, the layout communicates a comfortable and relaxed atmosphere perfect for
lounging and lengthy dwell times.
•• A subtle psychological pull lures attendees toward the centre of the space where they can be easily
spotted and greeted by staff.
•• The plaza’s inherent characteristics offer easy access and few risks of congestion or overcrowding.
•• Often including lounge or conversation areas, the floor plan fosters conversations and supports
relationship-building goals.
Disadvantages
•• A balance of occupied and open space must be achieved to prevent cluttering and emptiness,
respectively.
•• Given the minimal number of elements, traffic typically clogs around them.
•• Depending on the orientation of the footprint in the exhibit hall, the openness of the booth may
cause attendees to “cut through” the space on their way to other exhibits.
•• While a certain amount of open space is desired, designers must ensure that the ele-
ments and messaging remain cohesive regardless of their distance from one another.
The relaxed vibe, open plan, and minimal components can prompt attendees to engage in
lengthy conversations and increase visitor dwell time.
(Giles Rickett, creative and marketing director, Pinnacle Exhibits, Hillsboro, OR)
A comparison chart
While the preceding diagrams provide a broad overview of each layout option, the chart in Table 5.3
summarises key points from the discussion and provides additional analysis to aid your decision making.
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Table 5.3 Six Layouts. A Comparison Chart
Layout Overview Access Messaging Traffic
The Axis •• A central structure •• Mostly open aisle- •• The large, beacon- •• Attendees can easily
acts as an axis side areas offer like axis draws access and exit the
around which multiple entrance attention from afar, space from multiple
independent and exit points. but limited sight lines points.
elements revolve. •• Distance from aisle across the space •• Visitors are drawn
•• It offers multiple, to axis requires decrease visibility. by the layout’s sense
tiered messaging significant attendee •• While height of importance and
opportunities. commitment. variations among visibility from afar,
•• This plan is •• Visitors can slip components allow for but without aisle-side
prominent and into (and out of) multiple messaging engagement, they
authoritative. the exhibit without tiers, only one may resist crossing
staff intercepting location for a high- the threshold.
them. impact statement •• Directing traffic in
•• Non-axis elements exists, i.e., the axis. a circular pattern
must engage •• Creating a mental around the axis is
visitors and draw connection between challenging, but
them into the tier-three messages ideal.
space. on the exhibit
perimeters can be
challenging.
The •• The “star” takes •• The open layout •• If integrated into the •• While the
Centrepiece centre stage allows easy access centrepiece, a key centrepiece will
while all other to the centrepiece, message or two will attract significant
components and less-important be seen by almost all traffic, visitors may
fade into the elements visitors. cluster around the
background. surrounding it don’t •• All graphics must star and prevent
•• Attendees beeline steal attention. support the main others from
to centrepiece, •• Visitors can easily message, as opposed effectively viewing it.
but without other access interior. to offering seemingly •• To best approach
attractions, they •• Shorter dwell unrelated product or attendees and
exit quickly. times mean staff company info. not add to the
•• This plan attracts must interact with •• Minimal multitiered congestion, staffers
attention with attendees quickly. messaging should position
a single, sharp opportunities themselves around
focus. exist unless careful the perimeter and
consideration is taken actively engage
to include additional passers-by.
structures to support •• Attendees can
graphics. easily move into and
through the space.
73
The Theatre •• The singular focus •• Attendees can •• A carefully crafted •• Crowd gatherers may
drives all eyes easily access presentation offers be needed to direct
to the theatre, the space at all strong messaging attendees into the
whether or not a times, but will opportunities. theatre prior to the
presentation is in likely be unwilling Dynamic and emot presentations.
progress. to do so when a ional present ations •• Even hot prospects
•• A crowded presentation isn’t in provide significant are likely to bolt from
theatre attracts progress. potential for impact the booth following
additional •• Without a compe and memorability. the presentation, so
attendees. lling presentation, •• Ancillary exhibit steps must be taken
•• Any ancillary visitors will ease elements supply to redirect attendees
elements out of the space messaging to products or staff.
must capture as quickly and opportunities to •• The back of the
attendees’ effortlessly as they draw people into theatre can be a
attention when entered it. the presentation dead area that
the theatre is •• For packed presen and reiterate its key drives traffic away
not in use, but tations, exhibitors messages. from the space.
become less must provide •• Given the open space, Dynamic, multimedia
important during adequate space with the bulk of the messa messaging can
a presentation. optimal viewing for ging opportunities lie combat the issue.
•• This plan is attendees to stand within the presentation
exhibitor (not within the exhibit as opposed to on
attendee) centred. (not in the aisles). architecture.
The Fortress •• This plan provides •• The highly •• Exterior surfaces •• Entrance and exit
an emotive, restrictive layout offer myriad mess points can easily
immersive envi provides minimal aging opportunities, clog if booth traffic
ronment to house access points. and can be used to is high.
special products •• Walk-up traffic lure people into the •• Staff or structural
and host VIPs. is practically space. elements can direct
•• While exterior nonexistent unless •• Interior messaging is traffic past key
walls may deter promotions, inv viewed by admitted products, graphics,
people from itations, and/or attendees only. etc.
entering, they graphics lure people •• Tiered messaging •• Pathways within the
offer a vast mes to the space. is possible to some interior can funnel
saging canvas. •• An exhibitor can degree with overhead visitors through a
•• The invitation-only also control access signage, exterior- multistep experience
aesthetic back into the aisle wall messages, and ensuring attendees
communicates after the visitor interior graphics. are exposed to all
exclusivity and experience has elements of the
secrecy. concluded. space.
74
The Conglome •• The arbitrary •• Careful placement •• Ample messaging •• Traffic flow is
ration arrangement of of exhibitry will opportunities meandering and
various elem ensure multiple are available, but haphazard, requiring
ents can invite access points. graphics must signage, wayfinding,
exploration and •• With various direct and inform or staffing to assist
suggest a cutting- visible interest effectively. visitors.
edge environment. points, exhibitors •• The more messages •• High-interest areas
•• Numerous equ increase their there are, the less can cause traffic
ally important chances of luring likely any one of them jams.
elements tempt large quantities of will be remembered. •• Visitors may
attendees to visitors inside the •• Most messaging spend more time
investigate them, booth. opportunities are considering traffic
thereby lengthe •• Attendees are third tier, so care paths than the
ning dwell time unlikely to enter if must be taken to products.
but diluting focus. they can’t tell who include prominent
•• This plan can the exhibitor is, or first- and second-tier
create a scattered, what it’s offering. messaging.
shotgun focus,
as opposed to
a single-bullet
strategy.
The Plaza •• This layout is void •• An open layout •• Care must be taken •• Multiple access
of a single focus, entices visitors to ensure top- points allow visitors
and is peppered into the booth tier messaging is to smoothly flow into
with a handful of and directly to the included above the the centre of the
elements. centre of the space. central plaza or in a space.
•• The open floor •• While exhibit prominent location. •• Attendees can
plan supports elements dot •• Perimeter elements manoeuvre the layout
conversation the perimeter, offer ample second- at their leisure and
and hospitality/ attendees have and third-tier will likely stop in the
lounge areas, and multiple access messaging solutions. centre to converse
is welcoming and points, and flow is •• The openness allows with staffers, which
relaxed. unencumbered. for clear visibility of can create traffic
•• Multitiered •• Clean sight lines most graphics. jams.
messaging throughout make •• Too many exhibit
opportunities the space less elements can
abound, but imposing, thereby impede traffic flow
designers drawing additional and decrease traffic
must employ visitors. volume
careful planning
to ensure
cohesiveness.
Summary
This chapter explored several complex theoretical concepts related to event venue
design and looked at how these concepts can be applied. In particular, the chapter
reviewed the concepts of atmospherics and servicescapes. Atmospherics refers to the
application of sensory channels while building an attractive environment for custom-
ers. It includes aural, visual, olfactory and tactile dimensions. A theory of servicescapes
75
5
explains how various ambient conditions, spatial layouts, functionality and furniture
can be applied to design a “place out of space”, an attractive area where the attendees
can experience diverse positive feelings and enjoy the event. After that, the chapter
explored different venue layout design solutions and visitor flow options, evaluating
their advantages and disadvantages. The next chapter will explain how to apply the
five senses in event design and production.

•• Atmospherics at an event can be strategically used to attract attention, communi-
cate a message and create a desirable effect.
•• Through visual, oral, olfactory and tactile dimensions, atmospherics affect our
perceptions, expectation and overall experience of an event.
•• Ambient conditions, spatial layout, signs and different artefacts should be taken
into careful consideration as these dimensions define the quality of an eventscape,
a space where attendees and participants consume and experience an event.
•• A venue layout and visitor flow plan can determine the number of attendees and
the quality of their experience.

•• Work in groups. Apply both theories of atmospherics and servicescape to Figure
5.1 (above) and suggest design ideas (furniture, colour schemes, lighting, décor,
etc.) for a club party, themed around street art, graffiti and modern urban fashion.
•• A producer of virtual reality (VR) equipment has contacted you. The company
wants to introduce their new product at a forthcoming exhibition. Please propose
an appropriate booth layout for your client.
Further reading
•• Kotler, P. (1973). Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of Retailing, 49(4), 48–64.
A seminal conceptual article about the value of atmospherics in the service industry.
References
Ali, N., Ferdinand, N. and Chidzey, M. (2017). Event design. In Events management: An
international approach (2nd ed.). (N. Ferdinand & P. Kitchin, Eds.) London, England: Sage
Publications.
Berridge, G. (2007). Events design and experience. Oxford, England: Elsevier.
Bitner, M. (1992). Servicescapes: The impact of physical surroundings on customers and
employees. Journal of Marketing, 56(2), 57–71.
Gifford, R. (2002). Environmental psychology: Principles and practices. Colville, WA: Optimal
Books.
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Anchor Books.
76
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Kotler, P. (1973). Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of Retailing, (4), 48–64.

Lehtovuori, P. (2010). Experience and conflict: The production of urban space. Farham, England:
Ashgate Publishing.
Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The resources. New York, NY: Routledge.
McKenna-Cress, P. and Kamien, J. (2013). Creating exhibitions. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Nelson, K. B. (2009). Enhancing the attendee’s experience through creative design of the event
environment: Applying Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective. Journal of Convention & Event
Tourism, 10(2), 120–133.
77
6 Five senses in
event design
Sarah Jones and Vladimir Antchak

•• A review of the five senses; emotions
•• The five senses and the immersive event experience; five senses
•• The five senses and their application in event design: A strategic
immersion
framework.
event experience
In this chapter, we will explore how to apply the complex system of five senses in event
design. The event environment will be analysed through the main sensory channels:
sight, sound, touch, taste and smell. Firstly, the chapter will briefly review the nature
of each of the senses available to human beings. Then an immersive experience model
will be introduced. The model explains the relationship between passive and active
event experiences and provides guidance on how to apply all five senses to create a
positive and engaging atmosphere at any event.
The five senses and event experience

Introducing and engaging the five senses within event design can heighten event
experiences and make them more memorable for the consumer (Bhalla and Anuraag,
2010). Adding the five senses to event design links to the 2018 event trend highlighted
by Eventbrite (Booker, 2018). Goldblatt (2011, p. 81) advises that “combining the five
senses – tactile, smell, taste, visual and auditory – to satiate the needs of guests” should
be “the primary consideration when designing the event environment”.
Despite the significance and impact of the five senses, only 27% of event profession-
als think that the five senses are being used effectively by the industry (London &
Partners, 2015). Event designers do not currently fully incorporate the five senses
79
6
CHAPTER Sarah Jones and Vladimir Antchak
in event design due to time pressures, lack of understanding and budget restrictions
(London & Partners, 2015). The incorporation of the five senses in event design can
“create instant emotional and creative reactions” from attendees (Goldblatt, 2011,
p. 81). Implementing the five senses in event design is an area that could be vastly
improved in the event industry.
A brief review of the five senses

To understand environmental surroundings and process signals to the brain relat-
ing to interpretation and reactions, the human body relies on the faculties of sight,
sound, touch, taste and smell, known as the five senses (Hellier, 2017; Ackerman; 1990;
Goldblatt, 2011). The five senses are responsible for everything you feel, taste, hear,
smell and see (Prior, 2012). The brain processes each of the senses, enabling humans
to make sense of the environmental surroundings (Prior, 2012). Ackerman (1990, p.
11) argues “there is no way in which to understand the world without first detecting
it through the radar-net of our senses … our senses define the edge of consciousness”.
RESEARCH NOTE
Krishna, A. (2012). An integrative review of sensory marketing: Engaging the senses to affect perception,
judgment and behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(3), 332–351.
Abstract:
I define “sensory marketing” as “marketing that engages the consumers' senses and affects their percep-
tion, judgment and behavior”. From a managerial perspective, sensory marketing can be used to create
subconscious triggers that characterize consumer perceptions of abstract notions of the product (e.g.,
its sophistication or quality). Given the gamut of explicit marketing appeals made to consumers every
day, subconscious triggers which appeal to the basic senses may be a more efficient way to engage
consumers. Also, these sensory triggers may result in consumers' self-generation of (desirable) brand
attributes, rather than those verbally provided by the advertiser. The understanding of these sensory
triggers implies an understanding of sensation and perception as it applies to consumer behavior—this
is the research perspective of sensory marketing. This review article presents an overview of research
on sensory perception. The review also points out areas where little research has been done, so that each
additional paper has a greater chance of making a bigger difference and sparking further research. It is
quite apparent from the review that there still remains tremendous need for research within the domain
of sensory marketing—research that can be very impactful.
Keywords: sensory marketing, smell, taste, touch, grounded cognition, embodied cognition
80
Five senses in event design CHAPTER 6
The human senses are complex; not only do they “make sense of life in bold or subtle
acts of clarity, they tear reality apart into vibrant morsels and reassemble them into
meaningful patterns” (Ackerman, 1990, p. 17). To thoroughly understand the func-
tions and purpose of the five senses, they are each examined in the sections below.
Sight
Human vision is a unique sense, which is more than just seeing (Edwards and Bhaumik,
2010). Whilst other senses, such as touch and taste, require intimacy to experience the
sense, sight can collect information from both extremely short and long distances
(Ackerman, 1990). Light waves from the environment are received from the retina in
the eye, which sends visual sensory information to the brain to process and react to
(Ayres and Robbins, 2005). Seventy percent of the human body’s receptors are situ-
ated in the eye, with sight providing the most accurate information on the environ-
ment of all the senses; it therefore could be argued that it is the most powerful sense
(Ackerman, 1990; Pelosi, 2016).
RESEARCH NOTE
Horská, E. and Berčík, J. (2014). The influence of light on consumer behavior at the food market. Journal
of Food Products Marketing, 20(4), 429–440.
Abstract:
The article deals with a comprehensive, interdisciplinary examination of the effect of lighting on the
purchasing decisions of consumers and the perception of lighting on the food market. It is the inte-
gration of questionnaire survey and measuring of light intensity and color temperature (chromaticity),
respectively, of emitted color spectrum in grocery shops. The object of the study is the accent lighting
in served shop departments of fresh food (meat, deli, dairy products, fruit, vegetables, bread, pastry)
but also in other departments of supermarkets (wine, alcohol, organic food, specials, seasonal goods).
Based on the light tests conducted in retail stores, we have identified the light conditions in national and
international chains operating in Slovakia. Using EEG equipment in simulated conditions, we discovered
true consumer preferences for different lighting conditions (color temperature, color rendering index)
for the selected type of food. The article concludes with certain managerial implications in the sphere of
food retailing and recommendations for further research studies.
Keywords: light, consumer, neuromarketing
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6
Sound
We depend on sound and hearing for communication, to interpret and to express our-
selves (Ackerman, 1990). Hearing covers a range of intensities, from hearing the wings
of a bee to a loud crack of thunder miles away, emphasising how significant hearing
is as a sense (Ackerman, 1990). Sound and hearing have many powers through music
(Rio, 2009).
It has been proven that music can bring back memories from a specific occasion, spe-
cial memories or memories from several years ago. This is often referred to as music
memory and can have a great influence on those suffering with dementia, a progressive
degenerative disease (Rio, 2009; Ridder, 2005). For people suffering with dementia,
music can access parts of the brain like nothing else, unlocking memories and enhanc-
ing interaction. This demonstrates how powerful sound is as a sense.
RESEARCH NOTE
Magnini, V. P., and Parker, E. E. (2009). The psychological effects of music: Implications for hotel firms.
Journal of Vacation Marketing, 15(1), 53–62.
Abstract:
If used properly, music can be a useful tool employed by hoteliers. This article synthesizes most, if not
all, of the recent and seminal work from a variety of disciplines to outline the positive effects that atmos-
pheric music can have on a hotel’s patrons and employees. Specifically, the psychological influences of
music in a hotel’s physical environments, a hotel’s telephone system, and a hotel’s proprietary website
are discussed. In terms of the physical environment, music can: (1) cause guests to spend more time
and money in an establishment; (2) influence buyer/seller interactions; (3) improve customers’ attitudes
during a wait; (4) amend guests’ perceptions of brand personality and décor; and (5) enhance employee
productivity. Regarding telephone interactions, evidence suggests that the proper use of music can bol-
ster customer’’ satisfaction with the telephone encounter. Lastly, emerging research indicates that web-
site music can enhance viewers’ arousal, interest, satisfaction, and learning.
Keywords: atmospheric music, hotel music, music, telephone music, website music
Touch
Known for being the sense that cannot be fooled or deceived (Gallace and Spence,
2014), the tactile sense (or touch) makes everything real through touching and experi-
encing (Ackerman, 1990; Gallace and Spence, 2014; Linden, 2015). The human body
is covered in skin, a receptor that sends signals to the brain based on what it comes
82
RESEARCH NOTE
Peck, J. and Wiggins, J. (2006). It just feels good: Customers’ affective response to touch and its influence
on persuasion. Journal of Marketing, 70(4), 56–69.
Abstract:
Prior research has assumed that touch has a persuasive effect only if it provides attribute or structural
information about a product. Under this view, the role of touch as a persuasive tool is limited. The main
purpose of this research is to investigate the persuasive influence of touch as an affective tool in the
absence of useful product-related information. The authors find that for people who are motivated to
touch because it is fun or interesting, a communication that incorporates touch leads to increased affec-
tive response and increased persuasion, particularly when the touch provides neutral or positive sensory
feedback. People who are not motivated to touch for fun will also be persuaded by a communication that
incorporates touch when they are able to make sense of how the touch is related to the message. The
authors explore the effectiveness of different types of touch in generating an affective response, and
they replicate the effects on attitudes and behavior in a real-world setting. This research suggests that
the marketing implications of touch are more substantial than previously believed. The authors present
research implications for direct marketing, product packaging, point-of-purchase displays, and print
advertising.
in contact with in the surroundings (Gallace and Spence, 2014). Gallace and Spence
(2014, p. 6) emphasise the importance of touch as “it plays a major role in terms of con-
tributing to differentiating ourselves from the external world”, showing how our touch
and skin makes people individual and unique.
Taste
Taste is the human act of experiencing different strengths and sensations (sweet, sour,
salt or bitter) through receptors on the tongue, which are processed at the back of the
brain to develop taste (Lynch and Alexander, 2012). The sense of taste is commonly
associated with food (Korsmeyer, 2014). Ackerman (1990, p. 127) highlights that “if an
event is meant to matter emotionally, symbolically, or mystically, food will be close at
hand to sanctify and bind it”. Food is associated with many different cultures, celebra-
tions, rituals and festivals, emphasising how widely taste has meanings and character-
istics for everyone (Ackerman, 1990).
Smell
It is argued that “nothing is more memorable than the sense of smell” (Ackerman,
1990, p. 5). Receptors in the nasal cavity detect odours, which then send signals to
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RESEARCH NOTE
Rimkute, J., Moraes, C. and Ferreira, C. (2016). The effects of scent on consumer behaviour. International
Journal of Consumer Studies, 40(1).
Abstract:
This article presents a systematic review of extant research on the effects of scent on consumer behav-
iour for readers of the International Journal of Consumer Studies. Although many articles have been
published on this topic in recent years, there is a need for a comprehensive summary of up-to-date
findings in this area of research. A systematic literature review is conducted with selected Chartered
Association of Business Schools-ranked journals in the fields of marketing and psychology, covering
the period between 1980 and 2015. Thematic areas include the impact of scent on consumers’ cogni-
tive and affective responses, attitudes and perceptions, as well as memory and behaviours. Relevant
mediators and moderators of the effects of scent on these variables include affect, cognition, awareness
and individual or environmental stimuli. Gaps for future research are identified and include the role of
consumer awareness of scent and its influence on behaviour. Although this article provides a systematic
review of the literature within the fields of psychology and marketing, it acknowledges that a large body
of research regarding human responses to odours exists within other disciplinary fields such as neuro-
science. The potential for, as well as the ethical caveats of, using scent stimuli for marketing purposes
are also considered. This article makes a significant contribution to the consumer behaviour literature
given its systematic article selection and review process, encompassing the most up-to-date research
and focusing on all key thematic areas related to scent and consumption.
Keywords: consumer behaviour, scent, sense of smell, sensory marketing, systematic literature review
the brain to process and remember the smell (Shaw, 2017). Humans can detect tens
of thousands of odours (Ackerman, 1990). Some academics maintain that the sense
of smell is the dominant sense, as smells can recall familiar instincts through déjà-vu
(Grooveyard, 2016). It is argued that the sense of smell is also highly emotive, creating
feelings such as relaxation, vitality and power (Fifth Sense, 2018).
How to apply the five senses in event design

For immersive event experiences to happen, a combination of emotional experience
influencers is needed. Emotions are instinctive reflexes and impulses that respond to
different surroundings and circumstances defining humans as individuals (Barrett,
2017). An influencer is something or someone that has the power to change a person’s
opinion and behaviour towards something (Santo, 2015; Brown and Hayes, 2008).
Therefore, emotional experience influencers can be defined as factors that prompt
certain impulses in someone, changing their behaviour and opinion and impacting
on their experiences. In events, these include factors such as colours, smells, human
84
Five senses in event design 6
CHAPTER
Music Genre
Lyrics
Acoustics
Sound
Touch Sight
Human Touch Colours
Immersion
Social Interaction Lighting
Tangible Objects Technologies
Taste Smell
Healthy Entrance Smell

Variety Bathroom Facilities
Figure 6.1 Applying the five senses in event design.
contact, sound and music and social interaction. The model in Figure 6.1 can be used
as a guideline for event designers for considering the application of the five senses to
the design of an array of immersive event experiences.
Through a consideration of each of the five senses, event experiences can become more
atmospheric and meaningful to attendees. This will increase their satisfaction and help
them positively remember the event. Event designers could apply this model to differ-
ent types of events, such as sports and family celebrations, to ensure the attendee expe-
rience is maximised, unique and immersive. The model explains interlinks between
passive and active experience through sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.
Sound and music considerations

The sense of sound is proven to be extremely powerful, with music accessing parts of
the brain to help recall memories (Rio, 2009; Ridder, 2005). Music is also a key feature
for influencing moods and creating atmosphere (Kotler, 1973). Therefore, it is essential
to select music carefully depending on the type of event.
The structural components of music, including sound level, tempo and rhythmicity,
can significantly affect consumer behaviour. Research that explored the effect of music
on customer behaviour concluded that music of high tempo increased the in-store
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customer flow and decreased sales volumes (Milliman, 1982). Slow music encourages
customers to stay longer at a restaurant and spend more money (Milliman, 1986). The
style of music also influences consumer behaviour. Thus, classical music is associated
with higher-priced store merchandise (Yalch and Spangenberg, 1993), whereas pop
background music is associated with alcohol consumption (Jacob, 2006).
The suggested model highlights how event designers should consider whether the
genre of music is appropriate for the demographic of attendees and theme. A decision
should be made whether to have simple background music or a live band, depending
on the event outcomes and intended experiences.
The distant sound of a live bass adds excitement and adrenaline to attendees’ experi-
ences when queuing to enter a festival venue. A crowd singing together reflects an
essence of unity, portraying an element of pride and a community atmosphere (Pegley,
2011). Live music makes guests feel more relaxed, adding enjoyment through music
and dancing. However, it also adds excitement and adrenaline to the event atmosphere,
encouraging attendees to actively participate in the event experience, joining together
to dance. This also reflects an essence of unity and a sense of community, forming a
connection between immersive experiences through meaningful human contact. Live
bands are more prominent in active immersive experiences as they encourage people
to relax into the event and join others in sharing the event experience. However, live
bands may not always be the most appropriate type of music performance. For more
passive immersive event experiences, it is recommended that background music is used.
If background music is used, the volume should be quiet and subconscious, allowing
conversation to still be had. Background music can also be used to create a relaxing and
calming atmosphere. Light classical music in the background can help the attendees
and participants to focus on a task. Alternatively, for a celebration or festival environ-
ment, the music should be loud, building adrenaline and excitement to reflect a party
environment. Regardless of the type of music, event designers should ensure that the
sound quality is clear.
Ideally, background music should not be lyrical as the words take away from what you
are trying to achieve and may distract the attention of the audience. If the music is lyri-
cal, event designers should consider how the lyrics may be interpreted by attendees and
ensure that their selection adds significance and meaning to the event (Pegley, 2011).
Sight considerations
Of all the senses, sight provides humans with the most accurate information and is
argued to be one of the most powerful senses (Ayres and Robbins, 2005; Pelosi, 2016;
Ackerman, 1990). To ensure that the aesthetic appearance of the event enhances the
experience, the model highlights how colours, lighting and various technologies can
add atmospherics and facilitate immersive experiences.
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CHAPTER
The choice of colour should be used to reflect the type of event. For example, a party
and celebratory atmosphere can be designed through using bold, bright and warm
colours. Such colours create overwhelming and happy emotions and refreshing and
visual spectacles. Alternatively, a refined and professional atmosphere can be reflected
through mellow and pastel calming colours. Any colours used should be consistent
throughout the event decoration, helping associate a certain combination of colours
with the event. Event attendees usually respond positively to new sights, and where
possible it is recommended that event designers use different forms of colourful deco-
rations – for example, art sculptures and objects painted different colours to normal.
Event attendees want to see different colours rather than grey buildings and concrete.
Table 6.1 summarises the key meanings of the most common colours in event design.
Table 6.1 Colour Meaning
Colour Meaning
Red •• Colour of fire and blood.

•• Associated with energy, war, danger, strength and power, as well as passion,
desire and love.
•• Has very high visibility.
•• Can be used when an event involves active games, items related to sport and
high physical activity.
Yellow •• Colour of sunshine.
•• Associated with joy, happiness, intellect and energy.
•• Produces a warming effect; stimulates mental activity.
•• Very effective for attracting attention; can be used to highlight the most
important elements of a design.
Green •• Colour of nature.
•• Symbolises growth, harmony, freshness and fertility.
•• Has strong emotional correspondence with safety.
•• Can be used in any event that has a component of nature as part of the
design.
Blue •• Colour of the sky and sea.
•• Associated with depth and stability.
•• Symbolises trust, loyalty, wisdom, confidence and faith.
•• Considered beneficial to the mind and body.
•• Can be used in any event associated with calmness and tranquillity.
White •• Associated with light, goodness, innocence and purity; considered to be the
colour of perfection.
•• Usually has a positive connotation.
•• Appropriate colour for high-tech and futuristic events.
•• Traditional colour for weddings.
Black •• Associated with power, elegance, formality and mystery.
•• Denotes strength and authority; considered to be a very formal and
prestigious colour.
•• Appropriate colour for official events, gala dinners and receptions.
Adapted from Matthews (2016, pp. 57–58).
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6
As McKenna-Cress and Kamien (2013, p. 153) maintain, lighting is a poetry that brings
the entire event together and sets the experience. Appropriate lighting causes attendees
to emotionally respond to the event experience. The lighting influences the attendees’
experience through creating entirely positive emotions, immersing them in the event
environment. Although attendees are not immersed through active involvement, they
are immersed passively through the visual experience. This emphasises the power
of lighting at events, and how aesthetic and atmospheric features add to immersive
experiences.
There are two different approaches to lighting in event design, depending on the type
and nature of the event. For professional aesthetics and atmospherics, event designers
tend to keep the lighting natural and airy, so the event can be treated as a blank canvas.
The alternative approach mainly used for weddings and celebrations is to use lighting
and colour to create an aesthetical “wow factor” for attendees.
Matthews (2016) identifies five main qualities of light: intensity, light distribution,
colour, direction and movement. Intensity means the strength of a light source. There
are two technical terms important to an event designer: illuminance defines the light
level falling on the surface of an object, while brightness is the effect of light leaving
the surface of an object being illuminated. Objects that are bright attract more atten-
tion. Therefore, the task for an event designer is to appropriately brighten those event
areas that require attention (e.g., a stage, a bar, particular elements of décor). Light dis-
tribution refers to the way light strikes the surface of an object. One might want some
objects to be lit softly with no sharp edges, or, in contrast, a designer may decide to
apply sharp light beams. Light colour is the “most noticeable and strongest quality of
light” (Matthews, 2016, p. 197). We have already discussed the importance of a well-
designed colour mixture at your event. The combination of different colours, their
tone, shade and saturation can significantly improve the overall atmosphere of the
event. There are several directions of light. Front lighting is essential when you plan
to attract attention to a performance on a stage or a speaker. Top lighting adds nice
highlights to the performance. Rear lights add “a third dimension and make a display
seem more alive” (Matthews, 2016, p. 201). Up lighting is used to highlight walls,
ceilings and backdrops. Finally, light movement indicates changes in lighting in terms
of direction, colour, intensity and distribution. McKenna-Cress and Kamien (2013,
pp. 154–155) suggest the following questions to consider regarding lighting design at
events:
•• What is the quality of the light?

•• Is the light warm or cold?
•• Is there high contrast between highlights and shadows?
•• What are the finishes/textures? Wall colours? Floor? Ceiling?
•• Is there enough electricity in the building to accomplish what the design requires?
•• Are there light level considerations for objects or patron safety?
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Smell considerations
Current studies suggest that alongside music, smell also directly resonates in our long-
term memory (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013). A pleasantly scented servicescape
elicits approach behaviour, while an unpleasant smell can elicit customer avoidance of
a particular environment (Bone and Ellen, 1999). Whilst many event designers focus
on the aesthetic appearance of an event, the sense of smell is just as important to con-
sider. Humans can detect thousands of odours (Ackerman, 1990), which can influence
many emotions and memories (Fifth Sense, 2018; Shaw, 2017). Natural or artificial
scents can facilitate certain emotional outcomes, such as lemon for concentration or
lavender for relaxation. Some scents can stimulate the audience; others calm down the
participants.
Whilst some scents enhance event experience, unpleasant smells can prevent
immersion occurring. For example, the unpleasant smells of human odours, waste
and bathroom facilities can override previously created positive feelings and experi-
ence. As a result, the attendees’ experience becomes negative and immersion does
not occur, as the event environment becomes something people do not enjoy being
part of.
To ensure the event experience is entirely immersive, event designers should mask the
unpleasant odours in basic facilities such as the bathrooms and waste areas. This can
be achieved by adding pleasant artificial scents. This will prevent unpleasant smells
damaging immersive event experiences.
Furthermore, with there being a strong connection between the sense of smell and
memory (Ackerman, 1990), practitioners should consider having a pleasant scent at
the event entrance to passively immerse attendees instantly along with the colour and
lighting “wow factor”. It is also important to consider that some attendees have aller-
gies to all or some artificial smells.
Taste considerations
The sense of taste is predominantly associated with food (Korsmeyer, 2014) and can be
used to add meaningful elements to event design. It is imperative for event designers
not to underestimate the importance of food and taste at events, and how “bad” food
will always be remembered and associated with a particular event.
With people becoming more conscious of healthy living and wellbeing, attendees
should have a choice of a variety of healthy food (Mosconi, 2018). Healthy food can
also help actively immerse attendees into the event experiences, acting as “brain food”
to increase concentration and encourage more participation in the event (Mosconi,
2018).
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The aspect of food and taste could become a sensory event experience itself. Event
designers should focus on the colour and texture of the food as well as the taste, fol-
lowing the trend of developing extraordinary and unique event experiences (Getz and
Page, 2016; Paul, 2017; Pine and Gilmore, 2011; Sussman and Alter, 2012). Catering
offers can reflect a destination where an event is being held. In this instance, the food
becomes more meaningful to the attendees, helping to immerse them into the event
surroundings. At some events, business conferences in particular, so-called “brain
food”, such as salads, fish, fruits, sparkling water and smoothies, should be offered to
help people focus more. If food is not carefully considered, negative emotions such as
“fuming” could be experienced by attendees, damaging the meaningful and immer-
sive event experience.
Touch considerations
The sense of touch is known for making everything real (Gallace and Spence, 2014) and
is a significant sense for designing actively immersive and meaningful experiences.
Active immersive experiences consistently occur when people are in close proximity
with others, sharing a social and crowded surrounding. This makes attendees feel part
of a community, and therefore they feel actively involved in the event experience.
Event designers should encourage human contact, either through handshakes and
hugs when guests first enter the event, or through the gathering of crowds of people
when designing immersive experiences. These experiences are usually recalled posi-
tively and produce different positive emotional responses such as happiness, excite-
ment and comfort. For example, the closer you go to the stage, the tighter the crowd is.
And the experience of being part of this crowd makes people feel more involved and
engaged. In contrast, if you are sitting somewhere at a distance from the event stage, it
is harder to get the full feeling of the event experience.
Providing tangible objects for people to interact with also helps actively immerse
attendees whilst making the event meaningful. Interactive experiences, such as writ-
ing well-wishes and adding a thumbprint on a photo frame, actively involve attendees.
They are personal touches and therefore meaningful to individuals, following the
trend of personal event experiences (Getz and Page, 2016; Paul, 2017). It is also recom-
mended that practitioners provide tangible objects for attendees to keep and take away
from the event, helping them to remember the event experience. It could be small
give-aways, like fountain pens or booklets, branded flipflops or polaroid photographs
with personal wishes. Adding physical dimensions for attendees to interact with and
providing keep-sakes to take away from the event helps attendees recall the event
experience. They also influence emotional responses such as joy, relaxation, happiness
and comfort, forming an emotional connection with the event and therefore adding
meaning.
90
BOX 6.1: INDUSTRY VOICE: DR ROB DAVIDSON, MANAGING

DIRECTOR, MICE KNOWLEDGE. EDUCATION, RESEARCH
AND CONSULTANCY SERVICES FOR THE MICE INDUSTRY
Rob’s main areas of expertise are business events and business travel, and over the last 15 years, he has
written widely on these themes. He has carried out research projects for a number of major organisations,
and he is regularly invited to speak at international conferences on themes linked to business events, in
particular to present the results of his ongoing research into MICE industry trends.
How can event designers engage the audience by using all the senses?
To begin with an obvious example, the sense of taste is important at any business event because peo-
ple look forward to the coffee breaks and the lunches. We now understand much more about taste and
how to make those meals much more memorable and exciting by stimulating the participants’ sense of
taste – offering food that’s a little more experimental, for example, such as fusion cuisine or food that is
typical of the destination where the conference is being held. In such ways, the catering can be much
more of a sensorial experience which directly enhances the participants’ enjoyment of the event. We
now know much more about the science of food and the impacts of different types of food on the brain.
There is a strong trend towards offering so-called “brain food” – more salads, fish, fruits, sparkling water,
smoothies – which actually help people engage more and concentrate more on the event, instead of dull-
ing the brain, which is often what happens with heavy food, too much fatty food, red meat and sugars.
To focus on another sense – sight – the choice of colour of the venue’s décor at any event should not
be something that is simply left to chance. Our knowledge of the impacts of different colours has grown
enormously, and we now understand that certain colours can be used to help events to successfully
achieve their objectives by engaging the participants in the appropriate way. For example, it has been
demonstrated if the principal objective of a meeting is to encourage people to come up with creative,
imaginative ideas or solutions, a blue décor in the venue helps to promote creativity. Whereas, if par-
ticipants in a meeting are expected to carry out tasks requiring accuracy and attention to detail, red is
the colour that most effectively facilitates this activity. Many venues have white walls so that different
coloured up-lighting can easily be used to change the décor as required.
And what about sound? How are different sounds used to stimulate
our sense of hearing at business events such as conferences?
I believe that one under-used resource in conference design is music. We know that light classical music,
for example, helps people to focus on a task. So at conferences where the participants are required to
work together on tasks in small groups, light classical music in the background can help them to focus
on those tasks. Alternatively, if you want to energise participants as they arrive at the business event and
get them in the mood for the day ahead, then you can play some military music for example. Also, popu-
lar songs that most people recognise can be played at business events, to reinforce the objective of the
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event. For instance, at a conference where the principal objective is to enthuse and motivate colleagues,
songs such as We Are the Champions and Simply the Best can emphasise that message, even subliminally.
What about different smells or scents?

This is an extremely powerful sense, as it is the only one that is directly connected to the body’s limbic
system, the area of the brain that processes emotions and memories. Again, our knowledge of the impact
of different scents on human beings’ olfactory systems has expanded enormously in recent years. For
example, we now know that the scent of lemon can help people to concentrate, while lavender helps
people to relax. We can use this knowledge directly in the design of business events. So, for instance if
it is known in advance that a meeting risks being somewhat stressful for participants, table decorations
featuring sprigs of lavender could be provided. It is easier than ever to create a suitable fragrance in an
event venue, as a whole new industry offering scent marketing, fragrance diffusion and ambient scenting
services has evolved in recent years.
We haven’t spoken yet about the fifth sense, which is touch …

Touch permeates our lives and enables almost every activity we do, from typing to swimming to kissing.
The skin is the body’s largest organ and the source of our vital sense of touch. And in a world where so
much of our interaction is virtual – Facebook, e-mails, texts – physical contact is more precious than ever.
We know that people generally respond well to touch, so we can – and should – use this sense much
more in events design. For example, during breaks in a conference programme, professional mobile
massage services can be provided to give participants the chance to relieve tension, revitalise the body
and refresh the mind through back rubs or neck and head massages. These help participants remain
calm and focused for the duration of the event. It has been shown that even something as simple as
greeting individual participants by shaking their hands can improve the quality of the attendees’ overall
experience of the event. And, speaking of hands, our fingers are a key component of our feeling of touch,
so it’s important to give attendees something to do with their hands to stimulate this sense. For example,
by placing a few playthings on the meeting room tables for them to pick up and use (stress balls, Play-
Doh or paper and pens for people to doodle with) meeting planners can help participants stay alert
during events.
Summary
This chapter explored the realm of the five senses and their application in event design.
The senses of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell were examined from a perspective of
creating an immersive and unique guest experience. Several strategic considerations were
made as to how to use the five senses in event design and provide an unforgettable and
enjoyable atmosphere. A new model was introduced which explains an interlink between
different senses and how they affect attendee perceptions, expectations and memories.
The next chapter explores the usage of interactive technologies in event design.
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•• The five senses have been increasingly used in marketing, promotion and service
industries.
•• Through visual, oral, olfactory and tactile dimensions, an event affects our percep-
tions, expectation and overall experience of an event.
•• Through considering the five senses, event designers can offer more atmospheric
and meaningful experiences to attendees.

•• How do different music tempos affect our purchase decisions? Provide examples.
•• Choose one of the senses discussed in the chapter and debate what considerations
should be taken into account while planning a children’s birthday party.
•• Apply a design model (Figure 6.1) to your next event. Consider music genres, tech-
nologies, scents, types of food and tangible objects. What experience do you want
to design for?
Further reading
•• Ackerman, D. (1990). Natural history of the senses. New York: Vintage Books.
A seminal book which explores human senses from a historic perspective.
•• Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The resources. New York, NY: Routledge.
A very useful reference guide to special event production. Includes a detailed
description of visual presentation technologies, lighting and audio systems, special effects,
entertainment and décor.
References
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Ayres, J. and Robbins, J. (2005). Sensory integration and the child: Understanding hidden
sensory challenges, 25th Anniversary Ed., Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
Barrett, L. (2017). How emotions are made: The secret life of the brain. London: MacMillan.
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Bone, P. and Ellen, P. (1999). Scents in the marketplace: Explaining a fraction of olfaction.
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7 Interactive technologies

•• Different levels of interactivity; technology
•• Value of interactive technologies in events; interactivity
•• Interactive solutions for event designers. event experience
This chapter explores interactivity and the use of technologies to optimise interactive
and engaging event design. Firstly, we will provide definitions and discuss different
levels of interactivity. Secondly, the value of interactive technologies will be discussed
with the focus on the event audience. Finally, a diverse range of interactive solutions
will be introduced, including artificial intelligence (AI), gamification, facial recogni-
tion and virtual reality (VR).
What is interactivity?
Interactivity is a complex concept which can be explored and understood on different
levels. The first level refers to the “direct physical and mental interplay” (McKenna-
Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 168) with the objects, physical setting, rules, action and
animation (Rossman, 2003).
The second level, due to the social nature of most event experiences, is social inter-
action or socialisation with the other attendees at the event (Berridge, 2007; Abreu-
Novais and Arcodia, 2013; Dos Santos and Montoro Rios, 2016). As attendees interact
with each other, each of them also interacts with the physical experience of the event.
At the third level, interactivity in the modern world refers to human-to-computer

communication. Post-computers and post-Web 2.0, computers and AI have become an
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inseparable part of our everyday lives. In Chapter 5 and 6, we have already discussed
the effects of atmospherics and servicescapes on our emotions and experience. In this
chapter, the focus will be on the third level: interaction with technologies at events.
Value of interactive technologies

Technological advances have significantly affected the behaviour of the event audi-
ence. From being simply passive consumers of an event, attendees and participants can
now create content, promote and advertise an event using mobile digital technologies,
share information via blogs and social media posts, instantly commend experiences
they enjoy or critically reflect on those that do not meet their expectations (Davidson,
2019). Recent research by the International Association of Conference Centres (IACC,
2017) has revealed a significant role of emerging technologies in delivering unique and
memorable experiences to event attendees.
Interactive technologies can aid people to see and experience things in an entirely
different way. Tressider and Hirst (2012, p. 21) argue that “imagination is integral to
consumption and consumer experience”, and our imaginations can be led by technolo-
gies. Beard and Russ (2017, p. 366) consider that “experiences can be made more com-
pelling by applying habit forming, persuasive technologies that intentionally mould
human life”. In order to utilise interactive technologies, we need to employ our imagi-
nation, aiding the minds of our audience in the pursuit of escape, comfort and mean-
ing. Overall, attendees respond positively to technology being incorporated in event
design, as they experience things that they would not see on a daily basis. Application
of technology is vital for meaningful active and passive immersive experiences.
However, technology should always be considered from the perspective of “What will
this add? How will it enable a deeper connection?” Rather than adding in technol-
ogy for the sake of it, an event designer should aim at achieving artistic integrity and
fascination. Diverse technological solutions should be used to fine-tune the desirable
experience from an event.
Event designers should also be aware that technology could create a barrier between
the event and the attendee rather than enhancing the relationship. An event designer
should consider “how, and why this particular area would benefit from mechanical or
electronic dynamism” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 168). Value does come
in a number of forms, and technology can achieve significant personal and social
benefits.
Technologies allow us to connect with events from our homes or from remote loca-
tions. This has a connecting impact as well as being time and travel saving, and there-
fore a beneficial environmental impact. For example, the CMI (Chartered Management
Institute) in the United Kingdom broadcasts webinars to all of its members. Registered
attendees can log in, watch, listen and interact by sending in queries.
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Interactive technologies CHAPTER 7
Live streaming technology could allow for the connection of marginalised groups, less
advantaged individuals, with others. This is a counter-argument to the view that tech-
nology leads to dissociation and isolation, with interaction with technology replacing
interaction with other people (Pantano and Gandini, 2017). However, whilst the use
of headsets at silent discos, museums and art galleries for example offers different per-
spectives and aids the imaginative consumption of experiences, it could also remove
any shared, communal experience of standing, talking and experiencing with others.
Technologies allow us to operate more easily than previously. For example, a venue
salesperson can use augmented reality (AR) or virtual reality (VR) to present a venue
to a client with various set-ups so they can see what it would look like for a wedding,
a conference or a product launch. They can take clients on virtual tours. Festival goers
can have a cashless experience.
Thus, there are many arguments for interactive technology bringing value to event
consumers. However, the event designer needs to understand the added value they are
trying to achieve before embarking on what can be a complex and expensive design
project. A collaborative approach to technology use is required as an event designer
cannot possibly know all of the options available and keep up to speed with develop-
ments. Finding creative specialists who can make your vision work, or bring a new
vision to the discussion, will help the event design to reach new levels.
RESEARCH NOTE
Pantano, E. and Gandini, A. (2017). Exploring the forms of sociality mediated by innovative technologies
in retail settings. Computers in Human Behaviour, 77, 367–373.
Abstract:
The retail setting is characterised by an increasing usage of advanced and interactive technologies
(i.e., mobile apps, Near Field Communication, virtual and augmented reality, etc.) based on high con-
nectivity, ubiquitous and contactless systems that enhance and support consumer shopping experience.
As a result of the consumers’ interaction with technology while shopping, technology-enriched stores
provide new experiences and enable different forms of sociality. The aim of this paper is to explore the
forms of sociality mediated by innovative technologies in retail settings. To achieve this goal, we use a
qualitative approach involving 20 young consumers in the London-based market, where technology use
by this group of consumers is growing. Findings show that digitally-mediated in-store activity mainly
responds to a need for advice and trust, and the forms of sociality deployed around it are essentially
ephemeral, low-intensity and publicity-oriented modes.
Keywords: shopping experience, retailing, consumer computer interaction, interactive technologies,

sociality
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Interactive solutions in event design

The development of new technologies provides event designers with endless means to
design for customised extraordinary experiences. Different technological solutions can
be used to deepen the audience’s connection with the event ideas and story. It enables
the participants and attendees to experience the event environment in new provoking
ways, introducing them to wonder and spectacle different to their daily routine. This
section introduces a number of the most popular interactive solutions in the event
industry nowadays.
Apps and audience response systems

Appliances include VR headsets and information points with visuals that you press
on icons for further information. These information points can be found in galleries,
museums and tourist information centres. Downloadable apps can be used pre-event
to plan anything from the order of seminars to attend, to meeting other attendees,
for treasure hunts, to choose the songs at a party, for a quiz whilst looking around an
exhibition, to share thoughts in real-time and to follow up with reviews and questions.
Audience response systems such as PollEverywhere (www.polleverywhere.com/) can be
used for feedback or reviews, or to determine the content of a session.
RESEARCH NOTE
Tarute, A., Nikou, S. and Gatautis, R. (2017). Mobile application driven consumer engagement. Telematics
and Informatics, 34, 145–156.
Abstract:
The growing popularity of mobile technologies and applications leads many companies to develop
relations with consumers through mobile applications. Therefore, it is important to understand how to
design applications based on consumer preferences. This research seeks to understand which features
of mobile applications stimulate consumer engagement and lead to continuous use of mobile applica-
tions. This study used an online questionnaire to collect data from 246 respondents. The data was ana-
lyzed making use of Structural Equations Modeling (SEM). The results indicate that perception of such
features as design solutions and information quality will result in higher engagement leading to continu-
ous usage of mobile applications. Moreover, consumer engagement positively influenced users’ inten-
tion to continuous usage of mobile applications. Inconsistent with expectation, consumer interaction
and functionality features are not found to be positively related to consumer engagement with mobile
applications.
Keywords: consumer engagement, mobile application, consumer behaviour, intention to use
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Interactive technologies 7
CHAPTER
RESEARCH NOTE
Kim, S. and Baek, T. H. (2018). Examining the antecedents and consequences of mobile app engagement.
Telematics and Informatics, 35, 148–158.
Abstract:
Understanding how and why consumers engage with mobile apps is critical to the success of ubiquitous
mobile marketing. This study proposed and tested a structural model to investigate the antecedents and
consequences of mobile app engagement. Results show that time convenience, interactivity, and com-
patibility positively influenced mobile app engagement, in turn leading to strong relationship commit-
ment and self-brand connections. Furthermore, informational and experiential mobile apps moderated
the effects of time convenience, interactivity, and compatibility on mobile app engagement. Theoretical
and practical implications for effective app engagement strategies are discussed.
Keywords: mobile app innovation, consumer engagement, relationship commitment, self-brand

connection
Artificial intelligence (AI)

AI is a special class of software that models and imitates human behaviour and
decision-making (Friedman, 2016, p. 10). AI projects digital information and images
on to the real physical world via smartphones, smart glasses or tablets. It can be used to
collect information about the attendees’ or participants’ interests and goals and auto-
matically connect them for networking or leisure purposes during the event (Davidson,
2019). Smart bots such as Siri or Echo can be employed to provide the guest with instant
responses, direct them or to give advice on the itinerary. QR (Quick Response) codes are
used at information points to get information on events. They are commonly used on
tickets, storing valuable identification information and to allow for admission, as well
as, through the code, allowing attendees to access social media, additional information
and links to offers, discounts and future events. A QR code is a small and compact way
to store a large amount of information without having to show it publicly.
Facial recognition software

Facial recognition can add value to any event through the power to scan individual
or group emotions, understanding how the attendees or participants feel by detecting
and measuring facial expressions. This technological solution has the power to quickly
capture demographics, record the attention span of an audience and help to under-
stand what motivates and grabs their attention. This ability to identify patterns in
emotional behaviour and engagement, segmenting by age and gender, will be incred-
ibly valuable in providing metrics for ROI (return on investment), pinpointing specific
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moments within the event. In business events, a range of automated face recognition
systems can be used to speed up registration (Davidson, 2019).
Gamification
Gamification is defined as “the application of game-design principles in order to change
behaviours in non-game situations” (Robson et al., 2015, p. 411). According to Urh et
al. (2015), gamification has multiple effects including motivation, engagement and
satisfaction. Hamari (2015) states that gamification increases user activity and engage-
ment. A number of authors on gamification talk about achieving the “flow” experience
or an enhanced “aesthetic” (Suh, Cheung, Ahuja and Wagner, 2017) experience: gener-
ally, the state of concentration and immersion. When combined with the right content
and audience, gamification can bring diverse positive outcomes to an event (Davidson,
2019). For example, interesting and challenging tasks during an event can facilitate ice-
breaking and community creation. Friendly competitions or treasure hunts, and leader
boards can boost interactivity and engagement of the audience.
For example, the Heineken Experience in Amsterdam (ww w.heineken.com/ heineken-

experience) has turned its brewery tour into an interactive playground with motion
controlled games and videos, including games to test attendees’ ability to pour the
perfect pint of lager and kick a rugby ball on target.
Radio frequency identification (RFID) and near field

communication (NFC)
RFID was initially used in retail to maintain accurate inventory of products (Lee,
Boshnakova and Goldblatt, 2017). In events, it can be used to monitor people’s access
to various areas, attendees’ flow through the event and the duration of time they spend
at a particular area. Using Wi-Fi or a Bluetooth connection, it is possible to generate
a heat map of the event, identifying the most popular “hot” zones. This information
could provide valuable data with regard to the layout design. NFC enables commu-
nication between devices when they are touched or brought together within a short
distance and allows the audience to interact with interactive posters, make contactless
payments and exchange information.
However, to use these technologies, the attendees should agree on being connected
to the system. Sometimes, people may be suspicious with regard to the safety of their
personal data. The National Outside Events Association (NOEA) in the United Kingdom
recognised that the “constant trend for acquiring data has resulted in a cynicism among
consumers … Consumers are increasingly savvy now and realise they are exchanging data
but they want to know what they will receive in return” (NOEA, 2017, p. 4). Consumers
may need to be more convinced of any benefits of technology use than previously.
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CHAPTER
Social media
Social media is a two-way asymmetric model. There is a source of information and
people who react by commenting, liking and sharing (Lee, Boshnakova and Goldblatt,
2017). Social media, including such platforms as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram
and YouTube, can be used pre- during and post-event for numerous reasons:
•• To create anticipation about the event by sharing information with the prospective
audience. Blogs, for example are “an integral part of a company’s online presence
and interactive by way of comments so readers and writers can interact” (Matthews,
2016, p. 225). Event designers can use blogs to communicate with the event audi-
ence, to share their ideas and invite the followers to co-create;
•• To enhance contacts between guests before the event. Event designers can create an
online community to facilitate collaboration and co-creation with the audience;
•• To receive information from the guests in advance. Via social media, event design-
ers can collect opinions, dietary requirements, recommendations and ideas;
•• To generate excitement and recreation by encouraging attendees to participate in
quizzes, votes, award programmes;
•• To prepare the guests for the event by sharing valuable information, conference
programmes, videos and other relevant data;
•• To prolong the life of the event, maintaining online communication with the event
community, sharing videos and photos (Lee, Boshnakova and Goldblatt, 2017).
Virtual reality (VR)

Application of VR has accelerated dramatically during the last decade. Diverse indus-
tries such as education, tourism and events are implementing the elements of VR and
hologram projections into their products and services. The investments are huge, and
the worldwide market of VR and AR devices is expected to grow by an average of 50%
annually. According to the research firm CCS Insight, in 2022, a total of 121 million
units will be sold, with a value of $9.9 billion.
Here are some examples from the event and entertainment industries. At the York Art
Gallery, UK, in a 2018 exhibition called The Sea’s the Limit, a VR headset could be used
to look around a created underwater world. FOX Sports Eredivisie, a Dutch premium tel-
evision service, in collaboration with VR sportstech company Beyond Sports, launched
a free VR app showing highlights of the previous weekend’s football matches through
the eyes of the players. Audi, a luxury car brand, developed a VR showroom to show
cars in a personalised and engaging manner. Music show producers apply holographic
technologies to recreate beloved pop icons of the past. Just imagine a stage where
the “King of Rock ’n Roll” Elvis Presley sings together with Maria Callas, a famous
opera singer; sounds impossible? But holographic technology allows event designers
to realise such impossible ideas. In 2012, Tupac Shakur, an American rapper and actor,
appeared in front of an audience 16 years after his death. It happened at Coachella
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annual music and arts festival held at the Empire Polo Club in Indio, California. The

VR team pulled together Tupac’s performance by looking at old footage and creating an
animation that incorporated characteristics of the late singer’s movements.
RESEARCH NOTE
Caggianese, G., Gallo, L. and Neroni, P. (2018). Evaluation of spatial interaction techniques for virtual
heritage applications: A case study of an interactive holographic projection. Future Generation Computer
Systems, 81, 516–527.
Abstract:
The increasing use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in museums is providing curators
with new opportunities for the display of cultural heritage content, making it possible to merge real and
digital works of art in a coherent exhibition space. However, humans learn and perceive by following an
interactive process, a fact that is particularly true in relation to the understanding, analysis and interpreta-
tion of the cultural heritage. In order to allow visitors to fully exploit the potential of this new hybrid cultural
communication, interactivity is essential. This paper analyzes interaction design focusing on a holographic
projection system equipped with a gesture-based interface and discussing the results of both quantitative
and qualitative user studies aimed at empirically investigating users’ preferences in relation to interac-
tion techniques when used in a museum context. The experimental findings suggest the adoption of task-
specific patterns in the design of touchless user interfaces for the exploration of digital heritage content.
Keywords: holographic projection, touchless interaction, interaction technique, museum, user study
BOX 7.1: INDUSTRY VOICE: DOMINIC SUTTON, FREELANCE

PROMOTER, SOCIAL MEDIA AND DIGITAL MARKETING
MANAGER
Dominic has been running private events with an element of “cool” since 1995. The private parties, or “small
network parties”, are not advertised nationally and attract an underground crowd, and it is the mystery that
attracts people and keeps them loyal. For Dominic, technology should offer something that can’t be experi-
enced in normal life, echoing his event design ethos.
On access to history
Dominic Sutton admires the work of the Bradford Media Museum, UK:
They are starting a collection of vintage music equipment: a piece of the original Isle of Wight PA,
the PA when Jimi Hendrix played the Isle of Wight, some of the actual speakers, so some things that
are not actually very attractive to look at, but really, they’re genuinely significant, things happened
that were facilitated by those things that changed the cultural landscape, so technology is allowing
access to history, and access to significant cultural landmarks to a new generation.
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BOX 7.2: INDUSTRY VOICE: CATHRYN PEACH-BARNES,

FREELANCE CREATIVE PRODUCER AND EVENT
MEDIATOR
Until becoming freelance, Cathryn worked for Wild Rumpus. Wild Rumpus produces ambitious outdoor
large-scale family events such as the Timber Festival, the Just So Festivals, the Lost Carnival and the Day at
the Lake. These events seek to take families out of their day-to-day lives into enchanting places and stories.
Cathryn’s freelance experience has continued this concentration on the evocative and other-worldly.
On the value of interactive technologies

The use of interactive technologies is key to my events experience and producing practice. Each
of Wild Rumpus’ events used interactive technologies to draw diverse audiences into storytelling.
Whilst many see the use of technologies as contradictory to a focus on natural spaces I believe that
they can be used to deepen our connection with the natural world, enabling audiences to experi-
ence the day-to-day in new provoking ways, reintroducing them to the wonder and spectacle of the
outside world.
At Timber Festival we utilised digital installation such as Luke Jerram’s Moon, to instil a sense of
wonder for the natural world – a giant moon, lit from within, hung between the trees utilising a bespoke
soundscape and special printing technology to replicate the moon.
At Day at the Lake we employed 360 photographs to create an interactive map, which meant that
online audiences could switch between the history of the site, to the modern day, engaging with the
central theme of the event, which was to explore the heritage of the area, revitalising a once bustling area
where history had been made with a huge tightrope walk by Carlos Trauer in the 1800s.
At Just So Festival we used ‘sound capsules’, sending audiences CDs with recordings of the bands
that were to appear at the festival that year. Whilst it allowed audiences to become more familiar with
lesser known bands it also relieved anxiety about what the festival may feel and sound like, drawing on
aims we had regarding widening access. The CDs played a key part in our ‘social storytelling’ – draw-
ing audiences into the atmosphere of Just So before they arrived, building anticipation and transporting
them from their current surroundings into the world of adventure that would await. Songs can hold key
memories for us and the soundtracks continue to have a lasting legacy encouraging families to remi-
nisce about their shared experiences at Just So when replaying them.
During 2018 I have worked on Aurora. This is an epic immersive experience about our changed
global relationship to water. It combines custom sensory and interactive technologies with water
in its different states to invite audiences to explore a living and responsive environment. The use of
touch responsive equipment means that audiences get to experience the natural world in a personal
manner, combined with the use of surround-sound audio of field recordings of glaciers crashing
together as well as carefully programmed waterfalls. A variety of their senses are drawn upon, syn-
chronising water in its different states to completely immerse the audience’s sense of touch, sound,
smell and sight.
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BOX 7.3: INDUSTRY VOICE: KAREN SUTTON, FREELANCE

PRODUCTION MANAGER
Karen has a range of experience in the music industry, but a recent project has been with Matthew Herbert’s
Brexit Big Band, a music recording and performance project that encourages collaborations of musicians,
and performances to audiences, across Europe.
On audience engagement
Whilst working for Matthew Herbert’s Brexit Big Band, Karen proposed the idea of projecting a Twitter
hashtag above the band to encourage real-time audience participation. Whilst not necessarily against the
idea, the band leader did not see it as necessary. As Karen related, for him, “audience participation is the
energy that you get from the audience, and he knows that more than anybody else, he performs nearly
every weekend, so he knows when people are interacting or not, when you get the vibe or you don’t, and as
a performer, that’s really important. Why do something that removes that energy because everyone’s look-
ing at and interacting with their own screens?”
BOX 7.4: INDUSTRY VOICE: DR ROB DAVIDSON,

MANAGING DIRECTOR, MICE KNOWLEDGE. EDUCATION,
RESEARCH AND CONSULTANCY SERVICES FOR THE MICE
INDUSTRY
Rob’s main areas of expertise are business events and business travel, and over the last 15 years, he has
written widely on these themes. He has carried out research projects for a number of major organisations,
and he is regularly invited to speak at international conferences on themes linked to business events, in
particular to present the results of his ongoing research into MICE industry trends.
On VR in the MICE industry

The use of virtual reality (VR) in business events is growing rapidly, particularly in the exhibitions sec-
tor of the MICE industry, where we are seeing increasing use of VR headsets to deliver high-quality, 3D,
highly engaging “virtual” experiences in a digital environment through immersive images and sound.
Developed by companies such as Oculus and Samsung, these headsets are increasingly being used in
the context of exhibitions and trade shows to demonstrate products and engage visitors with experi-
ences that are vivid and original and which evoke genuine emotions.
From the perspective of exhibitors, the use of this tool means that instead of them spending 10 min-
utes or more trying to explain a complex product to a visitor to their stands, the product’s features can
106
be demonstrated in an immersive 3–4-minute video shown on a VR headset. This kind of technology

is exceptionally useful for companies who cannot easily fit their products on to the exhibition floor,
such as manufacturers of theme park rides or civilian aircraft for example. Manufacturers of vehicles
can use VR headsets to enable potential customers to experience their product in action. Or for holi-
day/conference destinations, the potential tourist/events planner can be “transported” into the city
or resort for a few minutes. An early example of the use of this technology for destination marketing
purposes was seen at Meetings Professionals International’s World Education Congress in Atlantic
City in 2016, when the Los Angeles Convention and Visitors Bureau offered event planners a VR site
tour of their city.
It is clear that the application of VR offers considerable advantages to both exhibitors and visitors,
and that the potential of this tool has only begun to be realised.
Summary
An event designer should understand the event audience and utilise the relevant tech-
nological elements suited to them. The aim should be to co-create interactive experi-
ences with the participants and attendees of your event. There are many ways to apply
technological solutions, and there are associated pros and cons to doing so. This chap-
ter has discussed different levels of interactivity, technological values and interactive
solutions for designing unique and immersive experiences for diverse event audiences.
The next chapter will explain new approaches to team building and management. The
key aspects of pragmatic leadership will be introduced and discussed.

•• Engage your creative imagination: technology has the power to take your audience
(and you) out of the ordinary;
•• Be sure that your technology adds to the experience;
•• Share ideas on the use of technology with your audience to co-create the added
value and check their willingness to participate;
•• Keep up to speed with technological changes (or get to know people “in the know”).

•• In teams, brainstorm the technologies that you have recently experienced at
events. Keep the list for future reference to see how things change. Debate the pros
and cons of the use of technologies that you have recently experienced.
•• You are planning a two-day nurses and midwives’ conference. Each day of the
conference programme includes a keynote speech, followed by three strands of
conference workshops, another keynote speech and then another three strands of
conference workshops. The average age of attendees is 46. The level of qualification
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is degree and above. The conference is free for professional members and costs
£500 for non-members. Find and present fully referenced information on the
background to the delegates and the subject area of the conference. Make recom-
mendations for appropriate technology use that will enhance the experience of the
delegates. What are the risks of technology use at this conference?
Further reading
•• Lee, S., Boshnakova, D. and Goldblatt, J. (2017). The 21st century meeting and event
technologies: Powerful tools for better planning, marketing and evaluation. Oakville,
Canada: Apple Academic Press.
This book addresses the rapid changes and advances in technology in the planning,
management and marketing of meetings and events.
•• Martin, V., and Cazarre, L. (2016). Technology and events. Oxford, England: Goodfellow
Publishers.
Recently published textbook that covers all the critical areas of event management and
explains how to use appropriate technologies at different stages of event planning.
References
Abreu-Novais, M. and Arcodia, C. (2013). Music festival motivators for attendance: Developing
an agenda for research. International Journal of Event Management Research, 8(1), 34–48.
Beard, C. and Russ, W. (2017). Event evaluation and design: Human experience mapping. Event
Berridge, G. (2007). Events design and experience. Burlington, MA: Elsevier.
Caggianese, G., Gallo, L. and Neroni, P. (2018). Evaluation of spatial interaction techniques for
virtual heritage applications: A case study of an interactive holographic projection. Future
Generation Computer Systems, 81, 516–527.
CCS Insight. (2018). Virtual reality and augmented reality device market worth $1.8 billion
in 2018. Available at: ww w.ccsi nsigh t.com /pres s/com pany- news/ 3451- virtu al-re alit y -and
-augmented- reality-device- market-wor th-18 -billion-in-2018/. Accessed 12 July 2019.
Davidson, R. (2019). Business events (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Dos Santos, M. A. and Montoro Rios, F. J. (2016). Scale of spectators’ motivations at soccer
events. Soccer & Society, 17(1), 58–71.
Friedman, J. (2016). Future trends: Impacting the exhibitions and events industry. International
Association of Exhibitions and Events. Available at: www.iaee.com/wp-co ntent /uplo ads/
2016/0 4/2016-IAEE-Fut ure-Trends -Impacting -the- Exhibitions-and -Events-Industr y-White-P
aper.p df
Hamari, J. (2015). Do badges increase user activity? A field experiment on the effects of
gamification. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 469–478.
IACC. (2017). Predicting the meeting rooms and spaces of the future and improving meeting
dynamics. International Association of Conference Centres. Available at: www.iacconline.or
g/docs /IACC _Asia _Aus _ Future_Meetings _2019.pdf
Kim, S. and Baek, T. H. (2018). Examining the antecedents and consequences of mobile app
engagement. Telematics and Informatics, 35, 148–158.
Lee, S., Boshnakova, D. and Goldblatt, J. (2017). The 21st century meeting and event
technologies: Powerful tools for better planning, marketing and evaluation. Oakville, Canada:
Apple Academic Press.
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Martin, V. and Cazarre, L. (2016). Technology and events. Oxford, England: Goodfellow
Publishers.
Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The process (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
McKenna-Cress, P. and Kamien, J. (2013). Creating exhibitions: Collaboration in the planning,
development, and design of innovative experiences. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons.
NOEA. (2017). What is the future of outdoor events and what role do we play in preparing the
industry for it? Outdoor Events Industry Leadership Forum. Available at: www.glevents.
co.uk /wp conte n t/up l oads / 2017/ 03/F u ture s -For u m-Wh i te-Paper-S.pdf . Accessed 15
February 2018.
Pantano, E. and Gandini, A. (2017). Exploring the forms of sociality mediated by innovative
technologies in retail settings. Computers in Human Behavior, 77, 367–373.
Robson, K., Plangger, K., Kietzmann, J., McCarthy, I. and Pitt, L. (2015). Is it all a game?
Understanding the principles of gamification. Business Horizons, 58(4), 411–420.
Rossman, J. R. (2003). Recreation programming: Designing leisure experiences. Champaign,
Illinois: Sagamore Publishing.
Suh, A., Cheung, C. M. K., Ahuja, M. and Wagner, C. (2017). Gamification of the workplace: The
central role of the aesthetic experience. Journal of Management Information Systems, 34(1),
268–305.
Tarute, A., Nikou, S. and Gatautis, R. (2017). Mobile application driven consumer engagement.
Telematics and Informatics, 34, 145–156.
Tressider, R. and Hirst, C. (2012). Marketing in food, hospitality, tourism & events: A critical
approach. Oxford: Goodfellows Publishers.
Urh, M., Vukovic, G., Jereb, E. and Pintar, R. (2015). The model for introduction of gamification
into e-learning in higher education. 7th World Conference on Educational Sciences, (WCES-
2015), 05–07 February 2015, Novotel Athens Convention Center, Athens, Greece. Published
in Procedia – Social and Behavioural Sciences, 197, 388–397.
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8 Pragmatic team
management

•• Review of extant management theories and concepts; event design team
•• Key components of a pragmatic approach to event design team management
management. pragmatic
management
collaboration
Event design team management is a new area of study, with limited specific conflict handling
works done on what it means to be a manager of an event designers’ team. healthy working
environment
However, as management itself is not an absolute and there can be no
defined way of managing that suits all situations, at all times, then event
design team management can benefit from various theories and models of
management, leadership and team building and take tools from each area to create a
model for event design management use. This is the pragmatic approach to event design
team management. In this chapter, we will review several relevant theories and frame-
works of management and introduce a practical leadership model for event design
teams with the associated tools and techniques a manager can utilise and practise for
project success.
Evolution of management and leadership styles

The leadership styles and management theories we see today are the result of more
than 100 years of development from the first iterations of management theory in the
late nineteenth century (Drucker, 1999; Witzel, 2009). Each management theory or
style has learned from what has gone previously, and trial and error of different theo-
ries or styles in management situations have fine-tuned society’s management skills.
More recent management schools of thought are introduced in Figure 8.1.
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8
2010s
2000s Triangular
Management
1990s Postmodernism Approach
Learning
Organisations
Figure 8.1 Key management theories 1990s–2010s.
1990s – Learning organisations

•• Managers should look externally;
•• Managers need to be responsive to internal and external demands and constraints;
•• Managers should recognise the potentially damaging effect of change and uncer-
tainty, and respond with experimentation and adaptation, learning from change
and experience;
•• As managers learn, they should also “create an environment conducive to learn-
ing” (Certo and Certo, 2013, p. 68) for their staff;
•• Every member of an organisation should understand their own job and how those
jobs fit together, have a common view of what they are trying to achieve, always
seek to look at and improve the way business is done and work together on those
improvements, but also find an individual deep and rich understanding of work.
2000s – Postmodernism
•• There can be no complete and coherent theory of management because of the
range of situations management must face;
•• The impact of change, of globalisation, internationalisation, multiculturalism and
technology means that a manager needs to be flexible and adaptable and take a
wider view of what is going on inside and outside the organisation;
•• There should be an emphasis on always learning;
•• Postmodernists, whilst not irrational, may take a more instinctive, guttural, emer-
gent approach to management.
2010s – Triangular management approach

•• This approach combines the different schools of management: the scientific and
mechanistic and the humane, or the process-driven and the people-driven;
•• A modern manager is a person who can balance the various approaches to be
effective;
•• The pragmatic use of whatever skills and practices are appropriate for any situa-
tion, echoing the Situational Leadership theory of Hersey and Blanchard (1976);
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Pragmatic team management 8
CHAPTER
•• Modern organisations are complex, combining the demands of company values,

the macro environment and the customer;
•• A management approach that takes all of the previous studies into consideration
and effectively asks managers to do whatever is right for the situation is probably
the most effective.
To sum up, it is evident that management theory has developed in response to itself
(learning from what has gone before) and in response to the surrounding environ-
ment. The effective management style for “now” needs to show learning from the past
and reflect in particular the changes (increasingly turbulent) in the modern working
environment. The key management skills that emerge from this discussion of the most
recent management theories are the needs for awareness, balance and learning. A com-
bination of the management theories and models from the last 30 years leads to the
recommendation of a pragmatic approach to management, as relevant to the modern
world, and to event design team management.
Key components of pragmatic team management

Effective modern management should amalgamate the previously developed and
applied theories. This is a pragmatic style of management and leadership, willing to
combine any theories or methods as necessary in order to achieve an effective solu-
tion for the management task in hand. This approach is particularly relevant to event
design, as event design combines a number of potentially conflicting elements that
require an open, solution-based approach to management: people, impermanence, inte-
gration and guidance and outward focus.
People
Event design requires a collaboration with different people (co-workers, suppliers and
other stakeholders) to design events and experiences for other people (attendees and
participants). In all cases, an event design manager will not have the time and com-
petence to do everything. In many cases, they may have the organisational and some
technical skills, but maybe not the technical expertise needed. Thus, a manager needs
to get things done through other people (Stewart, 1967; Naylor, 2004; Boddy, 2005).
This requires specific knowledge and organisational skills to avoid misunderstanding,
power games and other issues, to deliver the project on time.
Impermanence
The event design team is likely to be temporary and may be made up of employees, sub-
contractors, suppliers, the client’s representatives and so on. In this situation, the man-
agement tools used for different members of the event design team may need to vary
depending on who you are working with and the nature of their interest in the project.
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Integration and guidance

In the events world, the manager is often the pivot point (Witzel, 2009) between a
number of relevant stakeholders. In most event design situations, there are a mixture
of people involved: some employees under direct responsibility of the manager and
those brought in from “outside”.
Those brought in from outside for an event design project are more likely to be of equal
status in the project. Thus, a conventional hierarchical team model, where the man-
ager is the “boss” and the others are “followers” will not work. Handy (1985) discusses
different types of organisational structures and advocates the need for a different lead-
ership and management style for creative teams and collaborative networks which rec-
ognises individual expertise. The main point is that outside experts may struggle with
being “led”. The role of the event design manager is to give direction, to keep people
on track and to encourage collaborative action.
Outward focus
Management of an event needs “to understand an underlying process, to be perpetu-
ally pursuing interesting ways to … ensure that visitors are at the center (sic) of all deci-
sions” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. x). Thus, when considering management
in events, the wider group of stakeholders is an essential part of consideration, not just
those in the immediate relationship of manager and employee. The manager and the
event design team have to respond to the outward demands, taking into consideration
current trends and the diverse interests of the involved stakeholders.
Overall, the pragmatic approach to management and leadership should be centred

around people and integrative solutions, taking into consideration the impermanency
and outward focus of the majority of event design projects.
RESEARCH NOTE
Allio, R. (2012). Leaders and leadership – many theories, but what advice is reliable? Strategy & Leadership,
41(1), 4–14.
Abstract:
Purpose – The paper seeks to use the experience of the author, a veteran consultant and author of many
articles on leadership, who aims to summarize several fundamental concepts that have shaped the cur-
rent debate about leaders and leadership. The author’s goal is to dispel some leadership myths and offer
some advice to leaders about how to perform more effectively in their roles.
114
Pragmatic team management CHAPTER 8
Design/methodology/approach – Taking the long view, the author concludes that leadership actually
emerges or develops over time – not at a unique specific instant. It seems to appear and then disappear;
it is elusive.
Findings – Invisible forces act on the leadership process: the expectations of the followers, the culture
of the organization and the circumstances. The task at hand and the context seem to dictate when and
how leadership appears. The leadership dynamic thus depends on the situation.
Practical implications – The primary role of the leader must be to develop a culture that enables indi-
viduals to coalesce around the shared purpose of the enterprise.
Originality/value – Leaders act like Higgs bosons, activating and energizing the members of the
organization as they interact. And like the boson, leadership may show up in the power it imparts to
effective, committed followers.
Keywords: leader, leadership advice, leadership paradigm, followers, potential leaders, leadership his-
tory, toxic leaders, coaching, training
Event design management framework

In order to reflect the above requirements for managing an event design team effec-
tively, and recognising the sense in learning from a range of theories in order to exer-
cise the best management style, a model of a pragmatic approach to management of
event design is presented in Figure 8.2.
The model represents an interplay of four areas of management: manage the person,
collaborate, handle conflict and create a healthy working environment. The following sub-
sections discuss each of the areas in detail.
Manage the person

As has already been discussed, event design is a people-focused business. Hersey and
Blanchard (1976) argue that a “one size fits all” management approach is not suitable as
different employees are at different stages of knowledge and development (maturity or
competence), and therefore their needs in the management relationship and how to get
the best from them, will be different. Before an event design team manager can lead a
group of people appropriately, they need to give some thought and time to understand-
ing the skills levels of the team members and change and flex their management style
according to the needs of the employee (Table 8.1).
Collaborate
Collaborative management recognises the need to combine different approaches to a
range of stakeholders to achieve a common goal. This mirrors the characteristics of the
event design team of “impermanence” and “integration and guidance”.
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8
Assess levels of skills

of employees
Manage the Person
Recognise the strengths

Be present,
Create a healthy Event Design Team and needs of others
communicate, appreciate Collaborate
working environment Management -Establish a ‘community’
and build trust.
-Encourage advocacy
Handle Conflict
Practice intra and

inter emotional
intelligence; listen,
use questioning skills
and be assertive
Figure 8.2 Effective event design team management.
Table 8.1 Employee Skills Level and Relevant Management Style
Skills levels – employees Management style
Lack the knowledge, skills or confidence to Telling/directing: Managers tell their

work on their own, and often need to be people what to do and how to do it.
pushed to take the task on.
Willing to work on the task, but without the Selling/coaching: More communication
skills to complete it successfully. and mentoring.
Ready and willing with more skills but not full Participating/consulting: Focus on the
confidence. relationship and less on direction –
sharing decisions.
Able to work alone with strong confidence Delegating: Responsibility passed to
and skills. employee with some monitoring.
Adapted from Hersey and Blanchard (1976).
116
RESEARCH NOTE
Lee-Kelley, L. (2002). Situational leadership: Managing the virtual project team. Journal of Management
Development, 21(6), 461–476.
Abstract:
Shifting work patterns and increasing organisational cooperations have led to electronically integrated
“unbounded” organisations and virtual teams. This study is pivotal in exploring the project manager’s
leadership style and control in managing changing project boundaries and permeable interfaces. A sur-
vey of clinical research projects indicates that project managers are not overly affected by internal mar-
ket mechanisms or constraints on face-to-face interactions. However, certain project variables such as
project objectives, team size, frequency of team changes and project duration play significant roles in the
relationship between the project leader and his/her perception of project difficulties. The study’s obser-
vations and conclusions are useful to the project owner/sponsor as well as the project manager; either
might seek to select situations that would best match the manager’s inclination or style and to avoid
projects that are likely to present him/her with situations that are counter to his/her default preference.
Keywords: project management, virtual reality, teams, leadership, management
Collaborative leadership is “adept at leading otherwise disparate groups successfully”

(Archer and Cameron, 2009, p. 232) and is “a management style and skill-set that
engages all participants by designing constructive processes for working together, con-
venes appropriate stakeholders, and facilitates and sustains their interaction” (Archer
and Cameron, 2009, p. 232).
To collaborate, it is imperative to consider the stakeholders involved in an event design

project. Stakeholders are individuals or organisations who will be affected by or will
affect an event design project (Freeman, 1984; Nutt and Backoff, 1992; PMI, 2013)
and can be anyone in or around the organisation and the event, including the clients,
employees, customers, local community and government (Smith, 2009; CMI, 2019).
The key steps in stakeholder management are:
1. Identify stakeholders;
2. Determine the nature of the relationship with the stakeholders – objectives, needs
and interests;
3. Decide how to involve them and how to communicate with them.
For the majority of event projects, the stakeholders would be sponsors, media, local
community, local authorities and performers. Once stakeholders have been identified
and their needs discussed, their level of power and interest in the event design project
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8
should be defined. There is potential for conflict between different parties who have
an interest in an event (conflict between stakeholders and between stakeholders and
organisers). This may cause issues for the smooth accomplishment of the event pro-
duction (operational impacts) and have longer-term impacts in terms of relationships
(strategic impacts).
RESEARCH NOTE
Bryson, J.M. (2004). What to do when stakeholders matter – Stakeholder identification and analysis tech-
niques. Public Management Review, 6(1), 21–53.
Abstract:
This article focuses specifically on how and why managers might go about using stakeholder identifica-
tion and analysis techniques in order to help their organizations meet their mandates, fulfill their mis-
sions and create public value. A range of stakeholder identification and analysis techniques is reviewed.
The techniques cover: organizing participation; creating ideas for strategic interventions, including
problem formulation and solution search; building a winning coalition around proposal development,
review and adoption; and implementing, monitoring and evaluating strategic interventions. The article
argues that wise use of stakeholder analyses can help frame issues that are solvable in ways that are
technically feasible and politically acceptable and that advance the common good. The article con-
cludes with a number of recommendations for management research, education and practice.
Keywords: stakeholders, strategic management, strategic planning, coalition, common good, smart
practice
Project teams should seek positive stakeholder involvement (Getz, 2009; Elkington,
2004; Freeman, 1984). However, correctly engaging and engaging the correct stakehold-
ers is challenging (Bostock, 2014; Sadd, Fyall and Wardrop, 2017) due to “time, money,
and local politics” (Maginn, 2007 cited in Sadd, Fyall and Wardrop, 2017, p. 346).
The intention for the event design team manager should be to encourage collaboration
with the key stakeholders. The collaborative approach recognises the strengths of oth-
ers and the “many ways to approach a problem or create a solution” (McKenna-Cress
and Kamien, 2013, p. 6) and the concept of “shared leadership” rather than “unilateral
action” (Archer and Cameron, 2009, p. 232). This appropriately reflects the nature of
the group of experts brought together to design an event, and the essential co-depend-
ency of the event design manager with the team. Thomas and Kilmann describe col-
laborating as “an attempt to work with others to find some solution that fully satisfies
their concerns” (Kilmann Diagnostics, 2018).
118
RESEARCH NOTE
Davis, K. (2017). An empirical investigation into different stakeholder groups’ perception of project suc-
cess. International Journal of Project Management, 35, 604–617.
Abstract:
Organizations use projects to manage customized, one-off events across a wide range of functions.
Project management is an essential operational tool and process that is utilized to effectively and effi-
ciently manage resources, tasks and activities, and associated timelines. The purpose of this paper is
to investigate the possibility that failure is a result of different interpretations of the criteria and factors
used for success by multiple stakeholder groups. Currently, there is no recorded theory to determine
project success within the project management literature, which includes both the perspective of mul-
tiple stakeholder groups and shared use of success dimensions for a given project. This omission is
the basis of the current work, which explores the impact of using all stakeholder views as opposed to a
selected few to define project success. The research outcomes are important for informed managerial
decision making that enables the minimization of major financial losses.
Keywords: project success and strategy, managing stakeholders, project success, perception of project
success, multiple stakeholders
Overall, to achieve collaboration, a team leader should lead and facilitate the processes
of:
•• Establishing a sense of “community” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 5) in

the team and beyond;
•• Reaching a level of “shared commitment” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 3);
•• Encouraging advocacy by understanding people’s roles, accountabilities and
responsibilities and encouraging people to be advocates for certain perspectives
and functions.
Input from advocates can be obtained from brainstorming, or a charrette: “an intensive
group work session sustained over multiple days and that typically involves experts
with a variety of skills and viewpoints. The goal of the group’s focussed immersion
is to generate a broad range of ideas and possible solutions for a project or problem”
(McKenna-Cress and Kamien, p. 215). More visual ways of sharing ideas can be used,
including visualisation, sketching and mind mapping (McKenna-Cress and Kamien,
2013; Xiang and Formica, 2006; Beard and Russ, 2017). These visualisations and shared
ideas can lead to collaborative efforts in creating floor plans and visitor walkthrough
plans, as well as an understanding of where different aspects of an event are influenced
by different members of the group.
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8
Handle conflict
We can assume that if an event is worth doing, and there is a diverse range of stakehold-
ers involved, there will be different opinions, and “it can be stressful when opinions
and egos collide” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 3). The ability to deal with
conflict is important to prevent event breakdown, and conflict can be viewed positively
as an aid to collaboration: “an opportunity to get to the heart of things. Conflict may
produce scenes of painful confrontation, but at least it is honest communication –
even if people do not understand or cannot articulate what is really bothering them,
the feelings of frustration, disappointment and anger are genuine. And often it is the
catalyst to getting things moving” (Archer and Cameron, 2009, p. 234).
The Thomas-Kilmann diagnostic tool for understanding one’s own conflict manage-
ment styles and to understand the different ways of managing conflict might be of
interest and can be accessed at www.kilma nndiagnost ics.com/overview-thomas-k ilma
nn-con flict-mode -inst rument-tk i. According to Thomas and Kilmann (2018), “Conflict
situations are those in which the concerns of two people appear to be incompatible.
In such situations, we can describe an individual’s behaviour along two dimensions:
(1) assertiveness, the extent to which the person attempts to satisfy his own concerns,
and (2) cooperativeness, the extent to which the person attempts to satisfy the other
person’s concerns” (Kilmann Diagnostics, 2018).
The intention would be to achieve a highly cooperative and highly assertive solution,
that is, a collaborative solution. Rather than trying to win (competing) or passively
accommodating or accepting another’s view, and assuming that in a work situation we
cannot “avoid”, then we as event managers need to look for collaborative approaches,
being “both assertive and cooperative” (Kilmann Diagnostics, 2018) and “digging into
an issue to pinpoint the underlying needs and wants of the two individuals … explor-
ing a disagreement to learn from each other’s insights” (Kilmann Diagnostics, 2018).
In order to deal with a conflict, we need to understand our own relationship to conflict
and holding difficult conversations (Archer and Cameron, 2009). These points reflect
the need for emotional intelligence, active listening and questioning skills and assertiveness.
Emotional intelligence is “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emo-
tions to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey and Mayer,
1990) and the ability “to recognise and regulate emotions in ourselves and others”
(Goleman, 1995). Intra-emotional intelligence is the inner intelligence we use to know,
understand and motivate ourselves, and it includes our self-awareness and emotional
management. Understanding your emotions, why you feel as you do, and understand-
ing how to deal with your negative emotions and moods so that they don’t spoil your
relationships with other people is important. Inter-emotional intelligence is the outer
intelligence we use to read, sense and understand and manage our relationships with
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other people. This is relationship management and involves us seeing alternative view-
points. Consciousness of self, consciousness of others and consciousness of context are
all part of emotional intelligence (Levy, Shankman, Allen and Haber-Curran, 2015).
Active listening and questioning should be used to get to the heart of a problem or conflict
in order to understand all of the issues and seek a solution that meets all needs. In the
process, an assertive presentation of one’s own wants and needs is important to avoid
being forced into an unwanted solution.
A conflict resolution checklist can be used when dealing with different issues:
•• Regard it as a problem to be solved – but don’t assume you know what the problem
is and don’t leap to a solution;
•• Be open about your point of view/state your case clearly;
•• Try to understand the other’s point of view: listen, ask questions to find out what
the other person wants/thinks/feels;
•• Identify the problem/get all the facts you can;
•• Separate what the person is saying from how they are saying it – try to understand
the non-word cues – body language and tone of voice;
•• Try to identify what has caused the problem;
•• Try to find something in common;
•• Put forward ideas to solve the problem;
•• Listen to the other person’s ideas about how to solve the problem;
•• Summarise to check that you both understand and are happy with the solution.
Create a healthy working environment

Finally, an event design manager needs to create a healthy working environment that
encourages trust and commitment. The skills required here are people skills, communica-
tion, building professional relationships and appreciation.
•• People skills. Always be there and be engaged, know your staff, talk to them, listen
to them, engage them in team activities.
•• Communication. Keep the team informed with regard to business activities in a
positive, stress-free and appropriate way.
•• Building professional relationships. Employees see their managers as role models,
figureheads and leaders, and managers should act in a responsible manner. They
should also have passion and enthusiasm. Team members wish to receive pastoral
support in terms of care, as well as development opportunities. Creating a bond
and trust within a team is part of building a professional relationship, and favour-
itism has no place. People should be treated fairly and equally. There needs to be a
line between a friend and manager, but there is a balance to be struck here, as the
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8
detached manager who does not consider themselves part of the team is thought
ineffective. A bossy and overly authoritative manager is also thought ineffective.
•• Appreciation. Recognising staff in terms of thanks, feedback and debriefing is impor-
tant. Praise is well received. Trust in staff is seen as a sign of appreciation also.
The model therefore recognises the need to learn from a number of ideas and com-
bine or balance skills and practices for best effect. It requires managers to be aware of
the environment the team is operating in, and the needs of the team itself. Effective
management requires a combination of personal management, collaboration, conflict
resolution and creating a healthy working environment.
Summary
Management is an amalgamation of a variety of ideas that have developed over more
than 100 years, and event design team management similarly needs to be an amalga-
mation of management theories: a pragmatic approach to management. A management
approach that combines managing the person, collaboration, conflict handling and
building a healthy working environment should meet the needs of event design team
management. There are particular skills that a manager can use to consider the person,
promote collaboration, handle conflict and build a healthy environment. Personal
management means attending to individual team members’ needs. Collaboration
means understanding others’ needs and reaching a solution acceptable to all. Conflict
handling requires a systematic approach to all conflict situations, using listening,
empathy and assertiveness. Finally, creating a healthy environment reflects some of
the previously considered skills but emphasises the need to set standards and appreci-
ate team members when they perform well. The next chapter explores the art of project
management in event design.

•• Be pragmatic – use a combination of management tools and techniques appropri-
ate to your own event design team;
•• Your “mantra” should be “Manage the person, encourage collaboration, handle
conflict and create a healthy working environment”;
•• As management is the product of 100 years of development and learning from
experience, so you will learn from your event design team management experi-
ences (but don’t worry, it won’t take 100 years!).

•• Advocacy group exercise. An advocate is a person who “publicly supports or
suggests an idea, development, or way of doing something; a person who puts a
case on someone else’s behalf” (Cambridge Dictionary, 2019; Google, 2018). Consider
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the design of a launch event for a local bar or restaurant. Assign each person in
the group a role of advocate for the following stakeholders: (a) the customers, (b)
the bar or restaurant, (c) the local community and (d) the staff. Now brainstorm
ideas for the event design, with each advocate taking the “hat” or position in the
group they are representing. Create a plan that reflects the needs and interests of
each group. Note if and where conflict arises and develop approaches to mediate
in this conflict.
•• Identify key stakeholders for a town’s arts festival. Discuss their needs (see a table
below as an example) and suggest stakeholder management strategies.
Stakeholder Stakeholder Needs
Performers Economic return. Clear communications concerning locations,

expectations and requirements.
Sponsors Economic or reputational return.
Community
Media
•• Discussion – What is in your events management “toolkit”? Out of the content above,
what ideas have most resonated with you and your experience of event design
management (either as a manager or a team member)? What are you going to try
out in a future event design management scenario?
Further reading
•• Archer, D. and Cameron, A. (2009). Tough times call for collaborative leaders Industrial and
Commercial Training, 41(5), 232–237.
This article discusses the development of collaborative leadership skills to address an
identified gap in management capability. The article gives specific emphasis to conflict
handling.
•• Marquet, L.D. and Worshek, A. (2018). The turn the ship around! workbook: Implement
intent-based leadership in your organization. Penguin Publishing Group.
A bold new approach to leadership, based on Marquet’s experiences of turning around
the troubled submarine USS Santa Fe. Instead of the traditional command-and-control
model, he inspired every member of his crew to embrace accountability.
References
Archer, D. and Cameron, A. (2009). Tough times call for collaborative leaders. Industrial and
Commercial Training, 41(5), 232–237.
Beard, C. and Russ, W. (2017). Event evaluation and design: Human experience mapping. Event
Boddy, D. (2005). Management: An introduction (3rd ed.) Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Bostock, J. (2014). Stakeholder centric approach. In L. Sharples, P. Crowther., D. May, and C.
Orefice (Eds.), Strategic event creation. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers.
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Cambridge Dictionary. (2019). Definition of ‘Advocate’. Cambridge dictionary. Available at:

https://dic tionary.cambridge.org/dic tionary/english/advocate. Accessed 17 May 2019.
Certo, S. C. and Certo S. T. (2013). Modern management: Concepts and skills (13th ed.). Harlow,
Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
CMI. (2019). Stakeholder analysis and management. Available at: ww w.managers.org.u k/kn
owledge-bank/stakeholder-analysis-and-management. Accessed 12 July 2019.
Dr uc ker, P. F. (1999). Manage me nt: Tas ks, res ponsibilities, prac tices . O x ford:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Elkington, J. (2004). Enter the triple bottom line. In A. Henriques and J. Richardson (Eds.), The
triple bottom line: Does it all add up? (pp. 1–16). Routledge.
Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston, MA: Pitman
Publishing.
Getz, D. (2009). Policy for sustainable and responsible festivals and events: Institutionalization
of a new paradigm. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1(1), 61–78.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam.
Google Dictionary. (2018). Definition of ‘Advocate’. Available at: www.google.com. Accessed
17 May 2019.
Handy, C. (1985). Understanding organizations (3rd ed.). London: Penguin Books.
Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1976). Management of organizational behaviour (3rd ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc.
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(TKI). Available at www. kilma nndia gnos t ics.c om/overvie w-tho mas- k ilman n-con flic t-mod
e-instrument-tki. Accessed 10 July 2018.
Levy Shankman, M., Allen, S. J. and Haber-Curran, P. (2015). Emotionally intelligent leadership.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Maginn, P. (2007). Towards more effective community participation in urban regeneration: The
potential of collaborative planning and applied ethnography. Qualitative Research, 7(1),
24–43.
McKenna-Cress, P. and Kamien, J. A. (2013). Creating exhibitions: Collaboration in the planning,
development, and design of innovative experiences. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley &
Sons.
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Nutt, P. C. and Backoff, R. W. (1992). Strategic management of public and third sector
organisations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
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Newtown Square, PA: PMI.
Sadd, D., Fyall, A. and Wardrop, K. (2017). Evaluative event frameworks: A learning destination
perspective. International Journal of Tourism Research, 19, 339–348.
Salovey, P. and Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and
Personality, 9, 185–211.
Smith, A. (2009). Theorising the relationship between major sport events and social sustainability.
Journal of Sport and Tourism, 14(2–3), 109–120.
Stewart, R. (1967). Managers and their jobs. London: Macmillan.
Witzel, M. (2009). Management history: Text and cases. Oxon: Routledge.
Xiang, Z. and Formica, S. (2006). Mapping environmental change in tourism: A study of the
incentive travel industry. Tourism Management, 28, 1193–1202.
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9 Project management
tools and budgeting
•• Scope, objectives and design breakdown structure; project management

•• Responsibility assignment; planning
•• Calculation of the duration and dependency of project tasks; costing
•• Application of Gantt charts; budgeting
•• Risk assessment and management; monitoring
•• Understanding what needs to be costed and how to cost; control
•• Tools and processes for monitoring and reporting on the event design
budget.
The planning process provides order and flow for any business project. It requires allo-
cation of responsibilities, assignment of tasks, project monitoring and risk assessment
and proper budgeting. The purpose of this chapter is to provide event designers with a
set of useful and simple-to-use tools with the emphasis on planning and realisation of
a design project. We will thoroughly explore design breakdown structures, responsibility
assignment, calculating the duration and dependency of tasks, Gantt charts, risk assess-
ment, costing and budgeting.
Project objectives
It is imperative for any event design team to determine the scope of the project and
break it down into SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, resourced and timed)
objectives or deliverables (see Table 9.1). As a result, everyone in the team should under-
stand what is required for the success of the project; time, costs, resources and quality
criteria should be set.
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Table 9.1 SMART Objectives
Specific •• What do we want to achieve?

•• Do we have a clear design objective and vision?
Measurable •• What are the expected tangible and intangible outputs of our
project?
•• How will we measure these outputs?
Achievable •• Is this project feasible, taking into consideration the internal and
external climates?
Resourced •• Do we have enough resources and staff numbers?
•• Do we have enough expertise?
Timed •• Do we have enough time to complete this project and meet the
deadline?
Design breakdown structure

In order to understand the constituent parts of an event design project, a design break-
down structure (DBS) can be developed (Figure 9.1). A DBS puts emphasis on the “how”
questions of the project and is defined as a
structured, hierarchical, graphical documented team process where the

entire design team, including the project manager, works through the fun-
damental issues they must overcome to reach their preset goal. This well-
structured documentation acts as a road map of the project, and spreads an
awareness of both the issues that each individual designer faces, and the
interconnectedness of all the issues. It forces the team to work as a coor-
dinated, well-knit unit rather than as a team of isolated individuals. This
road map is essential towards allowing the project manager to effectively
manage the project.
(Diegel, 2002)
To create a DBS:
•• Work in collaborative teams to describe all of the work that needs to be performed
to complete a design project;
•• Work “top down”, by dividing the design project into meaningful tasks or “chunks”;
•• The hierarchy should contain no gaps (all the work required should be included)
and no overlaps (each component should represent a unique task), and should
allow the necessary resources to be attached to it.
After the DBS is completed, resources, timescales and milestones can be assigned to
each “chunk” as required. The assigning of resources and the figuring out of timescales
may change things, and the event design team need to be aware that this process is
not linear.
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Project management tools and budgeting 9
CHAPTER
Car Model
Presentation
Discover Define Develop Deliver
Initial review and Initial ideas and Develop basic Financial project
team assignment concepts design package review
Confirmation of
Venue search Consultations
all key Pitch
and evaluation and testing
deliverables
Design
Develop detailed
challenges, legal, Resources Contract
project design
ethical, etc.
Figure 9.1 A design breakdown structure for a planned event.
Overall, the DBS facilitates the event designer’s ability to structure a creative process
into feasible and clear blocks and is extremely effective when working on large-scale
and complex events.
Responsibility assignment matrix

After the DBS is completed, each activity should be assigned to team members by using
a responsibility assignment matrix (RAM). A member of the design project team must
own each activity or its sub-component. The RAM will reflect who is responsible for a
task rather than who must perform that task, but this is often semantics as your event
project team may be so small that those who are performing the task are also responsi-
ble, and vice versa. Two examples of RAMs are presented in Tables 9.2 and 9.3.
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Table 9.2 A RAM with a Detailed Description of the Tasks Allocated
Member of
the team
Jeff Food experience – Consult Food experience – Food experience –

client Sensory design Search for suppliers
Dan Venue design – Arrange Venue design – Venue design –
consultation with client Search options Arrange assessment
Anna Visual effects – Initial ideas Visual effects Visual effects – Costs
and consultations with – Prototyping
the client
Table 9.3 A RAM with a Basic Allocation of Tasks
Member of the team Food experience Venue design Visual effects
Jeff x
Dan x
Anna x
Table 9.4 RACI Method in Action
Team member Food experience Venue design Visual effects
Jeff R I I
Dan A R, A A
Anna C C C
In addition to RAM, a RACI method can also be applied (Table 9.4). RACI documents
who will be responsible (persons involved in doing the work, or making the decision),
accountable (the person who is ultimately accountable), consulted (persons who are
consulted before a decision is made or action is taken) and informed (persons informed
after the decision is made or action is taken).
Calculating the duration and

dependencies of tasks
The process of identifying project dependencies and calculating their duration allows
event design teams to work out the total project time from start to finish, and organise
the workforce to ensure that one job is done before another that is dependent on it.
Once the tasks in the DBS have been timed and a date applied to them, the team are
ready to embark on the necessary work.
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Having taken the time to think through all the tasks and activities and to assign tim-
ings to those tasks, it is possible to calculate the critical path: the longest-duration path
of the event design project. The activities that lie on this path cannot be delayed with-
out delaying the whole project, and to accelerate the project it is necessary to reduce
the total time required for the tasks that lie on the critical path.
A project manager can also see where the project has “slack” or “float” (extra time avail-
able to finish a task before it results in a delay) which occurs through activities with
different task times being scheduled at the same time. Knowing where the team has
activities with slack can help in the assignment of resources. Faster workers may be put
on tasks on the critical path, whereas slower workers may be put on those with slack.
Once an activity with slack is completed, the worker assigned to that task can move
tasks and assist someone working on the critical path.
The thinking through of an event design project from start to finish in detail enables
the event design project manager to be able to assign and cost resources appropriately.
Figure 9.2 demonstrates a simple critical path designed in MS Visio.
The identification of critical tasks and their duration can minimise a risk of project
failure and eliminate any misunderstandings among team members and between a
project team and the client.
Consult Client Engage Team Obtain Costings Consider

regarding in Sensory from Three Quotes and
Catering Design of Food Catering Engage CATERING
Choices Experience Suppliers Supplier
1 day 2 days 10 days 3 days
Ideas
Book and
Brainstorm Venue Search
Contract VENUE
on Venue 1 day
Venue 3 days
1 day
Figure 9.2 A simple consideration of time duration and dependencies of tasks.
Gantt chart
The Gantt chart (GC) allows project teams to collate all project tasks and their timings
within one document. A GC can be done in Excel or in MS Project (Figure 9.3). The
chart shows the various tasks that need to be done in a time-sequenced order and can
be used to monitor individuals’ progress against their objectives. It is a horizontal bar
chart, an easy-to-view, visual representation of the various activities/tasks involved,
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Figure 9.3 A Gantt chart.
their duration, potential clashes and overlaps, the deadlines and the impact of tasks
being delayed (Shone and Parry, 2010; Kloppenborg, 2011). The members of the team
can update it regularly, making changes to the process where necessary.
There are several advantages of the GC, including that it
•• Breaks down large, complex projects into specific tasks;

•• Helps to allocate responsibilities for tasks;
•• Provides both holistic and micro views of the project;
•• Illustrates time frames;
•• Identifies task durations (Pielichaty et al., 2017).
Overall, a GC is a useful tool that summarises the planning and delivery stages of the
event design project and helps to identify and monitor the realisation of the key pro-
ject tasks and activities.
Risk assessment and management

Throughout the process of planning, the event design team needs to be aware of risks
to the project. The stages of risk assessment and management are to
1. Identify the risk;

2. Assess/evaluate the risk;
3. Plan ways to minimise or eradicate the risk.
The team can identify risks through a brainstorm. Then risks are assessed in terms of
probability and impact. Those that are high probability and high impact are higher
risk, and ways to minimise or eradicate those risks need to be considered.
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Costs
Everything costs money! As an event design manager, you will be required to cost
an event design project in order to explain to a client or decision-maker the likely
requirements from their budget. Once approved, the costs you have calculated become
the event design budget, and you will be required to monitor the budget through the
realisation of an event design project in order to ensure that your event design project
does not go over budget, or to explain why, and to know the figures well enough to ask
for more money if required. This section will help you to create an event design project
budget and consider ways to monitor, control and report on expenditure.
Costs can be elicited from the “bottom-up”, which means the event design team should
be asked to calculate the costs of the particular tasks and activities that make up the
overall design plan. Then you add up the costs to understand the overall costs and the
budget for the project. The benefits of this “bottom-up” approach are that you and the
event design team will have ownership of the event design project and the costs, and
therefore the event design project is likely to be more realistic (you will have worked
out carefully what the costs are based on what you need to realise your event design
vision). In certain situations, though, you may not have this freedom, and you may
be allocated a certain amount of money for an event design project. This is beneficial
in some ways (it is quicker and prevents lengthy negotiations with the budget-holder,
and from the budget-holder’s point of view, it is definitive and reduces the room for
inflation). In reality, it is likely that an event design budget is decided from both the
bottom-up and the top-down, with negotiations taking place as to what can be done,
within an envelope of funding suggested by the budget-holder, with requests for exten-
sions of that budget needing to be reasoned and justified with an explanation of the
expected benefits (see Chapter 10 for making a business case).
The cost elements that need to be considered are:
•• Human resources (people’s time);

•• Consumables such as paint, decorations, food;
•• Equipment, should it be bought or rented, such as projectors, staging, lighting,
Wi-Fi;
•• Expenses such as transportation, training or expertise to advise on certain aspects
of the design (legal, health and safety);
•• Overheads (a contribution to a central body in the organisation supplying admin-
istrative support or office space);
•• Contingency: a standard 10% margin or allowance for (the inevitable) flexing of
sums.
With experience comes more certainty, although it should always be understood that
costs for an event design are always “best estimates” until the event design has actu-
ally been carried out. The team can do their best to get accurate quotes from suppliers,
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but there needs to be a realistic sense that there is a lack of absolute certainty until an
event design project has been completed. Of course, once an event design project has
been completed, those costs can become the foundation for the next similar project,
helping to build certainty.
To cost, all tasks and activities must be broken into their constituent parts; understand-
ing the detailed costs behind the building of an event structure will mean that hidden
costs are less likely. Take, for example, the building of a marquee. “Building a marquee”
might get you a couple of quotes from local marquee firms, but has sufficient attention
been given to the preparing of the land for the marquee; the supply of power to the
marquee; the necessary items to be put into the marquee? It is the same principle as the
DBS; breaking costs down into their smallest constituent parts will give clarity.
There is a principle, the “learning curve”, that repeating a task (or a project) results in
quicker delivery the next time and thus, with experience, these savings can be built
into the next project.
One issue with costing is a natural “optimism bias” (Maylor, 2010). Human beings are
generally not good at seeing the negative risks that may occur when planning. Kaplan
and Mikes (2012) write about risk in strategy, but the same principle applies:
We tend to be over-confident about the accuracy of our forecasts and risk

assessments and far too narrow in our assessment of the range of outcomes
that may occur. We also anchor our estimates to readily available evidence
despite the known danger of making linear extrapolations from recent his-
tory to a highly uncertain and variable future. We often compound this
problem with a confirmation bias, which drives us to favor information that
supports our positions (typically successes) and suppress information that
contradicts them (typically failures). When events depart from our expec-
tations, we tend to escalate commitment, irrationally directing even more
resources to our failed course of action – throwing good money after bad.
Of course this “optimism bias” has been evidenced in a number of high-profile over-
budget projects. Shenhar et al. (2001) write about the construction of the Sydney
Opera House. The UK’s Brexit has also gone over-budget and over-time due to a shared
“optimism bias” that a solution could be found quickly. So a healthy regard for risk and
chance can help in terms of drawing up costs.
Drawing up a budget from costs

The costs you have calculated become the event design budget. These costs can be
recorded using a variety of tools, as discussed above. For example, the Gantt chart/
MS Project can be used to record budgeted costs and actual costs, and reports can be
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Table 9.5 A Simple Excel Spreadsheet for an Event Design Budget
Task Cost Contingency Cost budgeted
Design 560 56 616

Print 200 20 220
Construction 5000 500 5500
Technical Advice – Health and Safety 500 50 550
Technical Advice – Legal 500 50 550
Total 6760 676 7436
drawn from MS Project. Alternatively, Excel can be used, with appropriate formulae to
calculate totals (Table 9.5).
Monitoring costs
Having established that costs are estimated, we need to monitor those costs when it
comes to managing the budget in our event design project realisation. This can be
done in a number of ways. Firstly, Excel or similar can be used to measure estimated
and actual spend and therefore the variances between those two figures. Variances are
referred to as adverse or favourable. A favourable variance is one that leads to higher
than expected profit. An adverse variance is one that reduces profit (Table 9.6).
Secondly, an action checklist (Table 9.7), formed from your design breakdown struc-
ture, your Gantt chart and so on can include costs allocated to tasks, and then those
costs can be monitored.
Table 9.6 A Simple Excel Spreadsheet to Monitor an Event Design Budget
Task Cost Contingency Cost Actual Difference Variance

budgeted cost
Design 560 56 616 600 16 Favourable

Print 200 20 220 150 70 Favourable
Construction 5000 500 5500 6500 −1000 Adverse
Technical 500 50 550 500 50 Favourable
Advice–
Health and
Safety
Technical 500 50 550 600 −50 Adverse
Advice
– Legal
Total 6760 676 7436 8350 −914 Adverse
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9
Table 9.7 An Action Checklist to Monitor an Event Design Budget
Area Task Responsible Original Budgeted Actual Status Notes Completed

deadline cost cost
Design and Approach company OR 30.6.19 600

Vladimir Antchak and Olivia Ramsbottom
Artwork with requirements for

quote
Furniture Source furniture hire OR 30.6.19 150.00
companies and agree
cost
Exhibition Cost AV equipment VA 30.6.19 1000
required
Health and Source Health and VA 15.6.19 250
Safety Safety advisor
Press and Advert design VA 15.7.19 500
Publicity
Design and Print posters and OR 15.7.19 200
Artwork leaflets
Project management tools and budgeting CHAPTER 9
The problem with some of these approaches is that the information given can be static
and may not disclose the full detail of the achievement or otherwise of the tasks or of
the costs involved. For example, in Table 9.6, £600 has been spent on design. But do
we know from this entry in the spreadsheet that the work we expected to be done on
design for £560 has been completed, over-budget (although within our contingency),
or is there more work to be done on achieving our objective, and therefore this task
will in fact go more over budget? Earned value analysis (EVA) can be used for a more
accurate assessment.
EVA concentrates on three basic parameters:
•• How much work should have been done so far – budgeted cost of work scheduled
(BCWS);
•• How much money has actually been spent to progress the project so far – actual
cost of work performed (ACWP);
•• The value of the work that has been accomplished so far– budgeted cost of work per-
formed (BCWP) where BCWP = baseline cost × % complete
If BCWP > BCWS = ahead of schedule
If BCWP < BCWS = behind schedule
If BCWP > ACWP = under budget
If BCWP < ACWP = overspend
WORKING OUT AN EVA
If we look at our example, in the design task for our event design project, the task was to outsource the
design of 20 exhibition banner stands using the event design team’s own photography. The price quoted
was 27.98 per stand including VAT, totalling 559.68 and therefore “rounded up” to 560.00. In fact, after
some issues with the supplier and a misunderstanding about the amount of design work entailed, the
supplier has only produced 15 exhibition stands for 560.00.
Applying EVA:
•• BCWS = 560.00
•• ACWP = 560.00
(BCWP) = baseline cost × % complete = 560.00 × 15/20*100 = 560.00 × 75% = 420.00

BCWP < BCWS = behind schedule
And BCWP < ACWP = overspend
We are behind schedule and over-budget, and the situation needs attention urgently.
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Reporting costs and progress

The various Excel spreadsheets explained above can be used to report on costs and
progress towards objectives, and there need to be opportunities in an event design pro-
ject’s lifecycle to make these reports available to the event design project team.
•• Milestones can be set at which the design project needs budget checks;
•• Gateways can be set at various key decision points before event design projects are
allowed to proceed to the next stage. For example:
•• Stage 1 – Develop business case = Review at Gateway 1 – Examine and approve
the business proposal
•• Stage 2 – Develop event design = Review at Gateway 2 – Examine and approve
the suggested event design
•• Stage 3 – Source and cost the event design = Review at Gateway 3 – Examine
and approve the budget
•• Stage 4 – Event design is developed and ready to implement = Review at Gateway
4 – Approve implementation
•• Stage 5 – Event is completed = Review at Gateway 5 – Review of success and
evaluation whether benefits promised by the event design have been achieved.
If adverse conditions have been identified, an event design team may use a range of
reporting tools to raise issues and ask for support:
•• Highlight reports provide a summary of the status of an event design project at

intervals previously defined by the project board. Problems or areas where the pro-
ject board could help are raised;
•• Exception reporting is used when time or cost are set to exceed previously set toler-
ance levels. Reports inform the project board and offer options and recommenda-
tions for agreement;
•• RAG (red, amber, green) reporting rates issues or the achievement of project tasks in
accordance with a traffic light rating system, showing where an area is in need of
attention (red), approaching tolerance levels (amber) or progressing according to
plan (green).
Depending on the size and scope of an event design project, different governance
structures will be appropriate. In smaller projects, the project manager may simply
report to their senior manager/s. In some cases, a project board may be convened,
incorporating senior manager/s from a variety of departments or stakeholders. Even
if there is no official project board, there will still be the need to report to the execu-
tive of any event design organisation in terms of performance against budget. Prior to
starting an event design project, therefore, the chain of command needs to be agreed,
as do the key reporting tools (spreadsheets, written report), milestones and gateways
and what will be required and the communication mechanism (meeting, report, etc.)
at those milestones and gateways.
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Project management tools and budgeting CHAPTER 9
BOX 9.1: INDUSTRY VOICE: CLARE RUBY, CO-FOUNDER,

RUBYBLOSSE EVENTS, UK
Clare has worked on countless events and with people from all walks of life, including ministers, prime
ministers and royalty, and has led all sorts of events from the largest B2B broadcast event in Europe (52,000
people) to the smallest bespoke events with high-profile funders in exclusive venues. Her experience of
such a range leads her to make the following recommendations:
On risk analysis
Has there been a thorough and sufficient risk analysis at the start of the project? Have you done your due
diligence and fully assessed the risks associated with the event? Internal and external factors come into
play here. Anything from key members of the project team leaving to a change in the local or national
landscape. Is there any budget for the event or is it a sales/sponsor lead budget? Are there legal com-
pliances to consider? E.g. working in Dubai requires specific licences for events. One of the biggest
mistakes to make is not having contingency plans at the start. It is easy to ignore what could go wrong
at the start of a project. Enthusiasm and commitment is high and no one really wants to be reminded of
what could go wrong, but it is essential this is considered.
On project management tools

My favourite tool is the project plan/action tracker. This has to be a live document, and it is the project
leader’s responsibility to update, share, and hold the people who are not meeting deadlines to account.
It has to be a document that can be understood and updated by all members. Ideally it should show the
consequences of certain deadlines, or key actions not being delivered or met.
I believe organisations and people can overcomplicate project management. The approach needs to
be simple, consistent, and able to be shared between and understood by, multiple people. A lot of good
project management is about good and constant communication. It is not some mythical, complicated
thing. There needs to be a good suite of tools, the most important of which is a project plan. There are
many examples of project management software, but again it needs to be a document/multiple docu-
ments that can be used on a daily basis, and needs to be a live document, not something that is produced
at the start of an event cycle and then sits on a server somewhere in the ether. An advanced MS Excel
document will do the trick. A good project manager can enhance the tools.
Summary
This chapter looked at the project management tools and techniques that can be used
in an event design project. It then considered the budgeting and monitoring aspect of
an event design project, with some useful recommendations regarding reporting tools.
The project management tools included design breakdown structures, responsibility
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assignment, calculation of duration of takes, Gantt charts, risk assessment and man-
agement, and the budgeting tools included spreadsheets, Gantt charts, action check-
lists and earned value analysis. Guidance on what to do if a project is going over-cost
was offered. The next chapter focuses on the event designer’s ability to develop a
professional business case and successfully pitch a design project in front of the client.

•• Break down your design project into key tasks, and assign those tasks to people in
your event design team;
•• Consider how long the tasks will take, and whether there are any risks to their
achievement;
•• Find a tool that suits you to bring the tasks together into one place and show who
is doing them and when – this is your action tracker;
•• Costs for an event design project should be listed by the team and discussed with
the client or sponsor;
•• When agreed, the costs form the basis of the event design budget which needs
monitoring throughout the life of the project;
•• Awareness of dynamic monitoring systems such as EVA will ensure that an event
design project does not go “inadvertently” over budget.

•• Work in groups to design an event of your choice. Carry out the following using
flipcharts or a variety of software:
•• DBS
•• RAM or RACI
•• Calculating the duration and dependency of tasks
•• Risk assessment
•• Gantt charts
•• After this exercise, talk in your groups about which tools were particularly useful
and which were not. Plan which combination tool/template you will use for future
events.
•• Work in groups. You are designing an exhibition of third-year Fashion Design
students’ work. Brainstorm the necessary costs and obtain estimates. Draw up a
spreadsheet that lists those costs and gives options for monitoring those costs.
•• Draw up a report template for reporting any issues with meeting budgetary
restraints to your management team.
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CHAPTER
Further reading
•• Maylor, H. (2010). Project management (4 ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
A comprehensive and useful project management book that emphasises the use of the
tools mentioned in this chapter.
•• Pinto, J. K. (2016). Project management: Achieving competitive advantage (4th ed.). Pearson
Education Limited.
A detailed guide to project management that includes chapters on the tools included
in this chapter.
References
Diegel, O. (2002). Design breakdown structures: An extension to the work breakdown structure
to manage innovation in new product development projects. Paper presented at Project
Management Institute Annual Seminars & Symposium, San Antonio, TX. Newtown Square,
PA: Project Management Institute. Available at: ww w.pmi.org/ l earni ng/li brar y/inno vati
on-new -product-development-projects-1028
Kaplan, R. and Mikes, A. (2012). Managing risks: A new framework. Harvard Business Review,
90(6), 48–60.
Kloppenborg, T. (2011). Contemporary project management (2nd ed.). South-Western College
Publishing.
Maylor, H. (2010). Project management (4th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
Pielichaty, H., Els, G., Reed, I. and Mawer, V. (2017). Events project management. Routledge.
Shenhar, A. J., Dvir, D., Levy, O. and Maltz, A. C. (2001). Project success: A multidimensional
strategic concept. Long Range Planning, 34, 699–725.
Shone, A. and Parry, B. (2010). Successful event management (3rd ed.). Andover: Cengage
Learning.
139
10 Pitching and winning
•• Business case development; pitching

•• Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of a business proposal; presentation
•• Content of a business proposal; business proposal
•• Key requirements for a successful pitch;
•• Four stages of a pitch presentation: communication, preparation,
rehearsal and delivery;
•• Dos and don’ts of a pitch presentation.
The ability to develop a business case and clearly present event design solutions out
of your ideas is critically important nowadays in the very competitive environment of
the experience industry. In this chapter, we will explore how to develop and assess a
business case, how to prepare a successful business proposal and how to deliver a win-
ning pitch presentation. The chapter will introduce several recommendations on how
to write and format a design proposal. It will discuss key requirements for pitching for
business. The structure of a business pitch will be explored in-depth. Several insights
and tips for the successful presentation of your project before the client or decision-
maker will be introduced and explained.
Business case and evaluation

Event designers need to gain the support of those responsible for making decisions for
an event design project to go ahead. The client or a line manager will want to under-
stand the key resources and challenges facing an event project before giving approval,
and this requires event designers to engage in the detailed planning and audit of their
ideas before presenting those ideas to others.
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An event design needs to be suitable, acceptable and feasible (SAF). With reference to
suitability, the event design must meet its objectives. To be acceptable, the event design
must gain support from those involved in deciding whether the project can go ahead.
This could be the senior management involved in the development of the event or a
client/funder. Being feasible means that the event design project must be achievable
with the stipulated physical, financial and human resources, or the necessary resources
need to be obtainable.
The key criteria of the PrinCE2 (2018) Business Case model can be used to present a
business case for an event design:
•• The Economic Case – the likely costs and benefits of the event;
•• The Commercial Case – the event will need to be successful in terms of main-
taining the organisation’s and event’s competitive advantage in the marketplace.
Here an understanding of the market, and likely customer response to an event is
required, and therefore an external look using market research is key;
•• The Financial Case – the event design should be affordable;
•• The Management Case – the event design should be capable of successful deliv-
ery; are the resources available, from project support or sponsorship to individual
skills, in order to effectively design the event?
In order to get approval for an event design project, event designers also need to explain
how the event design project will be judged a “success”. This means agreeing how the
event will be evaluated and what impact or benefits it will have. For example, a new
event can facilitate in achieving a higher sense of community unity, participation and
pride and improve community networking and participation, creating a feeling of
wellbeing, collectively and individually, in the short and long term. An event design
may be seen as successful if it introduces something new. “Noticeable innovations are
understood as product innovations or the focused targeting of new groups of partici-
pants. This indicator is most positively assessed if the event is planned or executed for
the first time and has a new and innovative concept compared to other destinations”
(Tanner, Kunzi, Friedli, and Muller, 2018, p. 172). Economic impacts and economic
value are one of the key performance indicators of an event and can be a selling point
for an event design. Or, an event design might enhance a client’s image and reputation
and create value media coverage.
When evaluating an event design in order to convince decision-makers of its value,

various tools and techniques in event design evaluation could be used:
Qualitative:
•• Identify the stakeholders or constituents of an event in the pre-event design

stage. Create suitable networks (focus groups, panels, briefings) for collaboration
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Pitching and winning CHAPTER 10
and consultation to take place to understand the meaning of the event and the
suitability of the event design to those stakeholders;
•• Provide feedback opportunities for stakeholders to give their views, if nec-
essarily anonymously. Comment books, whiteboards, postcards and post-it
notes could be provided at key sites of stakeholder interest for people to leave
feedback;
•• Create a collaborative visualisation of an event design and its experience
through a mind map or flowchart to capture people’s input visually and
encourage deeper conversation about suitability.
Quantitative:
•• Calculate a monetary assessment of various economic costs and benefits;

•• Use online or hard-copy questionnaires to collect feedback from stakeholders;
•• Make “guesstimates” of user numbers and ticket sales based on previous event
design successes or expectations.
An event designer should make sure that, after the planning stage, the team have a
firm idea of the success that the event design will bring. Then the event design project
proposal is ready to be “pitched” to the key decision-makers.
RESEARCH NOTE
Dwyer, L., Jago, L. and Forsyth, P. (2016) Economic evaluation of special events: Reconciling economic
impact and cost–benefit analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 16(2), 115–129.
Abstract:
The aims of event assessment are often unclear. Failure to clarify objectives has resulted in a less than
satisfactory approach to event evaluation given that the two major approaches, economic impact analy-
sis (EIA) and cost–benefit analysis (CBA), can give conflicting results. Since economic impacts do not
equate to net benefits, an important topic for future research should be the issue of reconciling EIA and
CBA. An approach is recommended that bridges the gap between EIA and CBA, in a way that has policy
relevance for destination managers. Bridging this gap calls forth a host of challenges that must be met
by researchers in the future.
Keywords: event assessment, impacts, costs, benefits
143
Business proposal
Matthews (2016, p. 86) defines a business proposal as a “marriage of the creative ideas
generated after being asked to bid on a project … with the producer’s knowledge of
resources”. In a business proposal, you put together all the information about the
designed event in a form of a template or project. An event concept, desired expe-
riences, venue specifications, décor ideas, itinerary, catering, project deadlines and
milestones – everything should be presented in a clear and consistent way to convince
a client of your ability to deliver a project. The proposal should be prepared in a pro-
fessional and creative way; it should match the client’s objectives and satisfy time and
budget requirements.
A successful proposal should include the following content:
•• Company background and value proposition. In this section of a proposal document,

you should briefly describe the history of the company, its values and what dis-
tinguishes you from competitors. It is beneficial to include a couple of references
from clients, images and some data about past events. This section will help your
prospective clients to see your credibility and unique position in the market. Also
introduce key members of the team, providing photos and biographical sketches.
RESEARCH NOTE
Westerbeek, H. M., Turner, P. and Ingerson, L. (2002). Key success factors in bidding for hallmark sport-
ing events. International Marketing Review, 19(3), 303–322.
Abstract:
Hallmark sporting events often are commercially driven entertainment entities which represent an eco-
nomically important part of the overall sport industry. Because of the high popularity of international
sporting contests, hallmark sporting events attract significant commercial, media and consumer atten-
tion. Cities around the world are beginning to understand the potential of using these events to draw
attention to the host city, which is why the market for hallmark sporting events is becoming increasingly
competitive. In order to award the hosting of the event to the most suitable organizer, event owners often
require potential hosts to bid. The most important elements in this process have been largely based on
logical assumptions rather than empirical data. This study focused on the bid process in order to ascer-
tain the important elements essential in achieving a successful bid. Using an international sample of 135
event owners and organizers, principal components analysis delivered eight factors that were deemed
critical in the process of bidding for hallmark sporting events. The findings are discussed in relation to
previous research along with their managerial implications.
Keywords: tendering, sport, marketing planning
144
Pitching and winning 10
CHAPTER
•• A detailed description of the event concept designed. This section should describe and
explain all the critical elements such as décor, audio and video solutions, lighting,
colours, visual technologies and other effects. Make sure this section contains
attractive graphics, images, 3D plans and models. This is the main part of the
document. It should clearly explain the uniqueness and authenticity of the event.
•• Project management and budgeting. This section should introduce a detailed plan
for the event, including a timeframe, responsibilities, checkpoints and estimated
costs.
Formatting is essential as the proposal should physically look attractive. Consider

using high-quality paper, colour printing, readable fonts and quality binding. Overall,
your project proposal should demonstrate and communicate your creativity, profes-
sionalism and industry experience. Ideally you should aim to produce a “piece of art”
to convince the client to choose your company or agency for their next event.
Business pitching
Pitching is a physical act of presenting event design ideas and concepts to the client or
key decision-maker. This is a stage “at which a competitive contract to run an event is
won or lost” (Berridge, 2010, p. 209). In his research paper “Event pitching: The role of
design and creativity”, Berridge (2010, p. 214) highlights several critical requirements
for a successful pitching strategy:
•• Explore a client brief in detail, as sometimes it could be misleading or vague;

•• Do background research on the client and their past events;
•• Pinpoint the most important buying criteria (e.g., price, novelty, timeframes) and
understand who will make the final decision;
•• Have a contingency plan, as a client can suddenly change the requirements and
criteria;
•• Research current trends in the industry;
•• Be creative and challenge assumptions.
The key points to consider in a good presentation are communications, preparation,

rehearsal and delivery (Figure 10.1).
Communications
Presentations are communications. Think about the obstacles to communication before
creating and delivering your presentation. These could be psychological, in that the
person or people to whom you are presenting your event design idea could have very
fixed ideas about what they want and you might have to persuade them to see things
differently. Alternatively, the obstacles could be physical, such as the environment that
145
Communications Preparation Rehearsal Delivery
Figure 10.1 Four stages of a pitch presentation.
you are presenting in, or the time available. Try to break down the obstacles in your
preparation and delivery.
Preparation
Whatever the situation, preparation is the key to success. By preparing the material, the
environment and yourself, you will be able to speak competently and look confident.
Your audience will forgive a few nerves or an occasional mistake – you are only human.
What they won’t forgive is that you are unprepared. This gives them the feeling that
they are not worth your time and effort and that they are wasting precious time. This
seriously affects how they feel about listening to you.
The first stage in preparing a presentation is to decide what you are trying to achieve.
What is the purpose of the presentation? Is it to present an idea and have an open
discussion, or to persuade the audience that your event design idea is a winning idea
and to make a decision in its favour? What ideas, exactly, should your audience mem-
bers have in their heads when you have finished? Are you covering information that
you expect them to remember – or do you need to back up your talk with notes or a
handout?
The second stage is to define your audience. Who are they? Are they a mixed bunch in
terms of what you are trying to do – or can you regard them as the same? What is their
level of understanding of, interest in, current knowledge of and prejudices about the
subject? Who might give you a problem? What might be awkward questions?
The third stage is to define the context. Where will the presentation take place? How
much time is available? When would be the best time of day, or day of the week? If
there is no choice, what are the implications of time?
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CHAPTER
When you have answered these questions, you can then:
•• Write down the key subject areas that you need to cover with the audience;
•• Decide which are the main, vital points and supporting points;
•• Leave out irrelevant ones;
•• Arrange the points in a logical sequence;
•• Prepare a written handout if required;
•• Prepare the place if necessary;
•• Make sure you have a space with no distractions;
•• Provide seating if the pitch is going to be longer than 15 minutes;
•• If you have visual aids, make sure they can be seen by everyone.
Rehearsal
With practice, you will be confident and be able to develop your own personal com-
fortable style. Practise to get the timing right and make sure you emphasise the right
points and so that you don’t have to read. If you do it will sound like the written word
and will bore the audience.
Delivery
The classic plan is to tell the audience what you are going to tell them in the introduc-
tion, tell them in the main part of the presentation and summarise what you have told
the audience in the conclusion.
In your introduction, use ABCD:
•• Attention – get your audience’s attention;

•• Benefits – tell them the benefits of listening to you, what they will get out of the
next 10–15 minutes;
•• Credentials – tell them who you are and why they should listen to you (your expe-
rience, the research you have carried out in preparing the event design);
•• Direction – tell them what you are going to talk about and what you are going to
cover.
Tell the audience how long they are expected to give their attention and whether it
is to be a straight talk or whether there will be something visual. Indicate when you
would like the questions to be asked. Inform the audience if there will be any notes
or paper to take away. If you can introduce the topic clearly and confidently, this will
help to settle any nerves, maintain confidence throughout the presentation and let the
audience know that they are going to get something of value and that it is worth their
concentration.
147
Main part
Use structure to build on ideas. Provide the audience with the points in a logical
sequence. You may need to explain your logic as part of the introduction. If it is a long
talk or covers a range of points, you may need to summarise at intervals. Keep the audi-
ence’s attention by using involving activities such as question and answer, products or
items to look at and possibilities for feedback. Overall, have a story to tell. Find the best
and appropriate way to convey your main points to the audience in an engaging and
interesting way.
Conclusion
Tell them what you have told them – summarise. This slows the mind of the audience
down to a stop and re-impresses the vital points. Take questions and/or discussion if
you haven’t done so as you went along. End on a strong point – usually reminding
them of what is the key point or points.
Overall, a good pitch presentation should convince the audience of your credibility
and the value and feasibility of the proposed project. To achieve a desirable outcome,
a presenter should thoughtfully use diverse visual aids, pay attention to their voice
tempo and body language and strategically moderate Q & A (question and answer)
time.
RESEARCH NOTE
Ilieva-Koleva, D. N. (2014). Methods for perfecting presentation skills, Economy & Business Journal,
International Scientific Publications, Bulgaria, 8(1), 508–515.
Abstract:
Presentation skills are crucial for the nowadays managers and business people. This article aims to
examine different traditional and unconventional methods for enhancing and perfecting presenta-
tion skills. It provides suggestions on how to structure a presentation, what type of verbal language to
include, and pays significant attention to body language during presentations, as well as to the relation
between the presenter and the audience. The paper highlights a variety of instruments and techniques
applicable to every individual in search of presentation perfection.
Keywords: communication, business communication, neuro-linguistic programming, presentations,

presentation skills, perfecting presentation skills
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CHAPTER
Dos and don’ts of a pitch presentation

Figure 10.2 summarises essential tips for a successful pitch.
Visual aids
Do
•• Choose the appropriate type of visual aid. Use visual aids and props to add
impact and interest – be creative;
•• Ensure that all pre-prepared aids are high quality;
•• Ensure that they are visible/audible to everyone;
•• Remember that size is important;
•• Write neatly on flipcharts – this requires practice. Practise writing on flip-
charts without turning your back on the audience;
•• Use pictures/graphs/photographs and so on rather than text where possible;
•• Know how to use your equipment and set your stage – practise before the audi-
ence arrives;
•• Turn the projector off to refocus audience attention on you when you have
finished using aids, or blank the screen;
•• Stop talking while handling visual aids – your movement will be more riveting
than your words;
•• Pause your presentation if you pass “props” round the audience – don’t com-
pete for their attention;
•• Tell people in advance about handouts available (but give them out at the end
unless you specifically want the audience to be referring to them during the
presentation).
Visual
Aids
Successful
Pitching
Voice and
Questions
Body
Figure 10.2 Elements of a successful pitch presentation.
149
Don’t
•• Use too many different types of visual aids;

•• Let the aids take over – they are the icing; you are the cake;
•• Overcomplicate visuals – keep them clear and simple;
•• Look at/talk to the screen or flip chart.
Voice and body

Do
•• Vary the speed, volume and tone of your voice to maintain interest and to
emphasise key points;
•• Allow your regional accent to add “personality”;
•• Use short “spoken” sentences and phrases rather than “written” language;
•• Imagine that the person furthest away from you is slightly deaf;
•• Use pauses for effect (emphasise, signposting) and to give audience time to
digest information;
•• Maintain eye contact with whole audience – it reminds them of their responsi-
bility to listen and use eye contact to gain feedback on the audience’s reactions;
•• Assume a positive posture – don’t slouch or fold your arms in front of you;
•• Move around naturally. Be aware of distracting mannerisms. Use hand and
arm gestures to reinforce your message – let your body “move in time with
your words”;
•• Regard yourself as the key visual aid to your presentation.
Don’t
•• Speak too quickly;
•• Use slang/dialect or jargon that the audience will not understand;
•• Focus eye contact on a single victim – they will be too uncomfortable to listen
and everyone else will feel excluded;
•• Pace up and down – have an imaginary boundary beyond which you will not
venture;
•• Sway from side to side or practice tap dance steps;
•• Jangle loose change in your pockets (in fact, consider very carefully the effect
of putting hands in pockets);
•• Fiddle with pens and pointers – put them down when they’re not in use;
•• Point at members of the audience.
Questions
Do
•• Anticipate likely questions/objections and prepare your response;

•• Tell people when and how you wish to take questions;
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•• Allow questions during the presentation to ensure understanding and pro-

mote a more participative atmosphere if you feel you can cope;
•• Take the question from the questioner but answer the whole audience;
•• Clarify the question/issue and repeat it so that the whole audience can hear;
•• Record problems on a flipchart/board and move away from it to reduce the
feeling of personal attack;
•• Bounce pointed questions back to the questioners – often they asked it because
they have a view they wish to express;
•• Offer to find out information if you are unable to answer a question – and do it;
•• Keep answers concise and to the point;
•• Thank the questioner and “praise” interesting questions.
Don’t
•• Become defensive or aggressive when asked a difficult or challenging question;

•• Feel that you have to answer all the questions – someone else in the audience
may be able to answer for you, or you can ask management to clarify if you are
giving a management briefing;
•• Fall into the trap of bluffing, however tempting it may be. If you are found out,
the credibility of everything else you have said will be in doubt;
•• Let questions/interruptions lead the presentation. If the issue will be covered
later in the presentation, ask the questioner to “hold onto their question”. If it
is irrelevant or likely to take up a lot of time, suggest that it is discussed after
the presentation.
Summary
The content of this chapter was constructed around business case development, pro-
posal preparation and project pitching. We explored the ways your design ideas can
be transformed into a valuable and attractive business proposal. The chapter provided
insights on how to prepare and deliver a successful pitch presentation and convince
the client or other decision-maker of your competence, professionalism and credibility.
The next chapter will discuss creative marketing.

•• An event design needs to be suitable, acceptable and feasible. The role of a business
case is to clearly communicate the value and feasibility of the project proposed;
•• A proposal document should contain your company’s detailed description, an
analysis of the suggested event design concepts, project management plan and
budget considerations;
•• Pitching is an important stage of event design project realisation. At this stage,
a client makes a decision to sign a contract or not. Your ability to communicate
151
clearly your ideas, the quality of the presented materials and engagement with the
audience play a critical role in delivering a successful pitch presentation.

•• Apply a business case model to your current event project. Discuss its economic,
commercial, financial and management aspects.
•• What are the key components of a business proposal? What other materials or
documents can we add?
•• Work in groups. The topic of your pitch presentation is “Eggs”. When we say “eggs”,
what pops into your mind? Be creative. Prepare and deliver a sales pitch. Convince
the audience to buy your eggs! Pay attention to your visual aids, body language and
voice tempo. Discuss with the rest of the class positive aspects of your presentation
and elements to improve.
Further reading
•• Berridge, G. (2010). Event pitching: The role of design and creativity. International Journal
of Hospitality Management, 29, 208–215.
The article discusses the role of design and creativity in the pitch phase of an event bid.
It provides useful insights from the practitioners.
•• Varga, S. (2009). Brilliant pitch: What to know, do and say to make the perfect pitch. Pearson
Education UK.
Easy-to-read book with lots of insights on how to prepare and deliver a pitch
presentation.
References
Berridge, G. (2010). Event pitching: The role of design and creativity. International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 29, 208–215.
Dwyer, L., Jago, L. and Forsyth, P. (2016). Economic evaluation of special events: Reconciling
economic impact and cost–benefit analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism,
16(2), 115–129.
Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The process (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
PRINCE2. (2018). Prince2.com. Available at: www.prince2.com/uk. Accessed 7 March 2018.
Tanner, M. B., Kunzi, A., Friedli, T. L. and Muller, H. (2018). Event performance index: A holistic
evaluation tool. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 9(2), 166–182.
152
11 Creative marketing
Valentina Gorchakova
•• Applicability of the 4 Ps, 7 Ps and other marketing frameworks to creative marketing

events; customer value
•• Scaling the ambition of an event; audience value
•• The event attendees value model; social media
•• Understanding the “core” audience;
digital authenticity
•• Social currency;
•• Key elements of digital authenticity.
This chapter is divided into two parts. In the first part, we introduce several contempo-
rary marketing concepts that can be effectively applied to events. The chapter reviews
how a creative approach can be helpful in the application of existing frameworks and
models. We discuss the effects that the ambition and value of an event have on its
marketing, and how understanding the “core” audience can be useful in delivering a
memorable experience for the event audience. The second part of the chapter explores
the ways event marketers can communicate effectively with the audience using digital
marketing across various online platforms.
Defining creative marketing

Marketing is a function of business that is dynamic and fluid, and sometimes unpre-
dictable. In the events context, it is also very much “social” and “personal” at the
same time, as each participant will relate to, and make their own meaning of an event,
which is a social occurrence by nature. Having so many components and variables,
along with the changes happening in the wider environment that affect the audience’s
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CHAPTER 11 Valentina Gorchakova
expectations, lifestyles, choices and ways of engaging with events, makes the task of an
event marketer demanding and challenging but also highly creative and entertaining.
Based on the discussion of the meaning of “creativity” in Chapter 1 and in the manage-
ment literature (e.g., Bilton, 2007), the following three notions are applicable to creative
marketing:
1. The marketing-related idea, activity or combination of those is novel in some way;

2. The event designers and marketers are given the freedom to think in a different,
innovative way;
3. The marketing idea is valuable and useful in the context of a given event.
Marketing has come a long way from being focused on what is produced, to now being
focused on what customers want and what society needs. Over the years, marketers
have devised various frameworks and models, and many of them are helpful in struc-
turing marketing activities. As the complexity and pace of the external environment
increases, it is necessary to think more flexibly and adjust those frameworks and mod-
els to specific contexts, approaching the same type of events differently and embracing
new perspectives.
The “P”s
The “Marketing Mix” was introduced back in the 1960s (Borden, 1964; McCarthy,
1964). It identified the key elements – the 4 Ps – that, if carefully blended together,
could made marketing of products successful. The 4 Ps and their basic meanings are:
Product – the benefits that a customer receives by purchasing a product;

Place – the location where the customer purchases the product;
Promotion – the means used to deliver a message about the product;
Price – the total cost the customer has to incur to get a product.
Booms and Bitner (1982) expanded the 4 Ps to 7 Ps, making the framework more rel-
evant for the marketing of services. They added:
People – employees of a company, who play a significant role in the service encounter
that a customer has;
Process – the same standard of the service delivered at various touchpoints by different
employees;
Physical evidence – the physical representation that the service, otherwise intangible,
has happened.
Although applicable to events, the 7 Ps framework does not incorporate fundamental

components specific to the event industry. Several scholars have suggested variations
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C reative marketing 11
CHAPTER
of the Ps for events (Getz, 2005; Allen et al., 2010; Bowdin et al., 2011), including the
addition of:
Programming – an event’s programme and its distinctive features;

Partnerships – relationships and arrangements with event stakeholders;
Packaging – framing the event experience and finding ways to add value;
Positioning – creating an image of and positioning the event relative to competitors;
Product experience – to underline the experiential nature of events (Figure 11.1).
Whilst thinking about all these elements is undoubtedly vital for event marketing, the
multiple-Ps framework may sometimes look cumbersome and overly focused on find-
ing the right “P-word” for a phenomenon that requires creativity and flexibility. There
Product
Product Place
experience
Positioning Promotion
Packaging Price
Event
Partnerships People
Programming Process
Physical
evidence
Figure 11.1 The Ps of the marketing mix for events.
155
are, however, three critical questions, the answers to which will arguably determine
the marketing strategy for a particular event. These are:
1. What are the ambition and value of the event?

2. What audience will want to come to the event, and why?
3. What are the ways communication can take place with the audience?
In the following sections, each of the questions will be discussed in detail, providing
valuable insight on how to creatively compose a successful marketing campaign for a
planned event.
The ambition and value of an event

Ambition is a term that holds a wider, and stronger, meaning, than, for, instance, “aim”,
and refers to a strong wish to achieve something (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.). Being
creative often means being ambitious, as thinking in unconventional ways comes not
solely with the knowledge of a purpose, but also with the desire to achieve this purpose
and the willingness to devise innovative approaches and try a new modus operandi.
The event ambition should be laid out clearly at the stage of concepting (see Chapter 4),
because it will affect the work on the rest of the marketing activities. The ambition will
be transmitted in the marketing communications and will guide the choice of partners
and overall market positioning.
There are many types of events, and they all are different in scale, orientation, loca-
tion and format, but each one of them has a distinct purpose and a wider ambition.
For example, the ambition of a charity event can be not only to fund-raise (purpose)
but also to raise national or international awareness of a cause. The ambition of a trade
show or exhibition can be to promote sustainable businesses and educate; local fairs
are designed not only to entertain (purpose), but also to bring communities together
and build strong bonds between residents (ambition). It is best when such ambitions
are clearly articulated from the very beginning of the event design project, as the main
message will then be communicated to the potential audiences through a variety of
channels and across different touchpoints.
Importantly, every event stakeholder can have their own reasons and different pur-
poses for their support or involvement with the event (see Chapter 8), but the overarch-
ing ambition of the event should be shared to ensure consistency of the message to the
audience. Event marketers also need to be mindful of all the partnerships and sponsor-
ships of an event, as those will have implications for the event’s marketing plan. For
instance, an event with a focus on sustainability can suffer significant damage to its
attendance and reputation if one of its stakeholders is notoriously unsustainable. The
right fit, on the other hand, can enhance the image of an event and extend its reach.
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In event marketing, the value of an event is dependent upon how the audience per-
ceives the benefits of attending it in relation to the sacrifice that is related to its attend-
ance (Figure 11.2).
The key perceived benefits can be split into four major groups: experiential – what audi-
ence can experience at the event; hedonic – what is pleasurable and enjoyable; social –
the benefits that come from socialising with other attendees, spending time with
family and friends; and image, including self-image – how popular the event is and how
attending this event will reflect on the attendee in general; for example, what it says
about their interests, hobbies, music preferences or fitness aspirations.
However, it is important to ensure that the value offered by the event outweighs the
perceived “sacrifice” that a participant will have to make. To attend an event, a person
will need to spend money (monetary costs) – on tickets and/or transport to get to the
event, on hotel nights when the event takes place over a few days and other expenses,
for example, merchandise and food. Even when no money is to be spent, participa-
tion requires an attendee to at least dedicate their time and energy to an event – time
and energy that could otherwise be spent elsewhere. There may also be psychological
costs involved; for example, preparation for and running a marathon requires not only
physical but also psychological efforts. There is also the potential psychological cost of
making the wrong decision and not being satisfied with the visit afterwards.
Perceived Perceived
Benefits Sacrifice
Experiential Monetary Costs
Image (and self-

Time
image)
Social Energy
Hedonic Psychological Costs
Figure 11.2 Events attendee value model. Adapted from Fahy and Jobber (2012, p. 6).
157
The value of an event, according to this model, will be identified by a potential attendee
when perceived benefits from attending the event are deemed to exceed the expenses
and other sacrifices that will, or are likely to, be incurred. The implication for event
designers and marketers is therefore to identify benefits that will help to create and
communicate an event’s value and combine them in a way that the value is perceived
by the audience to be higher than the sacrifice.
The audience
This section explains what audience centricity is, as well as the process of market seg-
mentation. It then differentiates between the “core” and “peripheral” audience and dis-
cusses the importance of sensing the changes in the external environment. The section
also introduces an audience value model and considers its key components.
Audience centricity and market segmentation

Audience centricity is a term suggested based on the customer centricity concept (e.g.,
Derbuyne, 2014; Komulainen and Saraniemi, 2019; Osakwe, 2019) that applies to the
marketing of products and services. It means that the event focuses on the audience and
their needs and wants. Audience centricity stipulates that if you are designing an event for
a group of people, you should be aware of who those people are and what their needs and
wants in relation to the event may be. Therefore, understanding the audience, along with
their decision-making process and influences, comes at the forefront of event marketing.
Clearly, different events attract different audiences. One of the key goals of marketing
is to find user groups homogeneous enough to respond to specific publicity but large
enough to warrant a part of the publicity budget (Jeffries, 1971). The process of market
segmentation determines the communication and publicity decisions, for example,
what to say, how to say it and when, where, and who should say it (Andreasen and
Kotler, 2008). Market segmentation acknowledges the fact that customers are different,
and their needs, wants and buying behaviour are different, too. It can be understood as
the “identification of individuals or organisations with similar characteristics that have
significant implications for the determination of marketing strategy” (Fahy and Jobber,
2015, p. 118). Event design teams need to consider which segments of the overall popu-
lation will be more interested in the event and who it will provide more value to.
During the process of segmentation, groups of potential attendees with a number of

similar audience characteristics are identified and further divided into smaller groups.
Reic (2017) identifies five main audience segments. These are:
•• Geographic: location of the audience, for example, in towns, cities, regions or coun-
tries. A small local event may be unlikely to attract crowds from across the country,
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so, for example, marketing a community event across the country may not be sen-
sible. Marketing a major event widely, however, such as a Grand Slam tournament
or a Champions League final, is perfectly appropriate. The geographical catchment
area – whether it is a walk time, a drive time or a flight time – needs to be identi-
fied. The scale of an event, its background and its history will have to be realisti-
cally evaluated in the context of geographical appeal.
•• Demographics: age, sex, family, lifecycle, socio-economic characteristics, income
level and ethnicity. Those metrics can be a good predictor of the audience’s inter-
ests and behaviours. For example, whether an event is or is not family-friendly will
have a direct impact on how it is marketed.
•• Geodemographics mixes geographic and demographic data.
•• Psychographics attempts to segment according to the psychological profiles of peo-
ple in terms of their lifestyles, attitudes and personalities. What are the underly-
ing motives for people to attend this type of event? Why would they choose to
spend their time there? The reasons may vary significantly, from the convenience
of attending an event and interest in the cause or topic to the prestige associated
with attendance. Those with positive attitudes towards the ambition and format
of an event can be encouraged to attend with lesser marketing efforts, whilst those
indifferent to them may require more resources.
•• Behavioural addresses behaviour patterns in relation to event attendance. For
example, there may be a group of active event-goers, or those who visit events
infrequently. The matter of price sensitivity can be considered – what segments are
willing to pay for event attendance, and how much. Some people may have spe-
cific reasons to attend, for example, to socialise or to learn something, or to hear a
favourite singer or to see the works of a favourite painter. Clarity of the perceived
benefits can be particularly helpful in working through this type of segmentation,
as the attendees of the same event may have a similar demographic mix but dis-
tinct behavioural tendencies.
Some researchers (e.g., Petkus, 2004) suggest that the arts and cultural sector – and many
events can be classed as “cultural” – considers segmentation based on the differentiated
experiences sought rather than on psychographics and demographics. An experiential
basis for segmentation can include the key experiences that event participants are look-
ing for, for instance, family fun or an “adults only” night out, a sense of belonging to
a community of like-minded people, learning something new, experiencing feelings
of liveliness and excitement, connecting with the past or feeling good about oneself. It
would be useful for marketers to learn more about the specific experiences their audience
is looking for, so that the event designers can try to meet these expectations fully.
“Core” and “peripheral” audience

It is a responsibility of an event marketer to think carefully about the segmentation
criteria. Although across different events, some bases of segmentation will be more
159
relevant than others, it is likely that several of them will be part of the segmentation
process. As there is often a mixture of participants and attendees from different geo-
graphical locations who have various demographic traits, the less obvious but more
insightful psychographic, behavioural and experiential bases can be those that offer
more cognisance of who the “core” audience is – those who will be most interested in
the event.
Knowing your “core” audience is of paramount importance for the following reasons:
•• Event promotion activity can be more effective and efficient;

•• The audience’s interests, motivations and wants will have implications for event
design, including the set-up of the event space, timing, logistics, programming,
choice of menu and even the main colours and visual identity of the event;
•• These are the people who are likely to feel more enthusiastic before the event and
more satisfied with their experience after, which can generate positive word-of-
mouth communication.
The audience-centricity approach stipulates that the segmentation process relies more
on the psychological, behavioural and experiential bases, while at the same time
understanding the basic geodemographic characteristics of the audience. As event mar-
keters define the key target segments, the motivations of potential attendees become
clearer, too. Those can be related to self-actualisation, socialisation, excitement, nov-
elty, entertainment, fulfilment of business or family needs, affiliation, aesthetics and
so on. Event designers should work closely with marketers to identify the key traits of
the target audience and make sure the event is designed in a way that will meet the
expectations of members of those audiences, especially the “core” audience.
The better event marketers understand the event’s “core” audience, the more accurate
and efficient the marketing campaign can be, and the more punctilious the event
design. There are, however, other types of attendees, “peripheral” attendees, who should
not be neglected. These groups may or may not be interested in the event, but they
need to be considered as part of the segmentation process. This is particularly impor-
tant for recurring events – those that will be organised at some point again – because
the “peripheral” audience may also become a “prospective” audience and progress to
the “core” audience in the following years.
Being able to recognise the changing dynamics of the wider environment that affect
audience preferences, choices, habits and interests is part of the forward-looking
audience-centric approach to marketing. Among the most recent trends that need to be
taken into account are the focus on wellbeing, health and self-care; sustainability and
awareness of impacts on the environment and society; expansion of the digital envi-
ronment and accessibility of digital tools; changes in demographics and generations;
increased mobility as people move to live and work around the world; and cultural
diversity. These are some of the trends that event designers need to be mindful of, as
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C reative marketing CHAPTER 11
RESEARCH NOTE
Xing, X., Chalip, L., and Green, B. C. (2014). Marketing a social experience: How celebration of subculture
leads to social spending during a sport event. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 23(3), 138–147.
Abstract:
The social experience that attendees obtain at a sport event has been shown to play a vital role in their
overall evaluation of an event and the likelihood that they will return in the future. The purpose of this
study is to identify factors that determine the amount of spending to support social experiences at an
event. Spending to support social experience includes nonessential spending to eat in restaurants, drink
alcoholic beverages, shop, and take tours. These categories of spending (as a percent of total spending)
at an event are expected to derive from attendees’ identification with the sport’s subculture, their level of
social motivation, and the sense of community that is fostered at the event. These expectations are tested
using SEM on data collected from 218 adult women at a national women’s football tournament. Results
revealed that identification with the women’s football subculture significantly predicted social motiva-
tion; social motivation significantly predicted sense of community; and sense of community significantly
predicted social spending. Findings suggest that event management fostering a sense of community
among attendees will enhance social spending, and that appeals to social motivation and subcultural
identity are useful tools to promote a sense of community among attendees.
changes in the wider environment will affect the way events are conceived, organised
and promoted.
The art of marketing communications

In the events context, marketing communications can be understood as the coordination
of all marketing and promotional tools, as well as any messages sent by event organ-
isers and relevant stakeholders, so that the audience receives a consistent, credible,
persuasive and competitive message about the event. The main objective of marketing
communication is, essentially, to persuade the people who have been identified in the
segmentation process to attend the event. Event marketers can use a range of strategies,
tactics and media (marketing communication mix), including:
•• Advertising: brochures, posters, newspapers and magazines, radio;

•• Direct marketing: leaflets, brochures distributed on the streets;
•• Digital promotion: use of digital media to promote events;
•• Sales promotion: early bird registrations;
•• Public relations: communicating information related to the event through the
media.
161
Promotional messages can be based on verbal information, appealing more to the intellect
of the audience; or on visual information, appealing to the emotions of potential attendees.
As events are experiential and amorphous in nature, the message is often based around the
emotional dimension, using images and some verbal elements that try to elicit a response
and persuade people to visit the event. Engagement in the “semiotics” of an advertisement
is a creative process, and is highly relevant for events for the following reasons:
•• Advertisements are texts where signs, typically words and images, and brand logos,
are interlinked within carefully orchestrated processes of creating and conveying
a promotional message;
•• Advertisements engage target audiences – and others – via media communication
and textual signification;
•• Audiences connect with advertisements through interpretive and affective pro-
cesses of semiotic engagement (MacRury, 2009, p. 189–190).
The visuals should be meticulously developed so that the meaning of the images and
words used are in line with the overall design of the event. They convey the intended
message. Advertisements are classed as mass marketing (Jobber and Ellis-Chadwick,
2013), due to their ability to reach not just the “core” audience but a wider population,
and therefore, the potential impact can be quite high. The marketing messages inevita-
bly pass through interpretation and meaning-making when target audiences mentally
engage with the advertisement. The combination of “signs”, as well as their size, loca-
tion and colour, are used as cues in this appraisal process.
Digital marketing
Most events nowadays heavily rely on digital marketing. This reflects their profoundly
social nature and, consequently, the high degree of adoption of the most recent trends.
At the same time, marketing in the online space brings interaction with the potential
audience on a different level, one where co-creation rather than promotion dominates.
Because people have access to digital information on their devices, digital marketing
may be the fastest way to connect and communicate with the potential audience of a
planned event. Combining the terms marketing and web 2.0, the notion of marketing
2.0 is often used to refer to the use of digital technologies in communication, includ-
ing creation of user-generated content, as well as discovering new ways of interacting
and co-creating value with customers. In event marketing, building an online presence
seems indispensable. What needs to be planned for is the scale of the presence, and
consideration should be given to the event’s size, its ambition, resources, target audi-
ence and the promotional mix that are all parts of the communication strategy.
Digital tools are useful in so-called viral marketing – the online equivalent of word-of-
mouth – when users spread a message using technologies. The content is passed around
162
quickly within a short period and can encompass hundreds and thousands of people.
An example is when someone tags their friends under a post about an event, inviting
them to come along. The exposure of an event to a wider audience increases, without
any additional effort or expense for the event marketers. Therefore, the posts should be
interesting, concise and exciting enough for the public to share. It is essential to cap-
ture the “core” audience in the beginning. Once the event resonates with their values,
viral marketing can start building up and attract other, “peripheral”, target groups.
Social currency
Nowadays, anyone who has an Internet connection and a mobile device can create
content that may affect an event – this may be in the form of a review, a comment, an
observation, a photo or a video. These media sources constitute user-generated content,
which can be an effective and low-cost promotional tool and an intrinsic part of the
RESEARCH NOTE
Trudeau, H. S. and Shobeiri, S. (2016). Does social currency matter in creation of enhanced brand experi-
ence? Journal of Product and Brand Management, 25(1), 98–114.
Abstract:
Purpose – This study aims to demonstrate the importance of the newly developed concept of social cur-
rency as an antecedent of brand experience in the context of cosmetics consumption. In other words, the
authors suggest that social currency could act as a brand experience provider.
Design/methodology/approach – Data collection was made through a paper and pencil survey. The
sample consisted mostly of undergraduate and graduate students recruited on a voluntary basis at a
large northeastern university. Self-administered questionnaires were filled by 373 participants, who
were instructed to think about their favourite brand when it comes to buying cosmetic products for
themselves.
Findings – Results showed that social currency positively impacts all four dimensions of brand expe-
rience, i.e. sensory, affective, behavioural and intellectual experiences. The findings also suggest that
conversation, advocacy and affiliation are the three significant dimensions of social currency when it
comes to the consumption of cosmetics.
Originality/value – This study reveals, for the first time, how the concept of social currency could
enhance a fundamental component of brand equity, i.e. brand experience. Another important contribu-
tion of this research is the establishment of higher levels of validity for the newly developed concept of
social currency. This study would also contribute to the investigation of brand experience antecedents,
which have been little addressed in the literature on the emerging paradigm of experiential marketing.
Keywords: consumer behaviour, brand evaluation, brand communities
163
CASE STUDY: DIGITAL CO-CREATION

AT GLASTONBURY FESTIVAL
Glastonbury Festival took place on 26–30 June 2019 in Somerset, England. Georgia Stanway, a footballer
who played for the England national team in the FIFA Women’s World Cup 2019, tweeted organisers
of the Glastonbury Festival asking if they could screen the team’s quarter-final game. The game was
to take place during the Festival, on the 27th of June, and Georgia’s brother was going to be at the
Festival on the day of the game. The organisers accommodated the request, tweaked the programme,
and screened the quarter-final game against Norway (Figure 11.3).
Figure 11.3 Tweet posted by the organisers of Glastonbury Festival.

Source: Screenshot by author, 5 July 2019.
event’s online presence. This content also keeps the social platforms interactive and
engaging, and thus the event’s page can benefit from higher traffic, or views, increasing
followers’ numbers and/or “likes” and in general creating more buzz around the event.
The event-related social interactions happening both online and offline can be under-
stood as an event’s social currency. The more people discuss an event, ask questions
and share information about it with one another, the higher the event’s social cur-
rency is. Much of the value-added content in social media is produced by the “creative
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consumers” who have become “dynamos of this new media world” (Berthon, Pitt,
Plangger, and Shapiro, 2012, p. 263). Similarly, creative participants and attendees have
become a source of creative marketing and generate value for the event, propelling new
ideas and contributing to co-creation and the event’s social currency.
Digital authenticity
As we learned in Chapter 2, authenticity is an important concept that event market-
ers and event designers should think of when planning for the promotion of events.
Digital authenticity is built on the following four pillars: accuracy, relevance, consistency
and worthiness (Figure 11.4).
Accuracy
Promising benefits or an experience that fails to happen can clearly be embarrassing
and have unpleasant consequences, such as poor feedback and complaints. Digital
authenticity implies that the information that is distributed online provides a potential
attendee with a genuine “picture” of the event – its tangible, intangible and experiential
elements. An alignment should exist between the digital representation of an event and
its reality. Placing a picture on a website or in a print medium would imply, for instance,
that the presence of a particular person, band or activity is justified by the fact that this
person, band or activity has confirmed they will be part of the event. Although it is not
always possible to use imagery that will be 100% accurate, the main premise of digital
authenticity is to be as close to the actual features of the event’s design as possible.
Participants and attendees will pick up the hints from the pictures of a venue or a place
that are used in the advertisement. A conference hall, a stage or an open space with
camper vans and stalls will all have different meanings about what type of an event
it is going to be and where it will take place. This is referred to as physical evidence;
customers of services do not get to see the actual, physical product, so are looking for
clues of tangibility. With events, tangible elements can be effectively communicated
through promotion, but the visuals used should be realistic and relevant, giving as
close an approximation of an event as possible.
Relevance
The tone of voice in social media is normally more personal and human than the for-
mal statements used in press releases. It is sensible, however, to adjust it to a specific
online platform, in some instances incorporating more professional vocabulary and
shorter commentary, and in others maintaining a tone of voice that is slightly more
informal and creating longer posts. A tone of voice that is inappropriate for a given
social media may sound unauthentic and, as a result, may not resonate with the audi-
ence in the way event marketers would hope it would.
165
Accuracy
of the online content used in event promotion
Relevance
of the language, content, and channels
Consistency
of the messages and colours, and with the event's ambition
Worthiness
of the information communicated
Figure 11.4 Four pillars of digital authenticity.
The language of the message is another important element of digital authenticity. A

post that may well be suitable for Facebook may not be appropriate for LinkedIn, which
is more formal; or for Twitter, which favours short posts. The photos that can be shared
on Instagram, or the sheer number of photos shared, may not be equally relevant for
all other social media. Therefore, there needs to be a masterfully measured balance
between the text and the visual content that will support the authenticity of the mes-
sage on a given online platform.
Consistency
No matter how many promotional channels are being engaged, it is critical that the
content of the messages about the event is consistent across all digital media. The
messages – visual, verbal or otherwise – should also reflect the event’s ambition and
be aligned with the event design, supporting the event’s integrated marketing com-
munications. If an event has developed a specific colour palette or a style used in print
advertisements, those need to also be adhered to in the digital media.
Worthiness
Another aspect to remember is that people will spend time reading or looking at the
content that is posted. With the huge amount of digital information we absorb daily,
the ability to be selective in what message to read and, consequently, which to post,
is essential. Using social media to advertise an event is appropriate, and in fact, it
should be used regularly to maintain interest and increase the anticipation of the
event. However, overusing social media can result in reduced effectiveness and a lack
of interest from prospective attendees. The information being shared needs to be news-
worthy, valuable or helpful, so it can capture the attention of the potential audience
and, ideally, generate comments and prompt sharing.
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Awareness of the audience orientation of the social media used, along with an under-
standing of the users, is crucial for creating an appropriate authentic message, com-
municating it in the most effective way, and establishing rapport with the audience.
Speaking the language of the audience, identifying the right channels and platforms to
communicate the message and fitting in with the chosen platform without compromis-
ing the event’s ambition and design are all part of digital authenticity.
Online platforms
YouTube, Instagram, Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn are arguably the most pertinent
social media for the digital marketing of events. Any of those platforms can be used
as part of the event’s communication strategy to reach out to the potential audience.
Event marketers can use one platform to boost their presence in another, for example,
by “tweeting” a post that is linked to a Facebook page.
As already discussed in the previous sub-section, the content that is used for social
networks should be tailored to a specific platform. Thus, Twitter is known for the brev-
ity of its posts. Although Twitter has increased the word count from 140 to 280 words,
this seems to have had little impact on the length of posts, with the majority being
under 50 characters so they can be read quickly. Facebook posts tend to be longer but
still need to be concise enough to keep the reader’s attention; they can include photos
or videos. The titles of the posts should be catchy, interesting and suitable for sharing.
To avoid flooding the main page of the event and the newsfeed of the followers, the
“Stories” area can be used, where pictures and videos are shown within 24 hours of
their upload to followers and “friends”.
Instagram requires a post with a picture. This space can be used for more creative
visual content and professional photographs. Hashtags are helpful across social media
in general, but they are particularly popular and widely accepted and employed on
Instagram. Hashtags allow an event to become part of larger themes and broaden the
reach of communication, as the posts will appear when users are viewing similar and
relevant content. The number of hashtags will vary across events and from post to post,
but it is advisable that this number provides enough coverage without losing the focus
of the event.
LinkedIn can be particularly useful for business events, such as a corporate conference
or a forum. LinkedIn offers opportunities to develop professional connections, join
networks and groups and contact people from all over the world. The images used, as
well as the style of the page and the content, should be more professional than, for
example, on Facebook, and with fewer images than on Instagram.
Below we present an overview of the key guidelines for the visual content on social
media that is most commonly used in events marketing.
167
FACEBOOK
In March 2019, on average, there were 1.56 billion daily active users (Facebook, 2019).
Facebook Business Page Profile Picture: 180 × 180 px, has a 1:1 aspect ratio.
Facebook cover image size: 820 × 312 px.
There is a possibility to add a cover video to the page; it should be at least 820 × 312 pixels (820 × 462
is best) and between 20 and 90 seconds.
Facebook event cover image size: 1920 × 1080; aspect ratio is 16:9.
You can also upload videos on the event’s page. Video ratio: 9:16 to 16:9.
Upload the highest-resolution video available that meets file size and ratio limits.
Video file size: 4 GB max.
Video length: 1 second to 240 minutes.
Video captions and sound are optional but recommended.
Text: 125 characters.
Headline: 25 characters.
Link description: 30 characters.
Facebook provides an interactive platform for 360° videos.
Aspect ratio for images is: 1.91:1. The sizes of images may vary, depending on the post, but should
not be less than 400 × 150 px. 1200 × 628 px. is often recommended, but can be bigger.
Sources: Boyd (2019), Facebook Business (n.d).
Figure 11.5 is an example of an event’s cover image on Facebook. Apart from the posts, the main page
shows recommendations and reviews, videos and the list of upcoming events.
Figure 11.5 The Facebook page of Manchester International Festival in the UK.

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TWITTER
126 million daily active users (Shaban, 2019).

Twitter profile picture size: 400 × 400 px.
The profile picture will be circular.
No minimum on image size but images will get pixelated the smaller they get.
Aspect ratio of 1:1.
Twitter image size: 1024 × 512 px.
2:1 aspect ratio.
The maximum file size is 5MB for images and 15MB for GIFs.
Twitter header photo size: 1500 × 500 px.
You can upload short videos with your tweets. Maximum file size is 512MB.
The length of a video should be between 1 second and 2 minutes and 20 seconds. Maximum video
length is 2 minutes and 20 seconds.
The show World of Wearable Art in Wellington uses its vibrant Twitter page to keep its followers engaged,
tweeting and retweeting other posts about the previous and upcoming event, sharing photos and videos
and other event-related news (Figure 11.6).
Figure 11.6 Twitter page of the World of Wearable Art Show (Wellington, New Zealand).
Source: Screenshot by author, 6 July 2019. Garment credit: Eye See You Fluffy Kōwhai, Tina Hutchison-Thomas, New Zealand.
INSTAGRAM
1 billion active monthly users (Dhillon, 2018).
Instagram profile picture size: 180 × 180 px.

A profile picture will display on the app at 110 × 100 px, but will be larger on desktop. Using a
180 × 180 image will ensure it looks good across all devices.
Aspect ratio of 1:1 for square photos, 4:5 for vertical images.
169
The logo will be cropped to a circle.

Instagram photo size: 1080 × 1080 px.
Limit: 1080 px.
Normally, square images are posted.
Instagram thumbnail image size: 161 × 161 px. This is how the picture will appear on someone’s
profile page or in a hashtag search, for example. But it will expand to 612 × 612 px, if someone
clicks on it.
The Instagram account of a major tennis tournament, the French Open (Roland-Garros), showcases crea-
tive and artistic photographs of the tennis players in action, visitors and tennis courts, and tries to cap-
ture the wider atmospherics surrounding the game (Figure 11.7).
Figure 11.7 Instagram account of Roland-Garros.

Source: Screenshot by author, 6 July 2019. Photos by N. Gouhier/C. Guibbaud/P. Ballet/J. Crosnier/FFT ©.
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LINKEDIN
More than 610 million users (LinkedIn, n.d.).
LinkedIn company profile picture size: 300 × 300 px.

The image will be cropped into a circle or a square, but there is an option to crop and zoom the
chosen image before uploading it.
LinkedIn company cover image size:
Maximum 1536 × 768 px.
Minimum of 1192 × 200 px.
Image size on a company’s or event’s page: 1200 × 627 px (must be more than 200 px wide) Aspect
ratio: 1.91:1
The image will be partly obscured.
File type: PNG or JPG.
Source: LinkedIn Help (n.d.)
The International Hotel Investment and Design Conference in Vienna uses its page on LinkedIn
(Figure 11.8) to keep its followers informed of the preparations for the event, upload interviews with indus-
try experts, post news related to the conference’s topic, thank its sponsors and publish announcements.
Figure 11.8 A page of the International Hotel Investment and Design Conference on LinkedIn.
171
YOUTUBE
Over 1.9 billion users. Every day, people watch over a billion hours of video (YouTube, n.d.).
An opportunity to create a channel for video content of the event.
The channel icon shows over the channel art banner. The default icon for the channel is the image associ-
ated with the Google Account. This image can be modified in Google Account settings.
Profile picture (channel icon) specifications

Format: JPG, GIF, BMP or PNG file (no animated GIFs).
Size: 800 × 800 px image (recommended).
Square or round image that renders at 98 × 98 px.
Channel art is shown as a banner at the top of the YouTube page.
Channel art looks different on desktop, mobile and TV displays – larger images may be cropped.
Size of the image: 2560 × 1440 px (recommended).
Minimum dimension for upload: 2048 × 1152 px.
Minimum safe area for text and logos: 1546 × 423 px. Larger images may get cropped on certain
views or devices.
Maximum width: 2560 × 423 px.
File size: 6MB or smaller.
Verified accounts can upload videos longer than 15 minutes. The maximum file size that can be
uploaded is 128GB or 12 hours, whichever is less.
Source: YouTube Help (n.d.).

Many major sports and cultural events have created a YouTube channel, such as Festival de Cannes,
Coachella music and arts festival, Eurovision song contest, Formula 1, Ironman Triathlon, and many oth-
ers. Video content is particularly helpful and widely used in the marketing of fashion shows (Harris, 2017).
The attention span of viewers of YouTube videos appears to be longer than on other social media, which
seems to indicate that viewers are ready to absorb bigger chunks of video content on this platform
(Smith, Toor, and Kessel, 2018). The Championships (Wimbledon) tennis tournament channel on YouTube
(Figure 11.9) posts highlights from tennis matches and interviews, video clips with funny moments,
match day reviews and other relevant video content. During the tournament, it is also used to broadcast
live from the courts (Figure 11.10).
Figure 11.9 YouTube channel of the Wimbledon Tournament.

Source: Screenshot by author, 7 July 2019. Credit: The All England Lawn Tennis Club, www.youtube.com/wimbledon.
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Figure 11.10 Live broadcast on Wimbledon YouTube channel.

Source: Screenshot by author, 8 July 2019. Credit: The All England Lawn Tennis Club, www.youtube.com/wimbledon.
Summary
This chapter presented several ways to apply creativity in events marketing. The
fast-paced evolution of the online environment, the accessibility of digital tools and
changes in attendees’ profiles, roles and expectations have influenced event marketing
in a remarkable way. Nowadays, event attendees participate in developing an event’s
social currency simply by talking about it and sharing information, generating the
buzz, and building a community, all of which is part of their everyday lives. Event
marketers and event designers, therefore, need to recognise the massive impact of the
communication happening in the digital space.
Any content posted about an event should be based not solely on the post’s, or publica-
tion’s or any other input’s merit, but in terms of its longer-term and wider contribution
to the event’s marketing strategy. After establishing the ambition of an event and iden-
tifying its value for the target audience, event marketers need to find the most effective
and authentic ways to communicate this value to the chosen audience. Whilst social
currency is difficult to measure, and as a concept is novel, it clearly can be conceived
of as an event’s asset, and as such, it deserves the attention and nurturing on the part
of event marketers.
Social currency is co-created with the audience; therefore, an understanding of the

audience, as well as the ability to sense their interests, motives and expectations at
173
the stage of preparation is critical for event design. The online space can be used for
building relationships with event attendees, by staying in touch with the participants
before, during and after the event. The more affiliation and engagement participants
experience since learning about the event up until it is finished, the more positive and
loyal they are likely to feel. These platforms can help to establish a special bond with
the audience, which becomes invaluable for reoccurring events.
Event marketers may, and indeed should, work together with event designers to devise
promotional communications that, rather than being based on the premises of per-
suasion, are instead a means of telling a story about the event – a means of building a
narrative around the experiences that can meet, if not exceed, visitors’ expectations.
The concept of “co-creation” – of experiences and meanings – is now at the forefront
in events marketing. The value of a conference, for example, is not in the speakers or
a venue but in the attendees, who partake in the creative consumption, and the value
of conference participation is the result of each attendee’s activities, meanings and
experiences. Acknowledging the role of event participants as experience co-creators
and, most importantly, giving them the authentic space to co-create and add value, is
an essential element of creativity in marketing. The closing chapter that follows intro-
duces and explains a six-step methodology to achieve environmental sustainability in
event design.

•• Lateral thinking can help event marketers and designers to generate ideas and/or
activities for an event that is novel, valuable and useful;
•• Understanding the ambition of an event is essential for the consistency of the mes-
sages used in marketing communications;
•• Audience centricity stipulates that event marketers and designers have the event’s
attendees’ wants at heart;
•• Understanding the interests and motivations of the “core” audience is important
not only for the marketing of an event but for the event design, too;
•• Social currency can become an event’s invaluable marketing asset, if managed
skilfully;
•• The four pillars of digital authenticity are accuracy, relevance, consistency and
worthiness.

•• Remember an event you attended when you had to weigh up the pros and cons
before deciding to attend it. Apply the Events attendee value model (Figure 11.2) and
discuss:
a. The benefits that you perceived you would get;
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.
b The perceived sacrifice associated with the attendance;
c. Whether you, as an attendee, were satisfied with the visit, and why?
•• Your group is planning an award ceremony for students and lecturers at the end
of academic year. Who will be the “core” and “peripheral” audience? What are the
implications of understanding their characteristics for the event design?
•• Select an event with an online presence that covers at least two online platforms.
Use the four pillars framework (Figure 11.4) to evaluate the authenticity of the event’s
digital content.
Further reading
•• Reic, I. (2017). Events marketing management: A consumer perspective. Abingdon,
England: Routledge.
The book discusses the specifics of events marketing, exploring both the event
organisers’ and event attendees’ perspectives. It reviews the key marketing concepts,
strategies and tactics in the context of events and uses international case studies.
•• Vaynerchuk, G. (2013). Jab, jab, jab, right hook: How to tell your story in a noisy social
world. New York, USA: HarperCollins.
Interactive and practically orientated, this book provides an overview of approaches
to managing social media. It looks at various social media platforms and discusses the
importance of adapting the content to specific platforms.
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12 Environmentally
sustainable
event design
Aurore Julien and Clare Mackay
•• Environmental impacts and legacies of events; environmental impacts

•• Key elements of sustainable event design. environmental legacies
sustainable event
design
Events are varied in terms of their type, scale, duration, location, time
of year and theme, and this leads to equally varied impacts. However, all
events involve impacts on or of ecology, transport, water, energy, lighting, noise
and waste. Sustainable event design should involve a deliberate attempt to
mitigate negative impacts and legacies for the greatest number of stakeholders while
leveraging the event to maximise positive impacts and legacies for the greatest number
of stakeholders. This chapter presents a six-step methodology for environmentally sus-
tainable event design. Although the chapter focuses on the environmental dimension
of sustainability, it should be borne in mind that the environmental impacts and lega-
cies of an event must be considered alongside – and balanced against – the social and
economic impacts and legacies of the event.
A six-step methodology for environmentally

sustainable event design
The model below depicts environmentally sustainable event design as a six-step linear
process for ease of understanding. In reality, the process is more iterative. For example,
although the impacts of the event should be identified at the outset, they will need to
be considered throughout the process. Similarly, although monitoring and evaluation
are presented at the end of the process, you will see as you read through the guidance
offered in this chapter that monitoring and evaluation must be considered when the
objectives are being set. The iterative nature of the methodology for designing environ-
mentally sustainable events should therefore be borne in mind when reading the rest
of the chapter (Figure 12.1).
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CHAPTER 12 Aurore Julien and Clare Mackay
STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP 5 STEP 6

Appoint Identify impacts Develop Policy Strategically Implement Evaluate
Sustainability and Objectives Design Event Plans
Manager Ecology Ecology and Monitor
Transport Transport Performance
Water Water
Energy Energy
Lighting Lighting
Noise Noise
Waste Waste
Figure 12.1 The six-step methodology for environmentally sustainable event design.
Step 1: Appoint a sustainability manager

The responsibility for sustainable event design and management must be assigned to an
individual with the power to influence decision making at board (senior management)
level. For large events, a dedicated and qualified environmental manager should be hired.
For smaller events, the manager can combine this role with their other responsibilities.
Step 2: Identify impacts

Identify and list the pre-, during and post-event environmental impacts associated
with your event. Some of the areas where environmental impacts can arise are dis-
cussed below.
Ecology
Repeated trampling by large numbers of attendees as well as staff and contractors,
equipment, parking and mooring can affect grass and vegetation and lead to the ero-
sion and compaction of the soil (David, 2009; Case, 2012; Holmes, Hughes, Mair, and
Carlsen, 2015). The soil can become less fertile and the vegetation cover sparser (Cole,
1993; Case, 2012). In addition, the compaction of the soil prevents rainwater from per-
meating through the soil, meaning that aquifers do not replenish as well. Waterlogged
soils are more susceptible to compaction, and so the problem will be worse after or
during rain. Once the soil is compacted, rainwater can erode the top layer of soil. This
erosion of the topsoil worsens flooding, destroys nutrients, prevents plant growth and
destroys habitat (Cole, 1993; Holmes et al., 2015). Erosion can also lead to siltation in
river beds, which is harmful to aquatic life (Chin, 2006).
Although events can lead to the regeneration of land, deforestation and conversion to
hard landscaping and buildings can reduce the natural habitat of animals. This can
affect their ability to feed and breed and cause their death or relocation. Where the
impacts are too substantial, an alternative site must be found. This was the case for the
Grass Festival in Byron Bay, Australia, which had to move to a different state following
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Environmentally sustainable event design 12
CHAPTER
the controversial application for a site on rural property adjacent to koala habitat
(Gibson and Wong, 2011).
Transport
On-site vehicles and event transportation contribute to the emission of toxic chemicals
such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and particles which can cause smog. This can
have a negative effect on the health of people with respiratory diseases. The carbon
emissions of vehicles also contribute to climate change.
Water
During an event, water is used for personal cleaning, showers and hygiene, drinking,
catering, laundry and the cleaning of facilities. A spike in water demand may prompt
the need for additional mains connections or mobile reservoirs. Supply may also be
needed for other purposes such as irrigation, damping dust and fire prevention.
Water pollution can occur through the contamination of groundwater, waterways and
water bodies. This may result from the spillage of oil, fuel, detergent, a sewage leak
or litter. Urine contamination can lead to water eutrophication, which is caused by
excess nutrients stimulating an overgrowth of algae. The build-up of algae and bacteria
in the water reduces light and oxygen levels and can produce toxins lethal to plants,
animals and people, such as botulinum (Case, 2012; Holmes et al., 2015). Glastonbury
Festival in the United Kingdom had to pay a £31,000 fine to the Environment Agency
after sewage from long-drop toilets leaked into the local Whitelake River in 2016.
The on-site measurement equipment detected a spike in pollution levels in the river
(Environmental Agency, 2016).
However, in some cases, an event can become an opportunity to improve the local
water quality: the 1992 Winter Olympic Games in France saw some improvements in
water quality and subsequent improvement in lakes following the event (May, 1995).
Energy
Events can cause high energy demands, adding a substantial load to the local mains
electricity and gas grids. These are sometimes not designed to cope with the increased
load, and in many cases additional sources of energy such as generators must be
installed. The burning of fossil fuels for energy contributes to local level air pollution
as well as climate change and acid rain at the macro level (Case, 2012). The latter can
damage trees and kill fish, alter soil chemistry, pollute waterways and erode buildings
(Barrow, 2006).
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The impacts of climate change on the event and climate change adaptation should be
considered as well. The increased risk of heat waves, for example, may lead to a rise
in air-conditioned indoor events (Yeoman, Rebecca, Mars and Wouters, 2012), caus-
ing greater CO2 emissions. The use of artificial snow due to a decrease in snow cover,
meanwhile, uses vast quantities of water (Day and Chin, 2018) and is energy inten-
sive, which further escalates carbon emissions (Campos Rodrigues, Freire-González,
González Puig and Puig-Ventosa, 2018). Event designers should avoid choosing climate
change adaptation strategies with negative environmental impacts.
Lighting
Night-time light pollution can affect the behaviour, reproduction and mortality of
wildlife (Gaston, Davies, Bennie and Hopkins, 2012). Light pollution can also affect
people’s sleep and is more apparent in rural areas than in urban areas (Case 2012).
The type and degree of light pollution varies substantially, from the use of lasers and
fireworks to flood lighting.
Noise
Noise is unwanted sound which can be caused by music stages, attendees, machinery,
fireworks or other displays, vehicle traffic, setup equipment and construction. For
people, noise pollution is an annoyance. Long or repeated exposure to sounds at 85
decibels or above can lead to temporary deafness, tinnitus and long-term damage to
hearing (National Institute on Deafness and Other Hearing Disorders, 2017).
In addition, many studies have found that animals change their behaviour when sub-
jected to loud noises. Fireworks, for example, can cause anxiety in people and animals
(Case, 2012). Thousands of red-winged blackbirds fell out of the sky and suddenly
died in Beebe, Arkansas, the United States, on New Year’s Eve 2010 (Shamoun-Baranes,
Dokter, van Gasteren, van Loon, Leijnse and Bouten 2011), presumably due to noise
disorientation. In the United Kingdom, the anxiety fireworks cause to animals has led
to government petitions for them to be banned.
Waste
Litter is unsightly and can injure and kill wildlife and contribute to water pollution.
Toxins can also be released into the soil when litter is trampled into the ground. Many
of the materials and products used or consumed during an event end up as waste.
Biodegradeable waste sent to landfill contributes to climate change through the release
of methane. The way waste is managed is intrinsically linked to procurement decisions.
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For example, if compostable cutlery and food containers are used, then these may be
added to the food compost waste stream. This reduces the event’s landfill waste and, in
turn, the carbon footprint of the event.
Demonstration effects
Though most of the environmental impacts of events are negative, events can be used
to influence attitudes and behaviour (Holmes et al., 2015). Events with an interest in
being sustainable often promote sustainable behaviour to encourage attendees to act
responsibly and may include workshops to educate attendees. More needs to be done
to foster environmentally responsible behaviour, as there are still people who litter
and leave their tents behind at festivals. Events with a sustainability focus, meanwhile,
tend to attract attendees who already understand the importance of sustainable living.
Step 3: Develop a sustainability policy and set objectives

Having identified the most significant environmental impacts associated with your
event, you can identify the areas where you would like to reduce your negative impacts
and legacies while maximising positive impacts and legacies. You should then develop
associated SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, resourced and timed) objectives
and key performance indicators (KPIs). For example, if one of your objectives is “to
reduce carbon emissions by 50%”, one of your associated KPIs might be % of waste
recycled. It may be useful to refer to the Global Reporting Index (GRI) Events Organizer
Sector Supplement, which provides guidance and examples of KPIs – particularly if you
wish to use the index as a reporting tool and apply to be part of the initiative (Jones,
2018). Jones (2018) provides some useful guidance in Sustainable Events Management:
A Practical Guide. If you are attempting to gather data to measure your environmental
impact for the first time, it may be useful to benchmark against the objectives of similar
events. You may also want to refer to www.eventimpacts.com, which provides a toolkit
for measuring different types of impacts at a basic, intermediate and advanced level.
The framework was introduced to try to standardise the approach used to measure
impacts to allow for comparison and is used by a variety of sports and cultural events.
Julie’s Bicycle also provide free carbon calculator tools that can be used to measure the
environmental impacts of events: www.juliesbicycle.com/reporting.
After setting your objectives and performance indicators and considering how you
will evaluate the impacts of your event, you can develop a sustainability policy to
communicate this information. The policy should state your vision, mission, values,
commitment to sustainability and what you plan to do – and avoid – in achieving your
vision. Your policy should also consider legislation. You may want to provide informa-
tion on your plans for staff and stakeholder training and education. Aspirations to gain
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international sustainable events management accreditation and recognition through

attaining ISO20121 certification or an award from A Greener Festival should be high-
lighted in your policy (Jones, 2018). Like the GRI Events Organizer Sector Supplement,
the former provide a framework of guidance to aid you in becoming more sustainable.
You may commit to pledging your support to sector/industry/environmental cam-

paigns such as the Final Straw, Drastic on Plastic, Love Your Tent, Festival Vision: 2025
and #20PercentLess.
You may strive to become an industry thought leader by encouraging others in your
sector/industry to deliver sustainable events. This was the aim of the Sustainable
Events Summit organised by Rick Stainton, MD of the multi-award winning Style
agency. Taking responsibility to drive change in this way can help you to gain
recognition.
Include a sustainable supply chain policy and guidance for suppliers including penal-
ties for non-compliance within your sustainability policy. If suppliers are not willing
to comply with your policy, find new suppliers who share your desire to be socially and
environmentally responsible.
Gain support for your policy at senior management level and embed your policy
throughout your event, obtaining buy-in and support from every member of your
team.
Disseminate the policy to relevant stakeholders.
Step 4: Strategically design the event

Having set strategic objectives and developed a sustainability policy outlining what
you plan to do and avoid in different areas, your event should be designed with these
objectives and commitments in mind. Every aspect of your event should be leveraged
to maximise positive impacts and legacies while minimising negative impacts and lega-
cies. Some guidance is provided here:
Ecology solutions
•• Ideally an ecologist will be consulted, but as a guideline, the following sites of high
ecological value should be avoided:
a. Sites that contain trees more than 10 years old or with a trunk more than
100 mm in diameter, mature hedgerows, broad-leaved woodland, water-
courses, wetlands, flower-rich meadow/grassland and heathland. In some
cases, brownfield land can have a higher ecological value than greenfield sites
so it is important to seek expert advice.
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b. Sites in or near designated areas of high ecological value such as Sites of Special
Scientific Interest (SSSI) in the United Kingdom or any site that contains sensi-
tive habitat or habitat for endangered species.
•• If the site presents any of the characteristics above, appoint a suitably qualified
ecologist to carry out an ecological assessment prior to the event. The ecologist
must be contacted well in advance of the event so that any surveys required can be
carried out at a suitable time of the year. The ecologist may propose strategies for
mitigation and improvement and suggest means to create new habitat or biodiverse
areas. A second survey should occur after the event in order to establish whether
the local wildlife was affected by the event.
•• Ecologically valuable features identified on the site should be preserved and pro-
tected prior to, during, and after the event. Barriers may be erected to safeguard
trees and protected areas.
•• Possible contamination risks must be assessed. Contamination often arises in
former and current industrial, waste disposal or vehicular areas. However, con-
tamination cannot be ruled out in other locations. Contamination can affect the
health of attendees, and the event itself can spread pollutants to sensitive areas.
For example, buildings may contain asbestos, and greenfield sites may be affected
by the spread of contaminants or invasive plant species such as Japanese knot-
weed. If there is suspected contamination on the site, an expert must carry out a
site investigation and assessment. This survey will investigate the degree of con-
tamination and the sources and types of contaminants, and whether the degree
of contamination is acceptable for an event. The specialist may provide recom-
mendations for containing or remediating the contamination. The event can be
used as an opportunity to rehabilitate the land. The Japanese knotweed-infested
site of the velodrome and aquatic centre for the London 2012 Olympic Games was
decontaminated in a three-year herbicide assault at a cost of around £70 million
(MacQueen, 2015; Riley-Smith, 2014).
•• Map areas sensitive to compaction and erosion. Trampling, compaction and ero-
sion are likely to occur around centralised locations such as music stages where
equipment and activity may be particularly intense (LeDoux, 2012). Attention
must be given to steeper ground, sand dunes and riverbanks which are particu-
larly sensitive to soil damage. Car parking areas can also suffer substantial damage
(Case, 2012). Pathways may be covered with mulch to reduce the potential for soil
erosion. Audience areas can be covered with wood chip. For example, 8000 m3 of
wood chip was laid for a series of concerts in Hyde Park in 2012 (Evening Standard,
2012). However, these require removal after the event. In areas of intense vehicu-
lar traffic, track way and mats can be used for protection. Install access mats to
provide protection during the build, event and take down. Encourage attendees to
walk on walkways and protected routes by using barriers and signage (Holmes et
al., 2015).
•• In a sensitive outdoor location, changing site location each year can give the soil
time to recover. Alternatively, the site can be given a break by the event not taking
183
place. Glastonbury Festival in the United Kingdom, for example, implements a fal-
low year every four years to give the land time to recover.
•• Additional ecological features may be created, potentially introducing new ani-
mal and plant species. This can be achieved by creating new natural areas, green
roofs, water or other new features. For example, the LEED-certified Vancouver
Convention Centre has a “living roof” that is home to more than 400,000 indige-
nous plants and grasses as well as European honey bees. The venue also has a reha-
bilitated marine habitat built into the foundation of the building. This has greatly
enhanced the quality of water in the area and has contributed to the growth of a
variety of sea life (Jones, 2018).
Transport solutions
•• Venues and sites should be located close to public transport nodes;
•• Public transport can be subsidised to encourage use. Alternatively, incentives such
as earlier access to the site, a discount or free drink can be provided to attendees
who choose to travel by public transport;
•• Car sharing with an occupancy of three or more people can also be encouraged to
reduce the carbon footprint of the event. Bike rides are also promoted by festivals
such as Latitude;
•• Other options to reduce the environmental impact of transport include providing
free shuttles to public transport nodes, car-parking fees, using low carbon vehicles,
buggies or bicycles for on-site staff transport and using local suppliers, artists and
accommodation.
•• Energy Revolution is an event sector charity dedicated to sustainable travel, with a
free to download guide – www.energy-revolution.org.uk.
Water solutions
•• If using an existing venue or contractors, request a water policy. The facilities
should be visited to review water saving features. Laundry, cleaning and dishwash-
ing procedures will need to be reviewed in terms of water consumption;
•• Install water saving features such as low water-use toilets (such as compost toilets),
low-flow/push taps and low-flow showers. These will in turn reduce the wastewater
quantities;
•• Provide a sufficient number of well-maintained toilets. The use of mains sanitation
is generally preferred to temporary storage or transportation;
•• Fencing and signage can prevent public access to watercourses to prevent pollution;
•• A water and drainage plan should be produced – with the help of a specialist – to
outline your plans for reducing water consumption, managing rainwater and waste
water and preventing water pollution. Water consumption should be projected
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in terms of both quantity and peaks. Map any watercourses, aquifers and water
features on – and in direct proximity to – the site. This is important for both
greenfield and urban sites. At larger events, sustainable urban drainage options
may be considered to attenuate storm water volumes. Review all potential sources
of water pollution including car park, storage and handling of fuel, chemicals and
urine. Make sure that appropriate equipment is installed: oil separators in parking
areas, spill kits, spill pallets for container tanks and leak monitoring equipment
and procedures;
•• Meters should be used to measure the consumption of fresh water.
Energy solutions
•• If an existing venue is used, it should have a suitable energy policy and low energy
consumption. Organisers must consider the venue’s energy performance. The
facilities should allow for energy saving; for example, rooms should have a ther-
mostat, and lighting may operate using movement sensors;
•• For electricity provision, a connection to the grid is often preferable to genera-
tors, especially where renewable energy tariffs are available. The Oya Festival in
Norway, for example, uses only mains electricity that is 98% provided by hydro-
electric renewable power;
•• Generators are much more efficient when they operate at peak load or high load.
Consequently, they will need to be sized appropriately. The connection of gen-
erators in sequence can help generators work more efficiently, and in some larger
events a micro grid may be useful;
•• Hybrid generators are preferable as they can produce about a third of the CO2 emis-
sions that a non-optimised diesel generator would;
•• Renewable energy such as biofuel generators (using biofuels from sustainable
sources), photovoltaic electric panels, solar hot water panels and wind turbines
should be considered too. A good example is the Green Man Festival in Wales,
which uses 100% solar energy to power their main stage. In some cases, it is pos-
sible to lease such equipment or to install it permanently on a site to feed the grid
throughout the year, slowly compensating for the event’s energy use;
•• Urine can also be used to produce electricity to power parts of the site as is the case
at Glastonbury;
•• The event energy strategy should estimate the total energy use and CO2 emis-
sions, as well as the peak requirements. Energy may be split by use, such as stage
lighting, public lighting, sound, catering, heating, cooling, office and adminis-
trative activities. The strategy should review opportunities to save energy both
directly – such as ensuring that lighting and equipment is efficient and switched
off when not in use – and indirectly, by ensuring suppliers, contractors and trad-
ers also adopt energy efficient approaches. Plans for monitoring also need to be
included.
185
•• Free to use resources on sustainable energy management at events are available on

the Powerful Thinking website: www.powerful-thinking.org.uk.
Lighting solutions
•• The lighting for the event should be mapped and should include sources of light
and zones that are most sensitive to light pollution, for example, residential areas.
Some dark unlit areas may be included to provide refuge to animals also taking
into consideration security risks;
•• Reduce the trespass of lighting. Ensure that sensitive areas are light restricted, or
use downward luminaires that avoid up-lighting;
•• Limit the duration of lighting. Light curfews can be in place or light levels reduced
during certain times, timed manually or through automated switch off systems
and presence detectors;
•• Change the intensity of lighting. LED lamps are particularly suited to operating
at variable brightness and/or being switched off at times of low demand, as they
operate at full efficiency with no “warm-up” time;
•• Change the spectrum of lighting. Narrow spectrum lighting can be used in eco-
logically sensitive areas instead of LED. Where wildlife is sensitive to light, it is
preferable to use narrow spectrum lighting. LED lighting has a wide spectrum
of light which may affect the ecology more. However, technology is changing
and LED with variable spectrum may be available in the future (Gaston, Davies,
Bennie, and Hopkins, 2012).
Noise solutions
It is good practice – and often a requirement from local authorities – to produce a noise
management plan for the event. The requirements of the local government in terms of
noise management must be checked well in advance of the event. For a large event, an
acoustics consultant may be appointed to write this document, and it should be dis-
cussed with the ecology expert where relevant. The plan should consider the following:
•• Places and inhabitants sensitive to noise including residential areas, medical facili-
ties, nursing homes and wildlife;
•• The appropriate noise levels at various times of the day and night and the require-
ments for different zones. In some cases, quiet areas within or outside the event
and curfews will be needed;
•• Sources of noise: performance, vehicle, equipment and attendee;
•• Low noise equipment if appropriate – for example, silenced generators may need
to be used, or alternatively, the generators may need to be acoustically enclosed;
•• Sound checks prior to the event starting and the measurement of noise levels. This
should be carried out in collaboration with the sound engineer and preventative
measures implemented where necessary;
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•• The provision of noise protection equipment for staff and attendees;

•• A complaint handling system, for example, a hotline;
•• If the public are the main source of noise or pollution, such as during the Diwali
festival in India where people use firecrackers (Ambade, 2018), attendees may be
encouraged to use quieter alternatives. Fireworks can be replaced with alternatives
such as laser shows or drones: several towns in California, Colorado and Arizona
have turned to drone shows rather than fireworks for their 4th of July celebrations;
•• For outdoor events, the noise consultant will recommend an appropriate site design
and stage orientation to aim to minimise the noise disturbance. Appropriate noise
barriers may need to be installed;
•• For events in enclosed spaces, the way sound can escape should be reviewed. This
should include entrances, roof and ventilation grilles and so on. Temporary sound
attenuation/acoustic treatment might be possible. Smoking areas can also be a
source of noise and their location needs to be chosen carefully;
•• The monitoring of noise levels at various locations around the site during the event;
•• A post-event report may be required by the local authority.
Waste solutions
Supply chain management is fundamental when aiming to achieve the environmental
objectives of an event. The impacts of products at each stage of the lifecycle – from
the production of the raw materials required for their manufacture through to dis-
posal – must be taken into account so that the most sustainable goods can be selected.
It is also considered good practice to request social responsibility in procurement.
Unfortunately, this entire chain of information may not be available from suppliers
and wholesalers, in which case, you should ask your suppliers to obtain this informa-
tion for you.
Produce a list of the products required for the event, directly or indirectly through
service and goods providers. This may include, but is not limited to, office supplies,
merchandise, food and beverages, serveware, goods sold by traders and shops, set mate-
rials, costumes and various appliances and equipment.
For each product or type of product, establish the relevant environmental or ethical
requirements in line with your sustainability policy. These requirements can vary
depending on the event. They may relate to ethical manufacturing and certification,
energy efficiency, carbon footprint, embodied energy or pollution, ease of disposal, recy-
cling, composting, toxicity and whether they are produced locally. Examples include:
•• No single-use plastic, for example, bottles of water, straws, plates, bags, cups;
•• No microplastics such as glitter;
•• Certified PEFC or FSC timber for set materials;
187
•• Non-polluting or biodegradable cleaning products, for example, Ecover which was

manufactured on the request of Glastonbury;
•• Fair Trade goods, for example, clothing, sugar, coffee, chocolate;
•• Compostable serveware;
•• A ban on meat and fish;
•• Sweatshop-free fireworks (the manufacture of firecrackers sometimes involves child
labour, often in dangerous conditions exposed to hazardous chemicals [Singh and
Joshi, 2010]);
•• All equipment to have an A energy rating or better.
Sets should be designed so that they can be dismantled for storage or reuse. In many
cases, equipment can be hired – this is often the case for stages, marquees, seating,
toilets, crowd barriers and lighting. Local reuse networks, auctions and charity shops
can be used for both procurement and the recycling of materials that are no longer
required. The Arla food festival in Copenhagen, for example, uses recycled milk crates
as part of the furniture.
As with other procurement aspects, catering will need to be reviewed for sustainability.
You should work with caterers to discuss menus (for example to include vegan or veg-
etarian meals or to request seasonal, local, organic produce), make plans to reduce food
waste and to ensure the separation of waste streams. A relationship can be established
with food waste charities such as 8th Plate to recover food waste.
It is important to think through which alternatives will be available when products are
prohibited and to foresee the impacts on the waste management strategy.
Waste disposal can be a substantial operation requiring a specialist contractor, particu-

larly for larger events. The important point is to avoid contributing to climate change
through the disposal of waste to landfill. You should therefore adopt the principles of
the 3Rs – reducing the amount of goods and products you require where possible, reusing
as much as you can, and recycling what cannot be reused.
•• Deploy an adequate number of well-labelled bins and ensure they are emptied reg-
ularly. This is essential to ensure good recycling rates. Nifty bins which are brightly
coloured and clearly labelled are proving to be an attractive solution to encourage
attendees to recycle and place their litter in the correct bin;
•• Consider the access to bins in a crowd;
•• Often attendees will need to be encouraged not to drop litter through awareness-
raising campaigns and incentives – Shambala, for example, charge festivalgoers a
£10 recycling deposit. This is refundable on site in exchange for a bag of recycling;
•• Cigarette litter at events should also be considered, particularly if the event is
taking place on a greenfield site or SSSI. This can be managed by BUTTrFLY, who
recruit volunteers to hand out free portable pocket-sized ashtrays on site;
188
CHAPTER
•• Urine can be collected and used to fertilise crops in nearby fields, as exemplified by
Denmark’s Roskilde festival;
•• You may want to consider running workshops or giving free/discounted space
to makers who teach people how to create items such as belts and cushions from
waste;
•• As “throwaway tents” contribute significantly to the amount of festival waste
sent to landfill, organisations that hire pre-pitched tents (Tangerine Fields and
Camplight) and tents that can be returned or kept for re-use (Comp-A-Tent) should
be promoted;
•• The waste reduction and management plan should define the projected quanti-
ties of waste for each stream for all phases of the event; the facilities and space
required; the modes of collection; and the full disposal process. The recycling rates
of off-site sorting facilities used, and the final destination of residual waste, will
also need to be investigated. If a waste contractor is appointed, they should draw
up this document in collaboration with the event organisers;
•• For large events, waste conveyor belts may be installed temporarily to sort waste
directly on-site. This is the case at Glastonbury, where the waste management com-
pany Critical Waste use eight conveyor belts;
•• Litter picking and cleaning the site of debris and waste needs to be effective and
leave the area free of pollutants.
Demonstration effects
It is important to try to encourage attendees to adopt environmentally responsible
behaviour – both to reduce the amount of waste on site and to try to leverage a societal
level legacy to contribute to the fight against climate change.
•• It is important to continually communicate the event’s commitment to envi-

ronmental sustainability with attendees via the event website, social media and
newsletters. This sets expectations, and attendees are more likely to adopt environ-
mentally responsible behaviour if an event has expressed its pro-environmental
values (Alonso-Vasquez, Packer, Fairley and Hughes, 2019);
•• Communication is more effective in fostering environmentally responsible behav-
iour if it is positive. Negative messaging leads to apathy (Mair and Laing, 2013);
•• Attendees are more likely to look after a site if they feel like it is their home away
from home. Event design and communications should seek to promote this idea
(Alonso-Vasquez et al., 2019);
•• Attendees are less likely to drop litter if the site is well maintained;
•• It is important that cues promoting environmentally responsible behaviour relate
to the identity of the event, as after interpreting event stimuli, attendees will adopt
an identity that assimilates the identity of their peer group with the festival iden-
tity. If an event has a unique identity, this will be easier to achieve (Davis, 2017).
Boomtown Fair, for example, ended the 2018 closing ceremony with a warning
189
that Boomtown has no future unless the environment, consequences and sustain-
ability are considered. The 2019 festival continues this narrative through the game
and street theatre used to engage festivalgoers with the storyline on site while
simultaneously educating them on environmental sustainability. The festival will
also include an Extinction Rebellion takeover of Paradise Heights – the scripted
residence of climate change deniers – designed to give festivalgoers the opportu-
nity to engage with a protest movement so that they can carry their experience out
into the real world. Fun initiatives like this are more likely to have a positive effect
on attitudes to environmental sustainability (Mair and Laing, 2013);
•• Peer education also has a positive effect on attitudes to environmentally responsi-
ble behaviour, and you may want to enlist volunteers to make friends with fellow
attendees to promote sustainability;
•• It is important that event organisers do not promote environmentally responsible
behaviour to the extent that people feel like they are being bombarded with mes-
saging. Therefore, it is worthwhile mapping the customer journey to ensure this
does not happen.
Approval for the strategic design of the event and any associated budget requirements
should be sought from senior management.
Team members should be allocated responsibility for liaising with other departments
and organisations to obtain/produce any relevant documents, information, or com-
munications/marketing material associated with the plans in advance of the event.
Deadlines should be set to ensure that all information is gathered in advance of the
event.
On site, a variety of people and organisations including staff, volunteers, contractors

and not-for-profit organisations will be responsible for contributing to the implementa-
tion of the plans. The person responsible for core areas of operation (e.g., site manage-
ment, event production, stage management) should be identified in the event manual
and their contact details and radio channel listed so that they can be contacted imme-
diately should any potential risks to the environment arise.
Step 5: Implement plans and monitor performance

It is important to ensure that the plans developed in Step 4 are implemented during
the build, event and de-rig. Monitoring should be carried out by one or several teams
depending on the size of the event. It may also be possible to train staff or volunteers
to carry out some of the monitoring activities. Part of the data monitoring can be car-
ried out centrally through the use of online monitoring systems, if available. This may
include energy monitoring (with building management system or digital meters for
the generators and other energy supply systems); lighting, temperature, humidity sen-
sors; water monitoring; pollution control (in the situation where air or water pollution
may be an issue); waste-water levels (e.g., in some cases this may be available for toilet
190
Environmentally sustainable event design CHAPTER 12
BOX 12.1: INDUSTRY VOICE: CHRISTOPHER JOHNSON,

OPERATIONS DIRECTOR AND SENIOR SUSTAINABLE
EVENTS CONSULTANT AT KAMBE EVENTS, UK
Kambe Events is a sustainable event production and consultancy organisation, co-founders of the sustain-
able events management think-tank Powerful Thinking, and the team behind the multi award-winning fes-
tival Shambala. This outdoor music festival with 15,000 attendees operates on 100% renewable power, has
reduced its carbon footprint by over 90%, eradicated disposable plastic and taken meat and fish off the menu.
Do you think there’s something different about your festival audience that makes them
look after the site and take their tent home?
The audience we have developed over the years are more likely to not drop litter or display anti-social
behaviour because it’s a cultural norm we have worked hard to create. There’s a tipping point in people’s
behaviour; if your site achieves a certain degree of cleanliness then people suddenly feel that it’s unac-
ceptable to drop litter. In the current economic climate, recycling is sometimes a more expensive option,
due to the infrastructure required to separate at source (bins) and check for contamination. However,
with awareness about doing the right thing becoming important for events, it is generally a better choice
for audience experience and brand.
How did your audience respond to the festival going meat and fish free?
A minority was vociferously opposed to it on the basis that we didn’t have the right to make that choice
for them. I personally believe that as an organisation, we do have the right – and the ability – to make
decisions that we think are right. With the focus on food, we really upped the game to ensure people’s
new meat and fish free experience was positive – better, healthier, more delicious, more diverse, excit-
ing menus. 75% of our audience voted to stay meat and fish free in the audience surveys.
What is the most challenging aspect of sustainable event design?
The most challenging part is when you’re beginning your journey and you’re trying to get your contrac-
tors on board – it can feel like you’re a small voice asking to do something different with a lot of resist-
ance. It’s useful to be well informed and remember you are the client.
Do you have standards with which stakeholders must comply?
Yes, we have a policy for everything – procurement, food standards, materials and cleaning products that
are permissible onsite.
What is your response to non-compliance?
Our green policy is contractually binding. For food traders we do checks before opening, so if they don’t
comply, they don’t open on site.
Your website suggests that sustainable event design is very much a learning curve; what
has been the most significant thing that you’ve learnt throughout your journey?
Be well informed. Be bold! Have a clear strategy, work with everyone and plan early.
191
facilities such as long drops) and sound levels. Audits should be done to check that
traders and caterers are implementing the requirements of the sustainability policy.
Measures for non-compliance such as removal from site should be implemented. This
is important, as practicing what you preach is crucial if you are attempting to foster
environmentally responsible behaviour (de Brito and Terzieva, 2016). Interviews may
be conducted with attendees to ascertain their perceptions on issues relating to envi-
ronmental sustainability. This data can be used to help inform future strategy.
Step 6: Evaluate
Post-event, the data from the monitoring of performance should be compared to the
performance indicators set for each of the strategic objectives. This may be supported
with data gathered via surveys of attendees designed to help calculate the carbon foot-
print of the event’s transportation.
The results should be reported to key stakeholders and published in a variety of formats
appropriate for different platforms and stakeholders, for example, infographics and
memes for social media, an environmental sustainability report outlining performance
in all areas and reports focusing on individual areas for relevant stakeholders (Jones,
2018). The results should be used to set new objectives and performance indicators to
begin a new cycle of continuous improvement as per the quadruple bottom line.
Summary
Sustainable event design must be planned for at the outset if an event is to be strategi-
cally leveraged to maximise positive impacts and legacies while minimising negative
impacts and legacies. This chapter has presented a six-step methodology that can be
used by events professionals and students to plan an environmentally sustainable
event. If an event is to be sustainable, it is important that there is a member of the team
with responsibility for driving the sustainability agenda at board level. After identify-
ing the environmental impacts of the event, objectives and performance indicators
can be developed along with a sustainability policy that can be used to communicate
your expectations to stakeholders. It is important that the commitments made in
the sustainability policy are integrated within the design of the event and that com-
pliance is monitored on site. Likewise, plans made for mitigating negative environ-
mental impacts must be implemented in practice. The monitoring and evaluation of
your event’s performance against your objectives is crucial and allows for continuous
improvement in line with the quadruple bottom line.

•• An event will always have environmental impacts, but events can also be used as a
vehicle to encourage positive environmental behaviour;
192
CHAPTER
•• Environmental sustainability can be a selling point which can be “pitched” to

senior management and stakeholders;
•• Environmentally sustainable event design is possible regardless of the scale of
your event and the resources you have available. However, it is recommended that
experts are consulted for advice if appropriate.

•• In teams, consider an event that you have recently attended or read about
(Glastonbury 2019 is an example of a festival that has implemented various envi-
ronmentally sustainable features in its design). List the possible impacts in relation
to ecology, transport, water, energy, lighting, noise and waste.
•• In teams, research and list what the event has done to try to minimise the impacts
in these areas, identifying areas where you think more could be done.
•• Interview a local event designer to find out what they plan to do to minimise envi-
ronmental impacts. What are the constraints they operate under?
Further reading
•• Holmes, K., Hughes, M., Mair, J. and Carlsen, J. (2015). Events and sustainability. Oxon:
Routledge.
This book provides a critical introduction to events and sustainability. In addition to
dedicated chapters on each sphere of sustainability, the book considers the policy context
for sustainable events and regeneration, the internal and external environment and the
logistics and challenges of delivering sustainable events.
•• Sharples, L., Crowther, P., May, D. and Orefice, C. (2014). Strategic event creation. Oxford:
Goodfellow Publishers Ltd.
The authors propose that a strategic approach to event creation like that advocated
in this chapter is the “new normal” for events. The book considers outcomes for a variety
of key stakeholders before providing practical advice for “purposeful” event design. The
book also suggests how to overcome the barriers to evaluation and provides insight from
industry.
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194
Index
3D 63, 106, 145 bundling 17 core audience 160, 162

5Ws 43–5, 49 business case 136, 138, 141–2, 151–2 costs/costing 125, 129, 131–6, 138,
business modelling 3, 5 142–3, 145, 154, 157
absorption 31, 33–5 business pragmatism 5 costing: bottom-up 131
action checklist/tracker 133–4, business/design proposal 8, 136, creativity 1–2, 5, 7–10, 35, 45, 52–3,
137–8 141, 144, 151–2 60, 91, 145, 154–5, 173–4
activation 28, 32, 53 critical path 129
active listening 120–1 charrette 119 CRUSH brand 21–3
advocacy 29, 116, 119, 122, 163 checklist 121, 133, 134, 138 customisation 15–7, 23–4
aesthetic/s 29, 30–1, 39, 74, 86, checkpoints 136, 145
88–9, 102, 160 client brief 49, 53, 145 décor 2, 16, 34, 37, 44, 52, 54, 58,
ambience 2, 57, 59, 76, 92 client: event 4, 6, 17, 49, 50, 52–3, 60, 76, 82, 87–8, 91–2, 131, 144–5
ambition of event 153, 156, 159, 99, 113, 117, 128–9, 131, 138, dependencies 128–9
162, 166–7, 173–4 141–2, 144–5, 151 design breakdown structure (DBS)
anthropology 4 co-creation 3, 13, 16, 19, 20, 23, 126–7, 133
Apple 18, 46 24, 45, 50, 103, 107, 162, 164–5, design thinking 3, 5
apps 16, 20, 99, 100–1 173–4 digital authenticity 165–7
artificial intelligence (AI) 97, 101 collaboration 3–4, 6–8, 10, 19–20,
assertiveness 116, 120–1 99, 103, 106, 111, 113–20, 122, earned value analysis (EVA) 135
associations 2, 19, 46, 52 126, 142–3, 186, 189 ecological assessment 183
atmospherics 9, 54, 57–9, 60, 75–6, colours 52, 58, 84–8, 91, 145, ecology 178–9, 182–3, 186
82, 85–6, 88, 93, 98, 170 160, 166 emotion 7, 16, 23, 28–33, 45, 60, 84,
audience: centricity 158; response commitment 66, 68, 73, 101, 88–9, 90, 101, 106, 120
systems 100; segmentation 115, 119, 121, 132, 137, 181–2, emotional intelligence: intra; inter
158–61 189, 192 120
audio 3, 105, 145 commodities/commoditisation empathy 6
audio-visual 2, 39 13–16, 24 enclavised 34
augmented reality (AR) 99 community/communitas 2, 7, 19, energy: monitoring 190; saving 185
authenticity 1–2, 13, 16–18, 24, 27, 27, 31, 35–6, 38, 40, 86, 90, entertainment 2, 8, 30–1, 54, 160
46–7, 60, 167, 173–4 102–3, 116–17, 119, 123, 142, 159, environmental impacts 177, 178–81
161, 163, 173 equipment 15, 59, 81, 104–5, 131,
balance 5, 30, 35, 72, 112–13, competitive advantage 23, 142 134, 149, 178, 183–7
121–2, 166 computer games 8, 31, 34, 49 Erfarung 33
benefits: costs and benefits 131, concepting 8–10, 40, 43, 45, Erlebnis 33
136, 142–3; of technology 98, 53–4, 156 erosion 178, 183
102; for evaluation of events 142, conflict 47–8, 50, 53–4, 111, 113, escape/escapism 2, 23, 27, 30–1, 35,
157–9, 165, 174; of presentation 115–16, 118, 120–3 39, 47, 98
skills 147 consulting 116, 128, 143, 186, 193 evaluation 3, 5, 50, 136, 141–3, 161,
blogs 98, 103 consumables 2, 131 177, 192
brainstorming 19, 43, 50, 53, 119 contamination 179, 183, 191 event content 9, 28
brand associations 19, 46 contingency 131, 133, 135, 137, 145 event idea 5, 43–4
budgeting 125, 131–8, 144–5, 151, coolness 21–2 Excel 129, 133, 136–7
158, 190 cooperativeness 120 expenses 157–8
195
Index
experience economy/industry 13–4, interaction 28–30, 37–8, 70–1, 82, pragmatic management 111
16–18 90, 97–9, 104, 164 presentation skills/presenting
experience: extraordinary interactive experience: personal, 145–6, 148
1–2, 18, 27–8, 35, 46, 48, 90, social, physical contexts 30 PrinCE2 142
100; memorable 4, 10, 14, interactive technologies: value of; problem solving 5–6, 53
16, 28, 35, 58, 62, 79, 83, 91, impact of 98, 105 product: development 7, 19;
98, 153; transformative 2, 8, ISO20121 182 experience 29, 155
10, 13–16, 19, 24, 37, project management/project
45–6, 50, 67 learning 112–113, 159 manager 119, 125, 129, 136–7
experimentalism 4, 6, 10, 91, 112 learning curve 132, 191 prototyping 3–4
expression 28, 39, 101 learning organisations 112 purposeful space 2
LED lighting 186
Facebook 103, 167–8 lighting 39, 59, 81, 85, 88, 131, questioning 116, 120–1
facial recognition 101 145, 178 Quick Response (QR) codes 101
feasibility 5, 43–4, 51 light: pollution 180, 186; directions
feelings 27–8, 33, 45, 76, 89, of light 88 RACI 128
120, 159 liminality 35–8 radio frequency identification
festivity 30–1, 36, 38, 58 LinkedIn 167, 171 (RFI) 102
fieldwork and information 4 realness/honesty: see authenticity
five senses 32, 62, 79–80, 84–5 management skills 111, 113 renewable energy 185
focus group 19, 142 marketing 153–4, 158–9, 161–2; reporting: Highlight; Exception;
fossil fuels 179 creative 154, 165; digital 162, RAG 136
167; viral 162; marketing 2.0 162 resources 3, 5, 70, 119, 125–7, 129,
gamification 102 marketing communications 156, 131–2, 141–2, 144, 159, 162, 186,
Gantt Chart 129–30, 133 161, 166 193
Generation Y 20 marketing mix 154–55 responsibility assignment matrix
Generation Z 20 meaningful experience 27, 32–3, 90 (RAM) 125, 127, 137
memories 28, 30, 45, 82, 85, 89, 92 return on investment (ROI) 101,
happiness 7, 21, 23, 60, 87, 90 milestones 126, 136, 144 123
hashtag 106, 167, 170 Millennials 20 risk 5, 34, 51, 72, 92, 108, 125,
healthy working environment mind maps 4, 51 129–30, 132, 137–8, 180, 183,
115–16, 121–2 mobile digital technologies 98 186, 190
high concept 45 mood boards 52–3 rites of passage 35
high touch 45 MS Project 129, 132 role-playing 4
idea generation 3, 50 near field communication (NFC) SAF (suitable, acceptable, feasible)
imagination 2–4, 7–10, 35, 40, 99, 102 142–3
45–6, 49, 50, 54, 98, 107 networks 114, 142 satisfaction 7, 14, 21, 24, 28, 38–9,
imagineering 7–8, 45 noise 58–9, 70, 180, 186; 82, 85
immersion 30–1, 33–9, 48, 85, 89, disorientation 180; management scent 58–9, 84, 89, 92–3
102, 119; nesting; investigating; 186; project objectives 117, 125 self-identification 23
stamping 35 semiotics 162
immersive experience 38–9, 59, 86, online platforms 167 sense of community 7, 86, 142, 161
88, 90, 98 on-line surveys 19 sensory stimuli 24, 30, 38–9, 58
impact 123, 142–3 optimism 6, 132 sensory perception 32–3, 60, 80
impermanence 113 out-of-event story 49 servicescape 9, 48, 54, 57–60
implementation 4–5, 9, 50, 136 outward focus 114 shareability 20
impression 2, 28, 39, 58 overheads 131 sight 32, 58, 66, 73, 75, 79–81, 85–7,
in-event story 49 91–2, 105
information points 100–1 perceived atmosphere 58 simultaneous consumption 14, 58
innovation/innovative 2, 5, 7–8, peripheral audience 160, 163 situational leadership 112, 117
14, 51, 99, 142, 154 personality: event 27, 82; event sketches 4, 43, 47, 50–1, 53–5, 119
inspiration 4, 18, 29, 52 designer 6, 150 SMART (specific, measurable,
intangible 13, 15, 29, 37, 52, 165 physical evidence 154, 165 achievable, resourced and timed)
integration and guidance 114 pitching 145 118, 125–6
integration/integrative 5, 6, 8, 114 positive experience 27, 33 smart bots 101
intended atmosphere 39, 58 postmodernism 112 smell 32, 58, 79–80, 83–5, 89, 92
196
Index
social currency 163–5, 173 taste 32, 58, 79–80, 83, 85, 89–91 value creating platform 2
social interaction 85, 97, 164 testing 3, 6, 49–50 value creation 3, 16, 20, 157–8
social media 4, 20, 98, 101, 103, theme 35, 43 variance 133
164–7, 189, 192 timescales 126 venue layout 62, 76
sound 32, 39, 58, 60, 82, 85–6, 91, touch 32, 37, 58, 79–80, 82–3, video 20, 99, 106, 163, 167–8,
105, 180, 186, 192 90, 92 169, 172
stakeholders 3, 19, 44, 49–50, 113–14, transformation 14–6, 19, 45–6 virtual reality (VR) 58, 99, 103, 106
117–18, 120, 142–3, 156, 161, 192 transport 157, 177, 179, 184 visitor flow 63–4
storytelling 8–9, 43, 45, 47–50, triangular management visual aids 149
69, 105 approach 112 visualisation 3, 4, 51, 119, 143
sustainability manager 178 tribal marketing 19
sustainability policy 181–2, 187, 192 Twitter 103, 106, 166–7, 169 water and drainage plan 184
sustainable behaviour 181 webinars 98
sustainable event design 177, 191 unpleasant odours 83
symbolic interaction 27, 37–8 user-generated content 162–3 YouTube 103, 167, 172
197

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THE FUNDAMENTALS OF

Vladimir Antchak is Senior Lecturer in Applied Management at the University of

Olivia Ramsbottom is Senior Lecturer in Business and Management at the University

1 Event design unpacked 1

2 Events as an experience industry 13

How the audience becomes immersed 35

4 Storytelling and event concepting 43

5 Atmospherics and servicescapes 57

6 Five senses in event design 79

8 Pragmatic team management 111

Event design management framework 115

9 Project management tools and budgeting 125

10 Pitching and winning 141

11 Creative marketing 153

The audience 158

12 Environmentally sustainable event design 177

1.1 Event design thinking 4

3.1 The Three Contexts of Interactive Experience 30

Vladimir Antchak is Senior Lecturer in Applied Management at the University of

Olivia Ramsbottom is Senior Lecturer in Business and Management at the University

Valentina Gorchakova is Senior Lecturer at the University of Derby, UK, teaching

Aurore Julien is Senior Lecturer in Environmental Design at the School of Architecture

Clare Mackay is Senior Lecturer in Events Management at the University of West

We would like to acknowledge Sarah Jones for contributing to Chapter 6, Valentina

Dr Rob Davidson, managing director of MICE Knowledge;

Vladimir and Olivia

Chapter outline Key words

Defining event design

Design, as a concept, has become a critical function in today’s businesses, strategically

Design thinking in events

The second stage, inspiration and imagination, involves visualisation, experimentalism

Figure 1.1 Event design thinking. Adapted from Lockwood (2010).

An event designer’s personality

Figure 1.2 Event designer’s personality profile. Adapted from Brown (2008).

Collaboration. Event designers do not work in isolation or solitude. They collaborate

At the level of strategy, imagineering can be used as a means to develop cohesion

Designing events: An integrative framework

or attending is a mediated experience and is greatly influenced by the event consumer

Figure 1.4 Event design framework.

Hot takeaways for event designers

Discussion questions and activities

•• Lockwood, T. (2010). Design thinking: Integrating innovation, customer experience, and

Chapter outline Key words

•• It involves the simultaneous presence of producer and consumer;

Contemporary, highly innovative and technologically advanced events in music,

From commodities to transformations

THE ORIGIN OF THE EXPERIENCE ECONOMY CONCEPT

An agricultural economy is focused mainly on planting, growing and producing com-

Experiences (staged) are memorable occurrences that engage an individual on a per-

Commoditisation versus customisation

Value of authentic experience

Authenticity of experience is a pivotal element of the experience economy. Customers

the brand associations. Because of this subconscious decision-making, it is difficult for

As is clear from the definition, co-creation builds long-term relationships between

Co-creation leads to the development of a community of followers who share the

Shareability of experiential offerings

Know your consumers: Generations Y and Z

To be accepted, explored and embraced by the new generation of consumers, a brand

CRUSH event brand

What coolness means

•• Who are you?

Self-identification with the brand

consider multiple aspects of audience satisfaction and engagement. Interactivity, moti-

Figure 1.1 Event design thinking. Adapted from Lockwood (2010).

Figure 1.2 Event designer’s personality profile. Adapted from Brown (2008).

Figure 1.4 Event design framework.

Table 3.1 The Three Contexts of Interactive Experience

Table 3.2 The Quadrants of the Experience Realms

Table 3.3 Items to Measure Event Experience

Figure 3.3 Event experience. A conceptual framework.

Table 4.1 Archetypes, Story Gists and Examples

Table 5.1 Sensory Channels and Dimensions