–

WILD THING / LA SERRANA DE LA VERA

by Luis Vélez de Guevara
translated by Harley Erdman
Dramaturgy

Compiled by Jessica López-Barkl

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 Table of Contents
Concept Page 3-4
Synopsis Page 4-5
Playwright/Translator Page 6-7
Production History Page 7-8
YouTube Playlist Link Page 8
The Form Pages 9-45
Baroque Style Pages 9-29
Comedias Pages 29-3
Background on the Golden Age of Spain Page 37
Absolutism Pages 37-39
Character types Pages 42-43
Verse forms Pages 43-44
Characters Pages 44-45
Vocabulary Pages 45-256

*Most of the information in this compilation was gathered from internet resources, utilizing Google,
unless specifically noted before the entry.

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3
Concept
An EMERGENT STRATEGY (by Adrienne Maree Brown) inspired “vision” of listening

I have been inspired by the research and reading of Adrienne Maree Brown and
the work of understanding needed for this show. Our Disability/Disorder 2021-2022
Season at SUNY Sullivan is “...centering marginalized communities, as opposed to the
sexy and unbelievably stylish sidekick...” (Brown 163). We are decentralizing the
“magical person of color” or the “magical gender non-conforming character” or the
trauma porn of mental illness trope that we find over populating film/television/theater. I
believe in the words Adrienne Maree Brown wrote that says that “...change happens
from the bottom up…” (Brown 163). We are a small community college program, but we
can create change and center stories that are not often heard, even if other programs
focus on the musical that sells the most tickets. We have a responsibility and an
opportunity to create the emerging artists that will create “snowflakes, grains of sand,
waves in water, stars - there is evidence that many possibilities exist for how we
manifest inside our potential…” (Brown 156)

Our theater program largely serves a marginalized population and students who
come from some form of generational trauma. I have always believed in Eugenio
Barba’s idea of the “third theater”, that success and change in theater does not have to
come from traditional or avant-garde theaters, it comes from authentic exploration and
work.

With our team of artists, who come from a variety of backgrounds and
pedagogies, I want to work to create this piece utilizing our dramaturgy, our experience,
and our love of theater.

We are centering the story on Gila Giraldo, a genderqueer character from the
15th-century. We are centering their trauma and their identity. We are centering
international/Spanish language works, to decentralize the cult of Shakespeare; to offer
that there are other options in the world of theater to learn about and hone the skills of
heightened text.

In an abundance of caution, we will be performing and rehearsing this production

outside. This is safer, but it allows for new opportunities to engage with our campus and
to learn the skills needed for performing outdoors. We will continue our commitment to
teaching classical movement/voice/stage combat/etc., and we will have fun creating a
piece that opens the door for conversations in and out of our theater. Our art form
began outdoors, and as a college program that focuses on sustainability, we should
practice those skills for the sustainability of our world and our bodies.

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 The production will be produced in the last two weekends of Hispanic Heritage
Month, and we will be supertitling the original Spanish on an LED reader board.

Our collective of artists:

Jessica López-Barkl: Director

Willahna Burdick: Assistant Director
Alexandra Matsu: Choreographer & Song Leader
Nick López: Fight Choreographer
Blanca López: Spanish Language and Culture Advisor
Callie Reardon: Genderqueer Advisor
May Hussain-Coleman: Disability/Mental Health Advisor
Beau Brazfield: Technical Director
Jaclyn Hatt: Stage Manager
Julia Kehrley: Costume Designer
Stefanie Workman: Hair/Makeup Designer
Te’Asia Alston: Props Designer

“The more people who cocreate the future, the more people who concerns will be
addressed from the foundational level in this world. Meaningful collaboration both relies
on and deepens relationships - the stronger the bond between the people or groups in
collaboration, the more possibility you can hold. In the beginning of this work, notice
who you feel drawn to, and where you find ease. And notice who challenges you, who
makes the edges of your ideas grow or fortify. I find that my best work has happened
during my most challenging collaborations, because there are actual differences that
are converging and creating more space, ways forward that serve more than one
worldview…” (Brown 158-9).

Pinterest Board: https://pin.it/3ZQEp6x

Medieval Theater:
https://prezi.com/vanon__-nnzf/medieval-theaters-in-europe/?present=1

Spanish Theater:
https://prezi.com/wl-f48bbnkjc/the-theater-of-the-spanish-golden-age/?present=1

Amazon Buy List:

https://www.amazon.com/hz/wishlist/ls/9D0R7S0WER5R?ref_=wl_share

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Brown, Adrienne Maree. EMERGENT STRATEGY: Shaping Change, Changing Worlds.
AK Press: Chico, CA. 2017. Print.

WILD THING/La Serrana de la Vera synopsis

(from the study guide published for the UMass production:
https://www.umass.edu/theater/sites/default/files/assets/theater/wild_thing_study_guide.
pdf)

Gila returns home to their mountain village from a successful hunting trip to find
their father, Giraldo, arguing with a Captain wishing to be lodged in their home. The
Captain is captivated by Gila, who is brash, masculine, and hostile to him, and is
determined to dominate them. Through a series of games, fights, and duels with words,
Gila proves to the Captain and the already impressed villagers that they are a force to
be reckoned with. Their triumphs earn them the affections of another man, the comic
Mingo.

When the Captain decides to ask for Gila’s hand in marriage, they agree,
imagining all of the possibilities and privileges the union would offer. The dream is soon
cut short when he abandons Gila after their first night together, sending Gila into a spiral
of madness and revenge. Gila, who has always claimed themselves to be a man, now
furiously takes up the mantle of “woman scorned,” exacting revenge on any unlucky
man who hikes through their mountains. After finally ensnaring the Captain in their trap,
Gila is caught and forced to face punishment for their vengeful streak.

Luis Vélez de Guevara - playwright

August 1, 1579 - November 10, 1644
Luis Vélez de Guevara was a Spanish dramatist and novelist. He was born at Écija and
was of Jewish converso descent. After graduating as a sizar at the University of Osuna in 1596,
he joined the household of Rodrigo de Castro, Cardinal-Archbishop of Seville, and celebrated
the marriage of Philip II in a poem signed Vélez de Santander, a name which he continued to
use till some years later.

It seems he served as a soldier in Italy and Algiers, returning to Spain in 1602 when he
entered the service of the count de Saldaña, and dedicated himself to writing for the stage. He
died at Madrid on November 10, 1644.

Velez de Guevara was the author of over four hundred plays, of which the best are
REINAR DESPUES DE MORIR, LA LUNA DE LA SIERRA, and EL DIABLO ESTÁ en
CANTILLANA. The play MÁS PESA EL REY QUE LA SANGRE, which translates into “The King
weighs more than blood (kinship)” is based on the episode of the Reconquista in which the
nobleman Alonso Pérez de Guzmán allows his son to be sacrificed, rather than surrender his
King’s possession of Tarifa. However, Vélez de Guevara is most widely known as the author of
EL DIABLO COJUELO (1641, “The Lame Devil” or “The Crippled Devil”), a fantastic novel which

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suggested to Alain-Rene Lesage the idea for LE DIABLE BOITEUX (1707). The plot presents a
rascal student that hides in an astrologer’s mansard. He frees a devil from a bottle. As an
acknowledgement the devil shows him the garments of Madrid and the tricks, miseries and
mischiefs of their inhabitants. A similar theme was suggested by the magic lenses in LOS
ANTEOJOS DE MEJOR VISTA (1620-1625) by Rodrigo Fernández de Ribera. Charles Dickens
refers to EL DIABLO COJUELO in THE OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, chapter thirty-three.

Harley Erdman, translator for WILD THING / LA SERRANA DE LA VERA:

Harley Erdman is a dramaturg, playwright, and scholar whose work focuses on adaptation
and translation. His commissioned work as a translator of contemporary Latin American theater
includes plays from Mexico, Nicaragua, and Chile. His Women Playwrights of Early Modern Spain
(ITER, 2016) features his translations of ten plays, for the first time ever in English. It won the
Josephine Roberts Award for best scholarly edition in the field of early modern women and gender.
His translations of Tirso de Molina’s Jealous of Herself and Marta the Divine were published in 2012
in companion volumes by Aris & Phillips. With Susan Paun de García, he co-edited the anthology of
essays, Remaking the Comedia (Tamesis, 2015). His most recent book project, a bilingual edition of
Luis Vélez de Guevara’s La serrana de la Vera, was published by the University of Liverpool Press in
2019 and produced at UMass under the title Wild Thing. He is a winner of the Association for
Hispanic Classic Theater's Translation Prize. Erdman has also published numerous articles on the
history of Jewish representation on the American stage, as well as the book Staging the Jew
(Rutgers, 1997). His article on the Yiddish play God of Vengeance won the Kahan Prize for
Outstanding Essay (2000) from the American Society for Theater Research. His dramatic writing
projects focus on rebels and outsiders in local history. These include the opera librettos The Scarlet
Professor (2017) and The Garden of Martyrs (2013), both with composer Eric Sawyer; The
Captivation of Eunice Williams (2004), with composer Paul Kimper; as well as the screwball comedy
Nobody’s Girl, which debuted at the Northampton Academy of Music in 2014. With colleague Gina
Kaufmann and composer Aaron Jones, he is adapting Tirso de Molina’s original Don Juan play, The
Trickster of Seville, into a new musical set on a contemporary college campus. The Scarlet Professor
won the 2019 American Prize for composers of opera. Erdman has taught in Scotland, El Salvador
and Sri Lanka – in the latter country, as part of a 2016 Fulbright Fellowship. He also has received the
Outstanding Teacher Award from the UMass College of Humanities and Fine Arts. Erdman has
served as Editor of the journal Theatre Topics.

Production History
The first performance was in 1618 for Corpus Christi celebrations, with Jusepa Vaca in the
leading role.

(from the Introduction of Harley Erdman’s translation of WILD THING)

WILD THING was first published in 1916, in an edition by Menéndez Pidal. Three critical
editions have appeared more recently: Enrique Rodríguez Cepada (1967), Piedad Bolaños (2001),
and William R. Manson and C. George Peale (2002). I have been able to find only two examples of
professional performances of the play since 1614. One is the 2004 production by the Compañí
Nacional de Teatro Clasico (CNTC), who did it at Madrid’s Teatro Pavón, directed by Maria Ruiz and

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starring Mía Esteve, in an adaptation by Luis Landero. In publicity materials prepared for the
production, Landero compares Gila to great unconventional female characters - Ibsen’s Nora,
Strindberg’s Miss Julie, Flaubert’s Madam Bovary. Ruiz called it: ‘Una obra dificil, o al menos así me
lo parece, por el talento de su autor para lo grotesco y la abrupta ruptura de situaciones, que
constituyen a la vez algunas de sus mejores virtudes.’ (‘A difficult work, or at least so it seems to me,
due to its author’s talent for the grotesque, for abrupt ruptures in situations, which at the same time
count as some of its greatest virtues.’) Much more recently, in September 2017, LaBotiKa Teatro in
Cáceres, Spain (not far from Plascencia) debuted their own adaptation, which featured original
music. In respect to Gila, they promised: ‘La hemos quitado el polvo y el olor de naftalina para
convertirla en una auténtica heroína del Siglo de Oro, que traspasa como mujer los límites morales y
sociales establecidos’ (‘We have rid her of her dust and smell of mothballs in order to transform her
into an authentic heroine of the Golden Age, who as a woman transgresses established moral and
social boundaries.’)

The University of Massachusetts Department of Theater will debut my translation, under the
name WILD THING, in February 2019, under the direction of my colleague and collaborator Gina
Kaufmann. Our version will also cut the script down to about 90 minutes.

Background: The Spanish Golden Age (from LIVING THEATRE: A HISTORY OF THEATRgarE by
Edwin Wilson and Alvin Goldfarb, 2018)

In the second century B.C.E. Spain (like many other regions) was conquered by the Romans
and became part of the Roman empire. In 711 C.E., however, the Moors invaded from North African,
and they soon controlled all of Spain except for certain areas in the extreme north. The Moors, with
their Islamic culture and religion, were to rule parts of Spain for the next 700 years. This Moorish
domination had a lasting effect, even after Spain was retaken by the Roman Catholic monarchies;
Moorish influences appear later in architecture and the arts.

Attempts to reconquer Spain from the Moors began immediately after 711; and in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries northern rulers in Spain began an earnest struggle to reconquer
the south. It was not until the fifteenth century, though, that the entire peninsula was retaken from
the Moors. This took place during the reign of King Fernando and Queen Isabel. Fernando was king
of Aragon; Isabel, after a struggle with other heirs, became the monarch of Castile and León. These
two married in 1469 and thereafter consolidated their control of Spain.

For several reasons, 1492 was a significant year in their reign. The best-known event is
Columbus’s voyage to the Western Hemisphere. But 1492 was also the year when Fernando and
Isabel drove the Jews out of Spain permanently. Spanish Jews were culturally and ethnically no
different from Spanish Christians; but since they were not Catholics, they interfered with the goal of
religious unanimity. A few years earlier, in 1478, Fernando and Isabel took control of the Spanish
Inquisition, a religious tribunal that arbitrarily decided cases of heresy. Those found guilty had no
court of appeal and were often banished, imprisoned, or burned at the stake.

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 At the time that they were expelling the Jews, Fernando and Isabel accelerated the expulsion
of Moors as well. By forcing out its Moors and Jews, Spain lost some of its most notable doctors,
philosophers, merchants, and scholars.

The Spain of Fernando and Isabel was, like other European countries, marked by religious
intolerance; however, it was also rising to become a world power. Beginning with Columbus’s
discoveries and conquests in the Americas, Spain came to dominate Europe in the early part of the
sixteenth century; it conquered other European lands and continued its control of the seas. Spain
was also successful in commerce and trade. By 1550, it was the leading power in Europe and was
poised for what has come to be known as its golden age, not only in conquest and commerce but
also in the arts.

The year 1588, when its armada was defeated by England, marked the end of the
unquestioned superiority of Spain as a sea power, but it continued to be a major factor in Europe for
much of the sixteenth century. During this period, Spanish drama and theater flourished.

Theatres of absolutism, 1600-1770 by Bruce McConachie from THEATRE HISTORIES: AN

INTRODUCTION, edited by Tobin Nellhause, 2010
Neoclassicism was linked to the political ideology of absolutism, as well as to print culture.
Those who believed in absolutism advanced the new idea that the rightful monarch must
monopolize the rule of law and the use of force within the lands that he (or she) controlled. The
[print culture of this period examines] the rise of absolutism in Europe during the 1600s, its
immense power on the European continent in the 1700s, and the kinds of theatrical entertainments
that supporters of absolutism enjoyed. By the mid-eighteenth century, absolutism flourished
throughout continental Europe. For more than 150 years, until the 1770s, the aristocracy and most
of the rich merchants and professionals followed European monarchs and their courts in
applauding festive entertainments, masques, operas, and finally neoclassical plays in court theatres
and public playhouses. With few exceptions, these performances legitimated the values and beliefs
of absolutism.

Nonetheless, there were significant tensions between neoclassical entertainments and two
other kinds of performances. The splendors and enchantments of Baroque opera regularly
overwhelmed the rational strictures of neoclassicism in performances at court until the early 1700s.
And carnivalesque entertainment, its low delights more popular in fairground theatres than in
aristocratic playhouses, also subverted the didactic forms and ideas – the sentimental theatre of the
eighteenth century. Partly in response to these alternatives, neoclassicism became so intertwined
with the ideology and institutions of absolutism by the 1770s that its theatrical genres would not
survive the French Revolution of 1789, which beheaded the French king and threatened absolute
monarchies throughout Europe.

To some observers at the time, absolutism was a necessary response to a widespread

political and ideological crisis during the early modern period of European history. From medieval
times through the mid-1600s, several overlapping and competing centers of power co-existed

9
within most countries in Europe. Kings and queens might assert their right to rule their kingdoms,
but their actual powers were typically limited by local customs, traditional medieval privileges,
strong regional noblemen, and occasionally by powerful churchmen. Most kingdoms (and
dukedoms and church states) in Europe were little more than bundles of territories held together by
allegiance to a ruler. This arrangement had worked well enough before 1500, but it came under
pressure and sometimes fell apart during the religious wars caused by the Protestant Reformation,
the economic shift from medieval guilds and serfdom to early capitalism, and political turmoil in
Europe from the mid-sixteenth to the mid-seventeenth century. Rebellions marked the reigns of
Henry VIII and Elizabeth I in England, where a Puritan revolution finally ended in civil war. When
the French king tried to exert more direct control in the provinces, French noblemen rebelled twice
against the crown in the 1640s and 1650s, even calling in Spanish troops to support them. IN the
present areas of Germany, Poland, and Scandinavia, the Thirty Years’ War, fought mostly among
Protestant and Catholic rulers, devastated populations, towns, and regional economies. It took
much of northern and central Europe another 80 years to recover after the peace treaty of 1648,
retarding the growth of theatre and other arts until the 1720s.

By the 1620s, many sovereigns and their ministers recognized that monarchy needed a
firmer base of recognized authority to survive and flourish. The Catholic Church, which had
mounted a Counter-Reformation (1545-1648) to fight the rise of Protestantism in northern Europe,
provided a traditional source of legitimation by reviving the ideology of the divine right of kings.
According to the Vatican, Catholic kings aligned with the teachings of Rome provided their subjects
with a beneficent and infallible source of justice. Catholicism strengthened absolutist rule in Spain
and Portugal and also aided the Austrian Empire. Cardinal Richelieu, who spoke for the French
monarchy in the 1620s and 1630s, linked the crown to the power of the Catholic Church and paved
the way for the absolutism of Louis XIV later in the century. Although Protestantism had made
inroads in France, the Vatican could rejoice that Richelieu’s policies had won another
Counter-Reformation victory for Rome.

Among Protestants, the English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) provided
one of the best justifications for centralizing all power in the hands of the crown in his 1651 book,
LEVIATHAN. Hobbes pointed to recent history and the danger of continuous anarchy unless state
power were vested in a centralized government that could override all customs, traditional
immunities, and even the authority of what some churchmen might claim as the will of God. His
treatise provided part of the justification for the Restoration, so called because it restored the
institution of monarchy to England (in 1660) after the Commonwealth period of the Civil War. The
ideas of Hobbes were influential, as well, in Protestant Scandinavia and northern Germany.

Absolutism reached its zenith in France during the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715) and
became the model (and the envy) of other monarchs in Europe. King Louis reputedly boasted,
“L’etat, c’est moi” (“I am the state”) and he set about elevating himself as the symbol and
embodiment of France. Using the power of print, the king’s ministers extended centralized rule into
French provinces through standardized weights and measures, new tax codes, and a disciplined
royal army. Until the late seventeenth century, raising an army had been left to local noblemen, but

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Louis excluded the fractious aristocracy from that traditional right, made officers dependent on his
government, and effectively mobilized the army as an extension of the state. To house his much
enlarged civilian government and to bind provincial noble families to himself, Louis built a new city
in the village of Versailles, about ten miles from Paris. The centerpiece of Versailles was the king’s
new palace, intended to embody the grandeur of his reign through neoclassical façades, extensive
gardens, Baroque statuary and paintings, and the sheer size and extravagance of its public spaces
and ballrooms. While holding court at Versailles, Louis XIV divided his daily routines into a series of
ritualized acts to elevate his royal body and keep his noblemen envious of each other’s privileges;
one gentleman, for example, was accorded the honor of holding the right sleeve of the king’s
nightshirt as he took it off in the morning. The king’s propagandist for absolutism advanced the
Catholic belief that kings were God’s representatives on earth. But they also wrote and preached
that royal power, though necessarily absolute, was inevitably reasonable and just, because the king
embodied God’s will as well as his symbolic power. Because the French monarchy was the most
powerful and influential in Europe from the mid-1600s through the 1770s, much of this chapter will
center on French political and theatrical practices.

Recognizing that the theatre could influence rebellious aristocrats and wealthy merchants in
their kingdoms, absolute monarchs usually sought to control theatrical expression. They used
patronage, monopolistic regulations, state censorship, and sometimes personal interference to
support and shape the kinds of theatre that would legitimate their regimes. In addition to paying
directly for performances at court, some absolute monarchs provided subsidies to their favorite
theatrical companies to finance their public performances. Absolutist governments also granted
monopolies to some companies, giving them exclusive rights for the production of certain kinds of
theatre; Louis XIV’s bureaucrats, for example, restricted operatic, dramatic, and commedia dell’arte
performances to three different companies and attempted to prohibit other troupes from producing
these genres. Finally, believing these restrictions were not sufficient, European absolutists also
censored their regulated theatres. Companies performing dramatic theatre had to submit their
scripts for approval and even operatic and commedia troupes performed their shows under the
pricked-up ears and watchful eyes of censors, who attended to make sure that their pieces offered
no offense to the crown. Some approved authors managed to suggest subversive ideas and
occasionally entire companies found ways to effectively challenge the monopolistic practices of
absolutist regimes.

Character Types
Archetypes – Beauty, wisdom, bravery, lovesick knight driven to madness by unrequited love,

Barba: Old men, figures of paternal authority who had beards.

Dama: Leading lady

2nd Dama: supporting female actors.

Galán: Leading man.

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Secondary galanes: supporting male actors.

Gracioso: comic sidekick who generally accompanied the leading man.

Mujer esquiva (pg. 103): A common type of the Spanish Golden Age stage. The term implies
stubbornness, resistance, independence, or willfulness without the strong negative connotations of
the English “shrew”.

Viejo: Old men, figures of paternal authority.

mujer varonil (pg. 16): manly woman

mujer vestida de hombre (pg. 16): woman dressed as a man

Verse Forms
From WOMEN PLAYWRIGHTS OF EARLY SPAIN edited by Nieves Romero-Díaz and Lisa Vollendorf,
translated and annotated by Harley Erdman: (pg. 27)

Most seventeenth-century Spanish dramatic verse features shorter lines than we are
accustomed to in Shakespearean English. Eight-syllable lines are the norm, although there are many
exceptions. For those accustomed to reading or listening to DOCTOR FAUSTUS or KING LEAR, these
Spanish lines look different on the page and feel different on the tongue. The result is a lighter, more
effervescent stage language that often clips along at allegro, tumbling over itself as it hops from line
to line and conceit to conceit. Due to the brevity of each line, the language is also prone to stopping
more abruptly than some might expect. This short-line quality is fundamental to Golden Age of
Spanish theater, and I believe translations should reflect this rhythm. Otherwise, we risk pouring
seventeenth-century Castilian into the heavier, graver mold of iambic pentameter and making these
plays come out looking and sounding like Shakespearean knockoffs. At the same time, we need
some flexibility from the rigid syllable count of traditional meter. Where to find it? Generally, I
measure lines not by syllable but by stress. Here, the eight-syllable Spanish lines become lines that
can justifiably be spoken with four beats in English, even if the result is often greater or fewer than
an exact eight syllables to a given line.

For the most part, my translations do not mirror the rhyme scheme of the original Spanish.
There are places, however, where the rhyme should land crisply and unapologetically: the songs,
poems, and toasts in Enriquez’s interludes; the magic castle song and the competitors’ motes in
COUNT PARTINUPLÉS. These need to stand out as set pieces, and so here the scheme directly
mirrors the Spanish, using full rhymes. Notably, these are the places where I likely have taken the
biggest liberties with literal meaning to preserve the rhymes. The long sections of MINDLESS ZEAL
written in rhymed couplets also rhyme crisply here, although in a slightly different pattern. There
are, as well, a handful of places in PARTINUPLÉS where Caro uses more formal, heightened, or
lengthened forms of verse, and I have attempted to lend a quality of difference or formality to their

12
renderings in English. Overall, each of these translations tends to vary slightly internally in tone and
style, depending on the moment and the scene.

(From the Introduction of Harley Erdman’s translation of WILD THING)

Commedias deploy multiple verse forms. At their heart, however, are redondillas and
romance: poetic forms of four-line stanzas, each line containing eight syllables and four beats. They
result in plays that are light and vibrant, that move swiftly and musically. Thoughts tumble out
quickly, lines jab rapidly back and forth as characters spar with each other. 85% of the lines in WILD
THING are in redondillas, romance, or similar eight-syllable forms. While I have not distinguished
among these forms in rendering the play into English, I have committed myself to keeping the line
length short for this same 85% of the play, using lines of 7-9 syllables, generally speak-able in four
beats. I have tried to maintain attention to the integrity of the line as a unit of thought meaning.
Unlike Vélez’s original, my lines woven internal rhyme (and some end rhyme) into my rhetoric
whenever the opportunity presented itself without a risk of twisting the meaning. Indeed, I work
hard never to sacrifice meaning for a turn of phrase, a goal made attainable by liberation from meter
and rhyme. I take confidence from translators like Laurence Boswell, Catherine Boyle, and David
Johnston who have used similar strategies to wonderful results, all of which have borne great fruit
on stage.

Decímas: A décima is a ten-line stanza of poetry, and the song form generally consists of forty-four
lines (an introductory four-line stanza followed by four ten-line stanzas). It is also called "espinela"
after its founder, Vicente Espinel (1550–1624), a Spanish writer and musician of the Siglo de Oro.

Endecasílabas: Applied to metrical lines consisting of eleven syllables.

Motes: (pg. 188 of COUNT PARTINUPLÉS translation) Short poetic forms, often in three lines,
sometimes used in poetic “jousts”. The seventeenth-century dictionary of Sebastián de Covarrubias
Orozco describes a Mote as “a statement spoken with elegance, in few words”.

Octavas: Octave has been derived from the Latin word octāva, which means “eighth part.” It is a
verse form that contains eight lines, which usually appear in an iambic pentameter. In simple words,
it can be any stanza in a poem that has eight lines and follows a rhymed or unrhymed meter. Octava
Rima or Octava Real: stanza of 8 lines, each line being a hendecasyllable. The rhyming scheme
alternates in the first six lines and ends with a rhyming couplet: ABABABCC. Later it became the
main type of verse used in narrative poems, including the epic.

Quintillas: Five-line rhyming stanzas. The rhyme scheme in the translation we are using, mirrors
that of the original to highlight the speech on pg. 121 and 171’s “set piece” quality.

Redondillas: Most common verse form in comedias, which has an ABBA rhyme scheme.

Romance Verse Form: four-line stanzas with an assonant ABCB rhyme pattern.

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Silva Verse Form: Associated with formal, courtly, and cultured discourse, both on stage and in
literature.

Tercetas: A poetic unit of three lines, rhymed or unrhymed. Thomas Hardy's “The Convergence of
the Twain” rhymes AAA BBB; Ben Jonson's “On Spies” is a three-line poem rhyming AAA; and Percy
Bysshe Shelley's “Ode to the West Wind” is written in terza rima form.

Translation
(From the Introduction of Harley Erdman’s translation)

As a theater practitioner, I have created this translation with an ear for orality: how it
speaks, how it sounds, how it might work in the voices and bodies of actors today. The side-by-side
bilingual format of this series inspires me with the hope that my version, while containing every
idea in Vélez’s play, with the hope that my version, while containing every idea in Vélez’s play, can
stand on its own, facing it across the page as an equal, different from but not subordinate to the
original. Think of it as a sibling that has adapted itself to thrive in another set of circumstances
rather than a distant mirror of something more authentic.

Golden Age playwrights often resorted to ‘Italianate’ verse forms (10-12 syllables per line)
for variety and contrast. These longer lines make up a minority of lines in a given play. In the case of
WILD THING, the remaining 15% of the verses are in some variety of these forms. The effect is
graver, denser, more formal and stately, and Vélez accordingly uses them for most of the scenes with
Ferdinand and Isabella, as well as the courtly-esque negotiations in Act Two between Giraldo, the
Captain, and Gila. My translation honors the longer line length in the same 15% of the play for the
same intended purpose.

The villagers in the play speak, somewhat inconsistently, in a stereotypical rural dialect that
also marks them regionally as being from western Spain. This dialect comes across mostly in
non-standard word choices - for example, hendo for haciendo (doing). At the same time, most of
these characters - and certainly Gila and Giraldo - are capable of sustaining more standardized
(indeed, highly eloquent) diction for long stretches of time. In my translation, I have elected not to
reproduce any conspicuous ruralisms, which would require assigning the characters some milieu
(Appalachia? Highland Scotland?) that ultimately would distract or mislead. Rather, I hope more
subtle choices in register help to convey the play’s varied linguistic landscape.

I am indebted to C. George Peele, for generously allowing the University of Liverpool Press
to publish his and William R. Manson’s authoritative Spanish edition opposite my translation. It has
been my indispensable guide. Everything on the left-hand is the work of their editorial prowess.
That said, the English on the right side contains some editorial choices of my own, including
indications of scene breaks, as well as the settings for these scenes. I have also clarified and in many
cases repositioned stage directions. (Stage directions are often anticipatory in the manuscript,

14
placed a few lines before the action logically occurs, suggesting they were meant to give the actors a
little bit of lead time with their cues.)

Callie Reardon (Genderqueer Advisor) Genderqueer Resources

Conversation Article with List of historical figures

Were there Trans people in the middle ages?

Transgender Identity in the middle ages

Trans lives through the ages through art and literature

Third gender through history

15
The Form

Baroque Style – from PERIOD STYLE FOR THE THEATRE by Douglas A Russell
Though the development of Baroque style began in the middle of the mannerist sixteenth
century, it took another half century for the arts to develop fully the secular richness, sensuous
glory, and worldly grandeur that characterized the new-found power of the Church during the
period of the Counter Reformation. Rome became the center of this reintegration and renewal as it
had a century before when Michelangelo, Raphael, and Bramante created the High Renaissance.

The origin of the word baroque is obscure but may have come from the Portuguese word for
irregular pearl. The term for the art and culture of the period from 1600 until the early 1700s.
The major difference between Baroque and Renaissance art was the expansiveness and dynamics of
this new style as opposed to the relatively static qualities of the earlier style. The new era itself was
dynamic, brilliant, colorful, theatrical, passionate, extravagant, and ecstatic. It was an age of
expansion, of rising national powers and empires with the fate of Europe decided in faraway places
like India and North America. Baroque expansiveness also extended to new conceptions of man and
his universe, developed from the discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton. Baroque
thinking and art were obsessed with the infinite space of an unfolding universe. The new elliptical
patterns of movement established for heavenly bodies had a direct effect on compositional patterns
in art; the exaggerated theatricality, the lighting from within or beyond, and the movement leading
beyond the frame of a work of art can be viewed as strivings after the infinite. Descartes made space
and what occupies it the sole physical attribute of being; Pascal confessed that the infinite spaces of
the universe frightened him; and Milton termed this new Baroque image of space “the vast and
boundless deep.” Light became a physical entity, propelled in waves through Pascal’s “infinite
spaces” and seen as a metaphor for truth in an age that soon developed for itself the label “The
Enlightenment.” Alexander Pope characterized this age perfectly in his enthusiasm for the
discoveries of Newton: “Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night, God said: ‘Let Newton be!’ and all
was Light.”

The Baroque period was an age of theatre and drama, when opera was invented as an art
form to combine spectacle, music, exciting action, and human passion in expansive and
overwhelming theatrical presentations incorporating all degrees of lightness, darkness, and
intensity. The arts thus involved all the delights of sensuous experience. In all parts of Europe,
poetry and literature acquired a richly expressive language, and stories were created that combined
description, presentation, conflict, and a final resolution of human emotions. Luxurious display and
magnificent splendor framed life at the Catholic courts of Europe; and even in rich Protestant
countries, like Holland, there was a sober sense of expansiveness, grandeur, and display. Courtiers,
aristocrats, middle-class businessmen, and even brigands and pirates were virtuoso performers in
the spectacle of life presented on the expanded stage of the Baroque period.

The beginning of the Baroque period is usually tied to the development of the Counter
Reformation after the closing of the famed Council of Trent; the organization at the forefront of this
Counter Reformation was the Jesuit order, founded in 1534 by Ignatius Loyola. The mother church

16
of this new order in Rome, the Gesu, was designed by Giacomo Vignola and built between 1568 and
1584. Giacomo della Porta, who had helped Michelangelo with the dome of St. Peter’s, was
responsible for the façade, which became a model for Baroque churches for the next two centuries.

When Carlo Maderna was asked to complete St. Peter’s in 1603, he incorporated Michelangelo’s idea
of colossal pilasters for holding the building together from base to attic and then created an even
greater crescendo of movement from the corners to the center of the structure by using pilasters
and columns. He thus released the tensions locked into place within the various parts of the
structure and created architectural forms and forces that have movement, drama, and climax.
This sense of movement and drama at St. Peter’s was not fully realized until the great Roman
Baroque sculptor and architect Gianlorenzo Bernini was asked to complete the façade with a
monumental piazza. He used some preexisting structures to define his design of a long axis or oval
space embraced by colonnades and connected to St. Peter’s by two diverging wings. The result is a
great embracing, expansive gesture that reaches out to enclose space in a dynamic thrust of
movement. The entrance from the avenue opposite the façade into the great oval piazza expands
from a tight opening to create a wide dramatic vista and then contracts into a trapezoid that
expands a second time directly to the façade of the church. This expansion and contraction of space
to create movement and climax is the basis of much Baroque design and constitutes the basis for the

17
blocking patterns of the corps de ballet and choruses in Baroque opera and theatre.

The emphasis on dynamic movement is abundantly clear in Bernini’s DAVID. Completed in

1623, Bernini’s version, unlike Michelangelo’s powerful static version, captures a moment of action
in time. Here David is in the midst of a pivoting, unwinding motion that will launch a stone against
Goliath; the continuous action releases all those energies locked inside Michelangelo’s statue.
Moving through time and space, this David thus draws attention to the space around him and to the
implied presence of the observer. The three great statues of DAVID each represent and symbolize
the nature of the culture producing them: Donatello’s DAVID is a graceful nude youth of sixteen
representing youthful self-discovery of the early Renaissance; Michelangelo’s DAVID is a heroic
superhero representing the maturity, power, and balanced unity of the High Renaissance; while
Bernini’s DAVID represents the release of energy into space, the opening out to the infinite that is

18
the major theme in Baroque art.

The extreme differences within the Baroque style throughout Europe during the first half of
the seventeenth century may be seen by comparing the expansive opulence of any of the religious
works by Peter Paul Rubens with similar religious subjects painted by Caravaggio, Rembrandt, or
Velasquez. Rubens had studied in Italy during the formation of the new style and, upon his return to
Flanders in 1608, displayed the same opulent, sensuous, flamboyant outlook that Bernini later
developed in Italy. Rembrandt and Velasquez, however, were influenced by followers of the
lower-class figure method in Caravaggio’s realistic religious works. Using shafts of artificial light to
focus viewer attention and feeling, they created works that were closely focused, compassionately

19
real, and richly tactile.

Ruben’s THE GARDEN OF LOVE is an ideal example of the full flamboyant, early Baroque
style used to depict figures in contemporary clothing. Here is a grand, swelling, intense explosion of
action, founded on recessional compositional lines. The painting has a sense of immediacy,
theatricality, energy, space, and lighting control that are completely Baroque.

Music
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRfF7W4El60
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImQEf-sWoVI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImQEf-sWoVI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImQEf-sWoVI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImQEf-sWoVI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImQEf-sWoVI

It was not long before the contradictions and ambiguities in the sixteenth-century church
music were attacked by those Counter Reformation churchmen who wanted music and other arts to
convey feeling and passion rather than to remain “filled to overflowing with barbarisms, obscurities,
contrarieties, and superfluities…” Giovanni de Palestrina was one of the first to undertake the
reform; by his death in 1594, prayers-in-song had achieved fluid and transparent texture and a
spiritual and organic unity of feeling reminiscent of the ideals of the High Renaissance ars perfecta.

20
But it was Claudio Monteverdi who was truly to understand the inner spirit of the new style.
Appointed master of music of the Most Serene Republic of Venice in 1613 after many years as a
court composer in Mantua, Monteverdi brought sixteenth-century mannerist Renaissance
counterpoint into a new relation with true human emotion. Removing music from the realm of the
exquisite and artificial game, he brought it back to the service of human passions. Of his “Madrigals
of Love and War,” he said that he intended to depict anger, warfare, entreaty, and death and to
simulate the passions expressed in the words. For example, in a madrigal, “Return O Zephyr,” he
used a rippling melody to suggest waves and rising and falling lines of music to suggest mountains
and valleys.

In his preface to TANCRED AND CLORINDA, Monteverdi also requested his singers and
instrumentalists to render their parts in imitation of the passions of the words; the score contains a
fascinating rhythmic figure that represents a trembling shudder. Monteverdi is, of course, primarily
remembered today as having written the first full-length, complete opera – the most popular
musical media of the Baroque style that was to sweep all Europe. A number of these early
Monteverdi operas, including the famous CORONATION OF POPPEA (1642), are still performed in
opera houses today. Monteverdi truly brought passion, real feeling, movement, action, and
expansive grandeur back to the world of music.

Life and Cultural Ideals

The worst of the religious conflicts unleashed by the arrival of the Reformation – the terrible
Thirty Years War – actually occurred during the formation of the new Baroque style in the first half
of the seventeenth century. In many ways it was a last terrible rending of the old medieval, social,
and political order in Europe. During the entire time of this conflict, intellectuals, artists, and
politicians were attempting to develop a new set of relationships between restless, forward,
expanding motion and enduring order. Baroque art and culture were a heroic attempt to transcend
the innate contradictions between motion and order or, to put it the other way, to find a pattern and
an order within the apparent disorder of a changing world.

Europe’s traditional machinery of government had been designed to deal with the affairs of
an essentially static, feudal society that was agrarian, land based, and bound by a uniform religion.
It just could not cope with the tensions and problems of an expanding commercial society sharply
divided in matters of religion. The new social order of the Baroque period, first in the
church-dominated lands in Italy and later in France, was absolutism, and for a brief time this new
order dazzled Europe with the stability it brought to the social-political scene. With all power
concentrated in the king or pope and an administrative bureaucracy responsible only to the ruler,
anarchy, revolution, religious conflict, and civil war were banished for a time to permit tremendous
gains in stability, national power, and intellectual and artistic creativity.

The image of the gentleman that now emerged differed in some ways from the one
portrayed by Castiglione during the High Renaissance at the beginning of the sixteenth century.
There was now an emphasis on a studied carelessness and causal freedom. The new and rapidly

21
accepted image of the ideal man represented by the French phrase honnête homme, which really
defies translation, was summed up by Nicolas Faret in his work HONNÊTE HOMME, written in
1630:

First of all, it seems to me absolutely necessary that he who wishes to enter court society be
of noble birth and of a family marked by some noble distinction…As for his profession,
there is none more respectable or more essential for a gentleman than that of bearing arms.

The greatest ambition of one who carries a sword should be to be considered a generous
and brave man, and consequently he ought to be a man of good conduct and of virtue. And,
indeed, those who join malice to valor are usually feared and hated like ferocious beasts,
because, having the power to do evil, they also have the will to do so. But those whose great
courage is accompanied by good intentions are loved by everyone and considered as
guardian angels whom God has sent among us to oppose the oppressions of the wicked.

Since everybody is concerned about his reputation, especially where his profession is
involved, a gentleman has all the more reason to watch over the reputation of his weapons,
which are truly the means of his nobility. In this respect he must be rigorous without being
ostentatious, for, just as the reputation of a lady once blemished can never regain its original
purity, so it is impossible that the esteem enjoyed by a soldier once tarnished by a lack of
courage may be so completely re-established as to be above reproach.

One of the greatest gifts consists in a certain natural gracefulness which in all his
movements, in his slightest actions, must shine forth like a divine ray of light, a feature that
is found in all those who are born to please courtly society…

I feel that rather than get entangled in all the quarrels of philosophy which would consume
the entire life of a man, he would be wiser to study in the great book of experience than in
Aristotle. It suffices for him to have a general idea of the most interesting matters that
occupy the conventions of good society. I would rather have him be tolerably well informed
in several subjects than solidly profound in only one. The reason is that life is too short to
attain perfection in even the slightest of those specialties within our reach and that one who
can speak only of one thing is too frequently obliged to keep silent.

In consequence of all the efforts one must make to present a pleasant appearance, the first
and foremost incumbent on one who wants to please women is to honor them with all the
respect and all the submission that he is capable of and that are proper.

Ornament, Interiors, and Furniture

22
 The ornament and decoration of the new Baroque style adopted typical Renaissance forms
and added expansion and movement. Even an Italian Baroque chair feels as if it were expanding
around and out from the sitter. Arms undulate, backs spread out at the top, stretchers ripple and
expand with carving and decoration. An actor seated in full costume in such a chair has the illusion
that he is going to rise slowly off the floor, to the sound of great choruses and orchestras, into
heaven. This is exactly what happens, of course, in Baroque opera when clouds containing thrones
are lifted to heaven. Richness, grandeur, and expansion into space are the key descriptive words for
a Baroque chair as they are for architecture, sculpture, and decoration.

Let us now envision ourselves parading up one of the great staircases of the Baroque era.
These staircases, symbols of power and grandeur, were often given more space and decoration than
any other section of the palace. Some of the best staircases come from the end of the Baroque era
when the style was softening into the more delicate colors and lines of the Rococo. One of the most
impressive of these architectural complements to authority and power is the Archiepiscopal Palace

23
in Würzburg, Germany. The staircase was designed by Balthasar Neumann and decorated with
frescoes by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo. The grandeur of the scene when the staircase was lit by
candlelight to receive a procession of guest must have been overpowering. An actor, director, or
designer will readily appreciate that the scene is totally theatrical, closely related to the spectacle in
seventeenth-century opera and heroic drama and to the lavish and fantastic architectural stage
designs executed by the famed Bibiena family

Costumes and Accessories

24
25
 Though Baroque costume went through at least three distinct changes in style, its release
from the tensions and rigidities of mannerism into the expanding, full, loose clothing of the first half
of the seventeenth century is the most interesting to analyze. In Rubens painting, the ruffs have lost
their tension and stiffness and have relaxed into soft lace collars; the boning, padding and forcing of
the human body have been abandoned in favor of an easy expansion of the clothing out and away
from the natural contours of the body. The tortured, ornamented, excessively decorated surfaces of
fabrics have given way to a natural interest created by the fabric itself. Like the architecture,
sculpture, and painting of the Baroque period, the costumes move, expand, and spread out to create
a sense o size and rich grandeur. The men’s hats have bigger brims and are worn more casually; the
women’s skirts blossom out from the body without the inhibiting controls of braid and jewelry; and
the natural surfaces of fabrics shimmer and move with a new sense of freedom.

26
 The prints of Abraham Bosse, who recorded the Parisian social scene around 1630, provide
the best sources of information on the new costume style, which was more quickly accepted in
Flanders, France, and England than in Italy, the birthplace of the Baroque period. A look at his print
THE COSTUME BALL, dated 1635, gives much information on overall fashion as well as on
individual variations.

In male dress, the doublet was now unstiffened with a slightly raised waist, and skirts were
either cut into the top or casually added as peplum tabs at the waist.. The waistline was frequently
decorated with points – metal-tagged ribbons made into bows that had originally been drawn
through eyelets in the waist to hold up the knee-length breeches. Breeches lost their padding and
were either loose or baggy or long and tapering. They usually ended in loose ribbon garters tied
about the leg below the knee, the end hanging loosely at the outside. Sometimes the bottoms of the
trousers were loose and finished with a row or two of ribbon loops, a style that was to gain great
importance by the middle of the century. High, soft leather boots were worn, indoors as well as out,
over silk boot hose that fell gracefully and widely over the boot cuffs. Sleeves were full, usually with
one or more slashes the length of the arm to expose the rich material of the shirt beneath; these
openings were frequently set with buttons and holes down the length of the arm. Cuffs, like collars,
were made of exquisite starched lace. Circular, half-length cloaks were worn over one shoulder and
under the other arm, falling diagonally across the back. Wide-brimmed hats, made of soft felt or
beaver and trimmed with ostrich plumes, were worn at a jaunty angle.

27
 In feminine dress, the corset and the farthingale disappeared; the waistline rose and was no
longer pointed in front. Several full skirts, often draped over each other, gave the female form a full,
healthy, sensuous, expansive silhouette. The bodice, usually low cut, with a rich lace collar to cover
or frame the bosom, ended in a raised waistline finished with square tabs. Like the male’s, the
woman’s sleeves ended in wide lace cuffs and were full and large, sometimes slashed down the full
length to show a lining or undersleeve and caught at the elbow with silk ribbons. Sometimes the
waistline was also finished with a silk ribbon sash or with points as in the male doublet. The hair
was worn with a fringe of bangs on the forehead and two long shoulder-length ringlets falling over
the ears. Masculine hats were worn for riding, while the hooded cloak was the standard outer wrap
for evening and travel.

To sum up the attributes of the new style, let us look at the famous Anthony Van Dyck
portrait of Charles I, painted as if the king were returning from an outdoor canter on his favorite
horse. Once again after a hundred-year lapse, the natural body is seen outdoors against a natural
landscape in easy natural clothing. The frozen, immobile mannequins that passed for royal
portraits during the mannerist Renaissance have disappeared. There is an easy, aristocratic
assurance in the body pose, the tilt of the head, the way the eye contacts the viewer. The king does
not need the heavy, distorting, artificial trappings of power to establish his position; he seems to
accomplish this solely through his self-knowledge. The excessive sense of place and “degree,”
fanatically described by Ulysses in TROILUS AND CRESSIDA, has been put aside in favor of an easy,
personal, direct sense of position and power. The jaunty tilt to the expanding outline of the hat; the

28
soft, rich, and strikingly simple satin surface of the doublet; the lovely, natural, tactile surface of the
suede trousers; the rich lace of the collar and cuffs, and the soft doeskin of the boots are all
calculated to appeal subtly to the senses in a natural way, suggesting richness and taste without
overstating it. This portrait symbolizes the youth and early maturity of the new Baroque style just
as similarly posed portrait of Louis XIV, painted about sixty-five years later, represents the stultified,
heavy, hot-house, interior atmosphere that marked the end of the late Baroque style before it
relaxed into the delicacies of the Rococo style.

Manners and Movement

Because of the nature of the costume, the movement of this period was grander and easier
than in the preceding mannerist Renaissance. As the century progressed and costumes and
etiquette once again became more formal and complex, the affected nonchalance of the “Cavalier”
period gradually gave way to a more planned self-assurance and studied informality. As much
attention was paid to a man’s bodily carriage as to the instruction of his mind. One of the most
studied effects frequently noted in portraits of this age is that of a standing figure with toes turned
outward ninety degrees from each other. This stance, which became a necessity for an elegant
bearing, was achieved by turning out one leg from thigh to foot. It was developed from the classical
ballet steps of this time, since deportment and dancing went hand in hand in the training of court
gentlemen. In walking the gentleman was advised by James Cleland, a tutor to young gentlemen in
1607, to “take very good heed unto your feet and consider with what grace and countenance ye
walk, so what ye go not softly tripping like a wanton maid, nor yet striding with great long
paces…walk man-like with a grave, civil pace, as becometh one of your birth and age. Away with all
affectation.” The gentleman was also advised to avoid the manner of those who find it difficult to
“go forward one step without looking down to the rose upon their shoes; or lifting up their head to
set out their band or setting up the brim of their hat.” In accompanying a person of quality, a
gentleman gave the other person the “upper hand,” that is, stayed slightly behind him. Since the
wallside of the street was also given to a person of superior quality, the gentleman was admonished
not to change street sides too frequently lest his companion keep shifting to his side “like a managed
horse.” To greet people on the street, a mere salutation was considered sufficient. The youthful
gallant, of course, always placed his lady on the inside of the street while he walked on the outside.
IN a garden stroll, the superior person or lady was always kept on the right side, but indoors, the
side toward a bed or away from the main entrance was considered appropriate for the lady or the
person of superior position. When three people walked, the superior person was in the middle, but
when all were of equal rank, there was an almost dancelike change as each changed place with his
companion at every turning.

Hats, worn indoors as well as out, were an important accessory in conveying the exact
deference due a man of social standing. Whether and when the hat was to be removed were matters
of serious consideration, and the least blunder was long remembered by others. Subtle degrees of
social distinction were tied in with the rules for handling the hat. In general, one always removed
his hat in the presence of his superior to forget this showed great arrogance and ill-breeding. If the
men were of equal position, they either did not remove their hats or, if they did, put them on again
at the same time. No one, not even the king’s own followers, remained covered in the presence of

29
royalty except for a royal ambassador who might keep his hat on while performing ceremonial
duties for his absent master. Such subtleties caused much gossip as when the son of Charles I, later
Charles II, was instructed by his father to cover while dining, but a visiting ambassador was allowed
to continue through dinner with his hat removed.

When the hat was removed with the right hand in a graceful sweep, it was not held on the
thigh, as in the late mannerist Renaissance, but at the waist or sometimes with a negligent gesture
under the left arm. For the bow that accompanied this, the man swept off his hat, stepped back on
either foot, and bent his back knee while sweeping his hat across his chest. He then straightened his
knee and placed his hat back on his head.

Gloves, or gauntlets, were less tight fitting than in the previous period and were either worn
or carried during all social occasions. Unlike in the past, the gloved hand was now offered to a lady
in a dance; sometimes the gentleman waited for the lady to extend her hand before donning his
glove. When giving or receiving an object by hand, one was expected to remove the right-hand glove,
and the same was true when the hand was to be kissed.

The major change in both male and female clothing was toward an ease and casual elegance
as the immobile rigidities of the mannerist Renaissance disappeared. For the first time in European
fashion, a woman’s arms often showed below the elbow, and the bodice was often extremely low in
its décolletage. Good manners and deportment were still a paramount concern, and the
conventions of the day specified, according to a treatise on the education of ladies published in
1673, that “women ought to brought up to a comely and decent carriage, to their Needle, to
Neatness, to understand all those thing that do particularly belong to their sex [through] merely to

30
teach Gentlewomen to Frisk and Dance, to paint their faces, to curl their Hair, to put on a Whisk, or
wear gay Clothes, is not truly to adorn…their Bodies.”

Richard Braithwaite, who wrote about the training of the gentlewoman in 1641, stressed
that carriage should neither be too precise nor loose; smiles should be graceful and not too active;
and posture should not possess a seemly carelessness. He scorned women who indulged in
affectations and artificial extravagance. As with men, much stress was placed on dance as an
appropriate training for female deportment; particular attention was given to the holding of the
head since this was the part of the body that would first draw the attention of the courtier. The
dancing master also taught the lady the correct art of walking: to “put her feet close to one another,
the toes outward…sedately and in a straight line.”

For the first time, the female curtsy differed from the male bow. With the body held erect
and inclined slightly forward, the lady gently and steadily bent her knees outward, lifting her heels
off the ground only if the curtsy was to be very low. The hands remained easily at the sides, and the
eyes were first directed at the person receiving the curtsy and then were lowered on the knee bend
and raised as the body returned to an upright position. Because greetings and conversation curtsies
were not usually deep ones, both heels remained on the ground, particularly since ladies now wore
moderately high heels.

Both men and women embraced and kissed on special occasions when feeling was more
important than formality and decorum. In France, ladies were usually kissed on the cheek. In
England and often in Italy, they were kissed on the mouth.

In sitting, the body was relaxed and comfortable; and, unlike the late sixteenth century –
when men and women perched stiffly on the edge of a chair. In an anonymous painting based on
THE FIVE SENSES, an engraving by Abraham Bosse, we can see the relaxed poses affected by
courtiers and their ladies at a domestic social gathering.

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The Theatre
Theatre in the Baroque era was heavily influenced by opera, that new theatrical form from
Italy sweeping through Europe during the first half of the seventeenth century and remaining a
most popular form of entertainment for the next hundred years. By 1650 the basic physical
structure for drama and opera was fully established in Italy, as were the designs for settings and
costumes. The auditorium was most commonly a U-shaped structure lined with tiers of boxes and
sometimes with a gallery at the very back for servants and apprentices. Visibility was excellent only
from the center of the house. The floor of the auditorium usually had no seats, only standing room,
though benches sometimes were used in smaller theaters. Here aspiring gentleman and
middle-class theatre devotees congregated, as it as not nearly as costly as buying a seat in one of the
boxes. This floor area, easily accessible by stairs from the stage, was also used for grand
promenades, spectacular ballets, and large balls and parties.

The auditorium was divided from the stage by an ornate frame, or proscenium arch, and the
stage itself sloped upward and was usually much deeper than the auditorium. There was a
considerable amount of room below the stage for machinery ad lifts to the trap doors, and there was
enough room above the stage for painted sky borders. The sides of the stage were equipped with
overlapping rows of painted wings that could be moved out of sight behind the proscenium by hand
or by machinery. Lighting came primarily from chandeliers hung over both the stage and the
auditorium, though there were sometimes footlights behind reflectors and lights set against
reflectors behind the downstage wings.

The settings considered painted canvas flats, representing either nature or architecture,
which were wet one behind the other in groups up each side of the raked stage. There were as
many flats in each group as there were locations in the play or opera; the back was composed of a
series of large flats, or shutters, that met center stage. Thus, at every change of scene, a set of wings,
shutters, and sky borders was drawn away from the stage in full view of the audience to reveal the
next painted scene.

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 Costumes, as might be expected for the grand spectacles that made up most classical
tragedies and operas, were rich, fantastic, ornamental garments of great formality. They were based
on contemporary fashions combined with items from nature, classical antiquity, or the exotic East.
A Roman or Greek male wore a plumed helmet or headdress, a breastplatelike tunic, a short skirt
covered with ornamental tabs, a mantle, and short, very tight-fitting calf-high boots. A lady of
classical times wore what appeared to be a court gown often with hip-length overskirt and labels or
tabs at the waist and shoulders. Sleeves were usually bell-shaped and caught back at the elbows
with hanging points finished in tassels; the hair or headdress was richly adorned with plumes.
From the basic structure ingenious designers invented variations suggesting Turks, Indians,
mythological beasts, and demons of the underworld. Only in comedy were the rich fashions of
contemporary dress allowed to appear without the basic structure silhouette and ornamentation of
the “costume antique” or costume à la Romaine.”

The Plays
It is difficult to find a truly Baroque play since the dominant theatrical form was opera.
However, since the modern actor is more interested in the subtle characterizations found in a play
than in the broad emotional patterns of opera, it is important to find a drama of some depth that
includes strong Baroque characteristics. A heroic tragedy might seem the natural choice; but such
plays, written during the mid-seventeenth century and filled with ranting heroics in rhymed
couplets against a background of changing spectacle, lack all subtlety of characterization. Or one
might use Milton’s SAMSON AGONISTES, which is rich in Baroque imagery, but it is not truly a play
for the stage. We do have, though Shakespeare’s ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA, which, while not fully
participating in the Baroque style, does have the depth and subtlety of a truly great tragedy and the
sweep and grandeur of the Baroque era. It transcends the bounds of this world like the great
Baroque palace ceiling paintings of the time.

33
 The play emerges into Baroque grandeur from mannerist darkness and half-light. While
KING LEAR, MACBETH, and even OTHELLO are plays taking place both in literal night and the
nighttime of the soul, ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA is a drama of bright and expansive magnitude. The
figures are so multiple and varied, the canvas so vast, and the imagery so rich that they lead our
imagination beyond the confines of Egypt and Rome to an infinite, cosmic level.

The opening scene sets the mood of physical richness and emotional grandeur within which
the transcending love of Antony and Cleopatra flourishes. The play still has some mannerist
tendencies in organization, since it demands continuing shifts and changes in audience reaction as
the lovers’ passion fluctuates between attraction and repulsion and as the scene shifts throughout
the Mediterranean world. But unlike the mannerist style, the play is not locked within the inner
reaches of the soul. The fluctuations in love and war and in attitude and outlook are continually
linked through soaring, cosmic imagery to a view of life that lifts reality to an infinite realm where
cause and effect merge with the universal flux of the universe. This imagery of reaching out to the
heavens and to a larger, cosmic world can be experienced visually in Pietro da Cortona’s THE
GLORIFICATION OF THE REIGN OF URBAN VIII with the apocalyptic rise of swirling figures through
an illusionistic opening in the ceiling of the Barberini Palace.

To understand ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA is to realize that superficial characterizations of

Cleopatra as an intriguing courtesan and Antony as an aging playboy are impossible. Even the

34
down-to-earth Enobarbus sees the contradictory, mysterious extremes of greatness in Cleopatra
and combined grandeur and foolishness in Antony. Throughout both characterizations runs the
idea that all is both lost and won. The whole play is one great paradox that cannot be resolved
within the limits of this world. Antony and Cleopatra are the Baroque hero and heroine; only
Enobarbus with his richness of personality and warm humanity approximates their Baroque
complexity. All the other characters remain ciphers surrounding this trio’s sunbursts of character
and personality, like swirling angels in a Baroque ceiling.

In his thematic development, Shakespeare does retain more mannerist ambiguities than
single-minded Baroque assertiveness. He will not directly state whether the passion at the center of
the play is destructive or a glimpse of something greater than temporal power and death. He will
not tell you his audience, as would a high Baroque artist, whether Antony or Caesar has made the
correct choice in the worldly game of fortune. In his use of language and imagery, however, he
deliberately underlines images of the firmament, the world, the ocean, and the vastness of the
universe. Antony says that to measure his love one must “needs find out new heaven, new earth.”
Cleopatra says that Antony’s face is like “a sun and moon, which kept their course and lighted the
little O, the earth.” At his death Cleopatra says that there is “nothing left remarkable beneath the
visiting moon,” and Lepidus describes Anton’s faults “as the spots of heaven, more fiery by night’s
blackness.” The word world occurs almost twice as many times in this play as in any other of
Shakespeare’s dramas, and it is always used to increase the audience’s sense of vastness, sweep, and
grandeur.

The rhythm of the play is closely tied to the shifting contrasts in the play’s structure as well
as to the sweep of its imagery; but, unlike the shifts in other more mannerist plays of Shakespeare,
the transitions are not as abrupt. They remind one of the rhythmic movements in Baroque
architecture established by the expansion and contraction of space as in the layout of the Bernini
piazza in front of St. Peter’s Cathedral.

The physical requirements for ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA would be enormous if the play
were presented within the style of Baroque opera. Within the open conventions of the Jacobean
stage, however, the only absolute necessity is an upper level for the monument. The play actually
has few definite localizations of scenes. To enable the play to move with the speed and flow written
into its structure, it should be presented on a basically open stage with furnishings, costumes,
properties, and decorative accessories used to reinforce the action and to assist the audience in
capturing the imagery of the Baroque style.

Acting and Directing the Plays

Most of what we know about Baroque acting in the early and middle years of the
seventeenth century comes from a study of the art of the period. We know from the very nature of
opera and its costumes that the emphasis was on presence, grandeur, expansiveness of gesture, and
disciplined control of the body. In order not to be dwarfed and intimidated by the spectacle that
surrounded him, the actor or singer had to command attention and feel in control of the space
surrounding him. In the larger chorus scenes, the choreography had to be as disciplined and as

35
carefully worked out in its symmetrical patterns of expansion and contraction as the expanding and
undulating piazza of St. Peter’s Cathedral designed by Bernini. The individual performer, too,
undoubtedly would have mastered this alternating expanding and contracting movement so that his
performance would have achieved a climax through increasing speed, movement, and size of
gesture – a tremendous crescendo, supported appropriately by music, costume, and scenery. The
great “tirades” of heroic tragedy were also based on this sense of movement and were achieved in
the same way – an increasing volume, pitch, and tempo to the climax and then a gradual contraction
and fall to the conclusion of the speeches. Training in the acting method, called Heroics, is given at
the American Conservatory Theatre Training Program in San Francisco. It is excellent training even
today for actors developing voice and diction for the large-than-life classic plays of the past.

In those cases where great spectacles and large-scale costumes are not required in a
Baroque opera, heroic tragedy, or high comedy, the actor can learn much from studying Baroque art.
Look again at the portrait of Charles I by Van Dyck. Note how without mantles, robes, crowns, and
accoutrements, Charles commands our attention with a look, slight lift of the head, pose of one arm
on the hip and the other on a walking stick, and a stance that seems to move him slightly forward.
The clothing is rich but simple, and the whole figure is elegant but casual. The surrounding scene is
natural but subordinate. Charles is a king and does command the scene without the forced
accessories needed by a mannerist Henry VIII or Queen Elizabeth.

Designing the Plays

If one were to use some approximation of the spatial arrangements of the Elizabethan stage
for a production of ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA, the sense of movement, expansiveness, and richness
of the Baroque would have to come from swagged drapes, ornate set pieces, the placement of
furniture, the use of heavily fringed canopies, and the suggestion of richness and variety in textures.

36
The ideal should be to create a collage of Baroque shapes, colors, and textures suggesting
movement, expansion through the judicious use of convex and concave effects, and an overall sense
of size, grandeur, and richness. If the arrangement is not that of the Elizabethan stage, the setting
must still remain primarily a symbol of the Baroque rather than a suggestion of various places, since
the action must move rapidly through forty-two different scenes. Possibilities are a turntable with
great baroque collage of columns, steps, canopies, and ornament or an open thrust stage with, again,
a judicious arrangement of forms and rich, tactile ornament. Useful images from the preceding
illustrations could come from the Piazza of St. Peter’s, the background in Ruben’s THE GARDEN OF
LOVE and the grand staircase from the Archiepiscopal Palace of of Würzburg.

In a production of ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA the costume designer’s ideal should be the
Renaissance-Baroque ideal of the classic painted by Veronese and Rubens in which certain
conventions of helmets, breastplates, plumes, and labels at waist and shoulder are combined with
contemporary dress to create a rich, sophisticated, opulent view of antiquity as seen through the
contemporary Baroque mind’s-eye. Rich fabric swagged and draped in pseudo-classical manner
over the male and female form, trained gowns and trailing mantles, and large, opulent ornaments
should be the key to the costumes, with a mixture of the classical corselets and the near-Eastern
turbans found in contemporary paintings of antiquity. In every way the designer should probably
shun the actual facts of Roman and Egyptian clothing of the time of Antony and Cleopatra in favor of
the rich fantasy vision of antiquity seen in the Baroque paintings. In every way possible the
costumes should support the images of “the world,” “the firmament,” “the ocean,” and the “new
earth” that give an image of vastness and expansion to the entire production.

37
Comedias

From LIVING THEATRE: A HISTORY OF THEATRE by Edwin Wilson and Alvin Goldfarb, 2018
By the end of the sixteenth century, the different forms of Spanish secular drama that subsequently
flourished throughout the seventeenth century had taken shape. The full-length plays of the Spanish
golden age were originally known as comedias nuevas, and then simply as comedias. They were
given this name whether they were serious, comic, or some mixture of the two; in fact, there was
great freedom as well as flexibility in mixing serious and comic elements. Comedias usually dealt
with themes of love and honor, and the leading characters were often minor noblemen.
Like English plays of the same period, comedias were episodic in form and did not adhere to the
neoclassical rules. Thus the three unities of time, place, and action were for the most part ignored,
though the unity of time was frequently observed within each act of a comedia; the supernatural
was often an element, and comedias were written in three acts rather than five. A comedia was
usually about 3,000 lines long.

We can get some idea of the episodic nature of comedias and the mixture of elements in
them by looking at two plays by Lope de Vega. The first, THE KING, THE GREATEST MAYOR, was
originally performed in 1620. Before the actual play, there is an amusing comic prologue. Then
comes the play itself. THE KING, THE GREATEST MAYOR is serious, but it also has comic elements.
It concerns a farmer who promises his daughter Elvira to a peasant, Sancho. Sancho seeks approval
for the marriage from his lord, Don Tello. Don Tello agrees, but when he sees Elvira, he wants her
for himself. He postpones the wedding and later kidnaps Elvira. As the play unfolds, it has all the
ingredients of sparkling drama: a clash between peasants and the nobility, a wronged peasant, a
kidnapping, a beautiful maiden in distress. The action moves rapidly from place to place, and there
is a blend of comedy and suspense.

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 As the play continues Sancho appeals to the king to help him regain Elvira from Don Tello;
after several complications, the king arrives in disguise. When the king discovers that Don Tello has
forcibly seduced Elvira, he orders Don Tello to marry her and then has him executed so that Elvira
will be honorably widowed and can marry Sancho. THE KING, THE GREATEST MAYOR has a total of
thirteen scenes. Such a large number of scenes is typical of the episodic form and also occurs in
another play by Lope, FUENTE OVEJUNA, written earlier, about 1614.
FUENTE OVEJUNA – the title is often translated as THE SHEEP WELL – is unusual in that its hero is
not one person but an entire village. The commander of the area is a womanizer who is attempting
to seduce a village maiden when he is thwarted by a peasant. Enraged, the commander beats the
peasant and the girl’s father and carries her off. The villagers are upset, but inclined to be cautious.
However, when the young woman returns, nearly having been ravished by the commander, she
shames them into killing him. They know they will not go unpunished by the authorities, but they
decide to be steadfast in maintaining the commander was slain not by any one person but by the
whole village. Despite torture, they stick to their story. In the end the king and queen, after debating
their difficult decision, choose to let the townspeople go.

In true episodic fashion, FUENTE OVEJUNA moves over a wide range of locations: from the
commander’s headquarters in the district, to a public square in the village, to a chamber in the
offices of the rulers (Fernando and Isabel), to the open countryside, to the town square, to the house
of the commander. The play also has a large cast of characters.
In form, therefore, plays of the Spanish golden age are very close to Elizabethan drama. There are
differences in subject, however: conflicts of love and honor, daring adventures, melodramatic
confrontations, and rescues are the essence of the Spanish plays. Also, there is a mixture of the
serious and the comic, as mentioned above. Unlike a tragedy such as Shakespeare’s KING LEAR or a
comedy such as TWELFTH NIGHT, a Spanish play of this period seems closer to the popular
melodramatic entertainments of our own day: swashbuckling films of the 1940s, romantic novels,
and soap operas.

There were many types of comedias. One was known as capa y espada, “cape and sword.”
The name derives from the outfits usually worn by the minor nobility, which the plays featured; it
also suggests the daredevil romantic quality of these plays. Another type of comedia featured
saints, rulers, nobles, historical figures, legendary heroes, and mythological figures; this type was
set in places and periods far removed from contemporary Spain. Dramas of the second type went
by various names: teatro, cuerpo (“corpse”), and ruido (“noise”). Comedias written for the court
focused on scenes requiring elaborate stage machinery.
Before 1615, performances of comedias were preceded by a prologue, which was either a
monologue or a short sketch; the intermissions between acts featured interludes, known as
entremeses, some of which were spoken and others sung. Besides full-length plays, the Spaniards
developed many popular, short, farcical forms, which were presented on the same program with
comedias.

39
Background: The Spanish Golden Age (from LIVING THEATRE: A HISTORY OF THEATRE by Edwin Wilson and
Alvin Goldfarb, 2018)

In the second century B.C.E. Spain (like many other regions) was conquered by the Romans and
became part of the Roman empire. In 711 C.E., however, the Moors invaded from North African, and they soon
controlled all of Spain except for certain areas in the extreme north. The Moors, with their Islamic culture and
religion, were to rule parts of Spain for the next 700 years. This Moorish domination had a lasting effect, even
after Spain was retaken by the Roman Catholic monarchies; Moorish influences appear later in architecture
and the arts.
Attempts to reconquer Spain from the Moors began immediately after 711; and in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries northern rulers in Spain began an earnest struggle to reconquer the south. It was not
until the fifteenth century, though, that the entire peninsula was retaken from the Moors. This took place
during the reign of King Fernando and Queen Isabel. Fernando was king of Aragon; Isabel, after a struggle
with other heirs, became the monarch of Castile and León. These two married in 1469 and thereafter
consolidated their control of Spain.
For several reasons, 1492 was a significant year in their reign. The best-known event is Columbus’s
voyage to the Western Hemisphere. But 1492 was also the year when Fernando and Isabel drove the Jews out
of Spain permanently. Spanish Jews were culturally and ethnically no different from Spanish Christians; but
since they were not Catholics, they interfered with the goal of religious unanimity. A few years earlier, in
1478, Fernando and Isabel took control of the Spanish Inquisition, a religious tribunal that arbitrarily decided
cases of heresy. Those found guilty had no court of appeal and were often banished, imprisoned, or burned at
the stake.
At the time that they were expelling the Jews, Fernando and Isabel accelerated the expulsion of Moors
as well. By forcing out its Moors and Jews, Spain lost some of its most notable doctors, philosophers,
merchants, and scholars.
The Spain of Fernando and Isabel was, like other European countries, marked by religious
intolerance; however, it was also rising to become a world power. Beginning with Columbus’s discoveries and
conquests in the Americas, Spain came to dominate Europe in the early part of the sixteenth century; it
conquered other European lands and continued its control of the seas. Spain was also successful in commerce

40
and trade. By 1550, it was the leading power in Europe and was poised for what has come to be known as its
golden age, not only in conquest and commerce but also in the arts.
The year 1588, when its armada was defeated by England, marked the end of the unquestioned
superiority of Spain as a sea power, but it continued to be a major factor in Europe for much of the sixteenth
century. During this period, Spanish drama and theater flourished.

Theatres of absolutism, 1600-1770 by Bruce McConachie from THEATRE HISTORIES: AN INTRODUCTION,

edited by Tobin Nellhause, 2010
Neoclassicism was linked to the political ideology of absolutism, as well as to print culture. Those
who believed in absolutism advanced the new idea that the rightful monarch must monopolize the rule of law
and the use of force within the lands that he (or she) controlled. The [print culture of this period examines]
the rise of absolutism in Europe during the 1600s, its immense power on the European continent in the
1700s, and the kinds of theatrical entertainments that supporters of absolutism enjoyed. By the
mid-eighteenth century, absolutism flourished throughout continental Europe. For more than 150 years, until
the 1770s, the aristocracy and most of the rich merchants and professionals followed European monarchs and
their courts in applauding festive entertainments, masques, operas, and finally neoclassical plays in court
theatres and public playhouses. With few exceptions, these performances legitimated the values and beliefs of
absolutism.
Nonetheless, there were significant tensions between neoclassical entertainments and two other
kinds of performances. The splendors and enchantments of Baroque opera regularly overwhelmed the
rational strictures of neoclassicism in performances at court until the early 1700s. And carnivalesque
entertainment, it low delights more popular in fairground theatres than in aristocratic playhouses, also
subverted the didactic forms and ideas – the sentimental theatre of the eighteenth century. Partly in response
to these alternatives, neoclassicism became so intertwined with the ideology and institutions of absolutism by
the 1770s that its theatrical genres would not survive the French Revolution of 1789, which beheaded the
French king and threatened absolute monarchies throughout Europe.
To some observers at the time, absolutism was a necessary response to a widespread political and
ideological crisis during the early modern period of European history. From medieval times through the
mid-1600s, several overlapping and competing centers of power co-existed within most countries in Europe.
Kings and queens might assert their right to rule their kingdoms, but their actual powers were typically
limited by local customs, traditional medieval privileges, strong regional noblemen, and occasionally by
powerful churchmen. Most kingdoms (and dukedoms and church states) in Europe were little more than
bundles of territories held together by allegiance to a ruler. This arrangement had worked well enough before
1500, but it came under pressure and sometimes fell apart during the religious wars caused by the Protestant
Reformation, the economic shift from medieval guilds and serfdom to early capitalism, and political turmoil in
Europe from the mid-sixteenth to the mid-seventeenth century. Rebellions marked the reigns of Henry VIII
and Elizabeth I in England, where a Puritan revolution finally ended in civil war. When the French king tried
to exert more direct control in the provinces, French noblemen rebelled twice against the crown in the 1640s
and 1650s, even calling in Spanish troops to support them. IN the present areas of Germany, Poland, and
Scandinavia, the Thirty Years’ War, fought mostly among Protestant and Catholic rulers, devastated
populations, towns, and regional economies. It took much of northern and central Europe another 80 years to
recover after the peace treaty of 1648, retarding the growth of theatre and other arts until the 1720s.
By the 1620s, many sovereigns and their ministers recognized that monarchy needed a firmer base of
recognized authority to survive and flourish. The Catholic Church, which had mounted a
Counter-Reformation (1545-1648) to fight the rise of Protestantism in northern Europe, provided a
traditional source of legitimation by reviving the ideology of the divine right of kings. According to the
Vatican, Catholic kings aligned with the teachings of Rome provided their subjects with a beneficent and
infallible source of justice. Catholicism strengthened absolutist rule in Spain and Portugal and also aided the
Austrian Empire. Cardinal Richelieu, who spoke for the French monarchy in the 1620s and 1630s, linked the
crown to the power of the Catholic Church and paved the way for the absolutism of Louis XIV later in the
century. Although Protestantism had made inroads in France, the Vatican could rejoice that Richelieu’s
policies had won another Counter-Reformation victory for Rome.
Among Protestants, the English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) provided one of
the best justifications for centralizing all power in the hands of the crown in his 1651 book, LEVIATHAN.
Hobbes pointed to recent history and the danger of continuous anarchy unless state power were vested in a

41
centralized government that could override all customs, traditional immunities, and even the authority of
what some churchmen might claim as the will of God. His treatise provided part of the justification for the
Restoration, so called because it restored the institution of monarchy to England (in 1660) after the
Commonwealth period of the Civil War. The ideas of Hobbes were influential, as well, in Protestant
Scandinavia and northern Germany.
Absolutism reached its zenith in France during the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715) and became the
model (and the envy) of other monarchs in Europe. King Louis reputedly boasted, “L’etat, c’est moi” (“I am the
state”) and he set about elevating himself as the symbol and embodiment of France. Using the power of print,
the king’s ministers extended centralized rule into French provinces through standardized weights and
measures, new tax codes, and a disciplined royal army. Until the late seventeenth century, raising an army had
been left to local noblemen, but Louis excluded the fractious aristocracy from that traditional right, made
officers dependent on his government, and effectively mobilized the army as an extension of the state. To
house his much enlarged civilian government and to bind provincial noble families to himself, Louis built a
new city in the village of Versailles, about ten miles from Paris. The centerpiece of Versailles was the king’s
new palace, intended to embody the grandeur of his reign through neoclassical façades, extensive gardens,
Baroque statuary and paintings, and the sheer size and extravagance of its public spaces and ballrooms.
While holding court at Versailles, Louis XIV divided his daily routines into a series of ritualized acts to elevate
his royal body and keep his noblemen envious of each other’s privileges; one gentleman, for example, was
accorded the honor of holding the right sleeve of the king’s nightshirt as he took it off in the morning. The
king’s propagandist for absolutism advanced the Catholic belief that kings were God’s representatives on
earth. But they also wrote and preached that royal power, though necessarily absolute, was inevitably
reasonable and just, because the king embodied God’s will as well as his symbolic power. Because the French
monarchy was the most powerful and influential in Europe from the mid-1600s through the 1770s, much of
this chapter will center on French political and theatrical practices.
Recognizing that the theatre could influence rebellious aristocrats and wealthy merchants in their
kingdoms, absolute monarchs usually sought to control theatrical expression. They used patronage,
monopolistic regulations, state censorship, and sometimes personal interference to support and shape the
kinds of theatre that would legitimate their regimes. In addition to paying directly for performances at court,
some absolute monarchs provided subsidies to their favorite theatrical companies to finance their public
performances. Absolutist governments also granted monopolies to some companies, giving them exclusive
rights for the production of certain kinds of theatre; Louis XIV’s bureaucrats, for example, restricted operatic,
dramatic, and commedia dell’arte performances to three different companies and attempted to prohibit other
troupes from producing these genres. Finally, believing these restrictions were not sufficient, European
absolutists also censored their regulated theatres. Companies performing dramatic theatre had to submit
their scripts for approval and even operatic and commedia troupes performed their shows under the
pricked-up ears and watchful eyes of censors, who attended to make sure that their pieces offered no offense
to the crown. Some approved authors managed to suggest subversive ideas and occasionally entire
companies found ways to effectively challenge the monopolistic practices of absolutist regimes.

Characters - 8+ M, 4+ F
Giraldo: “Spear Ruler”. Gila’s father, a wealthy old villager. Barba (old man, leader of
his town). Carries a walking stick. In Act 3, he carries a staff of office.
Captain Don Lucas de Carvajal, “bringer of light”, “someone who lived near an oak
grove”, these trees have become associated with longevity, strength, stability,
endurance, fertility, power, justice, and honesty”. Galán, converso (leading man of
Jewish blood). Simply attired, in travelling clothes (“en cuerpo”, meaning no cape, cloak,
or adornments), cuts a striking figure with his tasseled spear and sash. In Act 3, add a
black ferreruelo (a collarless cape). In Act 3, he was also the leader of the Brotherhood
of Plasencia, with a staff of office.

42
Gila: : “Eternal joy”, La Serrana de la Vera, Mujer Varonil, manly woman, archetypes of
beauty, wisdom, bravery, and driven to madness by love. Dressed in serrana or
mountain style: the upper part of their dress has many devotional images, their hair is
loose, they wear a feathered cap, they have a mountain knife, silvery buskins, and
under their saddle cover a rifle. Later dressed only in petticoats. When on the mountain,
she is dressed with her hair parted down the middle, a rounded cap plumed with black
and white feathers, a gilded belt to girdle her figure that carries a gunpowder box held
by golden ties, a hunting knife, and over her shoulder a rifle.
Mingo: “treacherous or stealthy”, Villager, Gracioso (comic sidekick of Gila). Needs to
have breeches that are easily loosened.
Madalena: “Bitter; Woman from Magdala”, Magdala was an ancient city on the shore of
the Sea of Galilee, 3 miles north of Tiberias. In the Babylonian Talmud it is known as
Magdala Nunayya, and which some historical geographers think may refer to Tarichaea,
literally the place of processing fish. It is believed to be the birthplace of Mary
Magdalene. Mary Magdalene appears in this text also not only as the disciple he loved
most but also as a symbolic figure of heavenly wisdom. Villager, Gila’s cousin, 2nd
Dama (supporting female character)
Pascuala: "passover", Ma Nishtana (Hebrew: ‫מה נשתנה‬‎), are the first two words in a
phrase meaning "Why is tonight different from all other nights?" The phrase appears at
the beginning of each line of The Four Questions, traditionally asked via song by the
youngest capable child attending Passover Seder. Village girl, early teens, 2nd Dama
(supporting female character)
Don García: 'bear'. Lieutenant, 2nd Galán (supporting male character)
Fencing Master, 2nd Galán (supporting male character)
Andrés: “Manly; brave”. Roughneck, 2nd Galán (supporting male character). Dressed
like a cart driver: cap, rural-style gaiters, a small cape or cloak with a fur doublet
underneath, and an over-cloak thrown over his shoulder. He does not have a sword.
Gerónimo: “holy name”. Roughneck, 2nd Galán (supporting male character). Dressed
with a clark with a coin purse. Has a sword.
Doña Inés: “pure, holy; chaste”. Lady in waiting to the King and Queen, 2nd Dama
(supporting female character)
Don Rodrigo Girón: “a compound of hrod 'renown' + ric 'power(ful)”, 'hem', 'remnant'.
Master of Calatrava, 2nd Galán (supporting male character). Warrior monk. Uncloaked,
in black with black feathers in his hat, with a rancher’s apron tied in the front, and a
larger-than-normal Calatrava cross on his chest, and a staff. Later he wears a long
woolen ecclesiastical cape. In Act 3 add a ferreruelo (a collarless cape).
Sergeant 2nd Galán (supporting male character)
The Traveler 2nd Galán (supporting male character)
Villagers, Vendors,
Troopers: Dressed with Green two-sided hoods and crossbows.

43
YouTube Playlist
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL2eVZ45jkcXsRs8eLMxMXWYXTip3_W0dI

44
Vocabulary/Timeline

1469 (11): Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella.

1482 (12): Year the play is set, which corresponds to the siege of Granada.

1614 (26): First performance of LA SERRANA DE LA VERA with Jusepa Vaca in the leading
role in Alba de Tormes with the theater company managed by her husband Juan de Morales.

1618 (11): Second performance of LA SERRANA DE LA VERA with Jusepa Vaca in the leading
role, during Corpus Christi celebrations.

1916 (27): MOUNTAIN GIRL / LA SERRANA DE LA VERA is published for the first time.

45
Abaci (145): a counting device that consists of a frame holding rods on which a specific number
of beads are free to move. Each rod designates a given denomination, such as units, tens,
hundreds, etc, in the decimal system, and each bead represents a digit or a specific number of
digits.

Aguilar (159): One of the people who were a part of the reconquest of Granada.

Aide-de-camp (205): An aide-de-camp is a personal assistant or secretary to a person of high

rank, usually a senior military, police or government officer, or to a member of a royal family or a
head of state. An aide-de-camp may participate at ceremonial functions, and the first
aide-de-camp is typically the foremost personal aide.

46
Alba de Tormes (26): Alba de Tormes is a municipality in the province of Salamanca, western
Spain, part of the autonomous community of Castile and León. The town is on the River Tormes
upstream from the city of Salamanca.

47
Albayados the Zegri (101): It is not clear whether this name refers to a specific historic individual
or merely to a well-known family name associated with the late 15th-century wars in Granada
(both the civil war within the kingdom, and the war against the Christians to the north).

Alhama (71, 103): A town in the kingdom of Granada, was the site of prolonged battles in 1482
between the Moors and the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella, led by Rodrigo Girón, the Master
of Calatrava. Girón died in this battle, though this circumstance is not part of this play.

48
Alhambra (159): The Alhambra is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia,
Spain. It was originally constructed as a small fortress in 889 CE on the remains of ancient
Roman fortifications.

49
Almond paste (73): Turrón de Jijona is Spanish soft nougat, full of delicious almond and honey
flavor. Easy to make; it's a great Holiday food gift or serve it to guests as an after dinner treat.

50
Andalusia (159): Andalusia is a large autonomous region of hills, rivers and farmland bordering
Spain’s southern coast. It was under Moorish rule from the 8th-15th centuries, a legacy that
shows in its architecture, including such landmarks as the Alcázar castle in Seville, the capital
city, as well as Córdoba’s Mezquita Mosque-Cathedral and Granada’s Alhambra palace.

51
Aphorisms (71): A pithy observation that contains a general truth, such as, “if it ain't broke, don't
fix it.” A concise statement of a scientific principle, typically by an ancient classical author.

Apollo (205): Apollo is one of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and
Greek and Roman mythology. The national divinity of the Greeks, Apollo has been recognized
as a god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the Sun and
light, poetry, and more. Symbol: Lyre, laurel wreath, python, raven, swan, bow and arrows.

52
Aragon (37, 145): Aragon is a landlocked region in northeastern Spain comprising the provinces
of Huesca, Zaragoza and Teruel. It's bisected by the Ebro River, with the Pyrenees Mountains in
its north. Aragon is known for its ornate, Moorish-influenced Mudéjar architecture, represented
in the 1686 Basilica of Nuestra Senora del Pilar in Zaragoza. The regional capital, Zaragoza is a
commercial city of wide boulevards and arcades.

53
Arcady (143): Denotes Ancient Greece. A region in Ancient Greece poetically associated with a
tradition of rural, bucolic innocence.

54
Archidona (157): Archidona is a town and municipality in the province of Málaga, part of the
autonomous community of Andalusia in southern Spain. It is the center of the comarca of
Nororiental de Málaga and the head of the judicial district that bears its name. It earned the title
of city in 1901.

55
Architraves (145): In classical architecture, an architrave is the lintel or beam that rests on the
capitals of columns. The term can also apply to all sides, including the vertical members, of a
frame with mouldings around a door or window.

Arquebuses (62 of cut script): An arquebus is a form of long gun that appeared in Europe and
the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. An infantryman armed with an arquebus is called
an arquebusier.

56
Asclepius (141): A hero/god of medicine.

Asesina (6): murderesses

57
Astragal (145): An astragal is a moulding profile composed of a half-round surface surrounded
by two flat planes. An astragal is sometimes referred to as a miniature torus. It can be an
architectural element used at the top or base of a column, but is also employed as a framing
device on furniture and woodwork.

Asturias (77, 101, 141): Juan de Asturias (1478-1497) was Ferdinand and Isabella’s only son.
The play anachronistically telescopes the siege of Alhama (1482) and Juan’s death (1497) into

58
the same historical moment.

Auto-da-fe (17): An auto-da-fé was the ritual of public penance carried out between the 15th and
19th centuries of condemned heretics and apostates imposed by the Spanish, Portuguese, or
Mexican Inquisition as punishment and enforced by civil authorities. Its most extreme form was
death by burning.

Auto-da-fe penitent (27):The general procession and files of the penitents followed a
specific order. In the first place, the inquisitors marched all of the penitent heretics who
received sentences of penance. The penanced marched with their heads uncovered,

59
wearing their sanbenitos, each according to the style of public abjuration they were
expected to make. The penitent heretics also marched carrying a lighted green candle
as a sign of their hope for.

Amazon goddess (93): The Amazons were known as warriors who worshiped the moon.
Because of this, two of their patron deities are Ares, god of war, and Artemis, goddess of war,
and Cybele, goddess of the moon. Artemis can be regarded in many ways as an immortal
Amazon.

60
Astrologers (127): Although some medieval astrologers were thought to be magicians, many
were highly respected scholars. Astrologers believed that the movements of the stars influenced
numerous things on Earth, from the weather and the growth of crops to the personalities of
newborn babies and the inner workings of the human body.

Bandolera - highwaywoman (6): a broad cartridge belt worn over the shoulder by soldiers

Bella cazadora (6): Beautiful hunter.

Boy King (159): This may be a reference to young King Boabdil Muhammed II, who was aligned
with Ferdinand and Isabella during the siege of Málaga in 1487.

Brotherhood (189): The Brotherhood, or Hermandad, was a powerful rural police force in
Castille. As the action of the play will reveal, it enjoyed certain prerogatives that could not
readily be challenged by the monarchs.

61
Bullfighting (26): Spanish-style bullfighting is a type of bullfighting that is practiced in Spain,
Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, as well as in parts of southern France and
Portugal. This style of bullfighting involves a physical contest with humans attempting to publicly
subdue, immobilize, or kill a bull. By the 15th century, bullfighting had become entrenched in
Spanish culture as the sport of aristocracy. But bullfighting went underground during the reign of
Queen Isabella, who opposed it. And in 1567, Pope Pius V banned it completely,
excommunicating aristocrats who supported the fights and refusing Christian burial to those
killed in the ring. The church lifted the ban eight years later, when it became clear the practice
wasn't going away.

62
Buskins (51): A buskin is a knee- or calf-length boot made of leather or cloth, enclosed by
material, and laced, from above the toes to the top of the boot, and open across the toes. A

63
high-heeled version was worn by Athenian tragic actors.

Caba (209): Florinda la Cava - Florinda la Cava, or simply La Cava, is a character who,
according to legend, played a central role in the downfall of the Visigothic kingdom in Spain in
711. Although she was treated as historical in Spain for centuries, there is no evidence for her
existence whatsoever and her name is certainly a later concoction. The musical LA CAVA,
which premiered in 2000, is based on the legend of Florinda. The name La Cava was possibly
influenced by the Hebrew and Arabic words for Eve: Chava and Ḥawwā, respectively. There are
obvious parallels between her legend and the story of Eve, whose name in Arabic came to be a
general word for a bad woman. One converso (ex-Jewish) writer of the 15th century drops the
article (la) and calls her simply Caba. A connection between the names of the two figures is not
made explicit until 1574, when the Carthusian theologian Gabriel Esteban de Salazar wrote that
"we corruptly pronounce Eva for Chava. This is the sad name of the Chava, who was the
occasion of the loss of Spain. By the 16th century, a promontory on the north coast of Africa was
being called La Cava Rumía and was presumed by many Spaniards to be named after La Cava
of legend. The promontory in question is sometimes called Albatel. It lies opposite Cape Caxine.
According to the 19th-century French survey of the Mediterranean by Magloire de
Flotte-d'Argençon, this bay was still called the golfe de la Malamuger (gulf of the evil woman).

C. George Peele (29): Bachelor of Arts cum laude from the University of Southern California
(1966), Master of Arts from the University of Iowa (1968), Doctor of Spanish from California at
Irvine (1973), and Master of Educational Administration from Pepperdine (1998), Professor at
the University of Kansas and the State of California in Fullerton and emeritus of the latter, and
visiting professor at the University of California in Riverside, and at the Autonomous University
of Ciudad Juárez, specialized in Fernán Pérez de Oliva and Luis Velez de Guevara. He edited
the latter's theater and together with William R. Manson made at least 51 critical editions (until

64
2019). He is a correspondent of the North American Academy of the Spanish Language and a
member of the International Association of Spanish and Novohispano Theater of the Golden
Age. He was elected president of the latter in 1917. In 1979 he was elected a corresponding
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Fine Letters and Noble Arts of Córdoba. He is also
an honorary member of the Hispanic Society of America (2003).
Cádiz (159, 161):

Calatrava (37, 99, 157, 159): Calatrava was a military religious order founded in the 12th
century for the purpose of the Crusades. The allegiance of this militia and others like ti were vital
to Ferdinand and Isabella’s gaining control of Iberia amid the peninsular wars of the 15th
century. Rodrigo Téllez Girón (1456-1482) was leader of this order at the time of the play’s
events. The Order of Calatrava was one of the four Spanish military orders and the first military
order founded in Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bull confirming
the Order of Calatrava was given by Pope Alexander III on September 26, 1164.

65
Calatrava Cross (99):

Candied limes (73): Slice the limes as thin as possible, about 1/8 inch thick, and remove any
seeds. Cut sheets of wax paper and place them underneath a wire cooling rack. Combine the
sugar and 1 cup water in a small heavy-bottomed saucepan, and cook over high heat until the
sugar dissolves and the mixture is boiling. Add the lemon slices and let the mixture simmer over
medium-low heat for 15 minutes, or until the lemon slices are opaque. Make sure the sugar
mixture does not begin to caramelize. Using a fork or a slotted spoon, carefully transfer the
lemon slices to the wire cooling rack, arranging them in a single layer. Let them dry for at least 1
hour. The lemon slices should be slightly sticky. Extra slices, placed between pieces of wax or
parchment paper and placed in an airtight container, can be frozen for up to 2 weeks or
refrigerated for 1 week.

Captain Bireno (169): Minor characters that appear in Canto X of Ariosto’s early 16th-century
epic ORLANDO FURIOSO, a tremendously popular work in Golden Age Spain. Parallel to the

66
circumstances of the play, Bireno abandons his lover Olimpia while she is sleeping - indeed,
stranding her on an island as he sails away with his fleet.

Capon: A capon is a cockerel that has been castrated or neutered, either physically or
chemically, to improve the quality of its flesh for food, and, in some countries like Spain, fattened
by forced feeding.

Captain Carvajal (205): The Carvajals were an illustrious clan in Plasencia and western Spain,
some of whom gained considerable fame in service to the church and state, including a number
who figured prominently in the conquest of America. This particular character appears to be a
fictional character.

Carnation (53): In Spanish, the red carnation is called "clavel." It represents the affection
between lovers and has also been used as a religious symbol for the passion of Christ. It is also
part of many Spanish traditions. The flower also appears in religious contexts, bullfighting, and
parades.

67
Cart driver (73, 81): The Coachman – the Head Coachman supervised the coach house and
stable staff. They oversaw the purchase and care of the driving horses and the maintenance
and cleaning of the carriages and harness. If an estate owned two or more carriages the Head
Coachman always drove the best carriage and horses.

Carvajales (12, 161): The Carvajals were an illustrious clan in Plasencia and western Spain,
some of whom gained considerable fame in service to the church and state, including a number
who figured prominently in the conquest of America.

68
Castile (37, 71, 145, 157, 159): Castile is a territory of imprecise limits located in Spain. Its
extension is often ascribed to the sum of the regions of Old Castile and New Castile, as they
were formally defined in the 1833 territorial division of Spain.

Chain (235):

69
Chairs (93):

70
Cherries (73): The cherry has come to represent feminine chastity and purity as the fruit ripens
on the tree. Once plucked, however, a cherry represents the loss of innocence and virtue.

71
Chorizo (125): Chorizo is a type of pork sausage. In Europe, chorizo is a fermented, cured,
smoked sausage, which may be sliced and eaten without cooking, or added as an ingredient to
add flavor to other dishes. Elsewhere, some sausages sold as chorizo may not be fermented
and cured, and require cooking before eating. In the fifteenth century cattle were bred outside
the cities and parts were sold to butchers when killed. But it was different with the pigs. The pig
was growing up in the villages, was killed in the streets and the chorizo was prepared by the
family. This custom is something that still exists in some villages, "The slaughter of the pig."

Christian Diana (105): A Christian version of Diana. Diana is considered a virgin goddess and
protector of childbirth and is often associated with Jesus’ mother Mary. In Roman religion,
goddess of wild animals and the hunt, identified with the Greek goddess Artemis. Her name is
akin to the Latin words dium (“sky”) and dius (“daylight”). Like her Greek counterpart, she was
also a goddess of domestic animals.

72
Cloth hunting cap (73):

Converso Blood (65, 69): Converso, (Spanish: “converted”), one of the Spanish Jews who
adopted the Christian religion after a severe persecution in the late 14th and early 15th
centuries and the expulsion of religious Jews from Spain in the 1490s. Purity of blood (pureza
[limpieza] de sangre) was an obsessive concern that originated in mid-15th-century Spain, on
the basis of the biased belief that the unfaithfulness of the “deicide Jews,” (god-killing Jews) not
only had endured in those who converted to Catholicism but also had been transmitted by blood
to their descendants, regardless of their sincerity in professing the Christian faith. Consequently,
Old Christians “of pure blood” considered New Christians impure and therefore morally

73
inadequate to be members of their communities. This judgment was primarily applied to the
politically and economically influential group of Iberian conversos (Catholics of Jewish origins)
but was extended also to moriscos (Catholics of Muslim lineage) and consequently to the
natives and slaves in the colonial contexts. As a result, various civil and ecclesiastical
institutions and communities issued discriminatory and segregation laws (known as estatutos, or
statutes) against them. These statutes were often employed with more rigidity than certain
canonically sanctioned impediments for descendants of Protestant heretics. A heated
discussion over their implementation that subsequently spurred left an abundant written track
that has been studied in a growing number of scholarly works.

Corinthian (143): The Corinthian order is the last developed of the three principal classical
orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric order which was
the earliest, followed by the Ionic order.

Corinthian grapes (117): literally, ‘ears of Corinth’, as being to Corinthian columns, the most
sumptuous and adorned of the classical orders. The grape metaphor is more consistent with
Mingo’s rhetoric. Corinthian grapes were usually small.

74
Cornices (145): an ornamental molding around the wall of a room just below the ceiling.

Corpus Christi Celebrations (11): The festival of Corpus Christi celebrates the Eucharist as the
body of Christ. The name 'Corpus Christi' is Latin for 'the body of Christ'. In the Church of
England this feast is also kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday and known as the Day of
Thanksgiving for the Institution of Holy Communion (Corpus Christi). Corpus Christi is Toledo’s
most important festival and one of its oldest. Although its exact date of origin is unknown, it is
recorded as having been celebrated in the 15th century. This solemn religious procession is
celebrated on the day of the Corpus Christi and presided by the Archbishop of Toledo, cardinal
primate of Spain. The city’s historic streets, especially decorated for the occasion, provide the
backdrop for this striking procession. The highlights are the Monstrance, a priceless work of
craftsmanship in gold and silver dating from 1515 and weighing about 160 kilos; and the
distinctive and traditional retinue of followers made up of the different religious fraternities and
guilds. Five weeks before the religious procession, the route is decorated with awnings, wreaths
and lanterns. The day before the feast of Corpus Christi, walls, windows and balconies are
adorned with antique pennants and tapestries from the 16th and 17th century, and the ground is
strewn with aromatic herbs whose scent pervades the festive atmosphere of the following days.
The procession begins at midday: the bells of Toledo begin to peel, and the first to appear is a
group of giants representing the different continents. Then the procession itself leaves the
cathedral, bearing the Monstrance and accompanied by the religious guilds in order of antiquity.

75
Crack comedienne (27): Could mean several things, but a crack comedienne is one who is
quick to the sarcastic/witty remark and up for all sorts of shenanigans or wise cracks.

Crossbows (241): The crossbow dates back as far as 600 BC. It was used in both Ancient
Greece and Ancient Rome. The crossbow was introduced to Medieval Europe in about the 9th
century. It was one of the few weapons that was effective against mounted knights in plate
armor. This made it an essential weapon for wars during the Medieval and Renaissance period
when mounted knights prevailed. The crossbow as a weapon is just essentially a small bow,
called a prod or lath, mounted sideways on a piece of wood, called a tiller or stock. There were
many different designs for medieval crossbows. Most were based loosely on the ballista. A
ballista was a large siege weapon used to shoot a large bolt over long distances, which was
originally made by the Ancient Greeks from their own crossbows. The crossbow had some kind
of mechanism for drawing back the bowstring and locking it into place, then it had to have a way
to release the string when the time came, like the trigger on a gun. A crossbow could be
“cocked” or loaded for hours, and was able to be at ready at all times, keeping the
crossbowman from being taken by surprise. The disadvantage, of course, was that it took quite

76
a while to reload after the shot was fired, as opposed to the firing time with a longbow. There
were many different ways in which a crossbow could be cocked and loaded. Most involved a bar
of some kind to step on with the foot to hold the bow down to the ground while pulling the string
back and locking it in place. The crossbow was not as accurate as the medieval longbow, which
took years of practice to achieve this accuracy, not to mention the strength training needed to
draw the bow. The crossbow could be used effectively with as little as a week of training, making
it the ideal weapon for peasants. The disadvantage of the amount of time it took to reload the
crossbow made the crossbowman vulnerable, and so a tall shield called a Pavise was
developed to protect them. As a comparison, a crossbow could shoot only about 2 bolts a
minute, whereas a fully trained longbow man could shoot 10-12 arrows per minute, however the
longbow man needed many years to achieve this kind of speed, and still did not get the power
of a crossbow, and could not kill a knight in armor.

77
Cuacos (73, 187): Cuacos de Yuste is a municipality in the province of Cáceres and
autonomous community of Extremadura, Spain. The municipality covers an area of 52.6 square
kilometres and as of 2011 had a population of 902 people. It is best known for the Monastery of
Yuste, whence Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, retired and died.A town about 40 kilometers
northeast of Plascencia.

78
Cyma (145): The cyma recta, a projecting molding, consists essentially of a cavetto above an
ovolo, forming in profile one continuous double curve, often used as a crowning member, in
which case it is sometimes known as a cymatium.

79
De la Parra (141): A famed physician who attended to Ferdinand and Isabella.

80
81
Devotional images (51): Andachtsbilder is a German term often used in English in art history for
Christian devotional images designed as aids for prayer or contemplation. The images
"generally show holy figures extracted from a narrative context to form a highly focused, and
often very emotionally powerful, vignette".

Doric (143): The Doric order was one of the three orders of ancient Greek and later Roman
architecture; the other two canonical orders were the Ionic and the Corinthian. The Doric is most
easily recognized by the simple circular capitals at the top of columns.

Dialogic (14): Relating to or in the form of dialogue. Middle English: from Old French dialoge, via
Latin from Greek dialogos, from dialegesthai ‘converse with’, from dia ‘through’ + legein ‘speak’.

82
Dintels (145): A dentil is one of a series of closely spaced, rectangular blocks that form a
molding. Dentil molding usually projects below the cornice, along the roofline of a building. ...
The use of dentils is strongly associated with Classical (Greek and Roman) and Neoclassical
(Greek Revival) architecture.

83
Doña Juana, the Infanta (103): (1479-1555), known as ‘Juana la Loca,’ became Queen of Spain
but exercised little power as she spent the last 40 years of her life incarcerated for mental
illness. Joanna I, known historically as Joanna the Mad, was Queen of Castile from 1504 and
Queen of Aragon from 1516 to 1555. Modern Spain evolved from the union of these two
kingdoms. She was married by arrangement to Philip the Handsome, Archduke of Austria of the
House of Habsburg, on 20 October 1496. Juana of Castile, known as Juana la Loca or Joanna
the Mad, was the elder sister of Catherine of Aragon and sister-in-law to Henry VIII of England.
Juana married Philip the Handsome in 1496, when she was 16. She went on to have six
children with her husband, including Charles, who later became the Holy Roman Emperor.
Juana was an intelligent young woman and, like her sisters, received a considerable education
for the time-period. It was reported that Juana could speak the three main languages of the
Iberian Peninsula, along with Latin and French. Juana was never expected to be Princess of
Asturias (the title of the heir apparent to the throne of Aragon), let alone Queen of Spain. Juana
had two older siblings, her sister, Isabella, and a brother, Juan. Juan sadly died in 1497 at the
age of 19 and his wife, Margaret of Austria, gave birth to a stillborn daughter two months after
his death. Juana's sister, Isabella died in 1498, shortly after giving birth to her son Miguel.
Miguel died in 1500 before his second birthday. This succession of deaths quickly catapulted
Juana to her new position of Princess of Asturias, the title given to the heir to the throne of
Castile. Juana's mother, the formidable Catholic monarch, Isabella I of Castile, passed away in
1504. This left the throne of Castile and Leon to Juana. She inherited the Kingdom of Aragon
from her father upon his death in 1517. Juana had started exhibiting signs of mental instability in
1504, when her mother was stricken with a fever. As was seen at other times during her lifetime,
Juana was not eating or sleeping when her mother fell ill. After visiting with her mother, Juana
wished to join her husband in Flanders, which would mean she would have to travel through
France at a time when France and Castile were at war. When she was prevented from leaving
for Flanders, twenty-four-year-old Juana flew into a rage. Perhaps one of Juana’s most
notorious, lurid displays of mental instability occurred when her husband died in September of

84
1506. Already known to fly into jealous rages over her husband's mistresses, even reportedly
going so far as to attack at least one, Juana refused to part with her deceased husband's
remains for a disturbingly long time. Quite pregnant, Juana travelled with her husband's body
from Burgos to Granada, where he was to be buried. This is a distance of 668 kilometres, which
would take around 6 1/2 hours to drive in a car today, so an extraordinary distance to cover in
those days. Juana was said to have opened her husband's casket to embrace him and kiss him.
Unfortunately, Juana's husband Philip had spread rumours about her madness when he was
still alive and her behaviour after his death may have reinforced these rumours. Juana's son,
Charles, who became the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, eventually took over from Juana as
regent, and then, monarch. In 1509 Juana was either placed in, or retired to, the Royal
Monastery/Convent of Santa Clara in Tordesillas, Castile. Charles forbade Juana any visitors.
She died there on 12th April 1555, Good Friday, at the age of 75. Juana was laid to rest in
Granada's La Capilla Real, the resting place of her husband and parents. So, was she mad?
Juana's maternal grandmother, Isabella of Portugal, supposedly also suffered from mental
illness and was sent to a convent. Juana's grandson Carlos and great-granddaughter Maria of
Austria, Duchess of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, reportedly also went mad. It is thought that Juana may
have suffered from a wide range of mental illness, including schizophrenia and depression.
However, it does seem that her behaviour escalated in response to the deaths of her siblings,
her nephew, her mother and her husband. Both Philip the Handsome and Charles V had a lot to
gain from Juana being declared unfit to rule. She was also sent, or perhaps banished, to a
convent by her son and not allowed any visitors for the rest of her life. So was Juana mad, or

85
was she the victim of ruthless individuals in her life? What do you think?

Donzella guerrera - warrior maiden (6): English Lyrics:

In Sevilla, God bestowed onto a Sevillan seven daughters
all seven were female and none were male.
The youngest of them was inclined
to go serve in the war dressed as a male.
When riding her horse, her sword fell,
instead of "damn it!" she said "damn me!"
the king who was listening, captivated; fell in love:
- Mother, Marco's eyes are the eyes of a woman, not a man.
- Invite her, my son, to swim in the rivers
if she is a woman, she will not want to undress.
All of the knights began to undress
and the knight Sir Marcos has gone off to cry.
- Why are you crying, Sir Marcos?
- Why do I cry? For attempting to bear false witness against me.
- Don't cry my beloved, don't cry my love,
that which you feel deeply, I desire it for myself.

86
87
Easter (61): Medina del Campo is the place where the oldest processions in Spain are held,
dating back to the 15th century. Easter week in the town of Medina del Campo, in the province
of Valladolid, is famous for its history and tradition, as well as for its rich heritage. Dating back to
the 15th century and therefore the oldest in Spain, this event is known for its silent processions
and the devotion of the participants. Today, some 3,000 religious associations accompany the
floats through the streets of the town, and the occasion is a chance to see some of the most
outstanding sculptural ensembles in the processional imagery of the Spanish Renaissance.
Easter week is one of the most heartfelt and deeply-rooted festivals to be celebrated in Spain.
Its history and tradition go back many centuries, and commemorate the passion and death of
Jesus Christ. The streets of many of Spain’s cities, towns and villages are transformed into
scenes of religious fervour and devotion, where grief and meditation are combined as Christ’s
death is relieved. Music, art and colour come together in magical processions –solemn parades
in which throngs of people accompany the religious images on their route through the streets.

88
Elm (93): Elms occur often in pastoral poetry, where they symbolize the idyllic life, their shade
being mentioned as a place of special coolness and peace. A brooding, watchful tree
associated with death, the elm tree has a rich and varied cultural past. ... In Celtic mythology,
the elm tree is associated with the Underworld, and with elves and faeries, who dwell in their
stretching boughs.

89
Empress of Constantinople (135): A woman who is a sovereign ruler of great power and rank,
especially one ruling an empire. An example for our play would be Theodora, an empress of
the Eastern Roman Empire by marriage to Emperor Justinian I. She was one of the most
influential and powerful of the Eastern Roman empresses, albeit from a humble background.
Some sources mention her as empress regnant with Justinian I as her co-regent. Along with
her spouse, she is a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, commemorated on November 14.
The main historical sources for her life are the works of her contemporary Procopius. The
historian offered three contradictory portrayals of the Empress. THE WARS OF JUSTINIAN,
largely completed in 545, paints a picture of a courageous and influential empress who saved
the throne for Justinian. Later he wrote the SECRET HISTORY, which survives in only one

90
manuscript suggesting it was not widely read during the Byzantine era. The work has
sometimes been interpreted as representing a deep disillusionment with the emperor Justinian,
the empress, and even his patron Belisarius. Justinian is depicted as cruel, venal, prodigal and
incompetent; as for Theodora, the reader is treated to a detailed and titillating portrayal of
vulgarity and insatiable lust, combined with shrewish and calculating mean-spiritedness;
Procopius even claims both are demons whose heads were seen to leave their bodies and
roam the palace at night. Alternatively, scholars versed in political rhetoric of the era have
viewed these statements from the Secret History as formulaic expressions within the tradition of
invective. Procopius’ BUILDINGS OF JUSTINIAN, written about the same time as the SECRET
HISTORY, is a panegyric which paints Justinian and Theodora as a pious couple and presents
particularly flattering portrayals of them. Besides her piety, her beauty is praised with the
conventional language of the text’s rhetorical form. Although Theodora was dead when this
work was published, Justinian was alive, and perhaps commissioned the work. Her
contemporary John of Ephesus writes about Theodora in his LIVES OF THE EASTERN
SAINTS as the daughter of a pious Monophysite priest. He mentions an illegitimate daughter
not named by Procopius. Various other historians presented additional information on her life.
Theophanes the Confessor mentions some familial relations of Theodora to figures not
mentioned by Procopius. Victor Tonnennensis notes her familiar relation to the next empress,
Sophia. Michael the Syrian, the Chronicle of 1234 and Bar-Hebraeus place her origin in the city
of Daman, near Kallinikos, Syria. They contradict Procopius by making Theodora the daughter
of a priest, trained in the pious practices of Miaphysitism since birth. These are late Miaphysite
sources and record her depiction among members of their creed. The Miaphysites have tended
to regard Theodora as one of their own and the tradition may have been invented as a way to
improve her reputation and is in conflict with what is told by the contemporary Miaphysite
historian John of Ephesus. These accounts are thus usually ignored in favor of Procopius.

Entablatures (145): a horizontal, continuous lintel on a classical building supported by columns

or a wall, comprising the architrave, frieze, and cornice.

91
Ephesus (143): Denotes Ancient Rome. Ephesus is an ancient city in Turkey’s Central Aegean
region, near modern-day Selçuk. Its excavated remains reflect centuries of history, from
classical Greece to the Roman Empire – when it was the Mediterranean’s main commercial
center – to the spread of Christianity. Paved streets wind past squares, baths and monumental
ruins. The Temple of Hadrian was built before 138 A.D. for Emperor Hadrian’s visit.

92
Escudos (189): The escudo is a unit of currency historically used in Portugal and its colonies in
South America, Asia, and Africa. It was originally worth 16 silver reais. The Cape Verdean
escudo and the former Portuguese escudo, each subdivided into 100 centavos, are named after
the historical currency. The gold currency was worth twice the normal dollar value of the
Spanish real, thus, two dollars. 500 escudos (the bounty for Gila’s head) is $1000, with inflation
would be around $3,189.00. The cost of living in Spain is relatively low, therefore, that money
would be a lot.

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Estúñigas (161): The Estúñigas or Zuñigas were a branch of the illustrious Béjar family. The
House of Zúñiga is a Spanish noble lineage who took their name from their domain. Various
members of the family were distinguished in the service of the Spanish crown in Europe and the
Americas as viceroys, governors, military, diplomats, writers and members of religious orders.

Evadne (139, 159): Daughter of Iphis and wife of Capaneus, one of the Seven against Thebes;
after her husband's death, she committed suicide by throwing herself onto his funeral pyre.

Executive patent (131): (v) late 14c., "granting a right, privilege, or power," in letters patent,
literally "open letter" (see patent (n.)), from Old French patente "open," from Latin patentem
(nominative patens) "open, lying open," present participle of patere "lie open, be open" (from
PIE root *pete- "to spread"). The sense of "open to view, plain, clear" is recorded from c. 1500.
As an adverb, "openly, publicly, unmistakably," mid-15c. Related: Patently. (n) late 14c., "open
letter or official document from some authority granting permission to do something; a licence
granting an office, right, title, etc.," shortened from Anglo-French lettre patent (also in Medieval
Latin litteræ patentes), literally "open letter" (late 13c.), from Old French patente "open," from
Latin patentem (nominative patens) "open, lying open," present participle of patere "lie open, be
open" (from PIE root *pete- "to spread").
The Letters Patent were ... written upon open sheets of parchment, with the Great
Seal pendent at the bottom ... [while] the 'Litteræ Clausæ,' or Letters Close, ...
being of a more private nature, and addressed to one or two individuals only, were

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 closed or folded up and sealed on the outside. [S.R. Scargill-Bird, "A Guide to the
Principal Classes of Documents at the Public Record Office," 1891]

Meaning "a licence granted by a government covering a new and useful invention, conferring
exclusive right to exploit the invention for a specified term of years" is from 1580s.

95
Extremadura (7): Extremadura, a western Spanish region bordering Portugal, comprises the
provinces of Cáceres and Badajoz. It’s a remote area of mountains, forests, lakes and reserves,
notably Monfragüe National Park and Cornalvo Natural Park, both sheltering diverse birdlife.
The capital, Mérida, is known for Roman ruins of Augusta Emerita, including the Teatro
Romano, Circo Romano, aqueducts and a bridge over the Guadiana River.

96
Fascias (145): in classical architecture) a long flat surface between moldings on an architrave.

97
Feathered cap (51): A bycocket or bycoket is a style of hat that was fashionable for both men
and women in Western Europe from the 13th to the 16th century. It has a wide brim that is
turned up in the back and pointed in the front like a bird’s beak. In French, it is called a chapeau
à bec due to this resemblance. The hat was originally worn by nobles and royalty, and later by
the rising merchant class. It was often decorated with feathers, jewels, or other ornaments.
Today, it is commonly associated with the character Robin Hood.

Fecundity (19): the ability to produce an abundance of offspring or new growth; fertility. the
ability to produce many new ideas. early 15c., from Latin fecunditatem (nominative fecunditas)
"fruitfulness, fertility," from fecundus "fruitful, fertile" (see fecund).

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Female knights (127): The word knight was not just a job title, it was a social ranking. For a man
to become a knight, he had to be formally knighted in a ceremony, or receive an accolade of
knighthood for exceptional bravery or service, usually in battle. Because neither of these were
typically the domains of women, it was rare for a woman to carry the title of knight. However, in
parts of Europe, there were chivalric orders of knighthood that were open to women. During the
early medieval period, a group of devout Christian knights joined together to form the Knights
Templar. Their mission was twofold: to protect European travelers on pilgrimage in the Holy
Land, but also to carry out secret military operations. When they finally took the time to write
down a list of their rules, around 1129 C.E., their mandates mentioned a pre-existing practice of
admitting women to the Knights Templar. In fact, women were permitted as part of the
organization during its first 10 years of existence. A related group, the Teutonic Order, accepted
women as Consorores, or Sisters. Their role was an auxiliary one, often related to support and
hospital services during times of war, including on the battlefield. In the mid-12th century,
Moorish invaders laid the town of Tortosa, Spain, under siege. Because the town's menfolk were
already off at battle fighting on another front, it fell to the women of Tortosa to set up defenses.
They dressed in men's clothing—which was certainly easier to fight in—picked up weapons, and
held their town with an array of swords, farm implements, and hatchets. In the aftermath, Count
Ramon Berenguer of Barcelona founded the Order of the Hatchet in their honor. Elias Ashmole
wrote in 1672 that the count granted the women of Tortosa numerous privileges and immunities:
"He also ordained, that at all public meetings, the Women should have precedence
of the Men; That they should be exempted from all Taxes; and that all the Apparel
and Jewels, thought of never so great value, left by their dead Husbands, should be
their own."
It is not known whether the women of the Order ever fought in any battles other than
defending Tortosa. The group faded into obscurity as its members aged and died out.
During the Middle Ages, women were not raised for battle like their male counterparts,
who typically trained for warfare from boyhood. However, that doesn't mean they didn't
fight. There are numerous examples of women, both noble and lower-born, who defended
their homes, their families, and their nations from attacking outside forces. The eight-day
siege of Jerusalem in 1187 relied on women for success. Nearly all of the city's fighting
men had marched out of town three months earlier, for the Battle of Hattin, leaving
Jerusalem unguarded but for a few hastily-knighted boys. The women, however,
outnumbered men in the city by nearly 50 to 1, so when Balian, Baron of Ibelin, realized it
was time to defend the walls against the invading army of Saladin, he enlisted the female
citizens to get to work. Dr. Helena P. Schrader, Ph.D. in History from the University of
Hamburg, says that Ibelin would have had to organize these untrained civilians into units,
assigning them specific, focused tasks.
"... whether it was defending a sector of the wall, putting out fires, or ensuring that
the men and women doing the fighting were supplied with water, food and
ammunition. Most astonishing, his improvised units not only repulsed assaults, they
also sorted out several times, destroying some of Saladin’s siege engines, and 'two
or three times' chasing the Saracens all the way back to the palisades of their
camp."

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Nicholaa de la Haye was born in Lincolnshire, England, around 1150, and inherited her father's
land when he died. Married at least twice, Nicholaa was the castellan of Lincoln Castle, her
family estate, despite the fact that each of her husbands tried to claim it as their own. When her
spouses were away, Nicholaa ran the show. William Longchamps, a chancellor of Richard I, was
heading to Nottingham to battle against Prince John, and along the way, he stopped at Lincoln,
laying siege to Nicholaa's castle. She refused to yield, and commanding 30 knights, 20
men-at-arms, and a few hundred infantrymen, held the castle for 40 days. Longchamps
eventually gave up and moved on. She defended her home again a few years later when Prince
Louis of France tried to invade Lincoln. Women didn't just show up and perform the duties of
knights in defensive mode. There are several accounts of queens who traveled into the field

with their armies in times of war. Eleanor of Aquitaine, the Queen of

both France and England, led a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. She even did it while dressed in
armor and carrying a lance, although she didn't personally fight. During the War of the Roses,

100
Marguerite d’Anjou personally directed the actions of Lancastrian commanders during battles
against Yorkist opponents while her husband, King Henry VI, was incapacitated by bouts of
madness. In fact, in 1460, she "defeated the threat to her husband’s throne by calling on the
Lancastrian nobility to assemble a mighty host in Yorkshire that ambushed York and killed him
and 2,500 of his men outside his ancestral home at Sandal Castle." Finally, it's important to note
that over the centuries, there were countless other women who donned armor and rode into
war. We know this because although medieval European writers documenting the Crusades
emphasized the notion that pious Christian women did not fight, the historians of their Muslim
opponents wrote of crusading women battling against them.The Persian scholar Imad ad-din
al-Isfahani wrote,

"a woman of high rank arrived by sea in late autumn 1189, with an escort of 500
knights with their forces, squires, pages and valets. She paid all their expenses and
also led them in raids on the Muslims. He went on to say that there were many
female knights among the Christians, who wore armour like the men and fought like
men in battle, and could not be told apart from the men until they were killed and

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 the armour was stripped from their bodies."

A female arm of the Calatrava Order (the order that is detailed in this play) was founded: the
convents of San Felices (Burgos) in 1219.

Fencing (26): Sword fighting schools can be found in European historical records dating back to
the 12th century. In later times sword fighting teachers were paid by rich patrons to produce
books about their fighting styles, called treatises. Sword fighting schools were forbidden in some
European cities (particularly in England and France) during the medieval period, though court
records show that such schools operated illegally. The earliest surviving treatise on sword
fighting, stored at the Royal Armouries Museum in Leeds, England, dates from around 1300 AD
and is from Germany. It is known as I.33 and written in medieval Latin and Middle High German

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and deals with an advanced system of using the sword and buckler (smallest shield) together.
From 1400 onward, an increasing number of sword fighting treatises survived from across
Europe, with the majority from the 15th century coming from German and Italy. In this period
these arts were largely reserved for the knighthood and the nobility - hence most treatises deal
with knightly weapons such as the rondel dagger, longsword, spear, pollaxe and armoured
fighting mounted and on foot. Some treatises cover weapons available to the common classes,
such as großes Messer and sword and buckler. Wrestling, both with and without weapons,
armoured and unarmoured, was also featured heavily in early sword fighting treatises. The very
first manual of fencing was published during 1471, by Diego de Valera. (in spite of the title, the
book of Diego Valera was on heraldry, not about fencing). Fencing practices went through a
revival, with the Marxbruder group, sometime about 1487 A.D. the group having formed some
form of Fencing Guild. The rapier was apparently introduced to England during a time circa to
1540 (according to listings of the armoury of Henry VIII). During 1587 a certain Rowland Yorke
(of otherwise ill-repute) might have introduced a particular technique with the rapier-sword to
somewhere in England. During the 16th century, the Italian masters Agrippa, Capo ferro, di
Grassi, Fabris, Giganti, Marozzo, and Viggiani wrote treatises which established Italy as the
originator of modern fencing. By the 16th century, with the widespread adoption of the printing
press, the increase in the urban population and other social changes, the number of treatises
increased dramatically. After around 1500 carrying swords became more acceptable in most
parts of Europe. The growing middle classes meant that more men could afford to carry swords,
learn fighting and be seen as gentlemen. By the middle of the 16th century many European
cities contained great numbers of swordsmanship schools and fencing was invented with the
invention of the rapier. Often schools clustered together, such as in London at “Hanging Sword
Lane”. Italian fencing masters were particularly popular and set up schools in many foreign
cities. The Italians brought concepts of science to the art, appealing to the Renaissance
mindset. Here is a link to a broadsword tutorial:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSC0qXNtzdY

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Ferdinand and Isabella (11): The term Catholic Monarchs refers to Queen Isabella I of Castile
and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose marriage and joint rule marked the de facto unification
of Spain. In terms of accomplishments, Isabella I unified Spain through her marriage to
Ferdinand II of Aragon. Isabella was pregnant within three months of the wedding. She made
his shirts. That said, the relationship was neither effortless nor smooth: Ferdinand cheated
constantly, traveled often, and was neither as intelligent or driven as his wife. Castile was at war

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for most of her reign. While Isabella did not lead her troops onto the battlefield, sword in hand,
she traveled with every campaign and was responsible for plotting strategy and tactics for her
generals. On January 2, 1492, Ferdinand II, King of Aragon, and Isabella, Queen of Castile,
completed La Reconquista (the Reconquest) — the Christian victory over Muslims in Spain —
by forcing the surrender of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold. The Granada War was a series
of military campaigns between 1482 and 1491, during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs
Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, against the Nasrid dynasty's Emirate of
Granada.Isabella financed the expedition of Christopher Columbus, leading to the discovery of
the Americas. She also completed the Reconquista but infamously expelled Jews and Muslims
and empowered the Spanish Inquisition.Isabella and Ferdinand are so significant to history
because they created the Kingdom of Spain, funded Columbus's voyages to the New World,
and strengthened Spain to such a degree that it was able to dominate European politics until
1588 and greatly influence European affairs until 1648.

105
Ferreruelos (203, 241): A collarless cape derived from those worn in Germany: a form of a cape,
which was popular among Spanish men during the 16th century. The garment permitted the
wearer ease of access to his sword.

Fiesta in Plasencia (69): For more information about this plot point go to Corpus Christi.
https://notjustatourist.com/the-ultimate-guide-corpus-christi-seville/?c=890ca7737572

106
Firmament (231): In biblical cosmology, the firmament is the vast solid dome created by God on
the second day to divide the primal sea into upper and lower portions so that the dry land could
appear. Middle English: via Old French from Latin firmamentum, from firmare ‘fix, settle’.

Forasteros (78): Mid 19th century from Spanish, literally 'foreign', because the tree was a
'foreign' import to Venezuela from the West Indies, as distinct from the criollo or native variety.
Akin to the “degens” comment in the TV show LETTERKENNY.

Fray Juan Guarín (111): 9th-century hermit who did penance on the mountain of Montserrat,
near Barcelona.

107
Fresh Apples (73): Generally speaking, medieval apples were smaller than ours and not quite
as sweet. Some of the most popular varieties in the 13th through 15th centuries were the
Copstard, Queene, Pippin (an ancient variety, not just any Pippin) and Old Pearmain.

Fresh Pears (73): Dessertnaja is a Spanish variety of pears that is still produced to this day. A
strong yellow color that is sweet.

108
Friezes (145): In architecture, the frieze is the wide central section part of an entablature and
may be plain in the Ionic or Doric order, or decorated with bas-reliefs. Paterae are also usually
used to decorate friezes.

Fur doublet (73): The name doublet referred to the duplicate layers of material used to make the
shirt. The inner lining was usually made of linen, while the outer layer was made of heavy silk.
Depending on the current fashion, these layers were filled with various amounts of bombast, or
padding.

109
Gamal Muza (101): It is not clear whether these refer to specific historic individuals or merely to
well-known family names associated with the late 15th-century wars in Granada (both the civil
war with the kingdom, and the war against the Christians to the north).

Garganta la Olla (7, 39, 63, 67, 109, 129, 177): “Throat of the Pot” Garganta la Olla is a
municipality located in the province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain. According to the 2005

110
census, the municipality has a population of 1152 inhabitants.

Garnet (93): Symbolizes Love and Friendship. With associations with the heart, blood, inner fire,
and life force, garnets have long been considered symbols of love. Garnet symbolism also
extends to friendship.

111
112
Garrote (245): A garrote or garrote vil is a weapon, usually a handheld ligature of chain, rope,
scarf, wire or fishing line, used to strangle a person.

Germany (135): The concept of Germany as a distinct region in central Europe can be traced to
Roman commander Julius Caesar, who referred to the unconquered area east of the Rhine as
Germania, thus distinguishing it from Gaul (France), which he had conquered. The victory of
the Germanic tribes in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9) prevented annexation by the
Roman Empire, although the Roman provinces of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior
were established along the Rhine. Following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Franks
conquered the other West Germanic tribes. When the Frankish Empire was divided among
Charles the Great’s heirs in 843, the eastern part became East Francia. In 962, Otto I became
the first Holy Roman Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the medieval German state. In the

113
late Middle Ages, the regional dukes, princes, and bishops gained power at the expense of the
emperors. Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation against the Catholic Church after 1517,
as the northern states became Protestant, while the southern states remained Catholic. The
two parts of the Holy Roman Empire clashed in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648), which was
ruinous to the twenty million civilians living in both parts. The Thirty Years’ War brought
tremendous destruction to Germany; more than ¼ of the population and ½ of the male
population in the German states were killed by catastrophic war. 1648 marked the effective end
of the Holy Roman Empire and the beginning of the modern nation-state system, with Germany
divided into numerous independent states, such as Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Austria and other
states, which also controlled land outside the area considered “Germany”.

Girón (71): This very interesting surname is an example of that sizable group of late medieval
European surnames that were gradually created from the habitual use of nicknames. The
nicknames were given in the first instance with reference to occupations, or to a variety of
personal characteristics, such as physical size, appearance, moral attitudes, or resemblance to
animals. The derivation, in this case, is from Ghiro, the dormouse, and the name like Tasso, the
badger, refers either to one who was a very sound sleeper, or perhaps, to one who preferred to
work at night. At Bereguardo near Pavia and Coli near Piacenza it is recorded that the
dormouse is known as "durmuoela" or "durmioera", the sleepy head. Italian surnames are
generally an etymological nightmare, and Ghiron follows the trend, being found in a wide range
of spellings, although again as is normal, the Church Recordings are very late. Examples of the
spelling forms include Giron(e), Galiero, Calero, Tiron(i), Tirone and Aglira, and the earliest
Church Recording in any form may be Cattarina Gironirini, who married Nicolaus Visentainer on
April 9th 1758, at Cles, Trento. The first recorded spelling of the family name is shown to be that

114
of Vicenzo Girone, which was dated August 25th 1860, a christening witness at Ortuna, Chieti,
Italia, during the reign of King Victory-Emmanuel of Italy, 1860 - 1878. Surnames became
necessary when governments introduced personal taxation. In England this was known as Poll
Tax. Throughout the centuries, surnames in every country have continued to "develop" often
leading to astonishing variants of the original spelling.

Read more: https://www.surnamedb.com/Surname/Giron#ixzz74wwfSSDt

Girón de Osuna (99): 1574-1624. A Spanish nobleman and politician. He was the 2nd Marquis
of Peñafiel, 7th Count of Ureña, Spanish Viceroy of Sicily (1611-1616), Viceroy of Naples
(1616-1620), a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece since 1608, Grandee of Spain,
member of the Spanish Supreme Council of War, and subject of several poems by his friend,
counselor and assistant, Fracisco de Quevedo. This character is probably inspired by the
person who was alive while Luis Vélez de Guevara was writing this play, who was probably
related to the 15th century version, see more at Don Rodrigo Girón.

Girón / Has lent a horse to the crown (203): Reference to an ancestral Girón, Don Rodrigo
Gonzálezde Cisneros, who legendarily lent King Alfonso VI a horse when the Moors had killed
him in a 14th-century battle.

115
Granada (43, 71, 93, 159): Granada is a city in southern Spain’s Andalusia region, in the
foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains. It's known for grand examples of medieval architecture
dating to the Moorish occupation, especially the Alhambra. This sprawling hilltop fortress
complex encompasses royal palaces, serene patios, and reflecting pools from the Nasrid
dynasty, as well as the fountains and orchards of the Generalife gardens.

116
Granada War (time): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granada_War The Granada War was a series
of military campaigns between 1482 and 1491, during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs
Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, against the Nasrid dynasty's Emirate of

117
Granada.

Guadalupe (161): Guadalupe is a municipality located in Las Villuercas comarca, province of

Cáceres, in Extremadura, Spain with currently just over 2,000 inhabitants. The monastery of
Santa María de Guadalupe is situated here. The Guadalupe River has its origins near the town
in the Sierra de las Villuercas

118
Guzmán (159): A reference to historical personages, named in the chronicles of the Reconquest
of Granada. An old and noble Spanish family name that emerged in Castile in the 12th century
and became one of the most prominent dynasties of the Spanish kingdom until the 18th century.
The original family gave rise to several branches, one of which became Dukes of Medina
Sidonia from the 15th century to the 18th century, in turn giving rise to other branches including
the Count-Dukes of Olivares.

Handcuffs (235): The word "handcuff" is a popular corruption of the Anglo-Saxon

"handcop," i.e., that which "cops" or catches" the hands. Now, one of the most common of the
many slag expressions used by their special enemies towards the police is "Copper"- i.e., he
who cops the offending member. Strange as it may seem, handcuffs are by no means the
invention of these times, which insist on making the life of a prisoner so devoid of the
picturesque and romantic.

119
 ● http://www.weapons-universe.com/Law_Enforcement/Handcuffs/History/History_of_Han
dcuffs.shtml

Helmets (73): The sallet (also called celata, salade and schaller) was a combat helmet that
replaced the bascinet in Italy, western and northern Europe and Hungary during the mid-15th
century. In Italy, France and England the armet helmet was also popular, but in Germany the
sallet became almost universal.

Hercules (59): Roman equivalent of the Greek divine

hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmene. In
classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength
and for his numerous far-ranging adventures. The
Romans adapted the Greek hero's iconography and
myths for their literature and art under the name
Hercules. In later Western art and literature and in
popular culture, Hercules is more commonly used than
Heracles as the name of the hero. Hercules is a
multifaceted figure with contradictory characteristics,

120
which enabled later artists and writers to pick and choose how to represent him.

Hispania (135): Hispania was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces.
Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior and
Hispania Ulterior.

History Plays (11): Each historical play is named after, and focuses on, the reigning monarch of
the period.
● PLOT The arrangement of events or incidents on the stage. ...
● CHARACTER The agents of the plot. ...
● THEME: The reason the playwright wrote the play. ...
● LANGUAGE “Vivid characters” (6) facing and overcoming. ...
● RHYTHM The heart of the play. ...
● SPECTACLE: Everything that is seen or heard on stage.

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Horseback riding (26): Horses were valuable during the Renaissance, but not as costly as the
destrier. They were also used frequently for hunting. A more general-purpose horse was the
rouncey (also rounsey), which could be kept as a riding horse or trained for war. It was
commonly used by squires, men-at-arms or poorer knights.
● http://worksofchivalry.com/horseback-riding-in-the-middle-ages-jordanus-rufus-of-calabri
a/

122
Iberian tradition (7): Iberian Peninsula, peninsula in southwestern Europe, occupied by Spain
and Portugal. Its name derives from its ancient inhabitants whom the Greeks called Iberians,
probably for the Ebro (Iberus), the peninsula's second longest river (after the Tagus). Spain and
Portugal share the river Tagus, miles of coastlines and melting pots filled with ancient food
traditions. To lump the cuisines of Spain and Portugal into one pot would be like saying there’s
not much difference between the food and cooking styles of Germany and France. Yet Portugal

123
and Spain’s food cultures share influences from around the globe. Both countries sent explorers
east to India to import spices, and west to the New World to bring back what they could find. As
a result, black pepper, cinnamon, ginger, cloves, coriander and other spices were shipped from
the Far East, while tomatoes, corn, peppers, potatoes and pineapple made their way from the
Americas to the western shores of Europe. All those flavors and textures have been added to
the mix of indigenous plants, fish and animals found in Iberia, including saffron, one of the most
expensive spices, grown only in Spain and a must in some authentic recipes. Other influences
on these cuisines have come over the centuries from Romans (who brought olives, citrus and
grapes), Arabs (almonds and rice) and tradesmen from Mediterranean ports. Spain and
Portugal are two of the oldest countries in Europe, having been continuously settled since
prehistoric times. In fact, the El Castillo cave– one of the most beautiful painted caves in
Europe– is located in Cantabria, in northern Spain. The cave offers archaeological evidence that
the Iberian Peninsula has been settled for over 40,000 years. Over the centuries, local tribes
mixed with Celts, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians before the entire Iberian Peninsula
was conquered by the Romans, becoming the Roman provinces of Iberia and Lusitania. After
the fall of the Roman Empire, the area was invaded by the Swabians and Vandals, Germanic
tribes that established kingdoms in the North and South of the peninsula, respectively. These
regions were later reunited under the rule of another Germanic population, the Visigoths. The
Visigoths ruled over the peninsula for over 200 years, until a great force came sweeping up from
the south. The Moorish armies ultimately conquered almost the entire peninsula, with the
exception of the northwestern corner. Spain and Portugal remained under Islamic rule for
several centuries. The majority of the peninsula was slowly conquered again by Christian rulers
in the 13th century, with the exception of the territory around the city of Cordoba, which didn’t
surrender to Christian rule until 1492. The period of Islamic rule is also known as the
Reconquista, in reference to the continuous attempts by Christian kings to bring the Peninsula
back under Christian rule. The Islamic period in Spain saw the development of arts, philosophy,
and culture, especially in the southern part of the country, where the Islamic rule survived the
longest. At the time, the Iberian peninsula was known in Arabic as “Al-Andalus,” which was the
root for the name of Andalusia, the region on the southern coast of Spain. After the end of
Islamic rule, Spain and Portugal gradually became two separate entities. The first king of
Portugal was Afonso I, who conquered the country, took it from the Muslims and secured its
independence from Spain in the 12th century. Spain became united three centuries later with
the marriage of Isabella of Castille and Fernando of Aragon, the two main Christian kingdoms in
the country. Another time that greatly shaped the history of Spain and Portugal is the Age of
Discoveries when ships sailed from ports in the two countries bound for the Americas and
ended up establishing vast colonial empires. Exploitation of indigenous people and resources
filled the coffers of the Spanish and Portuguese courts for centuries until eventually, the colonies
declared independence one after the other throughout the 19th century, and the empires came
to an end. During the 20th century, both countries became republics and were ruled by
right-wing dictators for decades – Salazar in Portugal, and Franco in Spain. Dictatorship in
Portugal came to an end in 1974 with the Carnation Revolution, while Spain had to wait for
Franco’s death in 1980 for democracy to be restored.

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Impugning (23): dispute the truth, validity, or honesty of (a statement or motive); call into
question. late Middle English (also in the sense ‘assault, attack physically’): from Latin
impugnare ‘assail’, from in- ‘towards’ + pugnare ‘fight’.

Infanta (143): Juana (1479-1555), known as ‘Juana la Loca,’ became Queen of Spain but
exercised little power as she spent the last 40 years of her life incarcerated for mental illness.
More on her under “Doña Juana”.

Ionic (143): The Ionic order is one of the three canonic orders of classical architecture, the other
two being the Doric and the Corinthian. There are two lesser orders: the Tuscan, and the rich
variant of Corinthian called the composite order. Of the three classical canonic orders, the Ionic
order has the narrowest columns.

125
Ivy (93): Ivy symbolises fidelity (it won't easily let go of something it's attached itself to) and
eternal life (because the plant is evergreen). In ancient Egypt ivy was dedicated to Osiris, who
represented immortality. In ancient Greece ivy was the plant of Dionysus because of its vigour.

Jamón serrano (125): is the culinary symbol of Spain, enjoyed at every restaurant and bar
across the country. Serrano ham (or Jamon Serrano) is a Spanish dry-cured ham. It's very

126
similar to Italian prosciutto (and the French jambon de Bayonne). The difference is that serrano
ham is normally made from a specific breed of pig -- Landrace breed of white pig.

Jasmine (53): Jasmine's meaning varies by place and culture, but it often symbolizes love,
beauty or sensuality. Its pure white blossoms can also symbolize purity. Because the small,
unassuming white flowers bloom at night with such a powerful scent, jasmine sometimes
symbolizes the value of modesty.

127
Javelin (47): The Javelin was originally designed as an offensive weapon and used in favour of
the spear as it was lighter and could be thrown rather than thrust, allowing long distance attacks
against an enemy. This heavy javelin, known as a Pilum (plural "pila"), was about two metres

128
long overall (about 6.5 feet), consisting of an iron shank, about 7 mm in diameter and 60 cm
long, with pyramidal head, secured to a wooden shaft.

Jewish relations in Spain (61): The Jewish experience in medieval Spain — over the century
before the expulsion of 1492 — was one of despair, persecution, and decline. An example is the
town of Morvedre in the kingdom of Valencia, Morvedre’s Jewish community revived and
flourished in the wake of the horrible violence of 1391. Drawing on a wide array of archival
documentation, including Spanish Inquisition records, he argues that Morvedre saw a Jewish
“renaissance.” The favorable policies of kings and of town government yielded the Jewish
community’s demographic expansion and prosperity. Of crucial importance were new measures
that ceased the oppressive taxation of the Jews and minimized their role as moneylenders. The
results included a reversal of the credit relationship between Jews and Christians, a marked
amelioration of Christian attitudes toward Jews, and greater economic diversification on the part
of Jews. Of course, the Inquisition’s expulsion of the Jews, shadows the history, in general, but
the Jewish-converso relations at the local level, were more complicated than people would
assume. Morvedre’s Jews expressed their piety by assisting Valencia’s conversos. Comparing
Valencia with other regions of Spain and with the city-states of Renaissance Italy, it makes clear
why this kingdom and the town of Morvedre were so ripe for a Jewish revival in the fifteenth
century.

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Jordan (53): Jordan, an Arab nation on the east bank of the Jordan River, is defined by ancient
monuments, nature reserves and seaside resorts. It’s home to the famed archaeological site of
Petra, the Nabatean capital dating to around 300 B.C. Set in a narrow valley with tombs,
temples and monuments carved into the surrounding pink sandstone cliffs, Petra earns its
nickname, the "Rose City."

130
Joust with darts / juego de cañas (71):

A popular contest of the time. Based in Arab traditions, it involved men on horseback simulating

131
military combat by firing darts made of reeds at each other.

Juan II of Castille and Isabella of Portugal (77): Father and Mother of Isabella I, the Queen, at
the time of this play. John II's Regents declared the Valladolid laws in 1411, which restricted the
social activity of Jews. Among the most notable of the provisions were outlining that Jews must
wear distinctive clothes and banned them from holding administrative positions. However, once
John took control of the throne for himself in 1418, he (though likely influenced politically by de
Luna) reversed such ordinances, favoring instead a more tolerant attitude toward the already

132
battered Jewish population of Castile following the mass wave of conversions between
1391–1415.

Juan Carrasco (187): A character that lives in Gargant de la Olla, mentioned when Gila is trying
to find out from Mingo how their town is...

Juan de la Horta (87): Juanés de la Horta was a famed 16th-century sword-maker, with
workshops in Toledo and Valencia.

Juan de Morales (26): Alias "el Bonico" and "el Divín"; Together they came to amass
considerable wealth, unusual for comedians. Although it is known that he was already an actor
in 1595, it was his role as a comedy author or theatrical entrepreneur that would raise him to
fame, as he became one of the most important of the first third of the seventeenth century.
Married to the famous actress Jusepa Vaca, he ran his own company virtually uninterruptedly for
thirty years, from 1601 to 1631. His name was common in the lists of outstanding authors that
were regularly drawn up. An example of the renown that his company enjoyed is the fact that he
participated in the celebrations organized on the occasion of the Corpus Christi festival on
sixteen almost consecutive occasions since 1604: five in Seville, seven in Madrid, two in Toledo,
and one in Medina de Rioseco and in Valencia. At least since 1603 his company was linked to
the courtroom, since the month of August of this year corresponds to the news of the private
performance of two comedies for the Queen in Valladolid. His relationship with the palace
environment would also be highlighted from 1625, when the participation of his group in
functions for Felipe IV became common. Likewise, his company was one of those selected to
participate, in March 1623, in the festivities that were organized on the occasion of the visit of
the Prince of Wales to Madrid. For this, he was assigned one of the tables that were arranged in
strategic points on the streets of the capital. The fact that he owned various houses in different
parts of Madrid's Barrio de las Letras, the nerve center of literary and theatrical Madrid at the
time, is evidenced by the economic boom that for a time allowed him to enjoy his success on
stage. However, all this did not prevent him from later being besieged by debts, as was
customary in his profession, hence, already in March 1625, he requested, among other things,
that it be kind enough to exempt him from the payment of taxes in a house of his property
located in Madrid's calle del Príncipe, since he had to support his eight children.

133
Jusepa Vaca (11): Jusepa Vaca was a Spanish stage actress, known as "la Gallarda". She
belonged to the more famous and popular of her era, celebrated by artists such as Lope de
Vega and Luis Vélez de Guevara as one of the most famed actresses in Spain of her time. Born
in Madrid to Felipe III , Jusepa Vaca was the wife of the comedian Mariana Vaca and the
comedy author Juan Ruiz de Mendi. Marrying in 1602 with a popular celebrity partner , Juan de
Morales Medrano , alias "el Bonico" and "el Divín". Vaca, was really in love with the Count of
Villamediana, her lover. This provoked ridicule directed at Morales, as well as criticism of Vaca
for his conduct. Through the scandal the husband and wife theater manager team came to
amass considerable wealth, unusual for comedians.

134
Kettledrums (93): Of ancient origin, it appeared early in Europe, probably imported from the
Middle East by crusaders in the 12th or 13th century. These early kettledrums were small and
appeared in pairs, often hanging about the player's waist. The kettledrum was introduced into
the opera orchestra by Lully in the 17th century.

King Wamba (135): Visigothic ruler of 7th-century Spain. Wamba was the king of the Visigoths
from 672 to 680. During his reign, the Visigothic kingdom encompassed all of Hispania and part
of southern Gaul known as Septimania. According to Herwig Wolfram, Wamba means "big
paunch" in Gothic and may have been a nickname.

Lance (69, 193): Lance, spear used by cavalry for mounted combat. It usually consisted of a
long wooden shaft with a sharp metal point. Its employment can be traced to the ancient
Assyrians and Egyptians, and it was widely used by the Greeks and Romans, despite their lack
of the stirrup, which did not appear until the 6th century ad.

135
136
La Serrana de la Vera (207): Gila Giraldo, also known as La Serrana de la Vera, was a Spanish
serial killer who inspired numerous legends, romances and theatrical pieces during the 18th
century Spanish Golden Age. According to the legends, Giraldo was from Garganta la Olla, a
few leagues from Plasencia.
https://lyricstranslate.com/en/la-serrana-de-la-vera-mountain-girl-la-vera.html

La Vera (7): The Girl

137
Lent (187): Lent is a solemn religious observance in the Christian liturgical calendar
commemorating the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert, according to the Gospels of
Matthew, Mark and Luke, before beginning his public ministry, during which he endured
temptation by Satan. Lent was the most important period of fasting in the Christian calendar
during this time period, as well as the longest. In imitation of Jesus's fasting in the wilderness
people had to give up meat and dairy produce for six weeks. This meant no beef, pork, chicken,
lamb etc. as well as no eggs, butter and milk

138
León (37): León, a city on the Bernesga River in northwest Spain, is the capital of the Province
of León. It’s home to many churches and cathedrals noted for their architecture and art. Among
them is the Gothic 13th-century Catedral de Léon, with its towers and flying buttresses. The
Romanesque 10th-century Basílica de San Isidoro is known for its frescoes and royal tombs.

139
Licorice water (73): Combine 500 millilitres water with 50 grams liquorice root and 1 star anise
and reduce to 200 millilitres on a slow simmer. Strain the liquorice water, discarding the spices,

140
then allow to cool.

Lintels (145): a horizontal support of timber, stone, concrete, or steel across the top of a door or
window.

141
Litters (239): A palanquin is a covered litter, usually for one passenger. It is carried by an even
number of bearers (between two and eight, but most commonly four) on their shoulders, by
means of a pole projecting fore and aft. ... English adopted it from Portuguese as "palanquin".

142
Long woolen ecclesiastical cape (157):

143
Lorenzo Galíndez de Carvajal (23): A lawyer/court official and a reporter who was a great
chronicler of Ferdinand and Isabella. He was the recognized bastard son of Diego González de
Carvajal, an archdeacon of Coria and the canon of Plasencia. He was a student and later a

144
professor at the University of Salamanca before being appointed to the Royal Council.

Luis de Carvajal (23): A Governor of the province of Nuevo León, in New Spain (today, Mexico).

145
Luis Rodríguez de Carvajal (23): A New Christian and a crypto-Jew, practicing his religion in
secret. He was arrested in 1590 in Mexico and subjected to an auto-da-fe. His second arrest in
1595, had him sentenced to death with his mother and sisters.

146
Magi (115): Magi, singular Magus, also called Wise Men, in Christian tradition, the noble pilgrims
“from the East” who followed a miraculous guiding star to Bethlehem, where they paid homage
to the infant Jesus as king of the Jews (Matthew 2:1–12).

Maricrespa (187): Name of a villager in Garganta la Olla.

147
Marigolds (53): Marigolds were often linked to the powerful strength of the sun and represent
power, strength, and light that lives inside of a person. The marigold has also come to symbolize
a feeling of despaired love. If someone has lost someone they love, whether it be by death or a
broken relationship.

Marriage banns (133): Banns meaning proclamation. The banns of marriage, commonly known
simply as the "banns" or "bans", are the public announcement in a Christian parish church or in
the town council of an impending marriage between two specified persons. Banns must be read
on three Sundays before the ceremony in the three months preceding a wedding. They offer an
opportunity for someone to make a legal objection to a marriage, and for the congregation to
pray for the couple.

Menéndez Pidal (27): Ramón Menéndez Pidal was a Spanish philologist and historian. He
worked extensively on the history of the Spanish language and Spanish folklore and folk poetry.
One of his main topics was the history and legend of El Cid.

Mental illness/Crime of Passion (67, 69, 88, 96): What was considered abnormal psychology in
the Renaissance? Medical records from the time describe disorders we would recognize today
as depression, anxiety, senile dementia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Yet too often
anyone who failed to conform to rigid patriarchal norms was considered mentally ill. Adolescent
girls who refused to marry the men their parents had chosen for them, wives who disobeyed
their husbands, and children who disobeyed their parents were diagnosed as mentally ill and
treated accordingly—all of which makes me grateful for the “unconditional positive regard”
(Rogers, 1989), compassion and respect for the client that characterize contemporary
psychotherapy.

Crimes against persons were very common during the Renaissance. They included verbal
violence, assault, murder, and sexual violence. Crimes against property were less frequent than
those against people. They included theft, bankruptcy, and fishing & hunting in land part of
aristocratic preserves.

148
Metopes (145): a square space between triglyphs in a Doric frieze.

149
Militia of Calatrava (71): The oldest military religious order of Hispanic origin. The order was
founded in 1158 in the fortress of Calatrava in what is now the province of Ciudad Real (Spain)
by Abbot Raymond and a group of Cistercian monks from the monastery of Fitero in Navarre,
who included one Diego Velazquez, a former knight who had been brought up at the Castilian
court. According to the chronicler Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, archbishop of Toledo, Calatrava
had been abandoned by the Templars because they considered themselves incapable of
defending it against a likely attack from the Almohads. Because of this, the Cistercians of Fitero
were able to occupy the fortress after it had been handed over to them by the king of Castile,
Sancho III. From this point the monks combined their spiritual vocation with the defense of the
enclave, creating a religious militia, or military order, that received the name of the castle. From
1164 the Cistercian general chapter and the papacy both recognized the new institution as part
of the Cistercian Order, even though placing the freires (knight brethren) and monks in the same
category posed problems for a long time.

150
Monk or Student (205): Popularly represented as living in poverty.

Monteros de Espinosa (147): These special guards, at the time of the play’s writing, kept
constant vigil over the King and Queen, among other important duties.

Moon (115): The moon is a feminine symbol, universally representing the rhythm of time as it
embodies the cycle. The phases of the moon symbolize immortality and eternity, enlightenment
or the dark side of Nature herself.

151
Moors (79, 101, 157): “Moor” came to mean anyone who was Muslim or had dark skin;
occasionally, Europeans would distinguish between “blackamoors” and “white Moors.” One of
the most famous mentions of Moors is in Shakespeare's play The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor
of Venice. Derived from the Latin word “Maurus,” the term was originally used to describe
Berbers and other people from the ancient Roman province of Mauretania in what is now North
Africa. Over time, it was increasingly applied to Muslims living in Europe. Beginning in the
Renaissance, “Moor” and “blackamoor” were also used to describe any person with dark skin.
Many writers refer to Moorish rule over Spain spanning the 800 years from 711 to 1492 yet this
is a misconception. The reality is that the Berber-Hispanic Muslims inhabited two-thirds of the
peninsula for 375 years, about half of it for another 160 years and finally the kingdom of
Granada for the remaining 244 years. When Fernando III died the reconquest seemed to die
with him and the deal struck over Granada would last for another two centuries. In 1479 the
merger of the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon under Los Reyes Católicos (Fernando and
Isabella) would soon lead to the fall of the kingdom of Granada and the end of Moorish rule in
Spain. The town of Santa Fé lies just outside Granada on the road to Malaga. It was set up in
1491 as a base camp from where to conduct the final conquest of Moorish Spain. The town
represents the birthplace of modern Spain and it was here that Columbus received permission
to begin his great voyage. The kingdom of Granada included modern day Granada, Almeria and
Malaga. Its rulers, the Nasrid dynasty, had retired to a pleasure seeking existence within the
confines of the Alhambra palace. Jealousies stemming from the harem were the source of
instability of Moorish Spain and would ultimately be influential in the fall of Granada. Within the
harem various sons could be born to different mothers each with equal rights to the throne.
Granada was split between the supporters of Mulay’s wife, Aixa, and her son Boabdil on one

152
side and a Christian slave called Isabel de Solís on the other. Isabel converted to Islam whilst in
captivity and took the name Soraya. Civil war ensued when the sultan chose Soraya over Aixa
and her son. Los Reyes Católicos couldn’t believe their luck as Granada slowly self-destructed.
Aixa’s followers gained the upper hand and Mulay fled to the protection of his brother who was
governor of Malaga. Boabdil was captured and made a deal with Fernando whereby he
promised to surrender Granada once his father and uncle were vanquished. Malaga fell in 1487
and shortly after Almeria was captured but Boabdil refused to surrender Granada setting the
stage for a final invasion. Rather than attack, Fernando chose to blockade Granada. After
months of stalemate and negotiations Boabdil surrendered, in return for 30,000 gold coins, part
of the Alpujarras mountains to the south of Granada and political and religious freedom for his
subjects. On January 2nd 1492 Los Reyes Católicos marched into Granada and the last
stronghold of Moorish Spain came to an end.

Moor cock: the male of the moor fowl or red grouse of Europe.

153
Moorish symbol (115): Crescent and Star: The faith of Islam is symbolized by the Crescent and
Star. The Crescent is the early phase of the moon and represents progress.

154
Morón (101, 157): Morón de la Frontera is a Spanish town in Seville province, Andalusia, 57 km
South-East of Seville. Situated in the south of the province, it is the center of the region that
bears the same name and is the head of one of the 85 judicial courts of Andalucia.

155
Mountain knife (51):

156
Mujer varonil (6): Manly woman. Cueva’s plays in Seville in 1588 had the emergence of Mujer
Varonil--the masculine woman. Their behavior is regarded by other characters as far beyond
what is normally expected for women and they are driven by force of circumstances to violent
modes of action traditionally associated with men. McKendrick says, they also all seem to have
approval of the creator as if saying “this is what many women are capable of being” or “this is
how some women are ''. In Valencia and Madrid, Virues wrote plays, starting in 1580, that had
women with the same qualities but he seemed to go to the extremes of female characters. (I.e.
angry wife poisons husband in a jealous rage) He not only wrote about remarkable women, he
also put their names in his play titles. Yet, it was Gil Vicente’s Auto de la Sibila Casandra(1573)
that had the 1st theme of active feminism. The heroine denounced the very concept of marriage
and everything that came with it.

157
Mutton: Lamb, hogget, and mutton, generically sheep meat, are the meat of domestic sheep,
Ovis aries. A sheep in its first year is a lamb and its meat is also lamb. The meat from sheep in
their second year is hogget. Older sheep meat is mutton.

Myopia (183): nearsightedness. lack of imagination, foresight, or intellectual insight.

Niebla (159, 161): Niebla is a town and municipality located in the province of Huelva, in
Andalusia, southern Spain. It lies on the banks of the Rio Tinto, 30 km from Huelva and 60 km
from Seville. According to the 2008 census, it has a population of 4,200 inhabitants. A 2-km
town wall surrounds the perimeter of the town.

158
Nile (135): The Nile is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the
Mediterranean Sea. The longest river in Africa, it has historically been considered the longest
river in the world, though this has been contested by research suggesting that the Amazon
River is slightly longer. Europeans became fascinated with the Nile and its origins during this
play and during Luis Vélez de Guevara’s time, which would add to Gila’s fascination with ruling
over it.

Notary (187): A notary public of the common law is a public officer constituted by law to serve
the public in non-contentious matters usually concerned with general financial transactions,
estates, deeds, powers-of-attorney, and foreign and international business. During this time
period, notaries were appointed by the Pope. The practice of the notary public dates back to
ancient Roman times when few people were taught to read and write. A notarius was appointed
as a public official to create written documents of agreement or wills and hold them for
safekeeping.

159
Olimpia (169): Countess of Holland, Olimpia is Bireno's betrothed. Arbante, the young and
violent prince of Friesland, courts her in vain and following yet another refusal her father
Cimosco imprisons Bireno and invades the lands of Olympia with an army, only to have almost
all the relatives of the noblewoman killed. Forcibly forced to marry Arbante, Olimpia reacts by
managing to cause the death of the prince on the night of the wedding, and thanks to Orlando
free Bireno, also escaping the revenge of King Cimosco, who will then be killed by the paladin of
France. However, the misfortunes for Olimpia are not over: Bireno, falling in love with Cimosco's
daughter, abandons his fiancée on a desert island; Olympia is then captured by the inhabitants
of Ebuda, who offer her as a meal to the Orca , but once again it is Orlando who saves her.
Finally, the countess will find true love in the person of Oberto, king of Ibernia.
Minor character that appears in Canto X of Ariosto’s early 16th-century epic ORLANDO
FURIOSO, a tremendously popular work in Golden Age Spain. Parallel to the circumstances of

160
the play, Bireno abandons his lover Olimpia while she is sleeping - indeed, stranding her on an
island as he sails away with his fleet.

Order of Calatrava (13): The

Order of Calatrava is one of the four Spanish military orders and the first military order founded
in Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bull confirming the Order of
Calatrava was given by Pope Alexander III on September 26, 1164. Its origin dates back to the
12th century, reigning in Castilla Sancho III, who confirmed from Almazan, in January of the
year 1158, what had already been treated months before in Toledo and, after the Templar
abandonment, made a perpetual donation of the fortress and town of Calatrava, to Raimundo,
abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Fitero, who offers himself together with the monk, formerly
a soldier Diego Velásquez, to defend himself against an imminent spiritual help of Juan,
Archbishop of Toledo, with the enthusiasm of the people of Toledo and numerous volunteers
who come to his call, forming a force of more than 20,000 soldiers. Its canonical confirmation
took place on September 25, 1164, by means of a bull dispatched by pontiff Alexander III. Its
founding principles were the praise of God, the defense of the Faith, and personal sanctification.
Essentially, this order were warrior-monks. Shortly thereafter, a female arm of the Order was
founded: the convents of San Felices (Burgos) in 1219. This order in Spain still exists. Currently,

161
the mandate of HIs Majesty the King, requires that the Four Orders carry out their activities in a
joint and coordinated manner under the guidelines of the Royal Council, while preserving their
identity and independence.

Other (16): Too often the negative characterization of "others" in the biblical text is applied to
groups and persons beyond the text whom we wish to define as the Other. Otherness is a
synthetic and political social construct that allows us to create and maintain boundaries between
"them" and "us" The other that is too similar to us is most problematic. This book demonstrates
how proximate characters are constructed as the Other in the Acts of the Apostles.
Charismatics, Jews, and women are proximate others who are constructed as the external and
internal Other. It represents death and the unknown. Unlike the other aspects which are almost
always represented as human figures in artwork, because the Stranger represents the unknown
it is often portrayed in a wide variety of forms, often frightening. Sometimes it is represented as
a skeletal figure, or a non-human creature possessing various animalistic features. Neither male
nor female, yet both, ever the outcast, the wanderer from far places, less and more than human,
unknown and unknowable.

Over cloak (73):A mantle is a type of loose garment usually worn over indoor clothing to serve
the same purpose as an overcoat.

162
Pacheco (71): The prestigious surname Pacheco originated in Spain, a country which has
figured prominently in world affairs for hundreds of years. The name Pacheco became a
hereditary surname in Spain after it was brought from Portugal. This ancient surname dates
back to Roman times and in 92 BC, a Roman general named Vivio Pacieco, who descended
from Lucio Viminio Pacieco, served Julius Caesar in Andalucía. One of Vivio's descendants,
Don Diego López Pacheco, who was also known as "el Grande" and was Ricohombre of
Portugal, was the first bearer of this name in Spain.

163
Pallas Athena (139): In ancient Greek religion, Athena was a goddess of war, handicraft, and
practical reason. Essentially urban and civilized, Athena was probably a pre-Hellenic goddess
later taken over by the Greeks.In one version of the myth, Pallas was the daughter of the
sea-god Triton; she and Athena were childhood friends, but Athena accidentally killed her during
a friendly sparring match. Distraught over what she had done, Athena took the name Pallas for
herself as a sign of her grief.

164
Palma (159, 161): Palma is a resort city and capital of the Spanish island of Mallorca (Majorca),
in the western Mediterranean. The massive Santa María cathedral, a Gothic landmark begun in
the 13th century, overlooks the Bay of Palma. The adjacent Almudaina is a Moorish-style Arab
fortress converted to a royal residence. West of the city, hilltop Bellver Castle is a medieval
fortress with a distinctive circular shape. The Count of Palma would have been one of the major
players of the Reconquest of Granada.

165
Parry (81): A parry is a fencing bladework maneuver intended to deflect or block an incoming
attack. Late 17th century: probably representing French parez! ‘ward off!’, imperative of parer,
from Italian parare ‘ward off’. The list of parries and required moves for the broadsword we will
be using is found here: https://www.safd.org/media/1845/safd-glossary-of-terms-3-19-16.pdf

Patent (43, 49): (v) late 14c., "granting a right, privilege, or power," in letters patent, literally
"open letter" (see patent (n.)), from Old French patente "open," from Latin patentem (nominative
patens) "open, lying open," present participle of patere "lie open, be open" (from PIE root *pete-
"to spread"). The sense of "open to view, plain, clear" is recorded from c. 1500. As an adverb,
"openly, publicly, unmistakably," mid-15c. Related: Patently. (n) late 14c., "open letter or official
document from some authority granting permission to do something; a licence granting an
office, right, title, etc.," shortened from Anglo-French lettre patent (also in Medieval Latin litteræ
patentes), literally "open letter" (late 13c.), from Old French patente "open," from Latin patentem
(nominative patens) "open, lying open," present participle of patere "lie open, be open" (from
PIE root *pete- "to spread").
The Letters Patent were ... written upon open sheets of parchment, with the Great
Seal pendent at the bottom ... [while] the 'Litteræ Clausæ,' or Letters Close, ...
being of a more private nature, and addressed to one or two individuals only, were
closed or folded up and sealed on the outside. [S.R. Scargill-Bird, "A Guide to the
Principal Classes of Documents at the Public Record Office," 1891]

Meaning "a licence granted by a government covering a new and useful invention, conferring
exclusive right to exploit the invention for a specified term of years" is from 1580s.

166
Pediments (145): the triangular upper part of the front of a building in classical style, typically
surmounting a portico of columns.

167
Peristyles (145): In Hellenistic Greek and Roman architecture, a peristyle is a continuous porch
formed by a row of columns surrounding the perimeter of building or a courtyard. Tetrastoön is a
rarely used archaic term for this feature. The peristyle in a Greek temple is a peristasis.

Pero Grullo (187): Another villager from Garganta la Olla, that Gila asks Mingo about when he
encounters them on the mountain.

168
Peso (187): Modern peso and dollar currencies have a common origin in the 15th–19th century
Spanish dollar, most continuing to use its sign, "$". he basic monetary unit of Mexico, several
other Latin American countries, and the Philippines, equal to 100 centésimos in Uruguay and
100 centavos elsewhere.

169
Petticoats (165): Petticoat, in modern usage, an underskirt worn by women. The petycote
(probably derived from the Old French petite cote, “little coat”) appeared in literature in the 15th
century in reference to a kind of padded waistcoat, or undercoat, worn for warmth over the shirt
by men.

Phoenix (159): (in classical mythology) a unique bird that lived for five or six centuries in the
Arabian desert, after this time burning itself on a funeral pyre and rising from the ashes with
renewed youth to live through another cycle. A person or thing regarded as uniquely remarkable
in some respect.

170
Pilasters (145): In classical architecture, a pilaster is an architectural element used to give the
appearance of a supporting column and to articulate an extent of wall, with only an ornamental
function.

171
Pine nuts (73):
1. Heat piloncillo and water to boiling in a 2-quart saucepan, stirring constantly. Reduce
heat slightly. Cook, without stirring, to 236 degrees F on a candy thermometer.
2. Stir in butter.
3. Cool for 8 minutes without stirring.
4. Stir in pine nuts and vanilla extract. Beat with a spoon until slightly thickened and mixture
just coats pine nuts but remains glossy, about 1 minute.
5. Drop by rounded teaspoonfuls onto wax paper.
6. Let stand until candies are firm.
7. Store tightly covered at room temperature.

172
Pink and white sugar crystals (73): Cotton Candy and Rock Candy was around in the 15th
century: Cover 8 cardboard paper-towel tubes with parchment. Set aside. With a damp pastry
brush, wipe down the sides of the pan to prevent stray sugar crystals from forming.

● In a large, heavy saucepan over medium heat, combine the sugar, corn syrup, water,
and salt. Stir until the sugar is melted.

● Clip on a candy thermometer, stop stirring, and heat to 320°F (160°C). Pour the molten
liquid into a shallow heat proof container. Add the extract and food coloring (if using) and
stir well.

● Line your work table with parchment. I also spread parchment on the floor around the
table to catch any stray bits of flying sugar.

● Dip your decapitated whisk into the sugar syrup and hold it over the pot to let the sugar
drip back into container for a second. Holding the whisk a foot (30 cm) above the
parchment, swing the whisk back and forth so that thin strands of sugar fall on the paper.
Repeat this a few more times until you have a nice nest of spun sugar.

Piss-soaked stick (75): Anal hygiene has been around for centuries, and one method was to use
sticks as toilet paper. An interesting read is “shit stick” on wikipedia.

173
174
Plasencia (63, 67, 69, 73. 105, 161, 177, 179, 187): Plasencia is a city in western Spain. It’s
known for its medieval walls and old quarter. The Plasencia Cathedral complex consists of the
Old Cathedral, a 13th-century Romanesque building, and the New Cathedral, begun in the 15th
century, with Gothic and Renaissance elements. Nearby, Parque Los Pinos features ponds with
herons, storks and flamingos. North, Monte Valcorchero has cork oak trees and rocky trails

Plaza for bullfighting (71): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qmp4DjtWcuw Los sanfermines

kick into gear on July 6 with the txupinazo, when a rocket blasts off in front of the city hall to
announce fiesta's commencement. This moment of deafening cheers and uncorked champagne
bottles certainly sets the tone of the week, as the city dives headfirst into a week a crazed
festivities.

The chaotic running of the bulls, or el encierro, is the most characteristic and internationally
renowned part of the sanfermines. The running of the bulls takes place everyday at eight in the
morning and consists of a crowd of primarily young men who run ahead of the clamoring bulls
through an 830-meter stretch of cobbled road and into the city´s bullring.After each morning is
greeted with the daily Running of the Bulls, bullfights liven up each afternoon, and parades
featuring bands of music and enormous giants constantly wind through the streets. On July 7th,

175
a procession dating back to the 13th century boasts music and enormous crowds as it passes
through Pamplona in honor of San Fermín. Every party must come to an end, and in the case of
los sanfermines that inevitable moment is called the pobre de mí. The crowd laments the end of
another year's festivities with the traditional song, the pobre de mí, literally meaning "poor me."

Plinths (145): A pedestal or plinth is the support of a statue or a vase, and of a column in
architecture. Smaller pedestals, especially if round in shape, may be called socles. In civil
engineering, it is also called a basement. The minimum height of the plinth is usually kept as 45
cm.

176
Plough (107): The carruca or caruca was a kind of heavy plow important to medieval agriculture
in Northern Europe. The carruca used a heavy iron plowshare to turn heavy soil and may have

177
required a team of eight oxen. The carruca also bore a coulter and moldboard. It gave its name
to the English carucate.

Pontiff (75): The Pope. Late 17th century (denoting an early Christian bishop): from French
pontife, from Latin pontifex. During this play, the Pontiff is Pope Sixtus IV, who did not come
from Spain. Pope Sixtus IV, born Francesco della Rovere, was head of the Catholic Church and
ruler of the Papal States from 9 August 1471 to his death. His accomplishments as pope
included the construction of the Sistine Chapel and the creation of the Vatican Archives.

178
179
Prestor ‘Juana’ (135): A legendary Christian ruler who figured prominently in the imagination of
the European Renaissance. He was associated with Asian or African exotic lands at the fringes
of Christianity: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJKqtoAcutA

Privileges we granted (237): These brotherhoods were far from new, although the one in Castile
received new authority from Isabella in 1476. This branch was effectively an arm of the Spanish
Inquisition, which had also been granted access to Plasencia, where the play ends.

Prod (107): a pointed implement, typically one discharging an electric current and used as a
goad.

180
Quinces (79): The quince is the sole member of the genus Cydonia in the family Rosaceae. It is
a tree fruit that bears a deciduous pome fruit, similar in appearance to a pear, and is bright
golden-yellow when mature. The raw fruit is a source of food.
● https://www.oldcook.com/en/medieval-fruit

Rancher’s apron (99): The origins of the vaquero tradition come from Spain, beginning with the
hacienda system of medieval Spain. This style of cattle ranching spread throughout much of the
Iberian peninsula, and it was later imported to the Americas. Both regions possessed a dry
climate with sparse grass, and thus large herds of cattle required vast amounts of land in order
to obtain sufficient forage. The need to cover distances greater than a person on foot could
manage gave rise to the development of the horseback-mounted vaquero. Various aspects of

181
the Spanish equestrian tradition can be traced back to Arabic rule in Spain, including Moorish
elements such as the use of Oriental-type horses, the jineta riding style characterized by a
shorter stirrup, solid-treed saddle and use of spurs,[12] the heavy noseband or hackamore,[13]
(Arabic: ‫ َشکيمة‬‎šakīma, Spanish jaquima)[14] and other horse-related equipment and
techniques.[12][13] Certain aspects of the Arabic tradition, such as the hackamore, can in turn be
traced to roots in ancient Persia.

Reyes Católicos (11): The term Catholic Monarchs refers to Queen Isabella I of Castile and King
Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose marriage and joint rule marked the de facto unification of Spain.

Ribera (159): A historical personage noted in the chronicles of the Reconquest of Granada.

Rifles (26, 47, 51): An arquebus is a form of long gun that appeared in Europe and the Ottoman
Empire during the 15th century. An infantryman armed with an arquebus is called an
arquebusier

182
Rodrigo Téllez de Girón (12, 159): A Castilian nobleman, the master of the Order of Calatrava
since 1466. A supporter of Isabel and Ferdinand.

Roland (45): Protagonist of the Chanson de Roland, French epic poem of the 11th and 12th
centuries. Written at the time of the First Crusade to the Holy Lands at the end of the 11th
century, The Song of Roland reflects the fight between Christianity and Islam, or good and evil.
The poem glorifies Christianity and its defeat over Islam, with the intention of encouraging
Christians during the Crusades.

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Rolling dice on a box (151): In the late Middle Ages dice were usually used for games and
gambling. They were thought to be perfect for gambling and were almost always played for a
stake because they relied on chance rather than skill.[4] Though historians know that there were
a variety of games played with dice, few have been recorded in detail because their rules varied
so much. One of the more popular games was known as ‘Hazard,’ played with two dice;
onlookers would bet on the outcome of each roll. The goal was to roll two of the same, or at
least roll higher than your opponent.[5] This particular set of dice would have been perfect for a
game of Hazard because they were loaded so their user could ensure that they rolled two of the
same, winning them money if they were gambling. Other popular games included ‘Highest
Point’[6] and ‘Shuffle’.

Romanceros - ballad books (7): A romancero is a collection of Spanish romances, a type of folk
ballad. The romancero is the entire corpus of such ballads.

Roman Empire (135):

Romería (207, 211): a type of yearly, short distance Roman Catholic religious pilgrimage
practiced in the Iberian Peninsula and countries formerly colonized by Spain and Portugal. The
term comes from romero/romeiro, meaning a person travelling to Rome. The travelling can be

184
done in cars, floats, on horseback or on foot, and its destination is a sanctuary or hermitage
consecrated to a religious figure honored in that day's feast. Besides attending religious
services and processions, the pilgrims may also engage in social events like singing, feasting
and dancing. One of the most famous examples of a pilgrimage is that of Nuestra Señora del
Rocío, in which the faithful move to the Sanctuary of the Virgen del Rocío in the village of the
Rocío, in Almonte, Huelva. The Romeria of Sant John of the Mountain, celebrated in Miranda de
Ebro, is the second most important romeria in Spain behind El Rocío with more than 25,000
romeros. Another one of the most representative examples is the Romería de la Virgen de la
Cabeza (Andújar, Jaén), which is considered the oldest pilgrimages of Spain, and consists of
the displacement of the travellers coming from all over the country to the Sanctuary of the
Virgen de la Cabeza, through 33 km of Andújar, in the heart of Sierra de Andujar natural park.
This celebration is held the last Sunday of April and is considered of national tourist interest.
The Romería de la Virgin de Navahonda, celebrated in spring in the Madrilenian municipality of
Robledo de Chavela is representative of this tradition. There are also pilgrimages in the Canary
Islands. An example is La Romería de Santiago Apostol, in Gáldar. Instead of focusing on
Jesus, the floats usually praise the Virgin Mary with pictures and statues.
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmE_huD7C8Q
● Jota Aragonesa. This typical dance hails from the north of Spain, namely Aragón, and
features a fast tempo as couples dance with their hands raised high above their heads
playing castanets.
● Sardana. Several couples join hands and dance in a closed circle in this traditional
dance from Catalonia.
● Muñeira. Danced in twos or alone along to the music of bagpipes, this traditional
"Miller's Dance" is typical throughout Galicia and Asturias.
● Zambra. The zambra began as a Moorish dance, but with monarchs Fernando and
Isabel's reconquista of Spain, the Moors were able to conserve the dance by adapting it
to Spanish dance customs.
● Bolero. One of the oldest and most traditional dances of the history of Spanish dance,
the bolero is a quick Spanish dance boasting sudden pauses and sharp turns.
● Fandango. At one point the most famous dance of Spain, the fandango is a lively, happy
Spanish danced in two's.
● Pasodoble. A quick one-step Spanish dance.
● Flamenco. A passionate dance hailing from gypsies, flamenco is internationally famous.
Learn more!
● Sevillana. Lively and joyous dance typical of Seville and reminiscent of flamenco that
features four distinct parts.
● https://www.enforex.com/culture/spanish-dance-history.html

185
Ronda (101): Ronda is a mountaintop city in Spain’s Malaga province that’s set dramatically
above a deep gorge. This gorge (El Tajo) separates the city’s circa-15th-century new town from
its old town, dating to Moorish rule. Puente Nuevo, a stone bridge spanning the gorge, has a
lookout offering views. New town’s Plaza de Toros, a legendary 18th-century bullring, is one of
the city’s most recognizable landmark

Rustic Cabin (207):

186
Saddle cover (51): This cover protects your saddle from dust and debris as well as from being
scratched or otherwise damaged and is an attractive way to protect your saddle.

Saddle maker (187): The first saddle is believed to have been invented in 365 AD by the
Sarmatians. Proud horsemen who used their horses in battle and also sacrificed them to the
gods, their saddle creations were brought back to Europe by the Huns. Finding the metal
stirrups great for mounting, as well as for increasing overall balance, the Europeans discovered
that they were able to wield war weapons with more skill and accuracy. In the beginning, leather
tanning was undeveloped, at best. As the years passed, saddlers perfected the process,
resulting in soft, supple, durable hides. The saddle’s tree, generally made from a carved piece of
wood, evolved into wood covered rawhide, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and, most recently, a
complete removal of the tree. Saddles were improved upon during the Middle Ages, as knights
needed saddles that were stronger and offered more support. The resulting saddle had a higher
cantle and pommel (to prevent the rider from being unseated in warfare) and was built on a
wooden tree that supported more weight from a rider with armor and weapons. This saddle, a
predecessor to the Western saddle, was originally padded with wool or horsehair and covered in
leather or textiles. It was later modified for cattle tending and bullfighting in addition to the
continual development for use in war. Other saddles, derived from earlier, treeless designs,
sometimes added solid trees to support stirrups, but were kept light for use messengers and for
horse racing. A skillful saddle and harness maker with an ingratiating manner and a head for
business could earn an excellent living as a saddler. Clients typically were rich and typically
wanted the best saddles. Horses were not as common as people think. They were expensive.
The more horses you owned, the more the costs went up. Among the skills the apprentice had
to master were the uses of the special knives saddle makers cut leather with. The round knife,
which was a half-moon blade, was particularly versatile and important. Other tools include the
stitching awl and dividers. Craftsmen cut leather following measurements or a pattern. Shop
masters zealously guarded their patterns because they set their goods apart from the
competition’s. Patterns typically were made of wood or leather; and occasionally from paper;

187
which was expensive. Masters started as apprentices on small jobs working with small pieces of
leather: That kept expenses low when the inevitable early learning mistakes occurred.
Apprentices began their training in stitching by producing the thread that a shop would use. It
often was made from flax or hemp, which was coated with beeswax. Craftsmen used steel
needles as well as tools that could punch holes in leather or slit the material. They also
employed a “clam,” a clamp that held leather, but left hands free to stitch. When it came to
stitching leather, craftsmen often worked hard to produce a neat and attractive effect known in
the trade as “finish.” Finish reflected pride of craft, skill, and a thorough knowledge of the
material. Saddlers did not make the wooden tree or frame - the skeleton - of the saddle. They
came from frame makers. Frame makers covered the tree with cheesecloth to prevent spitting.
Saddle makers bought the frames and assembled the components on them. That assembly
added up to a product. An accomplished saddle and harness maker needed a deep intuitive
understanding of leather. This knowledge, known as a “good hand,” was noso much learned as
absorbed. The absorption could take years and could require a leather craftsman to handle
hundreds, maybe thousands of hides. The hides could vary in appearance, strength, and grain,
depending on the animal and the tanning. Leather could be stiff or soft, smooth or rough,
waterproof or absorbent. Colors varied from white to red, black, and tan. Dyes could expand the
palette. An apprentice came to appreciate the potential in each piece of leather they touched.
With an appreciation for a piece of leather’s potential uses, a craftsman would know what type
of hide to employ for a particular product. For example, hunters bounding through fields and
forest wanted a “good seat” that helped them stay in the saddle. Hog skin was appropriate
because its texture provided a good grip. Steer hide was less desirable as it became slick with
use. There were side saddles for ladies, postilions used by carriage drivers, portmateaus for
luggage, and racing saddles with pockets to add weights to handicap jockeys. Making and
repairing saddles and harnesses could provide success and status for the right person.

188
Saint Dismas (185): Known as the Penitent Thief, was one of the men crucified alongside
Christ.

Saint John (63): John the Apostle or Saint John the

Beloved was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus
according to the New Testament. Generally listed as
the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee and
Salome. His brother was James, who was another of
the Twelve Apostles. John is the patron saint of love,
loyalty, friendships, and authors. He is often depicted
in art as the author of the Gospel with an eagle,
symbolizing "the height he rose to in his gospel." In
other icons, he is shown looking up into heaven and
dictating his Gospel to his disciple.

189
Saint Rory (87) San Rorro, an obscure patron saint of drunkards, jerks, and whiners.

Saint Quiteria (183): Patron saint of blindness and rabies, among other ailments.

190
Salamanca (101, 105, 235): Salamanca, in northwestern Spain, is the capital of Salamanca
province, part of the Castile and León region. With a history dating back to the Celtic era, it’s
known for its ornate sandstone architecture and for the Universidad de Salamanca. Founded in
the 1100s and a key intellectual center in the 15th-16th centuries, the university continues to
add to the city’s vibrancy with its international student population.

Scarlet poppies (53): Red poppies symbolize undying love, remembrance, and sacrifice. They
are placed on the graves of fallen soldiers in remembrance. And they are also associated with

191
the blood of Christ. However, in Asian countries, red poppies symbolize success and good
fortune, as well as romantic love.

Scythe (147): a tool used for cutting crops such as grass or wheat, with a long curved blade at
the end of a long pole attached to which are one or two short handles.

Sedge (203): a grasslike plant with triangular stems and inconspicuous flowers, growing
typically in wet ground. Sedges are widely distributed throughout temperate and cold regions.

Semiramis (139, 159): Queen of ancient Babylon, was reputed to have many lovers, she is
invoked in the play as a mythical warrior woman. The legendary Lydian-Babylonian wife of
Onnes and Ninus, succeeding the latter to the throne of Assyria. The legends narrated by

192
Diodorus Siculus, who drew from the works of Ctesias of Cnidus describes her and her
relationships to Onnes and King Ninus, a mythical king of Assyria not attested in the far older
and more comprehensive Assyrian King List. The indigenous Assyrians of Iraq, northeast Syria,
southeast Turkey, and northwest Iran still
use Semiramis (also Shamiram) as a given
name for female children. The real and
historical Shammuramat (the original
Akkadian and Aramaic form of the name)
was the Assyrian wife of Shamshi_Adad V
(ruled 824 BC-811 BC), king of Assyria and
ruler of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and its
regent for five years until her son Adad-nirari
III came of age and took the reins of power.
She ruled at a time of political uncertainty,
which is one of the possible explanations for
why Assyrians may have accepted her rule
(as normally a woman as ruler would have
been unthinkable). It has been speculated
that ruling successfully as a woman may
have made the Assyrians regard her with
particular reverence, and that the
achievements of her reign (including
stabilizing and strengthening the empire
after a destructive civil war) were retold over
the generations until she was turned into a
mythical figure. The name of Semiramis came to be applied to various monuments in Western
Asia and Asia Minor, the origin which was forgotten or unknown. Various places in Assyria and
throughout Mesopotamia as a whole, Media, Persia, the Levant, Asia Minor, Arabia, and the
Caucasus bore the name of Semiramis, but slightly changed, even in the Middle Ages, and an
old name of the Armenian city of Van was Shamiramagerd (in Armenian it means created by
Semiramis). Nearly every stupendous work of antiquity by the Euphrates or in Iran seems to
have ultimately been ascribed to her, even the Behistun Inscription of Darius. Herodotus
ascribes to her the artificial banks that confined the Euphrates and knows her name as borne by
a gate of Babylon. She conquered much of the Middle East and the Levant. She was mortally
wounded after fighting an Indian king in modern day Pakistan and the Assyrian army was mostly
destroyed. According to Diodorus, Semiramis was of noble parents, the daughter of the
fish-goddess Derketo of Ascalon in Assyria and of a mortal. Derketo abandoned her at birth
and drowned herself. Doves fed the child until Simmas, the royal shepherd, found her.
Semiramis married Onnes or Menones, one of King Ninus’ generals. Her advice led him to
great successes, and at the siege of Bactra she personally led a party of soldiers to seize a key
point in the defense, leading to the city’s surrender. Ninus was so struck that he fell in love with
her and tried to compel Onnes to give her to him as a wife, first offering his own daughter
Sonanê in return and eventually threatening to put out his eyes as punishment. Onnes, out of
fear of the king, and out of doomed passion for his wife, “fell into a kind of frenzy and madness”

193
and hanged himself. Ninus then married her. Semiramis and Ninus had a son named Ninyas.
After King Ninus conquered Asia, including the Bactrians, he was fatally wounded by an arrow.
Semiramis then masqueraded as her son and tricked her late husband’s army into following her
instructions because they thought these came from their new rule. After Ninus’s death she
reigned as queen regent for 42 years, conquering much of Asia. Semiramis restored ancient
Babylon and protected it with a high brick wall that completely surrounded the city. She also
built several palaces in Persia, including Dcbatana. Dodorus also attributes the Behistun
inscription to her, now known to have been done under Darius I of Persia (reigned 522-486
BCE). She not only ruled Asia effectively but also added Libya and Aethiopia to the empire.
She then went to war with king Stabrobates (Sthabarpati) of India, having her artisans build an
army of false elephants by putting manipulated skins of dark-skinned buffaloes over her camels
to deceive the Indians into thinking she had acquired real elephants. This ploy succeeded
initially, but then she was wounded in the counterattack and her army mainly annihilated, forcing
the surviving remnants to re-ford the Indus and retreat to the west. Legends describing
Semiramis have been recorded by writers including Plutarch, Eusebius, Polyaenus, and
Justinus. She was associated with Ishtar and Astarte from the time before Diodorus. The
association of the fish and dove is found at Hierapolis Bambyce (Mabbog), the great temple
which, according to one legend, was founded by Semiramis, where her statue was shown with a
golden dove on her head. The name of Semiramis came to be applied to various monuments in
Western Asia and Asia Minor, the origin of which was forgotten or unknown. Various places in
Assyria and throughout Mesopotamia as a whole, Media, Persia, the Levant, Asia Minor, Arabia,
and the Caucasus bore the name of Semiramis, but slightly changed, even in the Middle Ages.
She is credited with founding the city of Van in order to have a summer residence, and the city
may also be referred to as Shamiramagerd (city of Semiramis). Strabo credits her with building
earthworks and other structures “throughout almost the whole continent.” Nearly every
stupendous work of antiquity by the Euphrates or in Iran seems to have ultimately been
ascribed to her, even the Behistun Inscription of Darius. Herodotus ascribes to her the artificial
banks that confined the Euphrates and knows her name as borne by a gate of Babylon. Roman
historian Ammianus Marcellinus credits her as the first person to castrate a male youth into
eunuch-hood. Armenian tradition portrays Semiramis negatively, possibly because of the
victorious military campaign she prosecuted against them. One of the most popular legends in
Armenian tradition involves Semiramis and an Armenian king, Ara the Beautiful. According to
the legend, Semiramis had fallen in love with the handsome Armenian king Ara and asked him
to marry her. When he refused, in her passion she gathered her armies of Assyria and marched
against Armenia. During the battle Semiramis was victorious, but Ara was slain despite her
orders to capture him alive. To avoid continuous warfare with the Armenians, Semiramis,
reputed to be a sorceress, took his body and prayed to the gods to raise Ara from the dead.
Shen the Armenians advanced to avenge their leader, she disguised one of her lovers as Ara
and spread the rumor that the gods had brought Ara back to life, convincing the Armenians not
to continue the war. In one persistent tradition, Semiramis’ prayers are successful and Ara
returns to life. Semiramis was generally viewed positively before the rise of Christianity,
although negative portrayals did exist. During the Middle Ages, she was associated with
promiscuity and lustfulness. One story claimed that she had an incestuous relationship with her
son, justifying it by passing a law to legitimize parent-child marriages, and inventing the chastity

194
belt to deter any romantic rivals before he eventually killed her. This was likely popularized in
the 5th century by Orosius’ UNIVERSAL HISTORY (SEVEN BOOKS OF HISTORY AGAINST
THE PAGANS), which has been described as an “anti-pagan polemic.” In the DIVINE
COMEDY, Dante sees Semiramis among the souls of the lustful in the Second Circle of Hell.
However, she was also admired for her martial and political achievements, and it has been
suggested that her reputation partly recovered in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. She
was included in Christine de Pizan’s THE BOOK OF THE CITY OF LADIES (finished by 1405),
and starting in the 14th century she was commonly found on female lists of the NINE
WORTHIES. Semiramis appears in many plays and operas, such as Voltaire’s tragedy
SEMIRAMIS, and in multiple separate operas with the title SEMIRAMIDE by Domenico
Cimarosa, Marcos Portugal, Josef Mysliveč, and Giacomo Meyerbeer, Pedro Calderón de la
Barca, and Gioachino Rossini. Semiramis’ portrayal has been used as a metaphor for female
rulership and sometimes reflected political disputes in relation to female rulers, both as an
unfavorable comparison (for example, against Elizabeth I of England) and as an example of a
female ruler who governed well. Powerful female monarchs Margaret I of Denmark and
Catherine the Great were given the designation Semiramis of the North.

Sepulchral (143): relating to a tomb or interment.

Serrana (6, 177): From Spanish serrano (“mountainous”), because it originated in the sierras
(“mountains”) of the Mexican states of Puebla and Hidalgo. Spanish (also found in Portugal and
Brazil): topographic name for someone who lived by a mountain ridge or chain of hills, from an
adjectival derivative of serra.

Serrana folk song (50): https://musescore.com/user/35121661/scores/6900542

Sevillian river (99): The riches of the Spanish colonial empire in the Caribbean and Latin
American were brought back to Spain via two annual fleets that, upon reaching the
Mediterranean sailed up the Gaudalquivir River to Seville, Spain’s biggest and wealthiest city at
the time. Don Rodrigo’s reference here is highly anachronistic, since that empire city only came
into being after Columbus's voyage in 1492.

195
Sexton (127, 185, 187, 209): a person who looks after a church and churchyard, sometimes
acting as bell-ringer and formerly as a gravedigger

Shackles (235): a pair of fetters connected together by a chain, used to fasten a prisoner's
wrists or ankles together.

196
Showing off legs and feet (27): As most of us know, society required women to wear long skirts,
petticoats, and/or dresses to cover up as much of their legs as possible. A “short skirt” was one
that revealed a lady’s ankle, and ladies who showed their legs were considered titillating,
inappropriate, or downright immoral. On the other hand, women who cross-dressed were often
admired for their show of a “well-turned leg.” In fact, what made women’s legs so titillating was
precisely the fact that they—and the crotch at the top of the legs—were hidden, invisible and
unmentionable in normal dress. According to costume historian Ann Hollander, while men’s
clothing tended to emphasize the body and “demonstrate the existence of a trunk, neck and
head with hair, of movable legs, feet and arms, and sometimes genitals,” women’s clothes and
particularly the skirt, which “hid women from the waist down and thus permitted endless scope
for the mythology of the feminine, had become a sacred female fate and privilege, especially
after it became firmly established as a separate garment.” This is not to say, of course, that
men’s legs were not sexualized in one way or another, either. Eighteenth-century texts and
earlier Renaissance texts emphasize slim ankles and bulging calves as being the definition of a
graceful gam in a gentleman. Henry VIII, for example, was revered for his muscular calves, a
fact remarked on by the Venetian ambassador in 1515: “His majesty is the handsomest

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potentate I ever set eyes on…with an extremely fine calf to his leg.” The difference between
men’s and women’s legs seems mostly to be that an exposed male leg was accepted and
expected in the eighteenth century, while the appearance of a feminine leg was, in most cases,
not. Women who cross-dressed were seen as transgressors of gender codes, but, if they were
attractive enough, then their leg exposure was also acceptable. All women who cross-dressed
or even momentarily donned trousers to, for example, ride more comfortably on horseback,
were able to take advantage of the greater mobility that trousers afforded.

Song of nightingales (55): It traditionally represents melancholy and joy, love and loss, and life
and death. The nightingale will sing for its mate all through the night and thus also symbolises
the spiritual person practising love and visualisation.

Soul (141): In many religious, philosophical, and mythological traditions, the soul is the
incorporeal essence of a living being.[1] Soul or psyche (Ancient Greek: ψυχή psykhḗ, of ψύχειν
psýkhein, "to breathe", cf. Latin 'anima') comprises the mental abilities of a living being: reason,
character, feeling, consciousness, qualia, memory, perception, thinking, etc. Depending on the
philosophical system, a soul can either be mortal or immortal.[2] Greek philosophers, such as
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, understood that the soul (ψυχή psūchê) must have a logical
faculty, the exercise of which was the most divine of human actions. At his defense trial,
Socrates even summarized his teachings as nothing other than an exhortation for his fellow
Athenians to excel in matters of the psyche since all bodily goods are dependent on such
excellence (Apology 30a–b). In Judaism and in some Christian denominations, only human
beings have immortal souls (although immortality is disputed within Judaism and the concept of
immortality may have been influenced by Plato).[3] For example, the Catholic theologian Thomas
Aquinas attributed "soul" (anima) to all organisms but argued that only human souls are

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immortal.[4] Other religions (most notably Hinduism and Jainism) hold that all living things from
the smallest bacterium to the largest of mammals are the souls themselves (Atman, jiva) and
have their physical representative (the body) in the world. The actual self is the soul, while the
body is only a mechanism to experience the karma of that life. Thus if one sees a tiger then
there is a self-conscious identity residing in it (the soul), and a physical representative (the
whole body of the tiger, which is observable) in the world. Some teach that even non-biological
entities (such as rivers and mountains) possess souls. This belief is called animismThe "origin
of the soul" has provided a vexing question in Christianity. The major theories put forward
include soul creationism, traducianism, and pre-existence. According to soul creationism, God
creates each individual soul directly, either at the moment of conception or some later time.
According to traducianism, the soul comes from the parents by natural generation. According to
the preexistence theory, the soul exists before the moment of conception. There have been
differing thoughts regarding whether human embryos have souls from conception, or whether
there is a point between conception and birth where the fetus acquires a soul, consciousness,
and/or personhood. Stances in this question might play a role in judgements on the morality of
abortion.

Spanish Galen (141): Galen was a celebrated Greek physician of the Roman era. Aelius
Galenus or Claudius Galenus, often Anglicized as Galen and sometimes known as Galen of
Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire

199
Slingshot (155): A slingshot is a small hand-powered projectile weapon. The classic form
consists of a Y-shaped frame held in the non-dominant hand, with two natural-rubber strips or
tubes attached to the upper two ends. The other ends of the strips lead back to a pocket that
holds the projectile.

200
Staff (99, 241): A pole, stick, or wand borne as an ensign of authority; a badge of office. A
constable's staff. A pole upon which a flag is supported and displayed. (archaic) The rung of a
ladder.

Staff of office (231): a staff, the carrying of which often denotes an official's position, a social
rank or a degree of social prestige.

201
Stichomythia (59): Stichomythia is a technique in verse drama in which sequences of single
alternating lines, or half-lines or two-line speeches are given to alternating characters. It typically
features repetition and antithesis. The term originated in the theatre of Ancient Greece, though
many dramatists since have used the technique. mid 19th century: modern Latin, from Greek
stikhomuthia, from stikhos ‘row, line of verse’ + muthos ‘speech, talk’.

St. Sebastian (17, 245): Early Christian saint persecuted by the Romans, commonly depicted as
tied to a tree or stake and pierced by multiple arrows. ​Saint Sebastian was an early Christian
saint and martyr. According to traditional belief, he was killed during the Roman emperor
Diocletian's persecution of Christians. He was initially tied to a post or tree and shot with arrows,
though this did not kill him.

202
Stylobates (145): In classical Greek architecture, a stylobate is the top step of the crepidoma,
the stepped platform upon which colonnades of temple columns are placed. The platform was
built on a leveling course that flattened out the ground immediately beneath the temple.

Sultan Muley Hassan (159): Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn Sa'd, known as Muley Hacén in Spanish, was
the twenty-first Nasrid ruler of the Emirate of Granada in Spain, from 1464 to 1482 and again
from 1483 to 1485.

203
Sweets (73): Spanish Desserts are famous all over the world not just for their unique flavors
but also for being part of Spain’s rich food culture. They are often made with healthy nuts, milk
products and boost the distinct aromas of butter, caramel, and fruits. From sugary custards to
milk-filled pastries, Spanish dessert menus are a place of sweet, sweet joy. Like so many foods
in Spain, many of the country’s desserts are worth making a part of every celebration. For
recipes: https://www.gastronomicspain.com/blog/en/traditional-spanish-desserts-celebration/

Swords (73):
● http://www.weapons-universe.com/Swords/Swords_of_the_Renaissance.shtml
● https://www.aceros-de-hispania.com/toledo-swords.htm

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Toledo (79, 179): Toledo is an ancient city set on a hill above the plains of Castilla-La Mancha in
central Spain. The capital of the region, it’s known for the medieval Arab, Jewish and Christian
monuments in its walled old city. It was also the former home of Mannerist painter El Greco. The
Moorish Bisagra Gate and the Sol Gate, in Mudéjar style, open into the old quarter, where the
Plaza de Zocodover is a lively meeting place.

Torus (145): In molding: Single curved. (5) A torus, a convex molding, approximates a semicircle
or semi ellipse. (6) A roll, or bowtell, molding is convex, approximating three-quarters of a circle.
(7) An astragal is a small torus. (8) An apophyge molding is a small, exaggerated cavetto.

205
Touch helmets (75): a technique to establish “fighting distance” by having the swords touch the
helmets or, as you can see in this photo, the crowns.

206
Travelling clothes (57): A hat and overcoat/cloak added to any outfit.

207
Triglyphs (145): Triglyph is an architectural term for the vertically channeled tablets of the Doric
frieze in classical architecture, so called because of the angular channels in them. The
rectangular recessed spaces between the triglyphs on a Doric frieze are called metopes

208
Trojan Horse (141): A hollow wooden statue of a horse in which the Greeks concealed
themselves in order to enter Troy. A person or thing intended secretly to undermine or bring
about the downfall of an enemy or opponent.

209
Tuscan (143): The Tuscan order is one of the two classical orders developed by the Romans,
the other being the composite order. It is influenced by the Doric order, but with unfluted
columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs or guttae.

210
211
Two-sided hoods (241): Hoods that have a structure with two-sides, or if they are a turban-like
hood they have material on both sides.

Tympanum (145): A tympanum is the semi-circular or triangular decorative wall surface over an
entrance, door or window, which is bounded by a lintel and an arch. It often contains sculpture
or other imagery or ornaments. Many architectural styles include this element.

Unheimlich - ‘uncanny strangeness’ (21): The uncanny is the psychological experience of

something as strangely familiar, rather than simply mysterious. It may describe incidents where
a familiar thing or event is encountered in an unsettling, eerie, or taboo context.

Ureña (157, 161): Don Rodrigo’s twin brother - Alfonso Téllez-Girón, 1st Count of Ureña.

212
Usual fencing passes (75): Though we may trace the art of defense back to the 14th century, it
is difficult to talk about fencing before that time since there is simply no surviving documentation,
save for anecdotal evidence. The fencing book (fechtbuch) known as I-33, penned circa 1300, is
the first known treatise on Western swordsmanship. However, specifics on styles, techniques, or
methods that predate this are, due to the lack of documentation, open to speculation. Most
importantly, there was no clear distinction between civilian and military use of the sword. The
early treatises do, however, contain clear descriptions of timing, distance, binding,
engagements, parries, feints, voiding actions, and footwork. The foundations of the systems
within the “middle historical” period can be traced to this time period. The I-33 fechtbuch is also
the earliest known documented evidence of the use of the sword for personal self-defense or for
monomachia (that is, dueling), though the distinction between civilian swordsmanship and
military swordsmanship was just beginning to be recognized in this period. These two
aims—self-defense and dueling—have guided the development of the art of fence through the
centuries. The attitude and techniques that are necessary to these ends differ in many ways
from those of military swordsmanship. This distinction is of no small importance. The following
link is to the Society of American Fight Directors Required moves, and the broadsword passes
are included.
https://www.safd.org/train/training-with-the-safd/spt-required-techniques/

Here is a link to a great article on sword fighting, etc.:

https://www.vice.com/en/article/pgn3y9/the-italian-renaissance-of-swordsmanship-wrestling-and

213
-boxing

Vertical axes (145): With vertical molding, one side of the mold cake has the pattern for the front
of the casting, the other side the pattern for the back of the casting. ... When the two are closed,
green sand is poured into place and squeezed at very high pressure to form the mold. Very
quickly, the swing arm lifts the swing plate.

214
Visigoths (209): The Romanized Visigoths entered Hispania in 415. After the conversion of their
monarchy to Roman Catholicism and after conquering the disordered Suebic territories in the
northwest and Byzantine territories in the southwest, the Visigothic Kingdom eventually
encompassed a great part of the Iberian Peninsula. As the Roman Empire declined, Germanic
tribes invaded the former empire. Some were foederati, tribes enlisted to serve in Roman
armies, and given land within the empire as payment, while others, such as the Vandals, took
advantage of the empire’s weakening defenses to seek plunder within its borders. Those tribes
that survived took over existing Roman institutions and created successor-kingdoms to the
Romans in various parts of Europe. Iberia was taken over by the Visigoths after 410. At the
same time, there was a process of “Romanization” of the Germanic and Hunnic tribes settled on
both sides of the limes (the fortified frontier of the Empire along the Rhine and Danube rivers).
The Visigoths, for example, were converted to Arian Christianity around 360, even before they
were pushed into imperial territory by the expansion of the Huns. In the winter of 406, taking
advantage of the frozen Rhine, refugees from (Germanic) Vandals and Sueves, and the
(Sarmatian) Alans, fleeing the advancing Huns, invaded the empire in force. Three years later
they crossed the Pyrenees into Iberia and divided the Western parts, roughly corresponding to
modern Portugal and western Spain as far as Madrid, between them. The Visigoth, having
sacked Rome two years earlier, arrived in the region in 412, founding the Visigothic kingdom of
Toulouse (in the south and modern France) and gradually expanded their influence into the
Iberian peninsula at the expense of the Vandals and Alans, who moved on into North Africa
without leaving much permanent mark on Hispanic culture. The Visigothic Kingdom shifted its
capital to Toledo and reached a high point during the reign of Leovigild. The Visigothic Kingdom
conquered all of Hispania and ruled it until the early 8th century, when the peninsula fell to the
Muslim conquests. The Muslim state in Iberia came to be known as Al-Andalus. After a period
of Muslim dominance, the medieval history of Spain is dominated by the long Christian
Reconquista or “reconquest” of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule. The Reconquista

215
gathered momentum during the 12th century, leading to the establishment of the Christian
kingdoms of Portugal, Aragon, Castile, and Navarre, and by 1250, had reduced Muslim control
to the Emirate of Granada in the south-east of the peninsula. Muslim rule in Granada survived
until 1492, when it fell to the Catholic Monarchs. Importantly, Spain never saw a decline in
interest in classical culture to the degree observable in Britain, Gaul, Lombardy, and Germany.
The Visigoths, having assimilated Roman culture during their tenure as foederati, tended to
maintain more of the old Roman institutions, and they had a unique respect for legal codes that
resulted in continuous frameworks and historical records for most of the period between 415,
when Visigothic rule in Spain began, and 711, when it is traditionally said to end. However,
during the Visigothic dominion the cultural efforts made by the Franks and other Germanic tribes
were not felt in the peninsula, nor achieved in the lesser kingdoms that emerged after the
Muslim conquest. The proximity of the Visigohic kingdoms to the Mediterranean and the
continuity of western Mediterranean trade, though in reduced quantity, supported Visigothic
culture. Arian Visigothic nobility kept apart from the local Catholic population. The Visigothic
ruling class looked to Constantinople for style and technology while the rivals of Visigothic
power and culture were the Catholic bishops – and a brief incursion of the Byzantine power in
Córdoba. Spanish Catholic religion also coalesced during this time. The period of rule by the
Visigothic Kingdom saw the spread of Arianism briefly in Spain. The Councils of Toledo debated
creed and liturgy in orthodox Catholicism, and the Council of Lerida in 546 constrained the
clergy and extended the power of law over them under the blessings of Rome. IN 587, the
Visigothic king at Toledo, Reccared, converted to Catholicism and launched a movement in
Spain to unify the various religious doctrines that existed in the land. This put an end to
dissension on the question of Arianism. The Visigoths inherited from Late Antiquity a sort of
feudal system in Spain, based in the south on the Roman villa system and in the north drawing
on their vassals to supply troops in exchange for protection. The bulk of the Visigothic army
was composed of slaves, raised from the countryside. The loose council of nobles that advised
Spain’s Visigothic kings and legitimized their rule was responsible for raising an army, and only
upon its consent was the king able to summon soldiers. The impact of Visigothic rule was not
widely felt on society at large, and certainly not compared to the vast bureaucracy of the Roman
Empire; they tended to rule as barbarians of a mild sort, uninterested in the events of the nation
and economy, working for personal benefit and little literature remains to us from the period.
They did not, until the period of Muslim rule, merge with the Spanish population, preferring to
remain separate, and indeed the Visigothic language left only the faintest mark on the modern
languages of Iberia. The most visible effect was the depopulation fo the cities as they moved to
the countryside. Even while the country enjoyed a degree of prosperity when compared to the
famines of France and Germany in this period, the Visigoths felt little reason to contribute to the
welfare, permanency, and infrastructure of their people and state. This contributed to their
downfall, as they could not count on the loyalty of their subjects when the Moors arrived in the
8th century. The Arab Islamic conquest dominated most of North Africa by 710 AD. In 711 an
Islamic Berber conquering party, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, was sent to Iberia to intervene in a civil
war in the Visigothic Kingdom. Tariq’s army contained about 7,000 Berber horsemen, and Mus
bin Nusayr is said to have sent an additional 5,000 reinforcements after the conquest. Crossing
the Strait of Gibraltar, they won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic King
Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariqu’s commander,

216
Musa, quickly crossed with Arab reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims were in control of
nearly the whole Iberian Peninsula. The advance into Western Europe was only stopped in
what is now north-central France by the West Germanic Franks under Charles Martel at the
Battle of Tours in 732.

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Walking stick (91):

West Indies (135): Although Spain claimed the entire Caribbean, they settled only the larger
islands of Hispaniola (1493), Puerto Rico (1508), Jamaica (1509), Cuba (1511), and Trinidad

218
(1530) and the small 'pearl islands' of Cubagua and Margarita off the Venezuelan coast because
of their valuable pearl beds, which were worked extensively. This fascination with the West
Indies is anachronistic to the play, but the translation gives a sense of empire and exotic.

Wheel of Fortune (233): The Roman goddess Fortuna was characterized as having a Rota
Fortunae (wheel of fortune) or a ship's rudder in one one hand and a cornucopia in the other.
With these instruments she controlled the fates of people by the spin of the wheel. It is a symbol
of the capricious nature of Fate. The figures are labelled "Regno, Regnavi, Sum sine regno,
Regnabo": I reign, I reigned, My reign is finished, I shall reign.

219
Wild Boar (193): Medieval hunting was one of the most popular sports enjoyed by Medieval lords and
Nobility. Hunting had always been enjoyed as it provided training for war because of the tracking skills,
weapon usage, horsemanship, and courage that were all required in Medieval warfare. Both men and women
engaged in hunting. A variety of animals found living wild were hunted. One of the Sumptuary laws was the
Forest Law which related to gaming and hunting. The Forests were normally owned by the reigning monarch.
Only the monarch and his servants hunted in the forests. Permission to hunt in forests could also be gained by
the granting of a royal license. The animals subject to the forest law were the Red deer, Fallow deer, Roe deer
and the wild Boar. Medieval peasants only had the right to hunt any beast over common land, unless such
right had been restricted by some special royal grant. The strict Medieval Forest Laws reserved the rights of
hunting to the ruling class and were hated and resented by the lower classes. Punishments for breaking
Medieval Hunting Laws were severe. Peasants accused of poaching were liable to hanging, castration,
blinding, or being sewn into a deerskin and then hunted down by ferocious dogs. Medieval Hunting was
divided into two different types of hunts: The ‘At Force’ Hunt and the ‘Bow and Stable’ Hunt. ‘At Force’
Hunting was the most strenuous form of Medieval hunting. The ‘At Force’ hunts were designed for fit, young
and very active men. As the name suggests there were many huntsmen involved in this type of hunt who
arranged themselves into teams. Dogs often accompanied the huntsmen on the At Force hunts. The Wild
Boar was an extremely dangerous animal and would be the main choice of prey for this type of hunt. The
teams would chase the prey to near exhaustion or would corner the animal just before the ‘kill’. The Bow and
Stable Hunts were the less strenuous forms of hunting. The ‘Bow and Stable’ hunts were designed for less
active, or infirm men. As the name suggests this type of hunt was conducted on horseback using a bow as the
main weapon. Dogs also accompanied the hunt on the ‘Bow and Stable’ hunts and would drive the prey into
an enclosed space where the huntsmen could kill the animal at close range. The docile deer would normally
be the main choice of prey for this type of hunt. A list of prey:
● The Stag – The stag was usually hunted with aid of dogs and bows and arrows, in order to stay out of
range of the horns. Suitable as the prey for ‘Bow and Stable’ Hunting.
● The Deer, Hart or Roebuck – Usually hunted with aid of dogs and bows and arrows. Suitable as the
prey for ‘Bow and Stable’ hunting.
● Boar – Usually hunted with the aid of dogs and with very long spears, in order to stay away from the
tusks. Suitable as the prey for ‘At Force’ Hunting.

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 ● Foxes – Usually hunted by chasing them with dogs and letting the dogs tear the fox apart. Foxes are
rarely hunted as food. Suitable as the prey for ‘Bow and Stable’ Hunting.
● Rabbits – Usually hunted by sending trained dogs or ferrets down the burrow.
● Otters – Usually hunted with dogs. Hunted for sport not food.
● Game birds (geese, ducks, pheasant, partridge, grouse, etc.) – usually hunted with dogs to chase them
into taking off, then with bow and arrow to bring them down, and dogs (again) to fetch the corpses
back. Suitable as the prey for ‘Bow and Stable’ Hunting.
Hunting dogs were bred primarily to work with people to hunt animals, fish and birds. Sighthounds
specialized in hunting their quarry by sight rather than scent. Scent Hounds specialized in following the scent
or the smell of its quarry. Hunting Dogs which relied strongly on the sense of smell to follow the trail of a prey,
such as the Bloodhound, quite literally follow their noses.
● Fox hunting dogs – Foxhounds
● Deer hunting dogs – Irish Wolfhound
● Badger hunting dogs – Hounds
● Bird Hunting dogs – Spaniel
● Rat Hunting dogs – Terrier
● Bear Hunting dogs – Mastiff
● Rabbit and Hare Hunting dogs – Beagle

William R. Manson (29): A Hispanic Studies author who received his doctorate from the
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. During World War II he was part of the navy. He
taught at American universities and made numerous critical editions of plays by Luis Vélez de
Guevara along with his friend, another Hispanist C. George Peale.

Wine skin (203):

221
Wrestling (47): Wrestling is the oldest and purest of personal combat sports. Men have been
trying their strength and unarmed skill since the beginning of time. Egyptian murals on the
tombs of Beni Hasan, dating back to 3000 BC shows wrestlers in combat and we know that this
sort of competition was part of the early Olympic games. In fact, it is said to have been
introduced at the 18th Olympiad about 704 BC. In the Renaissance, the legs of the wrestlers are
bare from the knees and they wore canvas jackets that may be used in the holds. Traditionally
the challenge takes a form of throwing a cap in the air, and whoever wants may pick it up.
The object is to throw one's opponent so that he lands with both hips and one shoulder, or two
shoulders and one hip, squarely on the ground.

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Xarandilla (63, 187): Jarandilla de la Vera is a municipality located in the province of Cáceres,
Extremadura, Spain. According to the 2005 census, the municipality has a population of 3,080
inhabitants.

223