UNIT 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF MANAGEMENT

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson learners should be able to:

 Define management without difficulties

 Explain the nature and role of management without problems
 Explain the level of management correctly
 Define managerial skills and roles of managers clearly
 Identify and explain the elements of management easily
 Identify the main approaches to Organization structure and related theories
clearly
1.0. Definition:
Management is the process of working with and through others to achieve
organizational objectives in a changing environment by balancing efficiency and
effectiveness. It is an art of getting things done through the efforts of other people.
Central to this process is the effective and efficient use of limited resources
Five components of this definition, shown in Fig. 1.1, require closer examination:
 Working with and through others;
 Achieving organizational objectives;
 Balancing effectiveness and Efficiency;
 Making the most of limited resources; and
 Coping with a changing environment

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 Changing environment

Getting the most

out of limited
resources

Achieving
Organizational
objectives

Balancing
Working with effectiveness
and through and efficiency
others

Fig. 1.1: Key Aspects of the Management Process

1.1.Working with and through others

Management is, above all else, a social process.
Many collective purposes bring individuals together – building cars, providing emergency health
care, publishing books,
In all cases, managers are responsible for getting things done by working with and though others.
Research has shown that aspiring managers who do not interact well with others hamper their
careers and these failed managers reportedly have the following shortcomings:
 Problems with interpersonal relationships
 Failure to meet business objectives

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 Failure to build and lead a team
 Inability to change and adapt during a transition.
Significantly, the first and third shortcomings involve failure to work effectively with and
through others.
The failed managers experienced a number of interpersonal problems, among other things, they
were perceived as manipulative, abusive, untrustworthy, demeaning, over critical, not team
players, and poor communicators.
Even managers who make it all the way to the top often have interpersonal problems.
1.2. Achieving organizational objectives
 An objective is a target to be strived for and, one hopes, attained.
 Like individuals, organizations are usually more successful when their activities are
guided by challenging, yet achievable, objectives.
 Although personal objectives are typically within the reach of individual effort,
organizational objectives or goals always require collective action.
 A goal-oriented approach strives to inspire and energize employees to achieve greater
organizational success.
 Organizational objectives also serve later as measuring sticks for performance.
 Without organizational objectives, the management process, like a trip without a specific
destination, would be aimless and wasteful.
1.3. Balancing effectiveness and Efficiency
The relationship between effectiveness and efficiency is an important one, hence the need to
distinguish them.
 Effectiveness entails promptly achieving a stated objective.
 Given the reality of limited resources, effectiveness alone is not enough.
 Efficiency enters the picture when the resources required to achieve an objective are
weighed against what was actually accomplished.
 The more favourable the ratio of benefits to costs, the greater the efficiency
 When too much emphasis is placed on effectiveness, the job gets done (effectiveness) but
limited resources are wasted (efficiency).
 When too much emphasis is placed on efficiency, the job does not get done
(effectiveness) because available resources are underutilised (efficiency).

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  When there is a balanced emphasis on effectiveness and efficiency, the job gets done
(effectiveness) and limited resources are not wasted (efficiency).
 Managers are responsible for balancing effectiveness and efficiency.
 Too much emphasis in either direction leads to mismanagement.
 On one hand, managers must be effective while on the other hand they need to be
efficient by containing costs as much as possible and conserving limited resources.
 Managers who are too stingy with resources may not get the job done.
 At the heart of the quest for productivity improvement ( a favourable ratio between inputs
and output) is the constant struggle to balance effectiveness and efficiency.

1.4. Making the most of limited resources

 We live in a world of scarcity and those who are concerned with such matters worry not
only about running out of non-renewable energy and material resources but also about the
lopsided or unequal use of those resources.
 Our planet is becoming increasingly crowded while its carrying capacity is open to
speculation.
 In productive organizations, managers are the trustees of limited resources, and it is their
job to see that the basic factors of production- land, labour, and capital- are used
efficiently and effectively.

1.5. Coping with a changing environment

Successful managers are the ones who anticipate and adjust to changing circumstances rather
than being passively swept along or caught unprepared.
Employers today are hiring managers who can take unfamiliar situations in stride or decisive step
in a specific direction
The major changes for managers doing business in the 21st century is the product of five
embracing sources of change: globalization, the evolution of product quality, environmentalism,
an ethical reawakening or renewal of interest and the Internet revolution

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1.6. Levels of Management
Organizations have three levels of management and these are;

(a) Top Managers – or Executives are responsible for the overall direction and operations of the
organization. They not only select the basic aims and goals of the organization, but also
formulate the major strategies by which the organization hopes to achieve these goals. They
provide leadership essential to organizational success.

(b) Middle Managers – support the infrastructure of business firms. They play a major role in
implementing the policies of the top-management group and in making decisions that affect
business success.

(c) Line/Lower Managers – Managers at the first or lowest, managerial level of an organization
often are called supervisors or foremen. Supervisors and foremen usually manage employees
who are not themselves managers. They are primarily concerned with managing the day-to-day
operations of a section or a department of an organization.

1.7. Managerial Skills

 Conceptual Skills (Analytical Skills)

The ability to analyze complex situations and respond effectively to the challenges faced by the
organization

 Interpersonal Skills (Human Skills)

Ability to work effectively with members of one‟s workgroup as well as with other workgroups
within the organization

 Technical Skills
The ability to utilize tools, techniques and procedures that are specific to a particular field

 Decision Making Skills

The ability to make a good decision making

1.8. Management Roles by Henry Mintzberg

A manager‟s role is very crucial in an organization. The success of organization depends upon
manager‟s ability in utilizing the resources for achieving the pre-determined goals. Henry
Mintzberg suggested three areas where a manger has to work.
 Interpersonal Roles
 Informational Roles
 Decisional Roles

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1.8.1. Interpersonal Roles
Interpersonal roles of a manger are concerned with his interacting with people both inside the
organization and outsiders. There are three types of interpersonal roles:

(a)Figure Head: In figure head role manager performs activities which are ceremonial and symbolic in
nature. These include greeting the visitors attending the social functions involving employees, handing
out merit certificates and other awards to outstanding employees.

(b) Leader: Manager‟s leader role involves leading his subordinates and motivating them for willing
contributions. Manager is responsible for activities of his subordinates. He has to set an example of hard
work and dedication so that subordinates follow his directions with respect

(a) Liaison Role: In liaison role manager serves as a connecting link between his Organisation and
outsiders or between his unit and other organizational units.

1.8.2. Informational Roles

Informational role involves receiving, collecting and distributing information required. It is of
three types,
(a) Monitor: In monitoring role manager collects the information which can affect the
organizational activities by reading magazines, periodicals and reports from the departments,
talking with others to learn changes in the public‟s taste.
(b) Disseminator: In disseminator role the manager distributes the information to his
subordinates and superiors by sending circulars, holding meetings and making phone calls.
(c) Spokesperson: In spokesperson role the manager represents his organization or unit and
interacting with outsiders. These may be customer, financier, government, suppliers or other
agencies in society. It can be done by attending press conferences, meetings and by issuing
notices.
1.8.3. Decisional Roles
It is a very important role in that a Manager has to make decisions daily. In decisional role he
performs four roles,
(a) Entrepreneur: As an entrepreneur the manager assumes certain risks which can affect the
organization. He has to take decisions like expansion or diversification, initiation of new
projects, development of older procedures

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(b) Disturbance Handler: As a conflict handler he has to take care of certain disturbances in an
organization such as resolving employee disputes and strikes

(c) Resource Allocator: As a resource allocator, managers fulfill the demand of various units in
terms of human, physical and financial resouces. He tries to utilize these resources in such way
that no department suffers for their inadequacy.

(d) Negotiator: As negotiator manager has to take decisions regarding prices with suppliers and
customers. He also deals with trade unions and negotiates with them regarding working
conditions and wage fixation.

1.9. Elements of Management (Functional Approach by Henri Fayol)

Fayol regarded the elements of management as the functions of management. He said that
management should be viewed as a process consisting of five elements. Managers perform a
number of functions that enable the organization to achieve its mission or purpose in society. The
functions that managers perform in an organization include planning, organizing, commanding,
co-ordinating and controlling.
(a) Planning- Defining goals, establishing strategy, and developing plans to coordinate
activities.
(b) Organizing- Determine what task, who & how, who report to whom and where decision to
be made.
(c) Commanding- This involves giving of orders and instructions. Managers are responsible for
communicating to their employees the technical knowledge, instructions, rules and information
required to get the job done.
(d) Co-ordinating- The synchronization and integration of activities, responsibilities, and
command and control structures to ensure that the resources of an organization are used most
efficiently in pursuit of the specified objectives.
(e) Controlling- Involves comparing desired results with actual results and taking the necessary
corrective action.
Other scholars have added two more functions which include;
(f) Motivation – this involves satisfying the needs of individuals and meeting their expectations
with meaningful work and valued rewards.

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(g) Leading – Managers become inspiring leaders by serving as role models and adapting
appropriate management style in a given situation.
1.10. Evolution of Management
Evolution of modern management began in the late nineteenth century, after the industrial
revolution. Changes in the basic business processes brought changes in the relationships of the
employees to employers and to each other. The old management techniques were found to be
less and less effective. New solutions had to be found. Because of its interdisciplinary nature,
there has been a lot of explosion in the field of management. The main approaches to
organization structure and management include:
 The classical School
 The behavioral Approach
 The Systems approach
 The contingency approach
 The management science/decision making approach

1.10.1. The Classical Approaches

The classical approaches to management were developed early in the twentieth century. The
main strands of thought which make up the approach of the classical school were drawn from
scientific management, administrative management and bureaucratic management
1.10.2. Scientific Management- Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)

Taylor emphasized scientific changes in management to improve labour productivity (efficiency

and effectiveness) and developed four principles to that effect,
(a) The development of a scientific method of designing jobs to replace the old rule of thumb
methods, this involved gathering , classifying and tabulating data to arrive at the “the one best
way” to perform every task or a series of tasks through systematic study and other scientific
methods.

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 (Source: Wikipedia.org)

(b) The scientific selection and progressive teaching and development of employees which saw
the value of matching the job to the worker. He emphasized the need to study worker strengths
and weaknesses and provide training to improve employee performance
(c)The bringing together of scientifically selected employees and scientifically developed
methods for designing jobs, he believed that new and scientific methods of job design should not
merely be put before an employee but explained fully by management, he believed employees
would show little resistance to changes in methods if they understood the reasons for the changes
and saw a chance of greater earnings for themselves
(d) The division of work resulting in an interdependence between management and workers
meaning if they were truly dependent on each other, cooperation would naturally follow
However, scientific management ignored the social context and workers‟ needs, it led to
increased conflict and clashes between management and employees.
1.10.3. Benefits arising from scientific management

(a) Its rational approach to the organisation of work enabled tasks and process to be measured
with a considerable degree of accuracy
(b) Measurement of tasks and process provided useful information on which to base
improvements in working methods, plant design
(b)By improving working methods it brought enormous increases in productivity.
(c) It enabled employees to be paid by results and to take advantage of incentive payments.

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(d) It stimulated managements into adopting a more positive role in leadership at the shop-floor
level.
(e) It contributed to major improvements in physical working conditions for employees.
(f) It provided the foundations on which modern work study and other quantitative techniques
could be soundly based.
1.10.4. Drawbacks to scientific management

(a) It reduced the workers role to that of a rigid adherence to methods and procedures over which
he had no discretion.
(b) It led to the fragmentation of work on account of its emphasis on the analysis and
organisation of individual tasks or operations.
(c) It generated a „carrot-and-stick‟ approach to the motivation of employees by enabling pay to
be geared tightly to output.
(d) It put the planning and control of work place activities exclusively in the hands of the
management.
(e) It ruled out any realistic bargaining about wage rates since every job was measured, timed
and rated „scientifically‟.

1.11. Administrative Management – Henri Fayol (1841-1925)

(Source: en.wikipedia.org)

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Fayol first recognized that successful managers had to understand the basic managerial functions. Fayol
focused on the total organization rather than the individual worker. Thus defining the management
functions of planning, organizing, commanding (Leading), coordinating, and controlling and developed a
set of 14 general principles of management.
Henri Fayol, developed a set of 14 principles:
1.11.1. Division of Labor: allows for job specialization which is necessary for organizational
success. Fayol noted firms can have too much specialization leading to poor quality and worker
involvement.
1.11.2. Authority and Responsibility: Fayol included both formal and informal authority
resulting from special expertise. The right to give orders must accompany responsibility
1.11.3. Unity of Command: Employees should have only one boss.
1.11.4. Line of Authority (Scalar chain) a clear chain from top to bottom of the firm.
Subordinates should observe the formal chain of command unless expressly authorized by their
respective superiors to communicate with each other.
1.11.5 Centralization: the degree to which authority rests at the very top, between centralization
and decentralization is a matter of proportion; the optimum balance must be found for each
organization.
1.11.6. Unity of Direction: One plan of action to guide the organization.The efforts of everyone
in the organization should be coordinated and focused in the same direction.
1.11.7. Equity: Treat all employees fairly in justice and kindness leading to respect. Fairness that
results from a combination of kindliness and justice will lead to devoted and loyal service
1.11.8. Order: Each employee is put where they have the most value. Both material things and
people should be in their proper places.
1.11.9. Initiative: Encourage innovation. One of the greatest satisfactions is formulating and
carrying out a plan.
1.11.10. Discipline: obedient, applied and respectful employees are needed since obedience and
respect help an organization run smoothly.
1.11.11. Remuneration of Personnel: The payment system contributes to success, employees
should be paid fairly in accordance with their contribution.
1.11.12. Stability of Tenure: Long-term employment is important, people need time to learn
their jobs.

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1.11.13. General interest over individual interest: The organization takes precedence over the
individual. Resolving the tug of war between personal and organizational interests in favour of
the organization is one of management‟s greatest difficulties.
1.10.14. Esprit de corps: Share enthusiasm or devotion to the organization. Harmonious effort
among individuals is the key to organizational success.

1.12. Fayol Analyzed the Activities of Industrial Organizations into six groups:
 Technical (production, manufacturing and adaption)
 Commercial (buying, selling, exchange and market information)
 Financial (obtaining capital and making optimum use of available funds)
 Security (safeguarding property and persons)
 Accounting (information on the economic position, stocktaking, balance sheet, costs,
statistics)
 Managerial (this is divided into five elements – to forecast and to plan; to organize; to
command; to co-ordinate; and to control.)

1.12.1. Bureaucratic Management – Max Weber

Max Weber in 1894

(Source: en.wikipedia.org)

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Weber (1864-1920) was a social scientist with an interest in organizations. He developed the
bureaucratic model as the type of organization he felt would best serve the needs of an
increasingly urbanized and industrialized society. He focused on the overall organizational
system. Bureaucratic management is based upon the following features
 Firm rules
 Policies and procedures
 A fixed hierarchy
 A clear division of labor
He contended that the ideally rational organization was one which performed its tasks with
maximum efficiency. Such an organization would be built around a highly organized system,
with a clear, rigid structure of authority, working according to a precisely defined set of
procedures, rules and regulations.
1.12.2. The behavioural Approach

The Behavioral Approach to management developed partly because practicing managers found
that the ideas of the classical approach didn‟t lead to total efficiency and harmony at workplaces.
Managers still encountered problems because subordinates did not always behave as they were
supposed to. The Behavioral Approach is a management approach concerned with increasing
productivity by focusing on understanding the human element in an organization.
1.12.3. The human relations movement- Elton Mayo

The theory emphasized the need to relate work and the organizational structure to the social
needs of the employee. If the employees were happy, the organization would obtain their full
cooperation and effort and thus increase by deliberate efforts, the happiness of the worker.
It was believed that the key to employee productivity was finding ways to increase employee
satisfaction.
Elton Mayo and other human relations researchers found that boredom and the repetitiveness of
many tasks actually reduced motivation, while social contacts helped create and sustain
motivation. The conclusion is that managers could motivate employees by acknowledging their
social needs and by making them feel useful and important. Modern day legacies of this model
include suggestion boxes, company uniforms, and employee input in the performance evaluation
process.

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1.12.4. Systems Theory

The systems approach is based on the idea that a work organization is a system; it takes in inputs
from its environment (e.g. people, money and materials), processes them and sends outputs back
to the environment (e.g. goods and information). The organization is in fact a complex system,
because it is made up of sub-systems such as information systems; personnel systems and control
systems. The systems approach suggests that organizations can only be efficient and effective if
they adapt to the demands of the sub-systems within them and to the influences and demands of
the environment.
Systems theory involves looking at various branches of knowledge as collections of system. A
system is an assembly of parts and may be open: - Responsive to external influence. Closed- Isolated
from its environment.

1.12.5. Contingency or Situational Theory

The contingency approach grew out of the systems approach and is widely accepted today. It
says that organizations have to adapt to different influences and demands; there is no single best
way to design or run an organization. What is right for one organization is not necessary right for
another, and managers will have to analyze and respond to their own business circumstances.

This theory views a business or firm (in this Western Water and Sewerage Company) as an open
system and stresses the importance of the environment in determining how situations should be
dealt with.In other words, there is no one best way of management and the approach adopted by
managers must be contingent on the prevailing circumstances.

1.12.6. The Challenges of Management

In this complex and dynamic environment, managers must continually adjust to changing
conditions. We, therefore, conclude this overview of management practice with three concurrent
challenges that confront managers as they deal with a changing world on the doorstep of the
twenty-first century.

(a) The Need for Vision

New telecommunications technologies continue to expand our reach and speed up our
communications. In addition, the world is being reshaped, both by technologies, such as genetic
engineering, automated manufacturing, lasers, and computer chips, and by changing political
boundaries and alliances. These new technologies and new global political alignments mean that

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managers face new possibilities for forging relationships that will carry their organizations into
the future.
A vision for living through and benefiting from these changing circumstances is important to any
manager. For most of this century, for example, it was heresy to talk about joint ventures
between American and Japanese auto manufacturers. Today there are many alliances. Managers
with vision created those new relationships.

(b) The Need for Ethics.

The decisions made by managers in organizations have a broad reach both inside and outside the
organizations. Therefore, managers must be concerned with values and ethics. The study of who
is, and should be, benefited or harmed by an action is called „ethics‟. Ethics deal with both
conflicts and opportunity in human relationships. Ethics provide the glue that holds our
relationships, and the larger society, together.
(c)The Need for Responsiveness to Cultural Diversity
Education, travel, telecommunications, changing immigration policies, the end of the cold war,
and several decades of peacetime have combined to break down intercultural barriers to an extent
not seen in the past. Exciting new relationships and new possibilities are now available. Look
around your college classroom or your workplace. Look at the people in the media and the
leaders of your community and country, the change is probably obvious.
In short, managers of today‟s organizations must be prepared to deal with diversity in their
organizations and draw on the talents of all of their employees

SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE

1. Briefly explain the importance of organizations and management.

2. Define five principles of the management process.

3. Describe different categories of managers.
4. Discuss different skills that managers must have and the roles they can fill.
5. Briefly explain why managers need to be concerned with vision, ethics, cultural
diversity, and the changing workplace.
Check for solutions from the sections covered in the Unit and confirm your

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 answers

1.13.0. Organizing
Organization is the grouping of activities necessary to attain objectives, the assignment of each
grouping to a manager with authority necessary to supervise it, and the provision for
coordination horizontally and vertically in an organization‟s structure. The organizing process is
concerned with the extent to which tasks should be broken in the light of desired results.

Organizational Structure is a system of task, reporting, and authority relationships within which
the work of the organization is done. It is the formal pattern of interactions and coordination
designed by management to link the tasks of individuals and groups in achieving organizational
goals, therefore, structure defines the form and function of the organization‟s activities.
The effectiveness of an organization depends on its ability to marshal or assemble and arrange its
resources to attain its goals. Obviously, the more integrated and coordinated the work of an
organization, the more effective it will be. Achieving this coordination is part of the manager‟s
job.
1.13.1. Principles of Organizing

 Unity of objective- every part of the organization must contribute to the attainment of the
objective of the organization.
 Span of control- consideration is needed to find the number of persons an individual can
effectively manage. Six (6) is often quoted.
 Delegation- authority should be delegated as far down the level as possible.
 Unit of command- each subordinate should have one superior.

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  Scalar principle- a clear line of authority should be in existence in all parts of the
organization.
 Responsibility- This should be at par with the amount of authority given.

1.13.2. Authority, Accountability and Responsibility

 Authority is the right conferred on managers of an organization to act in a certain way

over others.
 Accountability implies that one person is accountable to another person for a given task.
 Responsibility refers to the legitimate expectation of a level of performance that a
manager has of his subordinates.

1.13.3. Types of Organizational Structures

This refers to the way an organization‟s activities are divided, grouped, and coordinated into
relationships between managers and employees. The structures are as follows:
1.13.4. Simple Structure
 It is usually found in small organizations, normally informal in nature and low in
complexity
 It has its authority centralized in a single person
 It is a very flat organization with two or three vertical levels
 It is a loose body of employees and one individual in whom the decision-making
authority is centralized.
1.13.5. Functional or Bureaucracy Structure
 It is perhaps the most logical and basic form of departmentalization
 It is used mainly by smaller firms that offer a limited line of products
 It makes efficient use of specialized resources
 This structure makes supervision easier, since each manager must be an expert in a
certain skill
 Since functional managers have to report to central headquarters, it can be difficult to get
quick decisions.
1.13.6. Product/ Market Structure
 Often referred to as organization by division

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  It brings together in one unit all those involved in the production and marketing of the
product or a related group of products (fig.12-5)
 Or all those in a certain geographical area (fig.12-6), or all those dealing with a certain
type of customer
 In each division, managers and employees design, produce, and market their own
products
 A division resembles a separate business because they may even compete with other units
in the same firm.
Refer to the charts below

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 (The above two charts are extracts from Management by Stoner, et al)

1.13.7. Matrix Structure

 It is sometimes referred to as a “multiple command system”
 It has two types of structure existing simultaneously
 Employees have in effect two bosses – i.e. they work in two chains of command
 One chain of command is functional or divisional (vertically in the preceding charts)
while the second one is a horizontal overlay that combines people from various divisions
or functional departments into a project (refer to Fig 1 below)
 As organizations have become global, many use a type of matrix form in their
international operations.
Refer to the chart below:

(Source: Management: ZICA Manual)

1.14.0. Organization Culture

1.14.1 .Definitions
The Organisational structure mentioned above is one of the factors which seem to have
stimulated interest in Organisational culture over the last two decades. Every company has its
own unique personality, just like people do. The unique personality of an organization is referred
to as its culture. In groups of people who work together, organizational culture is an invisible but

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powerful force that influences the behavior of the members of that group. So, how do we define
organizational culture?
At its broadest, culture is a coherent system of assumptions and basic values which distinguishes
one group or organisation from another and which orients its choices. To put it more formal and
using the words of Edgar Shein, organisational culture is: a pattern of basic assumptions –
invented, discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of
external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valid,
and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to these problems. Richard Seel
defines organizational culture as, „outward manifestation of organisation‟.

Lundberg offers a definition of organisational culture very similar to Shein‟s, but goes on to
distinguish four separate levels of meaning for an organisation‟s culture, artefacts, perspectives,
values and basic assumptions: we can visualize organisational culture as being structured, like an
onion, with a number of layers around an inner core. Let's explore the four elements that make
up an organization's culture.

1.14.2. Layer 1-Artefacts

In Lundberg‟s model you find artefacts at the more visible or superficial levels of culture, the
outer layer of the onion. Artefacts are tangible things shared by members of an organisation or
group, including behavioural and physical attributes like language, stories, rituals, symbols,
technology and art. This compromises the surface layer of skills and behaviours, the ways
members of the organisation behave shows the things they have learnt to do and say, for better
for worse. It includes the organization‟s visible structures, roles and material resources.
You can find out what an organisation‟s artefacts are, simply by observing them.

1.14.3. Layer 2-Perspectives

At the next level we find perspectives: the rules and norms the members of a group or
organisation develop and share socially in any given context. This is a layer of information, ideas
and beliefs, the things members of the organisation know and think. Perspectives are, if you like,
solutions to common set of problems encountered from time to time. They define situations and
prescribe the boundaries of acceptable behaviour in such situations. They are relatively concrete
and members are usually aware of them.

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We can find out what an organisation‟s perspectives are by asking its members.
1.14.4. Layer 3-Values
Organisational values are the evaluation base that members of an organisation use for judging
situations, acts, objects, standards and goals in an organisation. Though more abstract than
perspectives they can sometimes be articulated by members in such statements as organisational
mission and philosophy. These shared values have a strong influence on the people in the
organization and dictate how they dress, act, and perform their jobs. Every organization develops
and maintains a unique culture, which provides guidelines and boundaries for the behavior of the
members of the organization. In some organisations they reward creativity, risk-taking and
innovation; others value order, checking and control. Some value collaboration; others encourage
competition.
1.14.5. Layer 4-Basic Assumptions
The basic underlying assumptions are deeply embedded in the organizational culture and are
experienced as self-evident and unconscious behavior, invisible not usually stated, taken for
granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. They are the source of values and action. hin.
An organization‟s underlying assumptions grow out of values, until they become taken for
granted and drop out of awareness. Basic assumptions are difficult to discern because they exist
at unconscious level, yet they provide the key to understanding why things happen the way they
do.

The basic assumptions form around deeper dimensions of human existence such as the nature of
humans, human relationships and activity, reality and truth. These are simply basic assumptions
people make, for example, the term, ''change is good''.

1.14.6. Characteristics of Organizational Culture

Organizational culture is composed of seven characteristics that range in priority from high to
low. Every organization has a distinct value for each of these characteristics, which, when
combined, defines the organization's unique culture. Members of organizations make judgments
on the value their organization places on these characteristics, and then adjust their behavior to
match this perceived set of values. Let's examine each of these seven characteristics.

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(a) Innovation (Risk Orientation) - Companies with cultures that place a high value on
innovation encourage their employees to take risks and innovative in the performance of their
jobs. Companies with cultures that place a low value on innovation expect their employees to do
their jobs the same way that they have been trained to do them without looking for ways to
improve their performance.

(b) Attention to Detail (Precision Orientation) - This characteristic of organizational culture

dictates the degree to which employees are expected to be accurate in their work. A culture that
places a high value on attention to detail expects their employees to perform their work with
precision and a culture that places a low value on this characteristic does not.

(c ) Emphasis on Outcome (Achievement Orientation) - Companies that focus on results, but

not on how the results are achieved, place a high emphasis on this value of organizational
culture. A company that instructs its sales force to do whatever it takes to get sales orders has a
culture that places a high value on the emphasis on outcome characteristic.

(d)Emphasis on People (Fairness Orientation) - Companies that place a high value on this
characteristic of organizational culture place a great deal of importance on how their decisions
will affect the people in their organizations. For these companies, it is important to treat their
employees with respect and dignity.
(e) Teamwork (Collaboration Orientation) - Companies that organize work activities around
teams instead of individuals place a high value on this characteristic of organizational culture.
People who work for these types of companies tend to have a positive relationship with their
coworkers and managers.

(f) Aggressiveness (Competitive Orientation) - This characteristic of organizational culture

dictates whether group members are expected to be assertive or easygoing when dealing with
companies they compete with in the marketplace. Companies with an aggressive culture place a
high value on competitiveness and outperforming the competitors at all costs

(g) Stability (Rule Orientation) - A company whose culture places a high value on stability is
rule-oriented, predictable, and bureaucratic in nature. This type of company typically provides
consistent and predictable levels of output and operate best in non-changing market conditions.

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1.14.7. Culture as Emergence
According to the anthropologist Mary Douglas, culture is not a static „thing‟ but something
which everyone is constantly creating, affirming and expressing. Culture is not imposed from
outside but exposed from within; any programme which attempts to change culture in a planned
way is likely to miss the mark. When we look at the key word „emergence‟, we further define
organisation culture as the emergent result of the continuing negotiations about values, meanings
and properties between the members of that organisation and its environment.
In other words, culture is the result of all the daily conversations and negotiations between the
members of an organisation. They are continually agreeing about the „proper‟ way to do things
and how to make meanings about the events of the world around them.
1.14.8. The cultural Web
A model of culture was developed by Jerry Johnson. The paradigm (pattern of something) in the
centre is the set of core beliefs which result from the multiplicity of conversations and which
maintains the unit of the culture. The „petals‟ are the manifestations of culture which result from
influence of the paradigm.
A paradigm may further be expressed as a self-consistent set of ideas and beliefs which act as a
filter, influencing how we perceive and how we make sense out of something.
According to Capra: A paradigm is a constellation of concepts, value perceptions and practices
shared by a community, which forms a particular vision of reality that is the basis of the way a
community organises itself (997: 6)
Refer to the model below:

Stories
Rituals
and
and

Control The
Symbols
Systems Paradig
m

Organiza Power
-
tion
1.14.9. The importance of culture

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Cultural analysis offers a more rounded picture of the school or college which complements
formal documentation, organisational charts, official policy and written procedures. The culture
of an educational organisation influences the extent to which it engages in different types of
activities and is a reflection of the whole curriculum. Culture plays a large part in determining
the way the school or college is structured and the quality of relationships. Equally,
demonstrations of various elements of the school or college culture help reinforce the bonds
between the institutions and its broader educational community

1.15.0 .Delegation of Authority

1.15.1 Definition and scope
Delegation is the actual process of assigning job activities and corresponding authority to
specific individuals within an organization.
Delegation is the process whereby an individual transfers to some other individual the duty of
carrying out some particular action and at the same time, taking some particular decision.
It means, in effect, managers, entrusting some part of management to subordinates.
Delegation can therefore be stated to be a process whereby a manager:
 Assigns duties to his subordinates
 Grants them authority to make commitments to the extent thought necessary to enable
duties to be carried out
 Creates an obligation on the part of each subordinate for the satisfactory performance of
the job
 Responsibility should be clearly defined at all levels before work can be delegated.
1.15. 2. Reasons for Delegation
 Lack of time and energy
 New techniques means specialists are needed.
 Need for training for management succession.
 Delegation contributes to staff development and motivation.
 Managers are relieved of less important and less immediate duties.
 Delegation helps enrich individuals‟ jobs.

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1.15.3. Principles of delegation
A manager should ensure that the subordinate accepts and understands what is involved.
After giving an outline of the job, the control limits and desired standards, a manager should
leave his subordinate to do the job himself.
Checking should be done periodically, and the manager should be willing to listen to the ideas of
subordinates.
Authority must be given to subordinates, as a manager cannot make all decisions himself.

(a) Advantages of Delegation

 Senior managers are freed from day to day decision making so they can concentrate on
strategic issues.
 Better decisions are made because they are made by people more involved in operations;
this means that decisions can be made quickly, so giving the organization the chance to
react quickly to local changes.
 Work can be spread around, so avoiding overloads on individuals.
 Subordinate staff is motivated by the trust placed in them and the sense of ownership of
the tasks they perform.
 Skills and competence are generated in the subordinate staff and they make increasingly
complex decisions. In this case, delegation is an important part of management
development.
(b) Reasons for Manager’s reluctance to delegate

 Low confidence and trust in the abilities of subordinates- the suspicion that “if you want
it done well, you have to do it yourself”.
 The burden of responsibility and accountability for mistakes of subordinates.
 Lack of understanding of what delegation means.
 Poor control and communication systems in the organization, so the manager feels he has
to do everything himself, if he is to retain real control and responsibility for a task, and if
he wants to know what is going on.
 Unwillingness to admit that subordinates have abilities to the extent that they could
perform some of the manager‟s duties.

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(c).Degrees of delegation

As the delegation process occurs in an organization, the result is some dispersion of decision-
making authority throughout the organization. In referring to the degree of this dispersion or the
process of distributing things, two commonly used terms are centralization and decentralization.
(i) Centralization
Centralization is a condition in which an organization‟s top managers retain most decision-
making authority. Centralization of authority is characterized by authority concentrated at the top
of an organization or department.
(ii) Decentralization
Decentralization is a condition in which meaningful decision-making authority is distributed to
lower levels in the organization. Decentralization of authority is characterized by a high degree
of delegated authority throughout an organization or department.
(iii) Departmentation

Departmentation is a process of dividing an Organisation into convenient smaller units called

departments. According to Pearce and Robinson, “Departmentation is the grouping of jobs,
processes and resources into logical units to perform some organizational tasks.” The process in
which an organization is structurally divided by combining jobs in departments according to
some shared characteristics.
1.16.0. Other Factors Influencing Delegation
1.16.1. Management system
The type of management system will influence the likely extent and nature of delegation. Likert
identified four types of management systems as exploitative, authoritative, consultative and
participative group.
1.16.2. Design of organization structure
Opportunities for personal delegation will also be affected by the actual design of the
organisation structure: for example, the degree of centralisation or the span of control of
individual managers and the scalar chain (number of levels of authority within the structure).
1.16.3. Nature of Organisation structure
This is to do with whether the organization is„mechanistic‟ or „organic‟. The mechanistic system
is a more rigid structure and is characterised by specialisation, a clear hierarchical structure,

26
closely defined duties and responsibilities, and formal downward flow of information. The
organic system is a more fluid structure and is characterised by a network structure of
control, authority and communication. The nature of the organic system suggests both a greater
opportunity for delegation, and a greater willingness to delegate.

1.16.4. Flexibility of job description. Where detailed job descriptions are adopted and applied
rigidly as part of the philosophy of the organisation, this can inhibit personal delegation. Staff
may be reluctant to accept additional responsibilities which appear to fall outside the scope of
their job description.
1.16.5. Individual characteristics. The age, ability, training, attitude, motivation and character
of the subordinates concerned will, in practice, be major determinants of delegation, for example,
where an inadequate manager is supported by a more competent subordinate who effectively acts
as the manager.
1.17.0. The Art of Delegation
The art of delegation is to agree clear terms of reference with subordinates, to give them the
necessary authority and responsibility and then to monitor their performance without undue
interference. This art of delegation requires the following:
1.17.1. Reliance on people. It is important that the manager chooses the right subordinates to
delegate authority and responsibility. The manager must know what to delegate, when and to
whom. Matters of policy and disciplinary power cannot legitimately be delegated.
1.17.2. Confidence and trust. This is the basis of the true nature of delegation, but learning to
put trust in other people is one of the most difficult lessons for many managers, and some never
learn it.
1.17.3. Training and learning experience. The manager should view mistakes as part of the
subordinates training,learning experience and opportunity for further development.
1.17.4. Supervision and the Role of the Superiors
Supervision involves technical knowledge, human relations skills and coordination of work
activities. It is one of the factors which can influence the satisfaction people derive from their
work. Effective supervision is necessary for job satisfaction an high levels of work performance.
Kindly and thoughtful leader behaviour is likely to generate high worker satisfaction.
Supervisors who adopt a considerate manner towards their workers tend to have highly satisfied

27
work groups. Supervisors can be seen as having a particular concern with the directing, guiding,
and controlling performance activities of management. They need to have the required training
and skills to deal promptly and first-hand with problems of production or service, handle
difficulties or complaints diplomatically, and perhaps discipline staff.

SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE

(You are encouraged to read further as you consider the following self test questions arising from the covered unit)

1. Briefly explain the meaning of delegation and how it is applied in an Organization.

2. Describe the factors that influence delegation.

3. Discuss the art of delegation and its requirement

4. Delegation of authority is one tool used in high performing organizations. Identify and describe
some of the benefits of delegation.

5.Discuss some of the challenges that may deter a manager not delegate authority and responsibilities
to subordinates

6 Supervision is a powerful tool or factor that reinforces production. To what extent would you apply
such leadership skill in productive work places?

Unit one Summary

Thank you and congratulations for completing Unit one which covered the definition of
management, levels of management, managerial skills and roles, elements and principles of
management, evolution of management and the related theories or approaches, the challenges
that managers face, organizing and the relevant structures, organization culture and delegation of
authority

28
You might not have understood the concepts of management covered in this first unit but don‟t
worry, there is always the first time just read on and the concepts will become clear to you.
You are learning from the known to the unknown. The concepts are very friendly because they
involve you as an individual and your living wherever you. I now welcome you to the next unit
in your study of Education Management which continues exploring more concepts and ideas in
leadership and related theories and models. COME ON… LET US GO

UNIT TWO: LEADERSHIP

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson learners should be able to:
 Explain the meaning and importance of leadership in work organizations specifically
 Explain leadership as an aspect of behaviour and different styles of leadership
correctly
 Provide an understanding of the nature of managerial leadership and the exercise of
power and leadership correctly
 Evaluate the leadership theories properly
2.0. Introduction and definition

“I am more afraid of an army of 100 sheep led by a lion than an army of 100 lions led by a
sheep..” said one certain man.

Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals.
It is also the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done
and how to do it and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish
shared objectives
A manager is one who performs the functions of planning, organizing and controlling and who
occupies a formal position in an organization. A leader is anyone who is able to influence others
to pursue certain goals. It is important for individuals to be both leaders and managers.
2.1. Types of leaders

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2.1.1. Charismatic leadership
Gains influence mainly from strength of personality e g. Napoleon, Churchill and others. The
difficulty with this type of leadership is that few people possess the exceptional qualities required
to transform all those that are around them into willing followers
2.1.2. Traditional leadership
The position is assured by birth e.g. kings, queens and tribal chiefs. The authority is based on the
belief that the ruler had a natural right to rule. This right is either God given or by descent and
traditional
2.1.3. Situational leadership
The influence can only be effective by being in the right place and at the right time. This is an
approach to determining the most effective style of influencing.
2.1.4. Appointed Leadership
Leadership that influences others by virtue of their position and influence arises directly out of
his position. This is the bureaucratic type of leadership where legitimate power springs from the
nature and scope of the position within the hierarchy.
2.1.5. Functional Leadership
A leader secures leadership position by what they do rather than by what they are. In other words
functional leaders adapt their behavior to meet the competing needs of the situation
2.1.6. Principle centered Leadership
Influence is by moral and ethical principles involving consideration of equity, justice, integrity,
honesty and trust
2.2. 0.Types of power
Power is the ability of individuals or groups to persuade, induce or coerce others into following
certain courses of action. Power is a measure of a person‟s potential to get others do what he
wants them to do
2.2.1. Reward power: The capacity to provide rewards which can either be positive or negative
to an Organization. The power rewards to those who comply with a command or request. The
target of this power must also value these rewards. Management‟s reward power can be
strengthened by linking pay raises, merit pay and promotions to job performance.

2.2.3. Coercive power: (The capacity to punish) this is rooted in fear and is based on threatened
or actual punishment. The person with coercive power has the ability to inflict punishment or

30
aversive consequences on the other person or, at least, to make threats that the other person
believes will result in punishment or undesirable outcomes

2.2.4. Legitimate power: Person‟s position in the Organizational hierarchy. This power source
stems from the internalised values of the other persons that give the legitimate right to the agent
to influence them.

This power is achieved when a person‟s superior position alone prompts another person to act in
a desired manner. This type of power closely parallels formal authority. the others feel they have
the obligation to accept this power. However, legitimate power is unlike reward and coercive
power in that it does not depend on the relationships with others but on the position or role that
the person holds.

2.2.5. Expert power: This refers to the skill, expertise and knowledge an individual possesses.
Those who posses and can dispense valued information generally exercise this power over those
in need of such information. This is based on the extent to which others attribute knowledge and
expertise on the power seeker. All the sources of power depend on the target‟s perceptions but
expert power may be even more dependent on this than the other. In particular, the target must
perceive the agent to be credible, trustworthy and relevant before expert power is granted.

2.2.6. Referent power: The personal characteristics of an individual that make other people
want to associate with the person. An individual has referent power over those who identify with
him if they comply on that basis alone. This type of power comes from the desire on the part of
the other persons to identify with the agent wielding or maintaining power, regardless of the
outcomes.

The others grant the person power because he is attractive and has desirable resources or
personal characteristics. Charisma is a term often used in conjunction with referent power.

Advertisers take advantage of this type of power when they use celebrities to do testimonial
advertising.

2.3.0. Trait Theory

Trait Theory considers personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders
from non-leaders. Example:- Mahatma Gandhi, Steve Jobs, Abraham Lincoln. This theory
stressed what the leader was like rather than what the leader. The traits approach assumes that

31
leaders are born and not made. Leadership consists of certain inherited characteristics, or
personality traits which distinguish leaders from followers, attention is focused on the person in
the job and not the job itself
Earlier it was thought that leaders were born with inherent physiological and personality traits
like:
 Commitment
 Height/Weight
 Intelligence
 Emotional stability
 Ambition and energy
 The desire to lead
 Honest and integrity
 Self-confidence
 High self-monitoring
 Job-relevant knowledge
Assumptions:
Leaders are born, not made.
People who make good leaders have the right combination of traits.

2.3.1. Behavioral Theories of Leadership

Behavioral theories proposed that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from non-readers.
Behavioral theories of leadership focus on the study of specific behaviors of a leader. For
behavioral theorists, a leader‟s behavior is the best predictor of his leadership influences.
 Assumptions
i. Leaders can be made, rather than are born.
ii. Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior.

2.3.2. Styles of Leadership

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and
motivating people.
There are three major leadership styles:
 Autocratic or authoritarian
 Participative or democratic

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  Delegative or laissez-fair
(a) Autocratic or Authoritarian
 The authoritarian leader makes decisions alone as power is centralized in one person.
 Decisions are enforced using rewards and the fear of punishment. It is an abusive style
called “bossing people around”.
 High degree of dependency on the leader and creates de-motivation and alienation of
staff.
 Under this the individual is very conscious of his position,
 He has little trust and faith in the members of the group
 The leader believes pay is a just a reward for working hard and the only reward that will
motivate employees
 Orders are issued to be carried out, with no questions allowed and no explanation given
(b) Participative or democratic
 The participative leader includes one or more employees in the decision making process.
 Leader maintains the decision making authority.
 Communication flow freely and suggestions are made in both directions.
 It provides mutual benefit of consultation decisions are finalized where criticism and
praise are given objectively
(c) Delegative or Laissez- fair
 The leader gives power to subordinates to make the decisions
 He has no confidence in his leadership ability and does not set goals for the group,
however, a leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made.
 Leader sets priorities of the tasks and relies on good teamwork.

2.3. 3.The Managerial Grid

Perhaps the most widely known of all leadership theories is the managerial grid developed by
researchers in Michigan. The Michigan studies looked at the differences between high producing
and low-producing groups to see if they could identify any differences in leadership behaviour.

What they found was that supervisors in high-producing groups were employee centered in their
approach to their work targets, whereas supervisors in low-producing groups were production

33
centered. Some supervisors adopted characteristics of both extremes, and the resulting model of
leadership styles was presented as a continuation of alternatives.
Blake and Mouton created a grid depicting five major leadership styles representing the degree
of concern the leader has for “people, and “production

Using this matrix, Blake and Mouton identified five key positions on the managerial grid
are as follows:
Grid 1,1 Impoverished: this is where the leader exerts a minimum effort to accomplish
the work;
Grid 9,1 Task. The leader concentrates on task efficiency but shows little
concern for the development and morale of subordinates;
Grid1,9 Country Club. The leader focuses on being supportive and considerate of
subordinates to the exclusion of concern for task efficiency;

Grid 5,5 Middle of the road. The leader maintains adequate task efficiency and satisfactory
morale;

Grid 9,9 Team. The leader facilitates task efficiency and high morale for coordinating and
integrating work-related activities.

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Following the studies, Blake and Mouton concluded that managers perform best when using
Grid 9,9 style. The approach did not answer the question of what makes a good leader but
merely a framework concept for leadership style.

2.3.4. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory/ model and work situation

In the study of leadership, it became very clear that predicting leadership success involved
something more complex than isolating a few traits or preferable behaviours. The failure
to obtain consistent results led to a new focus on situational influences. Various studies in
contingency theory were undertaken. The foremost proponent of the theory was Fred
Fiedler. The Fiedler Contingency model assumed that effective groups depend on a proper
match between a leader's style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the
situation gives control and influence to the leader
Fiedler developed the least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire, which purports to
measure whether a person is task or relationship oriented. He isolated three situational criteria
namely leader-member relations, task structure and position power. He believed that these
criteria could be manipulated to create the proper match with the behavioural orientation of
the leader.
Leader-member relations: The degree of confidence, trust and respect subordinates
have in their leader.

Task Structure: The degree to which the job assignments are procedurised or structured or
unstructured.
Position Power: The degree of influence a leader has over power variables ` such as hiring,
firing, discipline, promotions and salary increases.

NB
The Fiedler Contingency Model was created in the mid-1960s by Fred Fiedler. The model states
that there is no one best style of leadership. Instead, a leader's effectiveness is based on the
situation. To imply that a manager should be employee- oriented rather than production –
oriented (Michigan studies) or that the manager should exhibit concern for both production and
people (Blake and Mouton) does not say much about what the manager should do in particular
circumstances

35
2.3.5. Path- goal theory- Robert House

The essence of the theory is that it is the leader‟s job to help his or her followers attain their goals
and to provide the necessary direction and support to ensure that their goals are compatible with
the overall objectives of the organization. It gets its name from the idea that if an employee sees
high productivity as a path that leads to one or more personal goals the employee will tend to be
a high producer, and the leader‟s job is to help the employee move along the path to his or her
goals satisfaction
2.3.6. Leaders’ Attitudes
Douglas McGregor developed two attitude profiles or assumptions about the basic nature of
people. These attitudes were termed Theory X and Theory Y. Many leaders either subscribe to
assumptions of theory X or theory Y
2.3.7. Theory X
The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible and
because of their dislike of work most people must be coerced, controlled, directed or threatened
with punishment to get them put forth adequate effort towards the achievement of Organizational
objectives
2.3.8. Theory Y
 The expenditure of physical and mental effort at work is as natural as play or rest
 External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about
effort toward organizational objectives. Workers will exercise self control and self
direction in the service of objectives to which they are committed
 Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement
 The average human being learns under proper conditions not only to accept but to seek
responsibility
 The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity
in the solution of organizational problems is widely not narrowly distributed in the
population
 Under the condition of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average
human being are only partially utilized

2.4.0. Contemporary issues in Leadership

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2.4.1. Emotional Leadership

In recent studies, emotional intelligence (EI) has been found to be a more accurate
predictor of who would become a leader more than IQ or expertise. The person's IQ and
technical skills are threshold capabilities, which are necessary skills but not sufficient
requirements for leadership. It is the possession of the five components of emotional
intelligence namely: self-awareness, self- management, self-motivation, empathy and social
skills that allow an individual to be a star performer.

Without El, a person may have outstanding training; a highly analytical mind; a long-term
vision and an endless supply of terrific ideas but still not make a great leader. Great leaders
demonstrate their El by exhibiting all the five of the key components:

 Self-Awareness: Exhibited by self-confidence, realistic self-assessment and a self-

depreciating sense of humour.
 Self-Management: Exhibited by trustworthiness and integrity, comfort with ambiguity
and openness to change.
 Self-Motivation: exhibited by a strong drive to achieve, optimism and high
Organizational commitment.
 Empathy: Exhibited by expertise in building and retaining talent, cross cultural
sensitivity and service to clients and customers.
 Social Skills: Exhibited by the ability to lead change efforts persuasiveness and expertise
in building and leading teams. Recent studies suggest that El is an essential element in
leadership effectiveness.
2.4.2 .Team Leadership
Leadership is increasingly taking place within a team context. As teams grow in
popularity, the role of the leader in guiding team members takes on heightened
importance. Team leadership does not come naturally to individuals but could be learnt.
The role of team leaders included coaching, facilitating, handling disciplinary problems,
reviewing team/individual performance, training and communication. These roles tend to be
generic for all leaders. However, team leaders focus on two priorities namely managing the
team's external boundary and facilitating the team process. These two priorities are further

37
divided into four specific roles.
 Team leaders are liaisons with external constituencies, other internal teams, customers
and suppliers
 Team leaders are trouble-shooters as they resolve problems faced by teams.
Such problems are not technical in nature as the members have more expertise than their
leaders.
 Team leaders are conflict managers. When conflict arise, team leaders process
the conflict by way of knowing what is the source of conflict, who is involved,
what are the options?
 Team leaders are coaches who clarify expectations and roles, teach, offer
Support and do anything else that would make members improve their work
performance.

2.4.3 Moral leadership

Leadership and ethics has received little attention in the study of leadership. The drive is
influenced by the growing interest in ethics throughout the field of management. The other
reasons could be attributable to the shortcomings of some of the great leaders of our time
like Bill Clinton, John F. Kennedy, and Frederick Chiluba. Ethics touch on leadership at a
number of junctures. Change managers for instance have fostered moral virtue when they
try to change the attitudes and behaviour of followers. Unethical leaders are more likely to
use charisma to enhance their power over their followers, directed towards self-serving ends.

Ethical leaders are considered to use their charisma in a socially constructive way to serve
others. Leadership effectiveness needs to address the means that a leader uses in trying to
achieve goals as well as the content of those goals. Are the changes that the leader seeks for
the organization morally acceptable? Is the leader effective if he/she builds an
organisation's success by selling products that damage the health of its users? Is a military
leader successful by winning a war that should not have been fought in the first place like US
President George W Bush in Iraq? Leadership is not value free. Before we judge any leader
to be effective, we should consider both the means used by the leader to achieve his/her
goals and the moral content of these goals

38
 Use the materials in the sections where the study areas / questions are coming from

SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE

1. Explain the key ideas of the trait approach to leadership
2. Discuss and evaluate the behaviour approach to leadership
4. What are the two basic leadership styles identified by the University of Michigan studies?
5. Which style was thought to be more effective?
6. Briefly explain the following contemporary issues in leadership:
a)Moral leadership
b)Team leadership
6 Great leaders demonstrate their emotional intelligence by exhibiting the five key components.
Describe the five components of EI.

Unit two Summary

You are great my friend look at the way you have understood unit two in details as you covered
leadership definition, types of leaders, types of power, the trait theory, behavioural theories of
leadership, styles of leadership, managerial grid showing the leadership styles, contingency
theories, path goal theory, leaders‟ attitudes, contemporary issues in leadership fantastic!!. If you
are still facing challenges in following the management concepts particularly in leadership, don‟t
despair because you are a leader yourself and you are on the right road map to becoming a
qualified leader and manager. Are you not? Look out for unit three covering Organizational
change

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 UNIT THREE : ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
3.0. Meaning and reasons for Organizational change

Learning outcomes:

At the end of the lesson SSBAT:

 Define Organizational change without difficulties

 Explain the meaning of Organizational change correctly
 Explain behaviour modification without problems
 Identify and explain the elements resistance to change clearly
 Identify the main reasons for individuals to resist change and related issues clearly

3.1. Introduction
Change has a pervasive influence in the organisation. We are all subject to continual change in
one form or another. Change may be defined as doing or making things differently.

3.1.1. The forces of change

An organisation will only perform effectively through interactions with the broader external
forces to which, it is part of. The structure and its operations reflect the nature of the
environment in which it is operating. Factors that may make the environment volatile include:
 Uncertain economic conditions;
 Globalisation and fierce world competition;
 The level of government intervention;
 Political interests;

40
  Scarcity of natural resources;
 Rapid developments in new technology and the information age;
 Increased demands for quality and high levels of customer service and satisfaction;
 Greater flexibility in the structure of work organisations and patterns of management;
 The changing nature and composition of the workforce; and
 Conflict from within the organisation.

To survive and ensure future success, organisations should be responsive to the challenges that
the change agents present. It should be readily adaptable to the demands of the environment.
Change is an inescapable part of both social and organisational life.

3.1.2. Types of change

Change may be simultaneous or it may be planned. Simultaneous change is generally unplanned

or evolutionary or even revolutionary where the external environment compels the organisation
to go into the change mode for instance due to the change in technology, change in the
composition of people
There are four types of change in organisations, namely; process, system, structural, and
organisation change.

(a) Process: This is the ordered set of activities used to generate the outputs of an organizations
It is a collection of activities that take one or more kinds of input and create an output that is of
value to the customer.
(b) System: when most people in organisations speak of systems they are referring to sets of
procedures, which are being facilitated by networked computers; so much so that Information
Technology systems are now the first kind most managers will call to mind. There are also
Human Resource systems; reward and recognition; recruitment and retention; appraisal and
development.
(c) Structures: These are the outward forms of organisations. Although structure will always
emerge, in modern organisations it is usually imposed from outside. A conscious decision is

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made: perhaps to move from a hierarchy to a matrix; or from functional divisions to process-
focussed work teams

(d) Organisation: This includes relationships, pattern and company creating. The outward
manifestation of organisation is what is often known as culture.

3.1.3. Understanding Organizational change

Here are four principles for understanding organisational change:
(a)Organisations are organisms. They are not mechanisms which can be taken apart and
reassembled differently as required. They can be changed but the change must be approached
carefully. They must be given time to understand the change proposals and to „digest‟ the
changes after they have been made.

(b)All the members of an organisation operate simultaneously in all three systems namely, the
rational, the occupational and the political.
(c) Change is most likely to be acceptable and effective in those people or departments who are
basically successfully in their tasks but who are experiencing tension or failure in some particular
part of their work. The unsuccessful are also likely to understand and accept change. They will
attempt to protect themselves by their rigidity.

(d) Every reaction to change proposal must be interpreted not only in terms of the rational
arguments of what is the best for the institution but also reactions must always be understood in
relation to the occupational system, and the political system.

These principles are very important in designing a change process, in deciding where to start
and what methods to use. For effective change to take place, therefore, a manager must anticipate
the need for change so that time is available, and manage the process

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3.1.4. Managing Planned Change

Planned change is largely influenced by the need to respond to the new challenges or
opportunities in the external environment or anticipated changes in the future that would affect
the organisation negatively, if nothing is done.

 Every manager needs a clear understanding of how to manage change effectively.

Organisational change is managed effectively when:
 The organization is moved from its current state to some planned future state that will
exist after the change.
 The functioning of the organization in the future state meet people‟s expectations; that is
the change works as planned.
 The transition is accomplished without excessive cost to the organization.
 The transition is accomplished without excessive cost to the employees in the
organisation.
3.1.5. Other issues that may ignite change
 General sense that the organisation could perform better;
 The need to improve organisational flexibility, quality or to develop new customer
concern;
 A sense that skills and abilities of people are under-utilised or concerns about a lack of
commitment from employees;
 The need to introduce changes in technology or working practices;
 Workers feeling over-controlled by supervision or the process or jobs seen as being
boring;
 Concerns about ineffective communications or poor performance indicators;
 Fractious relationship between managers and the managed.
3.1.6. Behaviour Modifications
The process of implementing planned change involves three stages in modification of behaviour
as follows:

(a) Unfreezing- This involves reducing those forces, which maintain behaviour in its present
form, recognition of the need for change and the improvement to occur. This may emphasise the

43
weakness of the current system, reducing profitability, loss of market share, hence the need to
change. It includes initial problem identification and obtaining data

(b) Movement - Introduce the desired change through the development of the new attitudes or
behaviours and the implementation of change. This is the stage when top management markets
the benefits of change. It includes problem diagnosis, action planning and implementation,
follow up and stabilisation and assessment of consequences

(c) Refreezing - this is the stabilisation of change at the new level and reinforcement through
supporting mechanisms for instance policies, structure or norms. It includes learning from the
process

Significance of behaviour modification approaches

(i) Don‟t only think about the change, think through it.
It is not enough to think out what the change will be and calculate the benefit of it.
By „thinking through‟ is means the need to consider consciously and systematically what the
change will mean for all the parties involved, or what they will see as their costs and benefits.
(ii) Initiate change through informal discussion to get feedback and participation

No one person or group can hope to foresee correctly all the ramifications (possible outcomes) of
a real change in policy, structure, procedures or products. So it is important to get discussions
leading to get feedback to enable the manager evaluate the proposal fully from all points of view
(iii)Positively encourage those concerned to give their objections

People who have a change pushed on them without account being taken of their objections
inevitably lose confidence in their abilities and this leads to rigidity. Flexibility is encouraged by
people seeing that they can contribute and make an impact.
Secondly, any current situation is the resultant of a balance of forces. If the forces pressing for
change are increased, the forces resisting change do not go away even if they are not brought
into the open. It is important to ensure that the resisting forces are identified and dealt with in
their own right.
(iv)Be prepared to change yourself

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Modern managers cannot afford the luxury of believing that „change is for other people‟, since
a manager who proposes to initiate change joins in the process and must be prepared to change.
Never fall in love with your own idea. It may be good, but it could well be improved. Note also
that change may be „bottom up‟ as well as „top down‟ change does not have to be initiated from
above. A very good way of obtaining ideas for improvement is to carry out a survey of
subordinates‟ views.
(v) Monitor the change and reinforce it

When the change has been carried out, check after a suitable time to see if it is working
well and giving the benefits that were argued. If it does not, minor modifications will be in
order. If the change is working well and the benefits can be demonstrated for example, improved
efficiency, higher turnover, and more satisfaction. This is important as it gives reinforcement to
those involved and for others helps set up an organisational climate in which change can be seen
to be beneficial.

3.1.7. Actions to secure effective Change

John Kotter and Dan Cohen have listed eight steps for successful large-scale change.
(a) Create a sense of urgency among relevant people.
(b) Build a guiding team with credibility, skill connections, reputations and formal authority to
provide change leadership.
(c) Create visions, which are sensible, clear and uplifting and sets of strategies.
(d) Communicate the vision and strategy in order to induce understanding and commitment.
(e) Empower action and remove obstacles that stop people acting on the vision.
(f) Produce short-term wins that help to provide credibility, resources and momentum to the
overall effort.
(g) Do not let up but maintain the momentum, consolidate early changes and create wave after
wave of change.
(h) Make change stick by nurturing a new culture and developing group norms of behaviour
and shared visions.
3.2.0. Factors for Organizational Change or change Agents

When trying to introduce change, the change agents have four options to consider, namely
Organisational structure, technology, physical setting and moving people around

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Each of the options is discussed below:
3.2.1. Changing structure
Organisational structures are not cast in concrete and may change with changing conditions.
Organisational structure may be defined as how tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated. It
may involve making an alteration in authority relations, coordination mechanisms, job design or similar
structural variables. There may be movement to flatter and less bureaucratic structures or more rules and
procedures may be implemented. A new structure may be introduced such as a matrix or team based
structure or divisional structure.

3.2.2. Changing technology

Changing technology encompasses modifications in the way work is processed and in the methods and
equipment used. Under scientific management time and motion studies, there was a great focus on
increasingly production efficiency. The modern studies of change influenced by technology usually
involve the introduction of new equipment, tools, methods, automation or computerisation.

Competitive forces or innovations within an industry often compel change agents to introduce new
technology. In the recent years the computerisation and changes in telecommunications have been the
major drivers of change in industry.

3.2.3. Changing physical setting

The layout of workspace should never be a random activity. Work demands, formal interaction
requirements and social needs shall have a big influence in space configuration, interior design and
equipment placement. For instance in accounts departments you do not normally put up wall
partitions, in banks, many walls are being dropped and lighting may be manipulated. This does
not normally lead to fundamental change but improves work attitudes.

3.2.4. Changing people

Change the attitudes and behaviours of employees through the process of communication,
decision-making and problem solving. Through organisational development a number of
interventions can be designed to change people, the nature and quality of work relationships

3.3.0. Resistance to change

People must be motivated to change, but often they resist change. Many people settle for
mediocrity rather than aspire to be of world class status. To successfully implement positive

46
change, it is important to understand why people often resist change.

3.3.1. General reasons for people resistance to change

Several reasons for resistance to change arise regardless of the actual content of the change.

3.3.2. Timing: People often resist change because of poor timing. If managers and employees
are usually or under stress, or if relations between management and employees are strained the
timing is wrong for introducing new proposals. Where possible introduce change when people
are receptive.
3.3.3. Inertia: Usually people do not want to disturb the status quo. The old ways of doing
things are comfortable and easy, so people do not want to shake things up and try something
new.

3.3.4. Surprise: One key aspect of timing and receptivity is surprise. If the change is sudden,
unexpected or extreme, resistance may be the initial almost reflective reaction.

3.3.5. Peer Pressure: Sometimes work teams resist new ideas. Even if individual members do
not strongly oppose a change suggested by management, the team may band together in
opposition. If a group is highly cohesive and has anti-management norms, peer pressure will
cause the individuals to resist even reasonable changes.

3.3.6. Specific Reasons for change resistance

Other causes of resistance arise from the specific nature of a proposed change. Change specific
reasons for resistance stem from what people perceive as the personal consequences of the
change.

3.3.7. Self interest: Most people care less about the organisation‟s best interest than they do
about their own best interests. They will resist change if they think it will cause them to lose
something of value.

3.3.8. Misunderstanding: Even when management proposes a change that will benefit
everyone, people may resist because they do not fully understand its purpose.
3.3.9. Different assessments: Employees receive different and usually less information than
what management receive. Even within the top management ranks, some executives know more
than others. Such discrepancies cause people to develop different assessments of proposed

47
changes. Some may be aware that the benefits far outweigh the costs, while others may see only
the costs and not perceive the advantages.
Resistance to change is a coping strategy adopted by individuals and organisations to change that
was not anticipated. Resistance to change is a common place at both organisational and
individual levels. Resistance to change takes various forms and most times difficult to pinpoint
the reasons for it.
Some of the common reasons for individual resistance to change include the following:

3.3.10. Selective perception: This is a biased view of change and is subject to an individual
person's interpretation of change.

3.3.11. Habit: People respond to situations in an established and accustomed manner. Habits
may serve as a means of comfort and security and as a guide for easy decision-making. Any
attempts at changes to strong habits, such change will be resisted.

3.3.12. Inconvenience or loss of Freedom: Should change be perceived to have a potential

effect of making life more difficult, reduce freedom of action or result in increased control, there
will be resistance to change.

3.3.13. Economic implications: When change is perceived to lead to a reduction either directly
or indirectly in their pay or other benefits, employees are likely to resist change.
3.3.14. Security in the past: Many people find a sense of security in the past and when they
face difficulties or unfamiliar situations people always look back into the past. Many times
people want to retain their old and comfortable ways. Any change which threatens to disturb the
old order tends to be resisted.

3.3.15. Fear of the unknown: Some people fear the proposed change because they do not know
the possible implications at a personal level. Many changes to work organisation present a
degree of uncertainty for instance, change in structure or technology or method of working raises
a lot of un-answered questions.

48
Many organizations tend to prefer operating in an environment they feel comfortable, thus
operating within the structures, policies and procedures meant to deal with present situations.
The common modes of organisational resistance to change may take any of the following forms:
3.3.16. Organisational culture: especially a strong culture developed over a long period of
time. Any change would not be easy.
3.3.17. Maintaining stability: Many organisations resist change for want of continuity with
stability and predictability. The more mechanistic or bureaucratic an organisation is, the less
likelihood that the organisation will be responsive to change.
3.3.18. Investment in Resources or expertise: Change tends to require significant amount of
resources, which may be invested in fixed and moveable assets. The more specific the
investment in assets the more difficult for the organisation to invest in the proposed change
3.3.19. Past contracts or agreements: These may limit change in behaviour for instance,
companies operating under license, cannot easily change.
3.3.20. Threats to power or influence: Change may threaten the power base or influence of
certain groups within the organisation, such as control over decisions, resources or information.
3.4.0. Overcoming resistance to Change

Most managers underestimate the variety of ways they can influence people during a period of
change. Several effective approaches of managing resistance and enlisting cooperation are
available. Change agents have used six tactics with varying degrees of success namely:
3.4.1. Education and training: Communication with employees to help them understand the
rationale of change reduces resistance to change. It is assumed that the source of resistance to
change may be due to misinformation.
3.4.2. Participation: When people participate in the change process, they are unlikely to resist
their proposed change.
3.4.3. Facilitation and support: A range of supportive efforts to reduce resistance can be made.
When employees fear with high anxieties employee counselling and therapy, new skills training
or short-term leave can be provided to facilitate adjustment.
3.4.4. Negotiation: Change may be negotiated where change is exchanged for something of
value it lessens resistance especially when resistance comes from a powerful source
3.4.5. Manipulation: Manipulation refers to covert influence attempts thus twisting and
distorting facts to make them appear more attractive and withholding undesirable information

49
and create false rumours to get employees to accept a change. Whereas it is a form of both
manipulation and participation, this is where leaders of resistance are bought-off by giving them
a key role in the change decision, before any decision is made the resistance leader's opinion is
sought.
3.4.6. Coercion. That is the application of direct threats or force upon the resisters. Examples
include threats of transfer, loss of promotion and negative evaluations and poor letters of
recommendation.

3.4.7. Politics of Change

Since change will always threaten the status quo, it is inherently political. Top management will
tend to have risen to their positions of authority by developing skills and behavioural patterns
that were favoured by the organisation. Change is likely to be a threat to those skills and patterns
and make others in the organisation to rise in power.
Politics suggests that the impetus for change is more likely to come from outside change agents,
employees who are new in the organisation or those with less vested interests in the status quo
Many employees who have worked for one organisation and risen through the ranks will be the
major impediments to change. Change threatens the status quo and positions in the organisation.

The power struggles in the organisation will determine to a large extent the speed and quantity of

chan ge. Many Boards will look outside the organisation for leadership in the
change process.

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 Use the sections covered in the unit to answer and be honest in trying before checking
the sections

SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE

1. Kurt Lewin (1951) came up with the three-stage approach in overcoming
resistance to change. Can you Identify the stages?
2. Discuss the significance of the three-stage approach in overcoming resistance to
change
3. Besides the three-stage approach, describe the other six tactics employed to
overcome any resistance to change in organizations
4. Kahn (1974) says, “to change an organization means changing the pattern of
recurring behaviour”. State at least four areas that could undergo change in an
organization.
5. State the six rules for managing change effectively.

Unit three Summary

Once again congratulation for making it to the third unit successfully, by now you should be
aware that change is inevitable wherever you are. The only thing that does not change is change
itself. You covered the reasons for organizational change, the meaning of organizational change,
behavior modification in relation to change, elements of resistance to change, the main reasons
for individuals to resist change and change agents, now you are welcome to the fourth unit which
focuses on Motivation theory in an Organization. Let us join hands and continue the journey

UNIT FOUR: MOTIVATION

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 Learning Outcomes

After completing this unit, the learner should be able to:

 Explain the meaning and underlying concept of motivation clearly
 Explain the various types of need and expectations of people at work correctly
 Define and explain the theory of motivation without difficulties
 Identify the complex nature of work motivation and rewards specifically
 Explain career development in relation to motivation properly
 Explain job design and re-design correctly

4.0. Theories of Motivation

4.1. Introduction
The relationship between the organisation and its members is influenced by what motivates
them to work, the reward system and the fulfilment they derive from it. The manager or
supervisor needs to know how best to elicit the cooperation of staff and direct their
performance to achieving the goals and objectives of the organisation. The manager must
understand the nature of human behaviour and how best to motivate staff so that they work
willingly and effectively. In summary, the study of motivation is concerned basically with
why people behave in a certain way

Motivation may be defined as the direction and persistence of action. It is concerned with
why people choose a particular course of action in preference to others and why they continue
with a chosen action, often over a long period, and in the face of difficulties and problems.

4.2. Process of Motivation

Four common characteristics of motivation theories are as follows:

4.2.1. Motivation is typified as an individual phenomenon, as each person is unique.

4.2.2 Motivation is described, usually as intentional as it is under the worker's control.

4.2.3. Motivation is multifaceted as it revolves around what makes a person

activated or aroused and the force of an individual to engage in desired behaviour.

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 4.2.4. The purpose of motivational theories is to predict behaviour thus the internal
and external factors that influence a person's choice of action.

The underlying concept of motivation is some driving force within individuals by which
they attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfil some need or expectation. The basic
motivation model is as given below.

4.3.0. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs model

Maslow's basic assumption was that people are wanting beings, they always want more and
what they want depends on what they already have. He suggested that human needs are
arranged in some form of levels, a hierarchy of importance. He identified the hierarchy to
range through to five levels from the lowest level namely physiological needs, through safety
needs, love needs, esteem needs to the need for self actualisation at the highest level.

The hierarchy of needs are usually shown in a pyramid,, which reduce as one goes to higher
level needs as follows.

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4.3.1. Physiological Needs. These include needs for satisfaction of hunger and thirst, need for
sleep, sensory pleasures, activities, material behaviour and sex desire.
4.3.2. Safety Needs. These include safety and security, freedom from pain or threat of
physical attack, protection from danger or deprivation and the need for comfort and peace,
orderliness and clean surroundings ,
4.3.3. Love or Social Needs. These include needs for affection, sense of belonging, social
activities, friendship, and giving and receiving of love.
4.3.4. Esteem or Ego Needs. These include self-respect and esteem of others. Self respect
involves the desire for confidence, strength, independence and freedom and achievement.
Esteem of others means reputation or prestige, status, recognition, attention and appreciation.
4.3.5. Self-Actualisation Needs. This is the development and realisation of one's full potential.
Maslow regards this as what humans can be, they must be, becoming everything that one is
capable of becoming.
Once a lower level need is satisfied, it no longer acts as a strong motivator but the higher
level need becomes the motivator and therefore a satisfied need is no longer a motivator.

4.3.5. Evaluation of Maslow's theory

Maslow based his theory on the assumption that once lower level needs are satisfied, giving
more of the same does not provide motivation. However there were some problems or
weaknesses in applying the theory to work situations.

4.3.1 People do not necessarily satisfy their needs especially higher-level needs, just through
the work situations but other areas.

4.3.2 There is doubt about the time which lapses between the satisfaction of a lower level
need and the emergence of a higher level need.

4.3.3 Individual differences mean that people place different values on the same need.

4.3.4. Some rewards or outcomes at work satisfy more than one need, e.g. salary or promotion.

4.3.5. Even for people within the same level of hierarchy, motivating factors will not be the
same.

4.3.6. Maslow viewed satisfaction as the main motivational behaviour but job satisfaction
does not necessarily lead to improved work performance

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4.4.0. Hertzberg’s Two – factor theory

Hertzberg carried out interviews with 203 accountants and engineers from different
industries. Using critical incident methods, he asked respondents to indicate when they felt
exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about their jobs or previous jobs. They were
requested to give reasons for either condition. The findings revealed two different sets of
factors affecting motivation. The two-factor model of Hertzberg was born from these
interviews namely motivators and hygiene factors.

4.4.1. Hygiene or Maintenance factors

These factors are related to the job context, or job environment. They serve to prevent
Dissatisfaction but do not lead to motivation. These factors are necessary to avoid
unpleasantness.

4.4.2. Motivators or Growth factors. These are factors that create a feeling of satisfaction but
not dissatisfaction. The motivators relate to what people are allowed to do and the quality of
human experience at work.

Hertzberg's work or the motivation-hygiene theory extended Maslow's hierarchy of needs

theory and is more directly applicable to the work situations:

4.4.3. Personality Attitudes

Through experience and learning, people acquire beliefs and attitudes, which influence
their behaviours towards work. A belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds
about something such as the value of work and work processes.

Attitudes describe a person's enduring favourable or unfavourable cognitive evaluations,

emotional feelings and action tendencies towards some object or idea. The beliefs and
attitudes are personality factors that have a bearing towards one's attitude to work.

Each person has distinct personality that will influence his or her work ethic and motivations
towards work, essentially, what intrinsically motivates an individual to carry out work
assignments willingly

Personality is the person's distinguishing characteristics that lead to consistent and

enduring responses to his or her environment, personally is usually described in terms of traits

55
such as self-confidence, dominance, autonomy, deference, sociability, defensiveness, and
adaptability or rigidity

4.4.4 Achievement motivation theory or Personal achievement needs

McClelland's work on achievement motivation theory started from investigations into the
relationship between hunger needs and the extent to which imagery of food dominated
thought processes. McClelland identified four main arousal-based and socially developed
motives:

(a)The Achievement motive

(b) The Power motive
(c ) The Affiliative motive
(d) The Avoidance motive
The first three motives were roughly equivalent to Maslow's self-actualisation esteem andd love
needs. The relative intensity of these motives varies with individuals and different occupations.
Managers in general tend to be higher in achievement motivation than in Affiliative
motivation. He saw the achievement motivation as the most critical for the country's
economic growth and success, which is linked to the entrepreneurial spirit.
The extent of the achievement motivation varies between individuals. Some think of
achievement as a lot more than others. Some rate highly in achievement motivation and
are challenged by opportunities and work hard to achieve a goal. McClelland suggests four
steps in attempting to develop achievement drive.
(a) Striving to attain feedback on performance
(b) Developing models of achievement by seeking to emulate people who have performed
well.
(c ) Attempting to modify their image and to see them, as needing challenges and success.
(d) Controlling daydreaming and thinking about themselves in more positive terms.

4.4.5. Goal Theory and management by Objectives

The goal theory or goal setting theory is based on the work of Locke. The basic premise of the
goal theory is that people's goals or intentions play an important part in the determining of
behaviour. People strive to achieve goals in order to satisfy their emotions and desires. Goals

56
guide people's responses and actions. Goals direct work behaviour and performance and lead
to certain consequences or feedback. Locke viewed goal setting as a motivational technique
rather than a formal theory of motivation.
4.5.0 Implications of goal setting

4.5.1 Specific performance goals should systematically be identified and set in order to direct
behaviour and maintain motivation.

4.5.2 Goals should be set at a challenging but realistic level. Difficult goals lead to higher
motivation.

4.5.3. Complete, accurate and timely feedback and knowledge of results is usually
associated with high performance
4.5.4. Goals can be determined either by a superior or by individuals themselves
Participation in goal setting tends to be acceptable by all.

Goal setting is generally associated with Management by Objectives (MBO). MBO is an

application of goal setting and performance. MBO is a system or style of management,
which attempts to link organisational goals to individual performance and development
through the participation of all levels of management. The underlying basis of the MBO is:

(a) The setting of objectives and targets

(b) Participation of individual managers in agreeing to unit objectives and criteria of
performance
(c ) The continual review and appraisal of results
4. 6.0. Career Development
Career development is sometimes regarded as a form or a way of motivating people at work
for increased 'productivity'. The socialisation period has been found to have a marked effect
on the performance and work related values. Training opportunities are vital for personal
development and career success. Career development has been found to be one of the
practices that help retain staff.

In career development, it is important that organisations build processes to ensure mutuality

with employees. Processes include provision of information, negotiation with staff,

57
monitoring and renegotiating and/or exiting. The critical success factors for career development
identified include the following:

4.6.1. It must embody a transparent process owned by managers

4.6.2. It must be a process that can evolve through time with existing Human Resources
systems
4.6.3. It must comprise a system based on full information about people's career
expectations and about the needs of the organisation
4.6.4. There must be a measurement of standards to show whether the system works
4.6.5. There must be clear communication about the development processes and
responsibilities to all employees and provision for all employees of relevant and full
information about career paths
4.6.6. There must be support for employees in planning their development
4. 6.7 Job design and re-design
The need to understand the dimensions of job satisfaction and work performance has led to
increasing interest in job design. The nature of the organisation and the design of jobs can
have a significant effect on satisfaction of staff and the level of organisational
performance. Some of the writers associated with the job design include Hertzberg on his
two-factor model of motivation.
Job design is concerned with the relationship between workers and the nature and content of the
jobs, and their task junctions. The process of restructuring the job when found to be
dissatisfying was carried out in the following three methods, namely job rotation, job
enlargement and job enrichment.

4.6.8. Job rotation is the most common form of individual job redesign. It involves the
moving of a person from one job or task to another aimed at adding some variety and help
remove boredom at least in the short term. This is more pronounced where the jobs are
similar and routine. Employees within the medium term would find the new job boring
again.

4.6.9. Job enlargement involves increasing the scope of the job and the range of tasks that a
person carries out. It may be achieved by combining a number of related operations at the
same level. Job enlargement is horizontal job redesign; it makes a job structurally bigger.

58
It lengthens the time cycle of operations and may offer greater variety. Not always popular
with workers as it may not improve a person's intrinsic satisfaction or sense of achievement.
Workers would see this as increasing the number of routine and boring tasks.
4.6.10. Job Enrichment is an extension of the more basic job rotation and job enlargement
methods of job design. This method attempts to enrich the job by incorporating motivating or
growth factors such as increased responsibility and involvement, opportunities for
advancement and the sense of achievement. Job enrichment involves vertical job
enlargement. - It aims to give the person greater autonomy and authority over the planning,
execution and control of their own work. This is sometimes referred to as empowerment.
Main factors to take into account to achieve job enrichment include:
(a) Permitting workers greater freedom and control over scheduling and pacing of their work as
opposed to machine pacing
(b) Allowing workers to undertake full task cycle to achieve a complete service
(c) Providing workers with tasks or jobs which challenge their abilities and make fuller use of
their training, expertise and skills
(d) Giving workers greater freedom to work in self managing teams with greater
responsibility for monitoring their own performance and minimum of direct supervision
(e) Providing workers with the opportunity to have greater direct contact with clients,
consumers or users of the product or service.

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 Self Evaluation Exercise Possible solutions given at the end for
confirmation of your answers

1. Define Motivation
2. Explain why managers have been so interested in motivation.
3. Explain the basic assumptions of motivation processes in organizations
4. Differentiate among three contemporary motivation theories
5. Career development is sometimes regarded as a form or a way of motivating people at
work for increased „productivity‟. Outline some of the critical success factors for career
development:
6. The need to understand the dimensions of job satisfaction and good performance on the
job have led to increasing interest in job design. Discuss the three major methods that can
be used to make the job attractive to the incumbent.

Unit four Summary

You are a lovely learner and thank you for your perseverance in completing this unit successfully
and with confidence. In your study of this unit you covered the definition of motivation, the
process of motivation, Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs theory and its evaluation, Hertzberg‟s two
factor theory, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (personality attitudes), achievement motivation,
goal theory, Management by Objectives (MBO), Career development, job design and re-design,
job rotation, enlargement and enrichment. Look out for Module two in due course

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 Sample solutions to Self Evaluation Exercise

You might not have gotten all the answers correct but if you wrote something like the following,
then you are on the right road map. You can also refer to the sections within the unit that talk
about areas covered in the questions

1. Motivation is a human psychological characteristic. It includes the factors that cause,

channel, and sustain human behaviour. Motivation deals with “what makes people tick.”
The managerial process of motivating uses knowledge of motivation in an attempt to
influence employees.
2. Motivation has been a longstanding interest of managers. From the turn-of-the-century
days of Frederick Taylor until now, managers have linked motivation-most often,
employees‟ motivation-to the achievement of organizational goals
3. Motivation is customarily believed to be a good thing that is fleeting and in short supply
in organizations. Modern management practice and research point to motivation as a key
factor that managers can incorporate into the work relationships that they create and
oversee.
4. Differentiate
Motivation theories differ in what they emphasize and the predictions they make. Need
theory and equity theory deal with people‟s satisfactions and dissatisfactions.
Reinforcement theory deals with how the consequences of a specific behaviour affect its
repetition. Goal-setting theory focuses on the process of setting goals and how the goals
themselves affect motivation, and so on.

5. Critical factors for career development:

(a) It must embody a transparent process owned by managers;
(b) It must be a process that can evolve through time with existing human
resources systems;
(c ) It must comprise a system based on full information about people's Career
expectations and about the needs of the organisation;
(d) There must be a measurement of standards to show whether the

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 System works;
c) There must be clear communication about the development processes and
responsibilities to all employees and provision for all employees of
relevant and full information about career paths; and
d) There must be support for employees in planning their development

6. Three major methods that can be used to make the job attractive
a) Job rotation is the most common form of individual job redesign. It involves
the moving of a person from one job or task to another aimed at adding some
variety and help remove boredom at least in the short term. This is more
pronounced where the jobs are similar and routine.
b) Job enlargement involves increasing the scope of the job and the range of
tasks that a person carries out. It may be achieved by combining a number of
related operations at the same level. Job enlargement is horizontal job
redesign; it makes a job structurally bigger. It lengthens the time cycle of
operations and may offer greater variety. Not always popular with workers as it
may not improve a person's intrinsic satisfaction or sense of achievement.
Workers would see this as increasing the number of routine and boring tasks.
c) Job Enrichment is an extension of the more basic job rotation and job
enlargement methods of job design. This method attempts to enrich the
job by incorporating motivating or growth factors such as increased
responsibility and involvement, opportunities for advancement and the
sense of achievement. Job enrichment involves vertical job
enlargement. - It aims to give the person greater autonomy and authority
over the planning, execution and control of their own work. This is
sometimes referred to as empowerment

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REFERENCES

The above learning materials extracted and used in this module came from in most cases
prescribed text books and ownership is in the acknowledgement of those who wrote the learning
materials used as follows:

Armstrong M (1988) Personnel Management Practice, 3rd edition, London: Kogan Page

Boddy, D (2011) Management: An Introduction, 5th edition, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited

Cole G. (2004) Management Theory and Practice, 6th edition, London: Thomson Learning

Freeman E. A, Gilbert, D. R and Stoner, J. A. F (2006) Management, 6th edition, New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited

Rue/ Byars(2009) Management skills and application 13th edition: McGraw-Hill/ Irwin, New
York , United States

ZICA Manual (2007) Management. Lusaka: ZICA

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