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Section 4
Section 4
اسفند 98
بخش دوم :مواد مهندسی
خواص مکانیکی
مواد مهندسی
However, on unloading, the remaining strains from points O to A′ and O to B′ are not fully permanent
plastic strain, but a small part of the remaining strain is elastic in nature, which will disappear with time.
This time-dependent recoverable elastic strain is called anelasticity. The extent of anelasticity depends on
material and test temperature. Anelastic effects at room temperature are usually very small in metals but
can be large for polymeric materials. Figure below shows that the elastic strains that disappear with time
are from points A′ to A″ and B′ to B″. So, in the figure, the permanent plastic strains will be from points O
to A″ and O to B″.
معموالً مسیر باربرداری از منحنی تنش –کرنش دقیقاً موازی با قسمت االستیک
خطی منحنی نیست و مطابق شکل زیر کمی خمیده خواهد شد.
The unloading and reloading curves create a hysteresis loop as shown in
the following figure.
سختی
For the Brinell hardness test, the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) and the
British Standards Institution specify the application of either a load of 3000 kg on a 10-
mm-diameter ball or a load of 750 kg on a 5-mmdiameter ball for at least 10 s when
testing iron, steel and alloys having hardness similar to steel. For non-ferrous metals and
alloys, a 10-mm-diameter ball is specified under a load of either 500 kg with a loading
period of at least 30 s in case of copper, annealed brass, magnesium alloys, etc., or
1000 kg for at least 15 s in case of gun metal/bronze, cold-worked brass, etc.
Rockwell Hardness
The determination of the Rockwell hardness number (HR, once symbolized as RHN) of a material
involves the application of a minor load of 10 kg, followed by a major load and notation of the
depth of penetration in terms of hardness number value directly from a dial which is an integral
part of the machine. The value representing hardness is an arbitrary number. The chief
advantage of the Rockwell Hardness Test is its ability to display hardness values directly, thus
eliminating operator error, such as often occur during measurements and calculations in other
hardness measurement techniques.
The dial is set to zero while the minor load is on and then the major load is applied. The major load is
applied in addition to the preliminary minor load. Upon removal of the major load, but while the
preliminary minor load is maintained, the HR appearing on the dial is recorded.
داکتیلیتی
Ductility is the degree to which a material will deform before ultimate fracture. The opposite
of ductility is brittleness. When ductile materials arc used in machine members, impending
failure is detected easily, and sudden failure is unlikely. Also, ductile materials normally resist
the repeated loads on machine elements better than brittle materials.
The usual measure of ductility is the percent elongation of the
material after fracture in a standard tensile test. Figure 2-3 shows a
typical standard tensile specimen before and after the test.
Before the test, gage marks are placed on the bar. usually 2.00 in
apart. Then, after the bar is broken, the two parts are fitted back
together, and the final length between the gage marks is
measured. The percent elongation is the difference between the
final length and the original length divided by the original length,
converted to a percentage.
ظرفیت یک ماده برای جذب انرژی هنگامیکه تحت شرایط بارگذاری االستیک دچار تغییر شکل می شود و آزاد
کردن این انرژی هنگامیکه بارگذاری وارده برداشته میشود.
حین تغییر شکل یک ماده در ناحیه ی االستیک ،انرژی جذب میشود .هنگامیکه عملیات باربرداری انجام
میگیرد ،این انرژی آزاد می شود resilience .یک ماده ،توانایی آن ماده برای جذب انرژی می باشد هنگامیکه
آن ماده به صورت االستیک تا نقطه ی تسلیم تغییر شکل می دهد و سپس آزاد کردن این انرژی در حین
باربرداری.
As long as the deformation is both elastic and linear the unloading path will follow
the same path as the loading and the strain energy stored in the material will
become completely recoverable. Therefore, both the above areas obtained on
loading and unloading will be equal to each other. Thus for all linear elastic
materials that follow Hooke’s law, the value of resilience in tension, UR = 1. To
distinguish among different linear elastic materials, this property is usually
measured by the modulus of resilience, which has been denoted by UMR : The
modulus of resilience in tension is defined as the elastic strain energy per unit
volume required to stress the material from zero stress to the yield point
The modulus of resilience in tension for high carbon spring steel is higher
than that of the medium carbon structural steel because of higher yield
strength of the former than the latter.
Toughness
منظور از چِقِرمِگی توانایی یک ماده در جذب انرژی و تغییر شکل پالستیک قبل
از وقوع شکست میباشد .تعریف دیگری برای چقرمگی مواد ،میزان انرژی به ازای
حجم واحدی است که ماده میتواند قبل از شکستن جذب کند.
The toughness is normally measured by the total area under the engineering
stress–strain curve from beginning to end.
Strength and toughness are related. Whereas strength indicates how
much force a material can support before breaking, toughness
indicates how much energy a material can absorb before fracture. A
material may be strong and tough if it fractures by withstanding a
high force and exhibiting high strain, but brittle materials that have
high strength (equal to its yield stress) may be strong, but not
tough, since their strain value is limited. As such, toughness means
a good combination of strength and ductility. A material having
high strength and high ductility is ideal for high toughness,
whereas a material with low strength and high ductility or one with
high stress and low ductility is inferior for applications where
toughness is a crucial structural requirement.
تنش های فشاری
بر خالف کشش ،تنش فشاری ،هنگامیکه به قطعه ی تست وارد می شود ،
منجر به کاهش طول آن می گردد .بنابراین عالمت کرنش منفی می شود.
بر خالف اثر کشش بر روی اتم ها ،در تست فشار اتم ها به سمت یکدیگر فشار
داده می شوند.
به طور کل ،استحکام فشاری مواد معموال بزرگتر از استحکام کششی آن ها می
باشد.
Usually the elastic strain in compression is
more than that in tension, and hence, the
only difference between the two elastic
curves lies in the amount of their elastic
strains.
تست فشار مواد ترد
رابطه ی تنش-کرنش مواد ترد تحت تنش فشاری تک محوره مشابه رابطه ی
تنش کرنش مواد االستیک تحت تنش کششی میباشد .شیشه ،چدن ،سرامیک،
بتن و ...از این نوع مواد می باشند.
مواد ترد در حین تست فشار استحکام بیشتری را در مقایسه با تست کشش
نشان می دهند .همچنین این مواد در تست فشار کرنش بیشتری را قبل از
شکست نشان می دهند.
Brittle materials loaded in compression typically have an initial linear region
followed by a region in which the shortening increases at a slightly higher rate
than does the load. The stress-strain curves for compression and tension often
have similar shapes, but the ultimate stresses in compression are much higher
than those in tension. Also, unlike ductile materials, which flatten out when
compressed, brittle materials actually break at the maximum load.
Engineering stress– strain diagram in tension as well as in compression for grey cast iron
تست فشار مواد
داکتیل