Handouts Curriculum&instructions IP3

HANDOUTS
Induction Program for Teachers (Phase III) 4
HANDOUTS
Handout 1.1
What is a Curriculum?
Educators define curriculum indifferent ways such as:
Curriculum is what is taught in school.
 Curriculum is a set of subjects.
 Curriculum is content.
 Curriculum is a set of educational materials/performance objectives.
 Curriculum is that which is taught both inside and outside the school and directed by the
school.
 Curriculum is that which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.
 Curriculum is everything that is planned by school stakeholders.
 Curriculum is a set of both curricular and co-curricular activities
To define a curriculum as ‘what is taught in schools’ is of course, very vague. Persons often talk
about ‘school curriculum’ in this general way and they tend to mean by this the range of
subjects taught and the amount of instruction time given to each, mean in terms of hours or
minutes.
A curriculum defined as ‘content’, namely the ‘syllabus’. A ‘syllabus’ is usually a summary
statement about the content to be taught in course or unit, often linked to an examination. It is
typically a list of content areas. This emphasis on what content to be taught is a critical element
of a syllabus but a curriculum includes more than this.
Characterizing curriculum as ‘subject matter‘ is the most traditional image of curriculum which
depicts it as the combining of subject matter to form a body of content to be taught. Such
content is the product of accumulated wisdom, particularly acquired through the traditional
academic disciplines. You will discover that most of the teachers when asked to describe their
school’s curriculum they provide a series instead of a litany of subjects or subject matter taught
to students.
Defining a curriculum as a ‘set of performance objectives’ or student learning is a very practical
orientation of curriculum. This approach focuses upon specific skills or knowledge that should
be attained by learners.
5 Induction Program for Teachers (Phase III)
To define a curriculum as ‘which is taught both inside and outside school, directed by the
school’ indicates that all kinds of activities that occur in the classroom, playground and
community, comprise the curriculum. This emphasis has merit in that it demonstrates that
school learning is not just confined to the classroom. However, you will realize that it seems to
indicate that the only important learning experiences are those which are directed by school
personnel.
To define a curriculum in terms of ‘what an individual learner experiences as a result of
schooling’, thisemphasizes upon the student as a self-motivated learner.
The definition which refers to a curriculum as ‘everything that is planned by school personnel’
which emphasizes the planning aspect of curriculum.
The term curriculum is derived from the Latin word currere, which means to run or torun the
course. Based on this origin, some authorities have defined curriculum as a course of study of
subject matter. This definition has been found limiting and many authorities have modified it.
The following are some of the definitions of curriculum that you will find very useful by
renowned scholars in curriculum studies and education.
National Curriculum 2006 defines the term Curriculum as “A prescribed course of study to be
covered in a specific timeframe.”
From the definitions above, one can drive that a curriculum has the following characteristics:
• It comprises the experiences of children for which the school is responsible.
• It has content.
• It is planned.
• It is a series of courses to be taken by students.
Bringing all these points together, the curriculum is viewed as a composite whole including the
learner, the teacher, teaching and learning methodologies, anticipated and unanticipated
experiences, outputs and outcomes possible within a learning institution.
Scholars define curriculum as:
Ralph Tyler (1949): -All the learning of students which is planned by and directed by the school
to attain its educational goals.
Taba (1962): -A plan for learning.
D. K. Wheeler (1978): -‘The planned experiences offered to the learner under the guidance of
the school.’
E. Eisner (1985): -A course, or a classroom can be conceived of as a series of planned events

that are intended to have educational consequences for one or more students.
G. Saylor (1981): -A plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be
educated.’
Oluoch (1982): -All that is planned to enable the students acquire and develop the desired
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
M. Skilbeck (1984): -The learning experiences of students, in so far as they are expressed or
anticipated in goals and objectives, plans and designs for learning and the implementation of
these plans and designs in school environments.
J. Wiles & J. Bondi (1989): -A goal or set of values, which are activated through a development
process culminating in classroom experiences for student.
M. Print (1993): -All the planned learning opportunities offered to learners by the educational
institution and the experiences learners encounter when the curriculum in implemented.
Handout 1.2
The Need for a Curriculum (Video Transcript)
Why do we need a curriculum? This is an important question that it has been raised for a long
time. And there are five different reasons being given mainly for the need of a curriculum.
1. Human Capital Development:
The first one is the need for human capital development. Human capital development for a
country or for a society is so important because it ensures the necessary workforce needed to
mobilize the country.
2. Social Reconstruction:
The second reason is social reconstruction. We always want to reform our society, make it
better again and again over the period of time, and at this point, I would like to recall what
DuBois said about social reconstruction. He asserts that, "Schools should work to shape the
experiences of the young, so that instead of reproducing current habits, better habits shall be
formed and thus the future adult society be an improvement on their own." So this is another
major reason, used all the time for curriculum planning and development.
3. Cultural Reproduction:
The third reason why we need a curriculum is very much based on the cultural reproduction
aspect. That is the transmission of existing cultural values and norms from generation to
generation and continuing the cultural experience and sustaining it across time. There are so
many good values that human beings have, for example, like tolerance or respecting the adults
and sharing and caring. All these values need to be continued. So a school curriculum, for
example, a subject like Civics and Citizenship education helps to sustain these kinds of values.
4. Cultural Diversity:
The next reason why we need a curriculum, especially in this age, is for cultural diversity. What
does that mean? We see more and more of multi-cultural society around the world and we
want people to learn to live together in a harmonious way. A school curriculum can definitely
help students learn the different ways of living together, adjusting, helping, and working
together.
5. Self-Actualization:
The final one, the reason for why we need a curriculum is self-actualization. This is very much
individual based. Each child, each student has so much potential to offer. So this curriculum will
help them realize their own potential, know what they have within themselves.
The next question comes, whose purpose does it serve?
The curriculum is for whom now?
Is it for the government, the society, employers, the school inspectors, school managers,
teachers, children or parents? You may want to think about these different groups of people
and see in your context the curriculum that you have serves whose purpose. There are many
stakeholders in the curriculum. Here you can see the list given to you.
1. There's the Federal government
2. We have Ministry of Education
3. The society
4. Institutions
5. Industries
6. Communities,
7. Parents, and
8. Students.
You can see, in the next list on your right-hand side, you will see the different interests and
needs for these each groups here. Look at each point and see to what extent this is true in your
context.
1) Federal government on national and human resource planning and development, up to
students and self-actualization, see how it gets played out in your context.
2) We are looking at schools and curriculum now. Schools are varied and large in number
and how does this curriculum help in these schools?
There are four important aspects of curriculum. As listed down in the slide, look at it for
a few moments and see to what extent this is true in your system. Is it true that
curriculum provides a source for common standards? Does curriculum influence quality
of schooling, school activities and teaching and learning process? Does curriculum make
way for public examinations? Does curriculum make human resource planning possible
nationally? Think about this and maybe during the pair and share time, you may want to
think deeper about this issue. In addition to the benefits mentioned earlier, there are
also other benefits of a common curriculum. Again, there are five important benefits
listed down here, and see whether these applies in your country or in your school. Now
we have come to the section on think, pair and share and here in group or with a peer of
yours or a colleague of yours, ask questions such as, do we need a curriculum? What
answers would you give to students who ask that question? What answers would you
give to parents? What would you see as the main purpose of a curriculum as a teacher?
Think about these four questions and discuss with your friends. Thank you very much. I
shall see you in the next lecture.
Reference:
Foundations of Teaching for Learning: Curriculum by Commonwealth Education Trust
https://www.coursera.org/lecture/teacher-curriculum/lecture-2-the-need-for-curriculum-
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Handout 1.3
Purpose for Curriculum Design
 Teachers design each curriculum with specific educational purposes in mind, the ultimate
goal/purpose is to improve student learning in the school.
 Instruction component of the curriculum providing for the interaction between teacher,
students & contents.
 These includes:
o Teaching methods
o Learning activities
 Curriculum is the heart of the students’ school experience
Following points show the purpose of designing a school curriculum:
1. A curriculum is important in an educational system. It helps one to plan the educational
process or procedure in a school for a given period of time (a term, session, lesson
period etc). As the saying goes, if you fail to plan then you plan to fail.
2. Curriculum consists of continuous chain of activities needed to translate educational
goals into concrete activities, materials & observable change in behavior. A lesson plan
for example is a curriculum, used by the teacher in the classroom.
3. Now, imagine a teacher going into the classroom not knowing what to teach or how to
teach it, that is going to be a difficult situation for her/him because at the end the
students wouldn’t have learnt anything apart from the fact that the teachers seems
confused & the teacher would be mentally stressed because of lack of lesson planning.
4. Hence for a school to achieve its education goals, it needs a curriculum that is functional
& relevant to its needs.
Handout 1.4
Scope of Curriculum
Curriculum designers must consider a curriculum breadth and depth of content—that is, its
scope. In Basic Principles of Curriculum Instruction, Ralph Tyler referred to scope as consisting
of all the content, topics, learning experiences, and organizing threads comprising the
educational plan. John Goodland and ZhixinSu reiterated this definition, pointing out that it
refers to the curriculum’s horizontal organization. Scope includes all the types of educational
experiences created to engage students in learning. It includes both cognitive and affective
learning (and, some might add, spiritual learning).Sometimes a curriculum’s scope is limited to
a simple listing of key topics and activities.
A curriculum’s full scope can extend over a year or more. A curriculum whose scope covers only
months or weeks is usually organized in units. Units are divided into lesson plans, which usually
organize the information and activities into periods of hours or minutes. When teachers and
other educators are deciding on curriculum content and its degree of detail, they are
considering the curriculum’s scope. In many ways, the current knowledge explosion has made
dealing with scope almost overwhelming. Also, student diversity places increasing demands on
teachers regarding which content and activities to include. Some teachers respond to content
overload by ignoring certain content areas or excluding new content topics.
Others attempt to interrelate certain topics to create curriculum themes. When considering
scope, we must consider learning’s cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. (We might
add the moral or spiritual domain.) We must determine what will be covered and in what detail
within each domain. We must decide also which domain should be the most emphasized.
Traditionally, the cognitive domain, drawing on the realm of knowledge, has been most
emphasized. At the secondary level of schooling, we frequently draw on disciplines of
knowledge and their main concepts to determine the curriculum’s scope. However, the
affective domain (dealing with values and attitudes) and the psychomotor domain (dealing with
motor skills and coordination) are receiving growing attention.
In brief we can say:
 Scope refers to the breadth of the curriculum content, learning experience & activities
to be included in the curriculum.
 The scope can be arrived at by answering the following questions.
 What do young people need in order to succeed in the society?
 What are the needs of the locality, society, national &international?

 What are the essentials of the discipline?
Hunkins, F. P., & Ornstein, A. C. (2016). Pg 184. Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and
issues. Pearson Education.
Handout 1.5
National Curriculum 2006
Tell them to open Handout 1.5 National Curriculum 2006 Document and skim through the
entire curriculum document. Open curriculum 2006 in their tabs and read its scope.
Handout 1.6
The Four Major Philosophies
The four major philosophies have influenced education, particularly western education, viz:
idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. The first two philosophies are traditional; the
last two are contemporary.
Idealism
Plato is often credited with formulating Idealist philosophy, one of the oldest that exists.
Heavily influenced by Plato and Augustine, U.S. idealists agree that the highest aim is the search
for truth and enduring values.
Truth can be found through reasoning, intuition, and religious revelation. To idealists, learning
is a primarily intellectual process that involves recalling and working with ideas; education is
properly concerned with conceptual matters. The idealist educator prefers a curriculum that
relates ideas and concepts to one another. The curriculum is hierarchical; it constitutes
humankind’s cultural heritage and is based on learned disciplines, as exemplified by the liberal
arts curriculum. At the top of the hierarchy are the most abstract subjects: philosophy and
theology. Mathematics, too, is important because it cultivates abstract thinking. History and
literature rank high because they offer moral and cultural models. Language is also important
because it enables communication and conceptual thought. Lower on the curricular ladder are
the sciences, which deal with particular cause-and-effect relationships.
Realism
Aristotle is often linked to the development of realism, another traditional school of thought.
Realists view the world in terms of objects and matter. People can come to know the world
through their senses and their reason. Everything is derived from nature and is subject to its
laws. Human behavior is rational when it conforms to nature’s laws and when it is governed by
physical and social laws. Aristotle believed that everything had a purpose and that humans’
purpose is to think.
For Aristotle, and later Aquinas, the universe is ordered; things happen for a purpose, and
education should illuminate purpose. Aristotle encourages people to live a rational life of
moderation, to strive for the “golden mean,” a compromise between extremes. Like idealists,
realists stress a curriculum comprising separate content areas, such as history and zoology. Also
like idealists, realists rank the most general and abstract subjects at the top of the curricular
hierarchy. Lessons that cultivate logic and abstract thought are stressed. The three R’s (Reading,
Writing and Arithmetic) are basic to education. Whereas idealists consider the classics ideal
subject matter because they convey enduring moral truths, realists value the sciences as much
as the arts.
Pragmatism
In contrast to the traditional philosophies, pragmatism (also referred to as experimentalism) is
based on change, process, and relativity. Whereas idealism and realism emphasize subject
matter, pragmatism construes knowledge as a process in which reality is constantly changing.
Learning occurs as the person engages in problem solving, which is transferable to a wide
variety of subjects and situations. Both the learner and the learner’s environment are
constantly changing.
Pragmatists reject the idea of unchanging and universal truths. The only guides that people
have when they interact with their social world or environment are established generalizations,
assertions subject to further research and verification.
To pragmatists, teaching should focus on critical thinking. Teaching is more exploratory than
explanatory. The method is more important than the subject matter. The ideal teaching
method is concerned not so much with teaching the learner what to think as with teaching the
learner to critically think. Questions such as “Why?” “How come?” and “What if?” are much
more important than “What?” “Who?” or “When?” Scientific developments around 1900
fostered pragmatic philosophy. Society increasingly accepted scientific explanations for
phenomena.
Mathematician Charles Peirce and psychologist William James developed the principles of
pragmatism, which:
1) Rejected the dogmas of preconceived truths and eternal values, and
2) Promoted testing and verifying ideas. Truth no longer was absolute or universal.
The great educational pragmatist was Dewey, who viewed education as a process for improving
the human condition. Dewey saw schools as specialized environments within the larger social
environment. Ideally, curriculum was based on a child’s experiences and interests and prepared
the child for life’s affairs. The subject matter was interdisciplinary. Dewey emphasized problem
solving and the scientific method.
Existentialism
Whereas pragmatism is mainly a U.S. philosophy that evolved just prior to 1900, existentialismis
mainly a European philosophy that originated earlier but became popular after World War II.
In U.S. education, Maxine Greene, George Kneller, and Van Cleve Morris are well-known
existentialists who stress individualism and personal self-fulfillment.
According to existentialist philosophy, people continually make choices and thereby define
themselves. We are what we choose to be; in doing so, we make our own essence, or self-
identity. Hence, the essence we create is a product of our choices; this varies, of course, among
individuals.
Existentialists advocate that students be free to choose how and what they study. Critics argue
that such free choice would be too unsystematic and laissez-faire, especially at the elementary
school level. Existentialists believe that the most important knowledge is knowledge of the
human condition. Education should develop consciousness of choices and their significance.
Existentialists reject the imposition of group norms, authority, and established order. They
recognize few standards, customs, or opinions as indisputable. Some critics (mainly
traditionalists or conservatives) claim that existentialism has limited application to schools
because education in our society—and in most other modern societies—involves
institutionalized learning and socialization, which require group instruction, restrictions on
individuals’ behavior, and bureaucratic organization. Schooling is a process that limits students’
freedom and is based on adult authority and generally accepted behavior and beliefs. As
students, most of us follow rules; as teachers, most of us enforce rules. The individual
existentialist, exerting his or her will and choice, will encounter difficulty in school—and other
formal organizations.
An existentialist curriculum consists of experiences and subjects that lend themselves to
individual freedom and choice. For example, the arts are stressed because they cultivate self-
expression and portray the human condition and situations involving choices. Teachers and
students discuss their lives and choices. In particular, literature, drama, filmmaking, music, and
art reflect self-expressive activities and illustrate emotions, feelings, and insights—all conducive
to existentialist thinking
Handout 1.7
Overview of Major Philosophies
HANDOUTS
Handout 2.1
Defining Learning
Shuell (in Barry & King, 1998 p.18) defines learning in the following way: "Learning is an
enduring change in behaviour, which results from practice or other forms of experience."
This definition can be illustrated through the example of learning to drive a car. In learning to
drive, our capacity to do so starts quite early in that if we live in a city, or large town, we learn
about road rules and being a pedestrian. We watch others drive and learn about the mechanics
of driving. This knowledge cannot be demonstrated until we reach the legal age for learning to
drive. Once we have reached the legal age, the process of getting a license begins and we must
learn the rules of the road in order to pass a driving test. We must also acquire the skill of
driving that is, demonstrating competence at the wheel of a car. When the driving test has
been successfully completed, it can then be said that we have learnt to drive.
Learning has clearly taken place when there has been a change in behaviour from non-driver to
driver. This change has been the result of experience, and with continuing practice, will last for
some time. Learning to drive was made possible through new and previous learning and skills
that were developed, extended and applied in new ways.
Can you think of any other example? Please explain.

Handout 2.2
Learning Cone
Handout 2.3
Major theories of learning
Psychology is concerned with the question of how people learn, and curriculum specialists ask
how psychology can contribute to the design and delivery of curriculum.
How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What impact does the school culture
have on students’ learning? What is the optimal level of student participation in learning the
curriculum’s various contents?
Historically, the major theories of learning have been classified into three groups:
(1) Behaviorist or association theories

(2) Cognitive information-processing theories.
(3) Phenomenological and Humanist theories.
When behaviorist theories are discussed separately, learning tends to focus on conditioning,
modifying, or shaping behavior through reinforcement and rewards. When cognitive
information-processing theories are stressed, the learning process focuses on the student’s
developmental stages and multiple forms of intelligence as well as problem solving, critical
thinking, and creativity. The phenomenological aspects of learning deal with the learner’s
needs, attitudes, and feelings and entail more alternatives in learning.
Handout 2.3(A)
Behaviourist Theory
(A) B.F Skinner.
Theorists in this group are also referred to in some books as associationists. Behavioural
psychology originated at Harvard University. B. F. Skinner is considered to be the leading
behaviourist. Basic to behaviourism are two key premises:
• Learning results in a change of behaviour.
• Both learning and behaviour are modified by environmental conditions.
Through an experiment that was designed to study the behaviour of animals, Skinner was able
to conclude that reinforcement is an important variable in the desire to continue to learn. A rat
enclosed in a box was rewarded with a food pellet each time it pressed the correct bar. Initially,
the bar pressing was by accident, but later, the bar was pressed more regularly.
(B) Pavlov
Another behaviourist, Pavlov, came up with an interesting theory while working with dogs.
Dogs were given food after a bell was rung. Later, the bell was rung, and no food was brought.
However, the dogs started to salivate. They had been conditioned to know that the food and
the bell were related. This is called operant conditioning, resulting in an operant behaviour,
that of salivating.
Do our children not stand when we walk into a classroom without telling them to do so?
Don’t children who receive praise usually strive to produce good work?
Applications of Behavioural Theories in the Classroom
A wide range of behaviors can be used when applying behavioral theories in the classroom.
These suggestions have meaning for behaviorist teaching and learning situations.
1. Consider that behavior is the result of particular conditions; alter conditions to achieve
the desired behavior.
1. Use reinforcement and rewards to strengthen the behavior you wish to encourage.
2. Consider extinction or forgetting of undesirable behaviors by reducing their frequency.
3. Reduce undesirable behaviors as follows:
a. Withhold reinforcement or ignore the behavior.
b. Call attention to rewards that will follow the desired behavior.
c. Take away a privilege or resort to punishment.
4. When students are learning factual material, provide frequent feedback; for abstract or
complex material, provide delayed feedback.
5. Provide practice, drill, and review exercises; monitor learners’ progress.
6. Consider workbooks, programmed materials, and computer programs that rely on
sequenced approaches.
7. When students struggle with uninteresting material, use special reinforcers and rewards
to motivate them:
a. Select a variety of reinforcers students enjoy (toys, gum, baseball cards).
b. Establish a contract for work to be performed to earn a particular reward or grade.
c. Provide frequent, immediate rewards.
8. Make use of observational learning:
i. Select the most appropriate model.
ii. Model the behavior clearly and accurately.
iii. Insist that learners attend to what is being modeled.
iv. Provide praise when the desired behavior is exhibited.
v. Have the learner practice the observed behavior.
vi. Provide corrective feedback during practice.
vii. Repeat demonstrations when necessary.
viii. Reinforce desired behaviors.
ix. Model behavior in similar settings in which learners will use the new skills.
9. Assess changes in learning and behavior:
a. Diagnose learning problems.
b. Establish levels of competency or mastery.
c. Provide feedback.
d. Integrate old tasks or skills with new ones.
e. Reteach when necessary.
Handout 2.3 (B)

Cognitivist Theory
In this theory, Jean Piaget, who is frequently considered to be a developmental psychologist,
addresses how children think and how that thinking changes with the age of the child. The
behaviour change is viewed from a cognitive developmental point of view (Combs et al., 1981).
Learning occurs when there is a change of cognitive structures within the brain.
As argued by Combs et al. (1981: 308), Piaget’s theories have both instructional and learning
implications.
Definition of Cognitive Development
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, third edition, defines cognitive as an
“adjective related to the process of knowing, understanding and learning”. The same dictionary
defines development as “gradual growth”. Therefore, in the context of this module, cognitive
development will relate to the growth of the mind in terms of its ability to learn and
understand the environment.
Assumptions Basic to Piaget’s Theory
Below are the basic assumptions that underlie Piaget’s work.
 From infancy, the child voluntarily explores the environment. This is done by watching,
touching and listening. Through these processes the child adapts to the environment.
This assumption is technically referred to as adaptation (Bee, 1989).
 The second assumption is the result of the breakdown of the adaptation process into
sub-processes: assimilation, accommodation and equilibration.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Now that you have learned the assumptions that Piaget made about the development of the
child’s mind, let us look at the stages that he proposed a child’s mind passes through.
By now, you may have realised that Piaget is a cognitive psychologist. As asserted by Yelon and
Weinstein (1977: 42), “Piaget’s theory itself is clearly structured and not difficult to
understand.” The stages are stated below in point form in order to aid your comprehension.
• The sensory-motor stage (birth to 2 years)
• The pre-operational stage (2 to 6 years)
• The concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)
• The formal operational stage (12 years and over)
Applications of Piaget’s Cognitive Theory in the Classroom

How relevant is Piaget’s theory to you as a teacher? Many educators believe that Piaget’s ideas
are applicable to children and teaching in the classroom. His theory helps to explain why
learners are able to do one activity at certain ages, but not at a younger age. This section
explores some of the possible applications of his theory. What is presented in this section of the
module, as in other sections, is not in any way exhaustive. You will need to add your own ideas
to the list below.
• You need to establish the developmental level of your children from the onset in order
to know the area of emphasis in your teaching. For example, you need to know if your
children are below or above the concrete observational stage and whether they can
deal with abstractions. With this knowledge, you are better able to design activities for
them.
• Children who are in the concrete operational stage will need tangible objects to
manipulate. The objects will help them to understand concepts faster.
• Be conscious of the fact that both the language of children and their thought processes
are not as fully developed as those of adults. Therefore, provide simple explanations
and illustrative materials in your lessons.
• You need to build on the experiences children already have. Your instructions should be
logically sequenced. As you deliver your lessons, start from the known and go to the
unknown.
• Test understanding throughout your lesson by asking questions. Wrong answers should
be used as clues to the level of thinking the child is capable of. Be careful not to rush
children from one stage of development to the next by trying to accelerate their
cognitive development. Nevertheless, children who out of their own curiosity are fast
developers should not be discouraged.
• Social interaction should be encouraged because this type of activity helps children to
overcome egocentrism. Learning from their peers enhances the comprehension of
concepts. Children need to become pro-active; they should not be passive.
Handout 2.3 (C)

Phenomenological and Humanist Theory of Learning
The study of immediate experiences as one’s reality is called phenomenology and is influenced
by, and perhaps even based on, an existentialist philosophy. Most phenomenological ideas
derive from clinical settings; nevertheless, educators are becoming aware that they have
implications for the classroom. Phenomenologists point out that the way we look at ourselves is
basic for understanding our behavior. Our self-concept determines what we do, even to what
extent we learn. If people think they are dull or stupid, that self-concept influences their
cognitive performance.
According to Yelon and Weinstein (1977), the humanist theory of learning views learning as a
function of the whole body. Humanist learning involves the mind and the emotions of the
human being.
The learner should be motivated from within him- or herself. This is what is technically referred
to as intrinsic motivation.
We cannot conclude this section before looking at what Carl Rogers in Dembo (1981: 356) says
about human beings in relation to learning:
• Human change in self-organization – in the perception of oneself – is threatening and tends to
be resisted.
• Learning which is threatening to the self is more easily perceived and assimilated when
external threats are minimal.
• When threats to the self are low, experience can be perceived in differentiated fashion
and learning can proceed.
• Significant learning is acquired through doing.
• Learning is facilitated when the student participates responsibly in the learning process.
• Self-initiated learning that involves feelings as well as the intellect is most lasting and
pervasive.
• Independence, creativity and self-reliance are all facilitated when self-criticism and self-
evaluation are basic and evaluation by others is of secondary importance.
• The most socially useful learning in the modern world is learning how to learn, a
continuing openness to experience and the willingness to change in response to what
has been learned.
This humanistic view of learning as presented by Carl Rogers, Combs et al. and Abraham
Maslow in this unit is just one view of the process of learning. We will later look at yet another
view – the cognitivist view.
Applications of Humanistic Theory in the Classroom
Humanist Theories
Dembo (1981) suggests that teachers should do the following:
• Set the initial mood or climate through trust.
• Clarify the individual and group purposes. In other words, discuss why children are at
school and in a particular class.
• Collect and organize as many resources for learning as is possible.
• Be flexible in your teaching role.
• Accept emotional and intellectual responses so as to benefit each individual pupil.
• When the learning tone has been established, participate in learning along with the
pupils.
• Make yourself available to all your pupils.
• Be alert to the feelings of your pupils so that you can empathise or put yourself in your
pupils’ place and, therefore, apply those feelings constructively.
• Accept and recognize your own limitations – none of us knows it all.
Yelon and Weinstein (1977: 133) state that “students should have more freedom and
responsibility for what they learn…human learning is growing and changing so fast that
students need more than yesterday’s knowledge”. This means that you should be prepared to
keep at least three years above the academic level of your learners.
Handout 2.4
Overview of major learning theories and principles
Overview of Major Learning Theories and Principles
Psychologist Major Theory or Definition or Explanation
Principle
Behaviorist
Thorndike Law of Effect When a connection between a situation and a response is
made, and it is accompanied by a satisfying state of
affairs, that connection is strengthened, when
accompanied by an annoying state of affairs, the
connection is weakened.
Pavlow, Classical Whenever a response is closely followed by the reduction
Watson conditioning of a drive, the tendency is for the stimulus to evoke that
reaction on subsequent occasions, association strength of
the stimulus-response bond depends on the conditioning
of the response and the stimulus.
Skinner Operant In contrast to classical conditioning, no specific or
conditioning identifiable stimulus consistently elicits operant behavior.
If an operant response if followed by a reinforcing
stimulus, the strength of the response is increased.
Bandura Observation Behavior is best learned through observing and modeling.
learning Emphasis is placed on vicarious, symbolic, and self-
regulatory processes.
Gagne Hierarchical learning Eight behaviors or categories and based on prerequisite
conditions and cumulative stages of learning.
Cognitive
Montessori Structured play Instructional emphasis of visual and auditory activates,
children learn at different rates.
Piaget Cognitive stages of Four cognitive stages form a sequence of progressive
development mental operations, the stages are hierarchical and
Assimilation, increasingly more complex. The incorporation of new
accommodation, experiences, the method of modifying new experiences
and equilibration to derive meaning, and the process of blending new
experience into a systematic whole.
Vygotsky Theory of language Learning involves human development (and potential) as
and cultural well as cultural generations).
transmission
Bruner, Structure of a The knowledge concepts, and principles of a subject;
Phenix subject learning how things are related is learning the structure
of a subject; inquiry-discovery methods of learning are
essential.
Garner Nine multiple This is cross-cultural, expanded concept of what is
intelligences intelligence-such areas as linguistics, music, and logical-
mathematics, spatial, body-kinesthetic, and personal.
Guilford 120 potential This involves a three-dimensional model (6, 5, and 4) of
cognitive processes intelligence called the structure of intellect.
Ennis, Critical thinking This involves teaching students how to think, including
Lipmann, forming concepts, generalizations, cause-effect
Stemberg relationships, inferences, consistencies and
contradictions, assumptions, analogies and the like.
Humanistic
Maslow Human needs Six human needs are related to survival and psychological
well-being, the needs are hierarchical and serve to direct
behavior.
Rogers Freedom to learn Becoming a full person requires freedom to learn, the
learner is encouraged to be open, self-trusting and self-
accepting.
Goleman Social and emotional Progress or success depends in large part to awareness
learning (SEL) and understanding of one’s emotions (intrapersonal) as
well as those of other people (interpersonal).
Seligman Positive psychology One’s well-being relates to his or her ability to cultivate
and well-being talent, build lasting relationships, feel pleasure, and
contribute meaningfully.
Source: Ornstein, Allan C.: Sinatra, Richard I., K-8 Instructional Methods: A Literacy Perspective, 1st ED., ©2005, p.31
– 32. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.. New York, NY.
pg 141Francis P Hunkins/ Foundations /Global Edition
Handout 2.5
Dragon Slayer Curriculum
Reference:
 https://www.slideshare.net/atulpant/lifeskills-for-the-21st-century
Handout 2.6
Sociological Foundation of Curriculum
When a child is born, he is born into a family. The family, therefore, becomes the first agent of
socializing him. As he grows up, it is noted that the school comes in as another agent of
socialization. With time, it will be seen that the world of the child is larger than the home and
the school and that world influences both his interests and attitude. The society maintained the
school partly to help the growing child adapt to and prepare for life in the larger society. For
this, curriculum developers must put into consideration the characteristics of the contemporary
society as well as, that of the future in which the child of today will live most of his life as a
mature adult.
Children learn a lot out-of-school from sources like: internet, television, parents, friends, the
community, mosques and churches print media like magazine, newspapers etc.
Children also learn from schools that are meant to help in the meeting of societal needs.
Children of today and adult of the future have a lot to do in making the society a place worth
living. Depending on the type of education the school provides, it becomes a major factor in the
improvement of society. It helps young people to develop the capacity to respond intelligently
to social problems. In this way, the curriculum serves not only the needs of the learner but also
those of the society. Being a part of the society, sees the purpose the school can serve.
Curriculum developers, therefore, need to decide what kinds of skills, knowledge and attitudes
are needed by the society. Whether they should plan what will conform the existing social
order/values, encourage questioning of those values, what issues and facts should be studied in
schools should be their major concern when planning the school curriculum. Other social
issues, according to Beane et al. (1980) that curriculum planners should address are:
I. Technology.
II. Family structure.
III. Working in the information society.
IV. Changing gender roles.
V. Cultural Diversity and Pluralism.
VI. Changing Lifestyles values.
VII. Futuristic transformation.
Reference:
Principles of Curriculum Design and Development PDE 104 retrieved from http://nti-
nigeria.org/
Culture and its link with Curriculum

Education is the process by which cultural heritage is transmitted from one generation to
another. In fact, it is the society's culture that forms the content of its educational programmes.
Culture is the content of education. Thus education has to draw its content from culture.
Education transmits culture through formal and informal curriculum. Formal curriculum
comprises of the various subjects taught such as languages, mathematics, physical sciences,
biological sciences, social sciences, technical subjects and Religious studies.
For culture to be transmitted, it must have content. The values that the school transmits can be
seen as the culture of the society. It is culture that forms the content of education.
In promoting culture therefore, the school curriculum through the various subjects promotes
and enhances the learning of culture. The subjects taught transmit certain values:
 Society must provide its members with the tools of communication language become
crucial for education. Pakistani schools teach English and Urdu as the major languages of
communication.
 Society must teach its members skills and knowledge related to material culture.
Disciplines like agricultural science, natural sciences, vocational education are taught in
schools.
 Aesthetic values are taught through arts, music among others.
 Spiritual or moral education is taught through religion and by precept.
 Members of the society learn about their environment by studying geography and
natural sciences.
 Individual learn how to live in society through study of history, sociology, anthropology,
government procedures and laws, political science and others.
Handout 2.7
How Different Factors Influence Curriculum Design?
Social Factors
When you examine the curriculum being offered in your country, one question you may need
to deal with is the extent to which social factors or social considerations influenced the design
of the curriculum.
Society has its own expectations about the aims and objectives that should be considered when
designing the curriculum. It also has a perception of what the product of the school
systemshould look like. It is therefore necessary for curriculum designers to take into account
these societal considerations. If this does not happen, the curriculum becomes irrelevant.
As you know, a number of religions exist in countries. Your own community include Muslims,
Christians, Hindus and adherents of other religions. Their views must be considered when
designing a curriculum.
The design of curricular materials and their presentation should accommodate the culture of
the society that the curriculum is seeking to serve. You should, however, be sensitive to the fact
that the curriculum can be used to perpetuate inequities. You may have a curriculum that
isgender biased against female children because it includes instructional materials that portray
negative attitudes towards women and girls.
It is therefore possible for culture to have both positive and negative influences on the
curriculum.
Political Factors
From your experience as a student and teacher, you may have noticed how politics influence
education. This is why education is regarded as a political activity. National ideology and
philosophy have a tremendous influence on the education system because:
 Politics determine and define the goals, content, learning experiences and evaluation
strategies in education.
 Curricular materials and their interpretation are usually heavily influenced by political
considerations.
 Political considerations may play a part in the hiring of personnel.
 Funding of education is greatly influenced by politics.
 Entry into educational institutions and the examination systems are heavily influenced
by politics.
 The list above is not exhaustive, but it helps you to appreciate how politics influence
curriculum design.
Economic Factors
One of the reasons why education is financed by governments is to improve the country’s
economy. Therefore, the national curriculum should concern itself with the requirements of the
economy. Perhaps you are wondering how the economy of the country affects the curriculum.
The children you teach will need to be employed. The skills needed by industry should be
translated into the content and learning experiences of these children. The skills,
knowledgebase and attitudes required by industry should be developed in the classroom.
You might have noticed some advertisements for vacant posts in your local media. Employers
have basic requirements. Educational institutions find themselves working to meet these basic
requirements academically and professionally. As you are reading this unit, you might be
thinking of acquiring a higher academic or professional qualification. This would enhance your
upward social mobility. The market forces dictate what should be included in the national
curriculum. It also subtly determines the quantity of learners at different levels.
As a teacher, you require classroom supplies such as:
 Textbooks,
 Charts,
 Equipment, and
 Chemicals for science experiments.
These materials are products of industry. Without these materials, learning is compromised. It
is therefore crucial that serious consideration be given to economic demands when designing
the curriculum.
Suggested Answers to Activity 3
1. Why is education viewed as a political activity? Give at least four reasons.
(Suggested Answers: Education is viewed as a political activity because politics:
 Determine and define the goals, content, learning experiences and evaluation
strategies;
 Influence the selection and interpretation of curricular materials;
 Influence funding of education;
 Influence entry into educational institutions and the examination systems; andplay a
part in the hiring of personnel.)
2. Social factors are very critical in designing a curriculum.

Identify at least two social factors that should be considered when designing a curriculum.
(Suggested Answers: In designing the curriculum, the following social factors should be
considered:
 religion,
 culture, and
 the view of various groupings in society, including professional associations.)
3. If the local economy required more miners, how would this influence the curriculum?
(Suggested Answers: If the local economy required more miners, then the curriculum might
be adjusted to include information and skills related to mining. However, it is also likely that
no adjustments would be made to the formal curriculum set by the Ministry of Education
because this government body may not feel that mining is a priority for the country as a
whole.)
Reference
Module 13, Unit 3 Factors That Influence Curriculum Design by Mkosana, C., Kapesa, M. J.,
Masendu, M. E., Sisimayi, R. G., &Tambulukani, G. http://oasis.col.org/handle/11599/725
https://www.kenyaplex.com/resources/5769-the-influence-of-culture-on-education.aspx
HANDOUTS
Handout 3.1
Basic Principles of Curriculum Development
Process of curriculum development
Curriculum is not a static process, rather it is a dynamic process that evolves according to the
needs and demands of the, society and learners. An educational system depends upon a
curriculum to systematize and execute the process of education. Curriculum is a channel that
helps teachers and other agents to impart education to approach next generations. The
questions like these mostly put the curriculum developers into trouble for example; what
content is suitable for teaching? Why a certain cluster of content is necessary to teach? What
are the ways suitable enough to impart this knowledge to the learners? And when the process
of assessment and evaluation is necessary to know? Whether the set objectives have been
achieved or not?
Basic Principle of curriculum development
In curriculum development, we think about the types of learning experiences to be given to a
child at various age and grade levels. It needs a systematic and sequential planning to widen the
sphere of the learning experiences at each level by keeping in view the principles of integration
and correlation. The curriculum is usually concerned with two questions:
 What should be the content of education and how should we organize it?
 What should we teach and how should we teach?
To answer these questions we should now discuss the principles of curriculum development.
Educationists have laid down certain general principles of developing curriculum some of the
basic principles are indicated below:
1. The principle of child-centeredness
Curriculum should be child-centered. It must be based on the needs, requirements and
circumstances of the child. The child needs more experience than instruction.
2. The principle of community-centeredness
Besides treating each child as an individual, we should also view him as a member of the
community to which he belongs. Infact, the learner is going to be an active member of the
community as a citizen. It is therefore, quite desirable that his needs and desires must
harmonies with needs and desires of those amongst whom he has to live.
3. The principle of activity-centeredness

Action is the sign of life. Man is an active being. Therefore the curriculum should provide for
a variety of activities both physical and mental in which children are naturally interested.
The activity must be connected with the child’s desires and needs as well as societal and
education requirements.
4. The principle of integration
By integration we do not nearly mean integration of subjects. What is required is the
integration of the child’s needs on the one hand and the needs of the democratic society on
the other.
5. Forward looking principle
The aim of education is to prepare the child for an effective adult life. Therefore, the
curriculum should reflect an insight into future life of the child.
6. Conservative principle
The curriculum should preserve and transmit the traditions and culture of human race. It
should embrace such subjects, topics or activities by which students should cultivate a
sense of respect for their traditions and culture.
7. Renewal principle
While conserving and transmitting the cultural heritage, education should cater to renewal
of the culture to suit the requirements of changing times.
8. Creative principle
God has created the universe and men have created variety of things in it. By nature, man is
creative. Therefore, education should be so moulded as to enable one to develop ones
creativity.
9. Suitability to the age and mental level of the children
What is to be given to the children in the form of learning experiences at a particular age
and grade level should suit their age and mental development.
The content of the study in any subject should be formed to suit their mental ability.
10. According to the specific interests of students
Children will be able to learn better in fields where they have special tastes and inclination
of the mind. It is also found that at different stages of age groups, children have different
interest patterns. Interests of children also change according to circumstances and
situations. Therefore learning experiences should be designed to suit the interests and
tastes of the age group of students.
11. Environment centered

The content of the learning experiences for children should be linked with the needs of the
environment in which they live. For example, children from rural areas can understand and
grasp easily the information which is directly concerned with their experiences in their own
rural environment. The same thing applies to children in the various environment like urban
areas, hilly areas etc.
12. The principle of the comprehensive curriculum
The curriculum must have necessary details. List of topics to be covered does not solve the
purpose. Both teachers and students should know clearly what is expected of them, what is
the beginning and what is the end of the topic for the particular class. Material, aids,
activities, life situations etc. should be listed in the curriculum.
13. Principle of co-relation
The curriculum should be such that all the subjects are correlated with each other. While
designing the curriculum; it must be kept in mind that the subject matter of various subjects
has some relation to each other so that they help the child eventually.
14. The principle of practical work
Children are very active by nature. They like new things and can learn more by doing or by
activity method. Therefore, curriculum should be designed in such a way that it provides
maximum opportunity to the child for practical work with the help of concrete things.
15. Principle of flexibility
Instead of being rigid, curriculum should show the sign of flexibility.
The organization of the curriculum should be on the basis of individual differences as every
child is different from the other. Apart from this, conditions of society go on changing,
therefore, the curriculum must be flexible enough to address the needs and aspirations of
the society.
16. Principle of forward-looking
This principle asks for the inclusion of those topics, content and learning experiences that
may prove helpful to the students in leading their future life in a proper way.
17. The principle of consultation with teachers
Teachers play a key role in the implementation of the school curriculum of any grade or
stage. It is therefore quite essential to seek the proper involvement of the teachers in the
construction and development of school curriculum.
18. The principle of joint venture

It is necessarily a joint venture where various experts are involved like educational
psychologists, educational technologists, curriculum specialists, evaluation specialists,
teachers, subject matter experts etc.
19. The principle of availability of time and other resources
Curriculum is the means to realize the outcomes of the educational objectives of the school.
Implementation of curriculum is equally important as curriculum construction. While
developing curriculum experts should also keep its implementation in mind. They should be
aware of the conditions of the schools and possible availability of time and resources
available.
References
 Wiliam, D. (2013) Principled Curriculum Design. SSAT (The Schools Network) Ltd
 https://surreylearningbydesign.ca/principles/curriculum-design/
 https://physicscatalyst.com/graduation/principles-of-curriculum-development/
Handout 3.2 (a)

Elements of Curriculum Development
Introduction
An educational system depends upon a curriculum to systematize and execute the process of
education. Curriculum is a channel that helps teachers and other agents to impart education to
coming generations. Curriculum development is the curriculum planning process that results in
broad and specific curriculum plan. It is nothing than decision making that involves selecting
and organizing the components of teaching/learning situations. This is done through such
activities as the determination of curriculum organizing centers and the specification of
suggested objectives, subject matter, activities, resources and measuring devices. Curriculum
development leads to the creation of resource units, unit plans, course outline, and other
curriculum guides that teachers and learners may use to facilitate the learning process. Experts
in the field, express that curriculum planning activities in the process of curriculum
development are often regarded as the most crucial since it basically defines the nature of the
learner’s day-to-day life in the school. (Beane, Toebfer&Alessi, 1986).
According to Herrick and Tyler, following are the components and elements of curriculum
development
1. Situational analysis
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Organization of learning experience
4. Evaluation
1. Situational Analysis
Situational analysis means the analysis of different conditions such as emotional, political,
cultural, religious and geographical condition of a country. This will help the curriculum
planners in the selection of objectives, selection of organization of learning materials and in
suggesting appropriate evaluation procedure.
2. Formulation of Objectives
Instructional objectives are the specific and immediate outcomes of particular
teaching-learning situation. In curriculum development they take form in a listing
of statements describing the intended learnings for students. Instructional objectives
are known to serve three purposes in curriculum development. For clarity they are
often introduced by the verbal form e.g. “To list the parts of ...”
(i) They clarify for teacher and learner what is to be accomplished.

(ii) They serve as a guide for design and selection of meaningful content, activities
and resources.
(iii) They provide guidance for measuring learner’s progress. Some educators hold
that learning involves changing behaviour or developing new ways of behaving
(Behaviour is an action type of thing). If this is the case, they suggest that only
behaviour can be measured. The implication of this is that objectives should be
stated in behavioural terms. Stating objectives behaviourally indicates its
statement using action verbs such as list, prepare, identify, add, mention and so
on. In selecting objectives, consideration should be given to the following:
(i) An analysis of our culture – It is important to teach those kinds of behaviour,
those ways of thinking, teaching and acting that have value in our society and
that help the person to become an effective human being in it.
(ii) Present status of student – What has he already learned? What is he ready for?
(iii) What we know enough about to teach
(iv) Their relevance to the school’s philosophy of education.
(v) The consistency of these objectives with our theory of learning.
Learning is known to occur in three areas namely; Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor. If
the conception of the learning process and the process of education include the motion
that the learner is active, that he is looking at the world and trying to make something out
of it, the three domains of knowledge should be considered when selecting objectives.
(a) The Cognitive Domain – This refers to the acquisition and use of knowledge.
The levels within this domain include:
i. Knowledge (memory of ideas or facts).
ii. Comprehension (understanding of information)
iii. Application (applying knowledge to problem situation) (iv) Analysis
(identification of parts and their relationship).
iv. Synthesis (combining parts to form a whole).
v. Evaluation (developing judgments about values)
(b)Affective Domain – Objectives in this domain are concerned with feelings and emotions
involving attitude, interests, appreciations, and models of adjustment. There is a link
between the objectives in the cognitive domain and those in the affective domain. A
certain amount of cognition seems to be involved in every affective behaviour.
Levels in this domain include:
I. Receiving or attending (paying attention to things).
II. Responding (reaching to or using that which is received)
III. Valuing (identifying and committing to particular beliefs).
IV. Organization (establishing a set of values). (v) Characterization by a value or
value complex (acting on and displaying values).
(c)The Psychomotor Domain – This deals with motor activities. It is integrally related to the
cognitive and affective processes. It has six levels of classification namely:
(i) Perception
(ii) Set
(iii) Guided Response
(iv) Mechanism (Physical abilities – endurance, strength, flexibility and agility).
(v) Complex overt Response (Skilled movements).
(vi) Adaptation (Non-discursive communication).
(vii) One major ingredient in curriculum development as shown
above is the statement of objectives. These will provide
learners with an understanding of what they are supposed
to accomplish.
Content
The content component of teaching- learning situations refers to the important facts,
principles, concepts and understanding associated with the predetermined objectives. This
phase of curriculum development raises the question, “what content will the teachers and
learners need to consider in order to accomplish the instructional objectives?” When we
talk about selection of appropriate learning experiences and content for the achievement
of predetermined objectives, it involves several issues.
 Relevance
The first has to do with the relevance of the content and learning opportunities to the
objectives, the child and his society. Here, those responsible for curriculum development
must make decisions about what knowledge is most appropriate and most pertinent.
Content should include what is necessary and sufficient for accomplishing the objectives at
hand.
 Up to date
A second content issue is the degree of the up-to-dateness of the concepts and
generalizations which are embodied in the content and learning opportunities. The more
pertinent content is to the needs and interests of the learner and his day-to-day existence,
the greater the likelihood that he will perceive its meaning and worth. As a result, there is
every possibility that the content will be learned and used.
 Comprehensiveness
The third issue in the identification of content focuses in terms of its comprehensiveness
and balance. Content identified must reflect al the areas of human personality as
stipulated in the objectives. This also deals with its level of difficulty. The content should
depend partly on the capacity of learners to understand it. When content is not congruent
with the cognitive capacity of learners, they are likely to feel as though they are trying to
listen to or read an unfamiliar foreign language. This could lead to frustration on the part of
the learners. The content coverage should therefore, reflect areas of social adjustment that
must be accompanied by the ones for intellectual attainments and physical fitness and
appropriate emphasis should be given to each according to the demand of the society.
 Deep-rootedness
The fourth issue has to do with the deep-rootedness of the content and opportunities in
the culture of the society. Whatever will be developed should have a direct bearing on the
culture of the society.
3. Organization of learning experiences.
In structuring learning experiences and content, consideration should be given to research
findings in the theories of learning and child development and sound educational practices.
The contents should be organized in such a way as to produce major changes in the
learners in the direction of stated objectives. This will go a long way to influence the
efficiency of instruction and the amount of learning that takes place in any educational
setting.
Criteria for organization for effective organization to take place, what was developed must
have what is known as continuity because a single learning experience has a profound
influence upon the learner. He can use the knowledge of one area to understand another
different but related area.
Another criterion to be considered in organisation of learning experience is sequence.
Sequencing emphasizes the importance of having each successive learning experience built
upon the preceding one. Sequence, therefore, implies continuity as well as progression
from the lower to the higher level of treatment of curriculum elements.
Integration is another criterion for effective organisation of learning experiences and this is
dealing with the utilization of curriculum elements from one subject area to other subject
area of the curriculum. In other words, one should buttress the other, for example, using
what is learnt in arithmetic to solve problems in science, economics trading and other
fields. Where this happens, the learner will see that what he learns in one area is not
simply an isolated experience to be utilize in one single course but one of the many
capacities he needs in various situations in his daily life.
4. Evaluation
Teachers, learners and others are concerned about whether learning has actually taken
place or not. For the reason, curriculum developers had to concern themselves with the
identification of means to determine both quality and quantity of learning. If education is
regarded as a process that seeks to change the behaviour of learners in the direction of
predetermined objectives, one can define evaluation as the process of determining the
nature and extent of those changes in learner’s behaviour after a programme of curriculum
and instruction.
Evaluation performs certain functions as an important phase in curriculum development.
(i) It is meant to check the reality of the hypotheses upon which the curriculum has been
based. There is a need to determine through the process of evaluation what changes had
been produced by the curriculum and their effects on the total educational outcome.
I. It serves a diagnostic function in the school and in curriculum development. In the
school, one can assess the weaknesses and strengths of an educational programme by
careful assessment of the achievement of learners in the programme. Through
students’ performances, one can know whether certain types of educational objectives
are either under-emphasised, adequately emphasized or over-emphasised by the
curriculum or pattern of instruction. This can provide the basis for curriculum revision
or improvement.
II. Information on the variation in the achievement of individual learner is made possible
by evaluation. This could make the teacher vary his methods of teaching to meet the
needs of more learners. The evaluation instruments should therefore, be closely
related to the educational objectives of the programme.
III. Results of evaluation can provide adequate data which will enable the teacher to
report to parents and the school management about the success or otherwise of the
school. Consideration should, therefore, be given to any instrument that will be used
for evaluation.
IV. The assessment instrument should possess the following characteristics: objectivity,
reliability and, of course, validity. Where the instrument is objective, reliable and valid,
the results of evaluation can be accepted and generalized. One can say here with some
degree of certainty that the greatest service evaluation can perform is to identify
aspects of the course/programme where revision is desirable. Evaluation can be done
at the beginning, midway, and at the end of the course if we want it to be effective.
References
 http://studylecturenotes.com/elements-of-curriculum-development/.
 Taba, H (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice New York: Harcourt,
 Umar Farooq from www.lecturenotes.com,
Handout 3.2 (b)

Elements of Curriculum Development Process
According to Herrick and Tyler, following are the components and elements of curriculum
development
1. Formulation of objectives
2. Selection of content, scope and sequence
3. Activities, strategies and method of teaching
4. Evaluation
But some other curriculum experts also include
5. Situational analysis
As one of the important element besides the above four
Question
List the elements involved in curriculum development process
 Situational Analysis
Situational analysis means:
 The analysis of different conditions such as emotional, political, cultural, religious and
geographical condition of a country
 Helps in the curriculum planners in selecting objectives,
o Selecting organization of learning materials and
o Suggesting appropriate evaluation procedure.
Question
 How does situational analysis help the curriculum planners?
1. Formulation of Objectives
There are four main factors for formulating the objectives of education. These are:
 The society
 The knowledge
 The learner
 The learning process
Question
 What will you consider the purposes of instructional objectives in curriculum Development?
2. Selection of Content
At the time of subject matter selection, the following factors are to be kept in mind:
 Available sources and resource
 Demand of the society
 International needs
 Level and age of the learner or student
 Methods of content organization
 Number of courses offered
 Quantity and qualification of teaching staff
 Scope of subject matter
 System of examination
 Type of society and culture
Question
 According to your point of view, what are the two most important points in the selection of
content? Why?
3. Strategies and Method of Teaching
 These are strategies and methods of teaching adopted by the teachers during
instruction and learning experiences.
 These determines what we should give to our students
4. Evaluation
 Evaluation is one of the dynamic processes, for improvement and betterment of the
curriculum in order to cope with the variable demands of the society and bring about
desirable changes.
 Curriculum evaluation is not a student evaluation. It is a broader term being used to
make judgment about the worth and effectiveness of it.
 With the help of evaluation phase experts can modify the curriculum by bringing about
desirable changes.
Question
 Which element do you consider more important from point of view of a teacher?
 Any question?
Worksheet 3.1
KWL Chart….. Principles and elements of curriculum development
Topics What I know? What I want to What I learnt?

know?
Principles of
Curriculum
Development
Clements of
Curriculum
Development
Worksheet 3.2
Principles of curriculum development
Instructions: Instruct the trainee teacher’s to discuss in groups and answer the following
questions
1. Write any five names of the Principles of curriculum development.
2. Analyze the relationship among these principles
3. Do you agree, ‘knowing Principles of curriculum development are not important for
teachers but only for developers’? Why?

Worksheet 3.3
Ask the groups to prepare answer for the following question.
Describe the relationship of the elements of curriculum development from the point of view of:
Curriculum planners Classroom teachers
Handout 3.3
Video “Bloom’s Taxonomy: Structuring the Learning Journey”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ayefSTAnCR8
Handout 3.4 (a)

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Handout 3.4 (b)

Cognitive Domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy
Cognitive Domain:
Bloom’s Taxonomy
1. KNOWLEDGE: Knowledge is defined as the remembering of previously learned material. This
may involve the recall of a wide range of materials, from specific facts to complete theories, but
all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information. Knowledge
represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain.
Description (to know to recall):
 Remembering previously learned material
 Lowest level of learning
 Listing learned information
 Remembering terms, methods, facts, concepts, specific items of information
Sample Activities:
 Label the parts of a plant.
 Group together all the four syllable words.
 List the freedoms included in the Bill of Rights.
 Identify the food group to which each of these foods belongs.
 Write definitions to the following words.
 Locate examples of capitalization in the following story.
 Remember an idea or fact in somewhat the same form in which it was learned
 Question and answer sessions
 Workbooks/worksheets
 Programmed instruction
 Remember things read, heard, saw
 Games
 Information searches
 Reading assignments
 Drill and practice
 Finding definitions
 Memory games
 Quizzes
 Questions have right and wrong answers
Question/Statement Verbs:
Words alone may not ensure the desired level.
Choose, copy, define, describe, find, group, identify, indicate, label, list, locate, match, name,
pick, point to, quote, recall, recite, select, sort, state, tell, underline, write, what, when, who
2. COMPREHENSION: Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material.
This may be shown by translating material from one form to another (words or numbers), by
interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), and by estimating future trends (predicting
consequences or effects). These learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple
remembering of material, and represent the lowest level of understanding.
Description (explaining and understanding):
 Ability to grasp the meaning of material
 Communicating an idea
 Explaining ideas
 Summarizing material
 Understanding facts and principles
Sample Activities:
 Give reasons for the energy crisis.
 Explain why we have bus safety rules.
 Outline the steps necessary for an idea to become a law.
 Restate the reasons for weather changes.
 Summarize the story.
 What were the underlying factors that contributed to the Revolutionary War?
 Communicate an idea
 Giving examples of
 Paraphrasing
 Peer teaching
 Show and tell
 Give reasons for
Compare, comprehend, conclude, contrast, demonstrate, explain, expound, illustrate, outline,
predict, rephrase
3. APPLICATION: Application refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete
situations. This may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts,
principles, laws, and theories. Learning outcomes in this area require a higher level of
understanding than those under comprehension.
Description (using ideas):
 Applying concepts and principles to new situations
 Applying laws and theories to practical situations
 Solving of mathematical problems
 Constructing charts and graphs
 Demonstrating correct usage of a method or procedure
 Applying rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, theories
 Requires higher level of understanding than comprehension
Sample Activities:
 Put this information in graph form.
 Organize the forms of pollution from most damaging to least damaging.
 Sketch a picture that relates your feelings of recess.
 Using knowledge from various areas to find solutions to problems
 Applying ideas to new or unusual situations
 Simulation Activities
 Role playing/role reversal
 Model building
 Interviewing
 Group presentation
 Conducting experiments
 Practical applications of learned knowledge
 Suggest actual uses of ideas
Apply, construct, classify, develop, organize, solve, test, use, utilize
4. ANALYSIS: Analysis refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so
that its organizational structure may be understood. This may include the identification of the
parts, analysis of the relationships between parts, and the recognition of the organizational
principles involved. Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than
comprehension and application because they require an understanding of both the content and
the structural form of the material.
Description (breaking down):
 Breaking material down into component parts
 Understanding the organizational structure
 Analysis of relationships between parts
 Recognition of organizational principles involved
 Understanding both the content and structural form
 Analyzing the elements
Sample Activities:
 Simplify the ballet to its basic moves and.
 Inspect a house for poor workmanship and ...
 Observe a painting to uncover as many principles of art as possible and ...
 Read a nonfiction book. Divide the book into its parts. Tell why the parts were
placed in the order they were.
 Look into the forces that might cause pressure for our legislators and ...
 Inspect two presidential speeches. Compare and contrast them in writing.
 Uncovering unique characteristics
 Distinguishing between facts and inferences
 Evaluating the relevancy of data
 Recognizing logical fallacies in reasoning
 Recognizing unstated assumptions
 Analyzing the organizational structure of a work (of art, music, or writing)
 Comparing and contrasting
 Problem identification
 Attribute listing
 Morphological analysis
analyze, assume, breakdown, classify, compare, contrast, discriminate, dissect, distinguish,
divide, deduce, diagram, examine, inspect, infer, reason, recognize, separate, simplify, section,
scrutinize, survey, search, study, screen, sift, subdivide, take apart
5. SYNTHESIS: Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This
may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations
(research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information). Learning
outcomes in this area stress creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new
patterns or structures.
Description (forming new whole):
 Putting parts together in a new whole
 Formulating new patterns or structures
 Abstract relationships
 Communicating an idea in a unique way
 Proposing a new set of operations
 Creating new or original things
 Take things and pattern them in a new way
Sample Activities:
 Create a new song for the melody of “Mary Had a Little Lamb.”
 Combine elements of drama, music, and dance into a stage presentation.
 Develop a plan for your school to save money.
 Create a model of a new game that combines thinking, memory, and chance equally.
 Reorganize a chapter/unit from your textbook the way you think it should be.
 Find an unusual way to communicate the story of a book you have read.
 Formulate positive changes that would improve learning in your classroom.
 Develop an original plan
 Writing a well-organized theme
 Writing a creative story, poem, or song
 Proposing a plan for an experiment
 Integrating the learning from different areas into a plan for solving a problem
 Formulating a new scheme for classifying objects
 Finding new combinations
 Showing how an idea or product might be changed
Build, create, combine, compile, compose, construct, develop, design, derive, form, formulate,
generate, how, make, make up, modify, produce, plan, propose, reorder, reorganize, rearrange,
reconstruct, revise, suggest, synthesize, what, write
6. EVALUATION: Evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material
(statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The judgments are to be based
on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria (organization) or external criteria (relevance
to the purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or be given them. Learning
outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of
all of the other categories, plus value judgments based on clearly defined criteria.
Description (judging):
 Ability to judge the value of material
 Use of definite criteria for judgments
 Value judgments based on clearly defined criteria
 Use of cognitive and affective thinking together
Sample Activities:
 Decide which person would best fill a position.
 Rank the principles of “good sportsmanship” in order of importance to you.
 Decide which proposed plan is the best.
 Read two different accounts of an incident. Decide which story is most logical in its
portrayal.
 Judge the posters or murals your class has just constructed.
 Justify the actions of your favorite historical figure.
 Determine the necessary criteria for a good resource.
 Summarize the involvements you have had with your class this year.
 Making judgments about data or ideas based on either internal or external
conditions or criteria
 Rating ideas
 Accepting or rejecting ideas based on standards
 Judging the logical consistency of written material
 Judging the adequacy with which conclusions are supported with data
 Judging the value of a work (of art, music, writing) by using internal criteria or
external standards of excellence
 Generating criteria for evaluation
 Making evaluations for peer projects and presentations
 Evaluating one’s own products and ideas
Appraise, accept/reject, assess, check, choose, conclude, criticize, decide, defend, determine,
discriminate, evaluate, interpret, justify, judge, prioritize, rate, rank, reject/accept, referee,
select, settle, support, umpire, weigh, which
Reference:
http://www.homeofbob.com/pedagogy/theories/taxonomies/blomstax.html
Handout 3.5
Use of Bloom’s Cognitive Domains Level in an Exercise
Goldilocks and the Three Bears

A little girl named Goldilocks, goes for a walk in the forest and comes upon a house where she
enters and finds to her delight three bowls of porridge.
The first one she tastes is too hot, the next too cold but the third one tastes just right so she
eats it all up.
Goldilocks finds three chairs of different sizes. She tries them out and finds the first one too
hard, the next too soft, and then the little one just right, but it breaks when she sits in it.
As she wanders around the home, she finds three beds and tries them out. The first and biggest
bed is too hard, the next bed is too soft but the smallest bed is just right and she curls up and
falls asleep.
Meanwhile the owners come home. They are the three bears: Papa Bear, Mama Bear and Baby
Bear.
Much to their surprise, they discover the outcome of what Goldilocks has done to their
porridge, chairs and finally their beds. In fact she is still sleeping in Baby Bear’s bed!
Goldilocks wakes with a fright when she sees and hears the bears. She jumps from the bed and
runs away as fast as she can.
Worksheet 3.4
Task 1 (Think, Pair, Share)
 Whose bed was Goldilocks in when the bears found her?
 What Bloom’s level do you think this task is? Why?
Task 2
 Explain why the bears were upset with Goldilocks.
Task 3
 Tell what might have happened if Goldilocks had intentionally made even more of a
mess.
Task 4
 Identify events in the story that indicate it is not true.
Task 5
 Judge whether or not Goldilocks made a good decision by running away from the bears.
Explain.
Task 6
 Compose a different ending to the story.
Task 7
 Try to make similar questions of your own.
Key Tasks 1-6
1. KNOWLEDGE
2. COMPREHENSION
3. APPLICATION
4. ANALYSIS
5. SYNTHESIS
6. EVALUATION
KEY TASK 7
KNOWLEDGE
What are some of the things that Goldilocks did in the Bears' house?
COMPREHENSION
Why did Goldilocks like the little Bear's chair best?
APPLICATION
If Goldilocks had come into your house, what are some of the things she might have used?
ANALYSIS
What parts of the story could not actually have happened?
SYNTHESIS
How might the story have been different if Goldilocks had visited the three fishes?
EVALUATION
Do you think Goldilocks was good or bad? Why do you think so?
Reference:
https://www.instructionalleadership.ie/images/Dominican_College.pdf
http://pages.geo.wvu.edu/~kite/Critical%20Thinking%20and%20the%203%20Bears.html
Worksheet 3.5
Identification of questions according to the cognitive domains of learning
(Bloom’s taxonomy)
S.No Questions/statements Domain Mark
 or X
1 select concrete nouns from the given text Analysis 1
2 Illustrate the relationship among the elements of Comprehension 2
curriculum development?
3 What was the theme of the story? Knowledge 3
4 How would you apply the lesson learnt from the Application 4
story?
5 Recall names of the characters of the story Knowledge 5
6 Give recommendation for better management system Analysis 6
in schools
7 Classify the words as different parts of speech Evaluation 7
8 Conclude the discussion in few words Application 8
9 Construct a model for minimizing the air pollution in Synthesis 9
your surrounding
10 Explain the process of curriculum development Knowledge 10
11 What is your opinion about the present political Evaluation 11
situation
12 List names of five opaque objects Knowledge 12
13 Use the given information to make a new plan Comprehension 13
14 Who was the captain of the team? Evaluation 14
15 What other ways you suggest to improve your lesson Application 15
plan
16 Justify your point of view with examples Comprehension 16
17 Differentiate between animal and plant cell Synthesis 17
18 Suggest changes to improve the educational process in Synthesis 18
your school.
19 How would you summarize the text in your own Comprehension 19
words?
20 When did it happen? Evaluation 20
HANDOUTS
Handout 4.1
Psychomotor Domain
Bloom and Harrow
1. PERCEPTION: the first level is concerned with the use of the sense organs to obtain cues that
guide motor activity. This category ranges from sensory stimulation (awareness of a stimulus),
through cue selection (selection task relevant cues) to translation (relating cue perception to
action in performance).
Descriptive Activities:
 Recognizes malfunction by sound of machine
 Relates taste of food to need for seasoning
Chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects,
separates
2. SET: refers to readiness to take a particular type of action. This category includes mental set
(mental readiness to act), physical set (physical readiness to act), and emotional set (willingness
to act). Perception of cues serves as an important prerequisite for this level.
 Knows mechanical sequence of steps in varnishing wood
 Demonstrates proper bodily stance in batting.
 Shows desire to type efficiently by placement of hands and alignment of body.
Begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, responds, shows, starts, volunteers
3. GUIDED RESPONSE: is concerned with the early stages in learning a complex skill. It includes
imitation (repeating an act demonstrated by the instructor) and trial and error (using a multiple
response approach to identify an appropriate response). Adequacy of performance is judged by
an instructor or by a suitable set of criteria.
 Performs a golf swing as demonstrated
 Applies first aid bandage as demonstrated
 Determines best physical manipulation of objects in a sequence for preparing a meal
Assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds,
heats, manipulates, measures, mends, organizes, sketches
4. MECHANISM: is concerned with performance acts where the learned responses have
become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.
Learning outcomes at this level are concerned with performance skills of various types, but the
movement patterns are less complex than at the next higher level.
 Writes smoothly and legibly
 Sets up laboratory equipment correctly
 Operates a slide projector properly
(Same list as for guided response)
5. COMPLEX OVERT RESPONSE: is concerned with the skillful performance of motor acts that
involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, smooth, accurate
performance, requiring a minimum of energy. The category includes resolution of uncertainty
(performs without hesitation) and automatic performance (movements are made with ease and
good muscle control). Learning outcomes at this level include highly coordinated motor
activities.
 Operates a power saw skillfully
 Demonstrates correct form in swimming
 Demonstrates skill in driving an automobile
 Performs skillfully on the violin
 Repairs electronic equipment quickly and accurately
(Same list as for guided response)
6. ADAPTATION: is concerned with skills that are so well developed that the individual can
modify movement patterns to fit special requirements or to meet a problem situation.
 Adjusts tennis playing technique in order to counter the opponent’s style
 Modifies swimming strokes to face the roughness of the water
Adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies
7. ORGANIZATION: refers to the creating of a new movement pattern to fit a particular
situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes at this level emphasize creativity based upon
highly developed skills.
 Creates a new step while doing PT (Physical Training)
 Designs a new dress style
Arranges, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, originates
http://www.homeofbob.com/pedagogy/theories/taxonomies/blomstax.html
Psychomotor domain (manual and physical skills, ie., skills, or ’do’)
Handout 4.2
Affective Domain
The affective domain is one of three domains in Bloom's Taxonomy, with the other two being
the cognitive and psychomotor (Bloom, et al., 1956). For an overview of the three domains, see
the introduction.
The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal
with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations,
and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most
complex:
Category Example and Key Words (verbs)
Examples: Listen to others with respect.

Listen for and remember the name of
Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to newly introduced people.
hear, selected attention. Key Words: acknowledge, asks, attentive,
courteous, dutiful, follows, gives, listens,
understands
Examples: Participates in class

discussions. Gives a presentation.
Responds to Phenomena: Active participation on
Questions new ideals, concepts, models,
the part of the learners. Attend and react to a
etc. in order to fully understand them.
particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may
Know the safety rules and practice them.
emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to
Key Words: answers, assists, aids,
respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).
complies, conforms, discusses, greets,
helps, labels, performs, presents, tells
Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a Examples: Demonstrates belief in the
particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This democratic process. Is sensitive towards
ranges from simple acceptance to the more individual and cultural differences (value
complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on diversity). Shows the ability to solve
the internalization of a set of specified values, while problems. Proposes a plan to social
clues to these values are expressed in the learner's improvement and follows through with
overt behavior and are often identifiable. commitment. Informs management on

matters that one feels strongly about.
Key Words: appreciates, cherish,
treasure, demonstrates, initiates, invites,
joins, justifies, proposes, respect, shares
Examples: Recognizes the need for

balance between freedom and
responsible behavior. Explains the role of
Organization: Organizes values into priorities by systematic planning in solving problems.
contrasting different values, resolving conflicts Accepts professional ethical standards.
between them, and creating an unique value Creates a life plan in harmony with
system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes
and synthesizing values. time effectively to meet the needs of the
organization, family, and self.
Key Words: compares, relates,
synthesizes
Examples: Show self-reliance when

working independently. Cooperates in
group activities (displays teamwork). Uses
Internalizes Values (characterization): Has a value
an objective approach in problem solving.
system that controls their behavior. The behavior is
Displays a professional commitment to
pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most
ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises
important characteristic of the learner.
judgments and changes behavior in light
Instructional objectives are concerned with the
of new evidence. Values people for what
student's general patterns of adjustment (personal,
they are, not how they look.
social, emotional).
Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays,
influences, modifies, performs, qualifies,
questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies
Reference:
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/Bloom/affective_domain.html
Handout 4.3
SOLO Taxonomy
SOLO (Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes) provides a structured framework for students
to use to progress their thinking and learning. It encourages students to think about where
they are currently with their learning, and what they need to do in order to progress. There are
five main stages:
This is the first stage – where students don’t really have any knowledge or understanding of the
topic being studied. A student who is pre-structural will usually respond with ‘I don’t
understand’.
Moving on from pre-structural, students who are unistructural have a limited knowledge of the
topic – they may just know one isolated fact about the topic. So, a typical response might be:
‘I have some understanding of this topic’
Progressing from unistructural to multistructural simply means that the student knows a few
facts about this topic – but is unable to link them together. So a typical response might be ‘I
know a few things about this topic’ or ‘I have gathered some information about this topic’.
With relational, we are starting to move towards higher level thinking – students are able to
link together and explain several ideas around a related topic.
So a typical student ‘relational response might be:
‘ I can see the connections between the information I have gathered’.
The final and most complex level is extended abstract. With this, not only are students able to
link lots of related ideas together, but they can also link these to other bigger ideas and
concepts. So a student response at this level might sound like:
‘By reflecting and evaluating on my learning, I am able to look at the bigger picture and link
lots of different ideas together’.
An example….
In science, students might be asked the question ‘What do you understand by the term
respiration’. Students may then respond in the following ways:
 Pre structural – “Err…..What?”
 Uni structural – “It releases energy“
 Multi structural – “It’s a chemical reaction that releases energy, uses oxygen and glucose
and release carbon dioxide.”
 Relational – “It’s a reaction that takes place in all body cells. Products of digestion, such as
glucose, are transported to cells by the blood and reacted with oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide – which is breathed out. Energy is released.”
 Extended abstract – “It’s a reaction that takes place in all body cells. Products of digestion,
such as glucose, are transported to cells by the blood and reacted with oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide – which is breathed out via the lungs (using gas exchange and ventilation).
As energy is released, respiration is an example of an exothermic reaction. The energy that
is released can then be used by the body for growth of new cells, repair of tissues and
keeping warm.”
Why is it so useful?
 It supports students to reflect on their own thinking

 It helps teachers to thoughtfully shape learning intentions and learning experiences.
 It makes it easy to identify and use effective success criteria.
 It provides feedback and feed forward with regards to learning outcomes.
 It helps students to reflect meaningfully on what the next steps in their learning are.
 The diagrams provide a simple and easy to remember staged approach for students, in
terms of these next steps.
Using SOLO in the classroom
The following describes one way in which a SOLO activity can be set up in a lesson:
Uses of SOLO taxonomy:
 To increase quality & complexity of thought.
 To set learning objectives.
 To define learning outcomes.
 To create assessment criteria.
 To create and evaluate learning programs.
An Example of using SOLO
Date Learning Objective Learning Outcomes

Uni/Multi (D/C) Relational (B/A) Extended Abstract (A/A*)
1. What makes a I know what is I can describe I can explain how an
healthy diet? needed for a some of the unbalanced diet can lead
healthy diet effects of an to obesity, Type II diabetes
unbalanced diet and deficiency diseases
2. How metabolic I can recall the I can describe I can relate inherited
rate and meaning of some factors that factors that can affect our
cholesterol can Metabolic rate can affect health, to Metabolic Rate
affect your Metabolic rate and Cholesterol.
health?
3. How pathogens I can recall the I can describe I can give examples of
can causes term pathogen what a pathogen diseases caused by
disease? is and recall the different pathogens and
three types of their effects to our health
microorganism
that can cause
disease
4. How does the I can describe I can explain how I can describe the action of
body protect ways the body microbes make us white blood cells on
itself from defends itself feel ill microbes
infection? against
infection
5. What is a I can recall the I can explain how I can compare the
vaccination? term immune we become advantages and
immune disadvantages of being
immunized against disease
6. How do we use I can use I can use aseptic I can recognise that
medicines to aseptic techniques to antibiotics are specific and
reduce techniques to demonstrate the do not treat all microbes
symptoms? grow microbes action of
in the lab antibiotics on
bacteria
Reference:
 https://classteaching.wordpress.com/2013/05/23/using-solo-taxonomy-to-develop-
student-thinking-learning/
 https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-
5Y_mKVJzOVY/VtT5q4ebjSI/AAAAAAAAejk/QReM5PhYOEo/s1600/solo.jpg
Worksheet 4.1
Domains Write question of the How did you identify Design your own
textbook (if any) the level? questions
Affective domain
Psychomotor
Handout 4.4
Characteristics of the existing curriculum
Curriculum in Pakistan is revised on the basis of the analysis of curriculum committee. Subject
specialists are given representation in the curriculum committees. This finding supports Farooq
(1985) , where curriculums is disseminated to the selected teachers, subject experts in schools,
colleges and other organizations concerned and encourage their observations.
Followings are the main characteristics of the existing curriculum:.
Developmental Levels
In terms of the curriculum, education from grades I-XII forms an integral whole. However, for a
description of performance, five developmental levels have been identified. The framework has
been formulated, keeping in mind the ultimate requirement of Grade XII students’ academic,
job-related, social and individual language needs. It is very important that curriculum content is
relevant to age and intellectual level of learner.
Salient features of the existing curriculum

 The curriculum provides coherence among different grades and subjects
 It has relevance to the society
 Provides science- technology connection
 It is competitive with curricula of advanced countries
 This is a student centered curriculum
 SLOs have been explained against each standard
 Instead of mere teaching the content, the stress is on understanding and applicaation of the
content
 Achievement of SLOs demand active participation of learners
 The existing curriculum require co operative learning techniques for developing positive
attitudes among learners
 It is enquiry based curriculum
 Encourage students for problem solving
 Suggests diversified teaching strategies
 Promote creative thinking and understanding
Worksheet 4.2
S.NO Characteristics of a good curriculum Rational: Why?

1. Curriculum should be conformed to
the philosophy of life
2. Curriculum should be responsible for
personality development
3. Curriculum should be in line with the
demands of the individual
4. Curriculum should be compatible
with the objectives of education
5. Curriculum should be flexible
6. Curriculum should be integrated and
continuous
7. Curriculum should be linked with the
environment
8. Curriculum should be dynamic
9. Curriculum should be comprehensive
10. Curriculum should be based on
individual differences
11. Curriculum should be harmonized
with the psychological principles
12. Curriculum should be conformed to
the abilities of the students
13. Curriculum should be linked with the
social needs
Worksheet 4.3
Answer the following questions
Q1. What are the main components of the national curriculum?
Q2. How many developmental levels are in National Curriculum 2006?
Q3. What do you mean by standards?
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. What do you mean by bench mark?
Q5. What is meant by student learning outcomes?

HANDOUTS
Handout 5.1
Concept of Curriculum Design
I. Curriculum Design
Curriculum design refers to the way we conceptualize the curriculum and arrange its major
components (subject matter or content, instructional methods and materials, learner
experiences or activities) to provide direction and guidance as we develop the curriculum. Most
curriculum writers do not have a single or pure design for curriculum. They are influenced by
many designs and approaches; they draw bits and pieces from different designs.
In general, a curriculum design should provide a basic frame of reference, a template if you
wish, for planning what the curriculum will look like after engaging in curriculum development.
A curriculum design is influenced to some extent by the writer’s curriculum approach, it is the
writer’s views of the world and his or her views of teaching, learning, and instruction that are
key to design selection.
Horizontal and Vertical Curriculum Design
Curriculum design, the organization of curriculum’s components, exists along two basic
organizational dimensions: horizontal and vertical. A vertical curriculum links knowledge from
one lesson to the next across a program of study, while a horizontal curriculum integrates
knowledge across different classes or disciplines. An integrated curriculum uses both

approaches.
 Horizontal organization blends curriculum elements—for example, by combining history,
anthropology, and sociology content to create a contemporary studies course or by
combining math and science content. A horizontal curriculum means that what is studied in
one particular course in an institution is in line with other, similar classes both in terms of
course content and evaluation. Horizontal coherence means that teachers are evaluating
students based on the standards for a particular subject and grade level.
Horizontal integration may also mean the integration of basic concepts from one course or
discipline into another. For example, in studying medicine, certain basic concepts may be
relevant to the study of multiple disciplines, such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology and
more. Conversely, topics such as ethics and finance from other disciplines may be
integrated into the study of medicine.
 Vertical organization refers to the sequencing of curriculum elements. Placing “the family”
in first-grade social studies and “the community” in second-grade social studies is an
example of vertical organization. Frequently, curricula are organized so that the same topics
are addressed in different grades, but in increasing detail and at increasingly higher levels of
difficulty. For instance, the mathematical concept of set is introduced in first grade and
revisited each succeeding year in the elementary curriculum.
In a vertical curriculum, what is learned in one lesson prepares students for the next lesson.
It establishes skills and knowledge which are used and further developed across a whole
program of study. In this way, basic skills and knowledge are both developed and reinforced
as other elements are introduced into study. This method of teaching is structured and
progressive, focusing on building to advanced levels of knowledge.
Handout 5.2
Types of Curriculum Design
Types of Curriculum
There are different types of curriculum designs which were developed at different times in
educational history in accordance with societal conceptions of the role of education, the nature
of the learner and of the learning process as well as societal needs. In designing each of them,
consideration was given to continuity, sequence and integration. Most of the curriculum
designs are modifications or interpretations of three basic designs (i) Subject-centered
curriculum (ii) Activity/Experience-centered curriculum  (iii) Child-centered curriculum
(i) Subject –Centered Curriculum
This type of curriculum is concerned with the collection and arrangement of school subjects
which are generally studied separately or sometimes in relation to each-other. For instance, in
our secondary schools, subjects in the curriculum include: English, Mathematics, Biology,
Chemistry, Physics. The subjects are sometimes subdivided into divisions. English for instance is
subdivided into composition, grammar, spelling, dictation, writing, literature, essay, lexis and
structure and comprehension.
In this type of curriculum, mastery of the subject matter is usually the basis through which
educational outcomes are achieved. Its scope, however, is determined by the quantity of
subject matter existing within each subject as well as the range of subjects to be included in the
school time-table.
The characteristic feature of this type of curriculum is orderliness. If learners follow the bodies
of subject matter, they build their store of knowledge.
(ii) Activity/Experience-centered Curriculum 
This type of curriculum is learner-centered. Consideration in this type of curriculum is given to
learners’ interest, needs and motivation. It is also regarded as problem- solving. To channel
learners into the learning experiences in order to make learning purposeful, stimulating and
rewarding for them, teachers must try to discover their interests and needs. In other words,
one can say that activity curriculum is an approach with very flexible ideas and adaptation of
curriculum to the needs of children in the natural setting of human growth and development.
One characteristic of the activity curriculum is that children’s interests determine the content
and structure of learning. Within the activity-centered curriculum tradition, the role of the
teacher is that of an instructor and work supervisor while their students are learners as well as
productive workers. In other words, his role is seen as that of a more mature member in the
problem-solving situation to provide advice or help, direct or guide.
(iii) Child-Centered Curriculum
When the claim of a curriculum approach is that a worthwhile curriculum is solely constructed
by reference to needs, wants and interests of the child, it becomes a child- centered curriculum.
Curriculum developers in this type of curriculum should be very careful when exploring
children’s needs, wants and interests in curriculum matters to make children do what they
want with qualification. When this is done, the curriculum could be regarded as a worthwhile
school curriculum.
Handout 5.3
The Variant Curricula Approaches Apart from Three basic Types
The two variations are as follows:
a. The Hidden curriculum and
b. The Core-Curriculum.
(a) The Hidden Curriculum
Hidden curriculum refers to the unofficial, unwritten curriculum of the school or that which is
not ordinarily addressed through regular curriculum planning but which nevertheless influences
what and how students learn. The hidden curriculum has been regarded as a powerful
detrimental force that undermines the professed commitment of the school to foster
intellectual development. The school as an agent of socialization of the young, has its rules and
regulations governing social conduct of students within the context of the educational
programmes, and a system of procedures that make it an acceptable institution in the larger
society. What is, however, learnt from the hidden or subtle curriculum is frequently more
powerful and lasting than that which is learnt from the more obvious planned curriculum.
For instance, a teacher decided to teach a topic not using the traditional lecture method but the
group investigation model where learners are grouped to work on the topic. The group will
select a leader from among themselves while others will play the leader. Apart from the
content of the topic which they will work at in group, the leader will learn to lead, coordinate
the affairs of the group while carrying out the task; learn to respect the views of others by being
receptive to them while other members of the group will learn to follow for the success of the
group. The nurturant values here can be regarded as the hidden curriculum. The method
nurtured was not planned by the teacher.
Since the hidden curriculum is just as much as part of the school programme as any course or
subject or unit that is offered, it should be considered as a powerful and pervasive source of
learning. For this reason, there is a need to subject it to the same policies and procedures for
curriculum planning as any other part of the programme.
In schools, learners offered opportunities to learn about themselves and their relationship with
others. These learning are not always planned or intended in curriculum plans. They instead
grow out of the day-to-day life of the school and its organization. Because such learning’s are
embedded in features of the school rather than in curriculum, they are often referred to as the
hidden curriculum.
(b) Core-Curriculum
Core is used to describe a portion of the curriculum, usually those courses prescribed for all.
The identification of the required portion of the school programme is a crucial issue in
curriculum planning. Whatever is chosen to be included will normally be required of all
students regardless of their background characteristics. Essentially, core curriculum is meant to
develop unified studies based upon common needs of the learners and organized without
restriction by subject-matter.
This type of curriculum organization was designed as a synthesis of all other apparatus and to
specifically integrate all subject areas, serve the needs of the students, promote actual learning
and enhance the relationship between life and learning.
Core – curriculum is used variously to designate Basic Studies, General Studies, General
Education and indeed all subjects and courses (or part of the curriculum) which educational
authorities consider necessary for all students. Such subjects are of interest to all in a social
group no matter how typical or atypically such individuals may be within the group. A typical
example of core curriculum could be seen in what constitutes foundation courses in teacher
trainings program of different levels and courses.
Reference:
edglossary.org/hidden curriculum/
Worksheet 5.1
Types of Curriculum Design
Note. Read the Handout 5.2 and 5.3in your group and complete the worksheet.
1. Compare the different types of different curriculum designs.
______________________________________________________________________________
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2. How can the concept of Hidden Curriculum be explained with example in our school
system?
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3. Is any relationship may be established between the core curriculum and three main types of
curriculum design?
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4. What are possible use of the knowledge and the types of Curriculum Design at classroom
level?
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Handout 5.4
Benefits of Curriculum Design
Many of stakeholders may question the possible benefits of curriculum Design. Following may
be some of the possible benefits of curriculum design.
7. Provide a set of operating principles or criteria for guiding selection of and organization of
content and the methodology used to teach that content.
8. Effectiveness. A comprehensive curriculum design ensures effectiveness in the all process
of curriculum development and implementation. As we that effectiveness is the degree to
which objectives are achieved and the extent to which targeted problems are solved.
9. Efficiency. Just like effectiveness, the efficiency is considered another benefit of the
curriculum design. Efficiency is the ability to avoid wasting materials, energy, efforts,
money, and time in doing something or in producing a desired result. In a more general
sense, it is the ability to do things well, successfully, and without waste.
10. Alignment of the different components of curriculum. As the basic function of Curriculum
Design to arrange the subject matter or content, instructional methods and materials,
learner experiences or activities which are its major components. This very arrangement
ensures the alignment of these components by providing a template for planning what the
curriculum will look like after engaging in curriculum development.
11. Keeping pace with the changes. It helps the expert to modify the different components of
curriculum in face of changes occurring in the different walks of life.
12. Ensuring sequence, continuity, integration, articulation and balance in the curriculum.
Key Take-Aways:
Several key themes stood out to us: consistency, collaboration, and reflection, as well as
benefits to teachers and students.
Other benefits include:
 Documenting curriculum fosters consistency: consistency within curriculum structure,
standards, and expectations.
 Documenting curriculum increases collaboration: collaboration between educators as
they see their colleagues as resources and allies in the process.
 Documenting curriculum allows for reflection: reflection on the strength of the
curriculum by comparing it alongside strides in student growth and proficiency.
 Documenting curriculum improves the teaching process. It gives teachers tangible

resources and goals, stimulates creativity, and enables self-reflection.
 And, most importantly, documenting curriculum improves student outcomes. All the
advantages described by respondents culminated in this shared goal. Students benefit
from organized curriculum held to a high expectation. Students benefit from teachers
who work together. Students benefit from malleable, living curriculum. And, students
benefit when teachers are empowered.
Reference:
https://www.rubicon.com/benefits-documented-curriculum/
Worksheet 5.2
Benefits of Curriculum Design
Note. Read the Handout 10.2 in be prepare for discussion in your group on the following
points.
1. Which of the two benefits must be considered in process of curriculum design at national
level?
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______________________________________________________________________________
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2. Write in your opinion as to which of the benefits are more relevant at school/classroom
level?
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HANDOUTS
Handout 6.1
Curriculum Evaluation
What Is Curriculum Evaluation?
1. Curriculum evaluation is ‘the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness, or value of
a program, product, project, process, objective of curriculum’. Worthen, B. R. & Sanders, J.
R. (1987). Educational evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guide-lines. New
York: Longman
2. Gay (1985) argues that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its weaknesses and
strengths as well as problems encountered in implementation; to improve the curriculum
development process; and to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns
on the finances allocated. Gay, L. R. (1985). Educational evaluation and measurement:
competencies for analysis and application. Princeton, NC: C. E. Merrill
The purpose of curriculum evaluation is to determine whether or not the newly adopted
curriculum is producing the intended results and meeting the objectives that it has set forth,
and it is an essential component in the process of adopting and implementing any new
curriculum in any educational setting. Another purpose of curriculum evaluation is to gather
data that will help in identifying areas in need of improvement or change.
Why Is It Necessary?
There are several parties, or stakeholders, interested in the process and results of curriculum
evaluation.
 Parents are interested because they want to be assured that their children are being
provided with a sound, effective education.
 Teachers are interested because they want to know that what they are teaching in the
classroom will effectively help them cover the standards and achieve the results they
know parents and administration are expecting.
 The general public is interested because they need to be sure that their local schools are
doing their best to provide solid and effective educational programs for the children in
the area.
 Administrators are interested because they need feedback on the effectiveness of their
curricular decisions.
 Curriculum publishers are interested because they can use the data and feedback from a
curriculum evaluation to drive changes and upgrades in the materials they provide.
In the end, the goal is always to make sure that students are being provided with the best
education possible. Because the curriculum is a huge part of this, curriculum evaluation is a
means of deciding whether or not the chosen curriculum is going to bring the school closer to
that goal.
Evaluation of curriculum is an integral and essential part of the whole process of curriculum
development. It is a continuous activity and not a "tail-end-process". Evaluation and planning
are complementary processes which occur almost simultaneously and continuously. Planning is
made on the basis of evaluation and vice versa. However, as a separate state evaluation has its
own entity.
Regular evaluation of the total curriculum is necessary to ensure that the written and delivered
curriculum is having the desired effect for students.
Curriculum evaluation refers to an ongoing process of collecting, analyzing, synthesizing, and
interpreting information to aid in understanding what students know and can do. It refers to
the full range of information gathered in the school district to evaluate (make judgments about)
student learning and program effectiveness in each content area.
Curriculum evaluation must be based on information gathered from a comprehensive
assessment system that is designed for accountability and committed to the concept that all
students will achieve at high levels, is standards-based, and informs decisions which impact
significant and sustainable improvements in teaching and student learning.
The superintendent is responsible for curriculum evaluation and for determining the most
effective way of ensuring that assessment activities are integrated into instructional practices
as part of school improvement with a particular focus on improving teaching and learning.
file:///C:/Users/hjio/Downloads/Documents/602_3%20Curriculum%20Evaluation%20(1).pdf
https://study.com/academy/lesson/curriculum-evaluation-process-models.html
Handout 6.2
Aims of Curriculum Evaluation
FOCUS OF EVALUATION
1. Objectives 2. Content as outlined in the syllabus
Are they worthwhile?  Its suitability, and
 How do specified objectives compare  Its correlation with the specified
with possible objectives? objectives.
 Can they be achieved?
 Can they be accepted by teachers?
 What are the expected outcomes?
3. Materials 4. Process or methodology used by teachers

 Simple To Use, and administrators.
 Easy To Produce, And The instructional methodology and
 Cost-Effective. administrative processes must be evaluated
to determine whether they are consistent
with the objectives or if the processes
employed assist and support the teachers.
Gatawa 1990
Handout 6.3
Types of Evaluation
The classification of evaluation into types emanates naturally from the purpose, which the
curriculum planner has in mind before evaluating.
For example, one classification has been identified as Direct and Indirect Evaluation by
Daramola (1995). Let us take them one by one.
(a) Direct Evaluation:
This is the evaluation of the educational programme itself. This is done to determine whether
the programme is adequately serving its purpose or not. It involves the assessment of goals to
determine its suitability, the adequacy of the subject content and the appropriateness of
instructional materials and personnel. So, it is the programme that is being evaluated NOT the
students.
This type is done by experts, who judges each of the constituent parts of the educational
programme against some criteria to determine whether the educational programme will serve
or is serving its purpose or not.
(b) Indirect Evaluation:
This involves the assessment of students’ performance in the programme. The purpose of this is
to find out whether or not the desired behaviour change has taken place (Don’t forget that,
Learning is said to occur only when a relatively permanent change takes place in the behaviour,
skill or attitude of the learner).
Usually, evaluation tools such as test (oral or written) examination and other measuring devices
are used in this type of evaluation.
Whether direct or indirect, evaluation of the educational programme is important in order to
determine the strength and the weaknesses inherent in the programme so that appropriate or
necessary modifications may be made if the programme is found to be inadequate. If, however,
the outcome of evaluation shows that the programme is adequate, such programmes may be
retained. So, evaluation is an integral part of the development of an educational programme.
You should understand what is being said in (a) and (b) above very well. What we are saying is
that the educational programme can be evaluated to determine its suitability for the
achievement of overall purpose of the programme, and that, this can be done either directly as
in (a) or indirectly as in (b). In other words, through students’ performance in the programme,
the curriculum developer can evaluate the educational programme as well.
(c) Formative and Summative Evaluation.

These are two other types of evaluation. They are very useful in determining either the usability
(formative) or suitability (summative) of an educational programme.
(i) Formative Evaluation:
This is the type which is done at the planning stage of curriculum development. The outcome of
such an evaluation is used as an input to improve on the programme before its final adoption.
In other words, it is a kind of tryout method to enable the curriculum developer tell whether or
not the programme goals and materials provided are usable and to make necessary changes
where possible. Thus, the curriculum developer uses formative evaluation to detect flaws in the
programme so that necessary adjustment to the programme can be made. Four basic questions
such as proposed by Tyler (1971) are still relevant in formative evaluation of a curriculum that is
being developed and these are:
(1) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
(2) What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes?
(3) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
(4) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
As the curriculum developer attempts to answer the questions in each step of the curriculum
development process, he is undertaking formative evaluative.
Formative evaluation is also done at instructional or classroom level. The classroom teacher
gives continuous assessment in order to ascertain the weaknesses of his teaching method,
materials used, and other learner variables, which hinder learning. The result of such evaluation
is taken into consideration in designing or planning the next lesson.
(ii) Summative Evaluation:
This is a systematic attempt to determine if a fully developed programme in use is meeting its
objectives or not. Thus, this type of evaluation usually takes place at the end of the process
when the curriculum has been put into use in a given period. It is like an evaluation of a finished
product already placed in the market. It usually takes the form of quizzes, tests, tern papers,
reports, personal observations of students, class contributions especially when lessons are
taught and end-of-term or end-of course examinations are given. So, students’ performance in
the programme can be used as summative evaluation of that programme as well as determine
how well students have learnt the materials presented.
Now, if you have been following the study, you would probably have realized that both
formative and summative evaluation is complimentary to each other. For example, when
evaluation is done at the end of a programme, course or lesson, the result provides feedback,
which forms an input into the planning of the next programme or lesson as the case may be.
Thus, what was done at the end (summative evaluation) now serves again as input data
(formative evaluation) to improve upon or retain the educational programme.
Reference:
https://docplayer.net/95330291-Edu-731-curriculum-development-theory-practice.html
Worksheet 6.1
Instruction: Read Handout 11.1 and complete the worksheet
1. What is Assessment?
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______________________________________________________________________________
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2. What is Evaluation?
______________________________________________________________________________
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3. What is the main difference between Assessment and Evaluation? Give examples
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______________________________________________________________________________
4. Define Curriculum evaluation in your own words?
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5. In the definitions given which one do you think is the best and why?
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Worksheet 6.2
Aims of Curriculum Evaluation
Instruction: Complete the following table by filling the space.
FOCUS OF EVALUATION
1. Objectives 2. Content as Outlined in the Syllabus
3. Materials 4. Process or Methodology used by Teachers

and Administrators.
Worksheet 6.3
Types of Evaluation
________________Evaluation
1. This is a systematic attempt to determine if a fully developed programme in use is meeting
its objectives or not. Thus, this type of evaluation usually takes place at the end of the
process when the curriculum has been put into use in a given period. It is like an evaluation
of a finished product already placed in the market. It usually takes the form of quizzes, tests,
tern papers, reports, personal observations of students, class contributions especially when
lessons are taught and end-of-term or end-of course examinations are given. So, students’
performance in the programme can be used as summative evaluation of that programme as
well as determine how well students have learnt the materials presented.
Evaluation
2. This is the evaluation of the educational programme itself. This is done to determine
whether the programme is adequately serving its purpose or not. It involves the assessment
of goals to determine its suitability, the adequacy of the subject content and the
appropriateness of instructional materials and personnel. So, it is the programme that is
being evaluated NOT the students.
This type is done by experts, who judges each of the constituent parts of the educational
programme against some criteria to determine whether the educational programme will
serve or is serving its purpose or not.
Evaluation
3. This is the type which is done at the planning stage of curriculum development. The
outcome of such an evaluation is used as an input to improve on the programme before its
final adoption. In other words, it is a kind of tryout method to enable the curriculum
developer tell whether or not the programme goals and materials provided are usable and
to make necessary changes where possible. Four basic questions such as proposed by Tyler
(1971) are still relevant in formative evaluation of a curriculum that is being developed and
these are:
(1) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
(2) What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes?
(3) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
(4) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
It is also done at instructional or classroom level. The result of such evaluation is taken into
consideration in designing or planning the next lesson.
________________Evaluation
4. This involves the assessment of students’ performance in the programme. The purpose of
this is to find out whether or not the desired behaviour change has taken place (Don’t
forget that, learning is said to occur only when a relatively permanent change takes place in
the behaviour, skill or attitude of the learner).
Usually, evaluation tools such as test (oral or written) examination and other measuring
devices used in this type of evaluation.
WORD BANK
Summative, Formative, Direct, Indirect
Key. 1. Summative 2. Direct 3. Formative 4. Indirect.
Handout 6.4
Concept of Teaching and Learning
Teaching is a skilled job that involves making sure those learners learn and like all skilled job, it
has some prescribed methods and techniques.
Teaching can be defined as a process of making it possible for pupils to learn. The ways by
which the teacher presents his materials to learners and engages them in the task at hand is
referred to as a methodology. It has been noted that the method adopted by the teacher may
hinder or promote learning. A teacher needs to have knowledge of a variety of teaching
methods he can choose from in the teaching-learning process.
As teachers we tend to think that teaching is all about teachers and our role; in fact the most
important aspects of the educational process are the students and what they learn.’ This leads
us to consider what we mean by 'learning' in order to understand the concept of teaching in a
true sense.
Concept of Learning
Learning is about a change: the change brought about by developing a new skill,
understanding a scientific law, changing an attitude. The change is not merely incidental or
natural in the way that our appearance changes as we get older. Learning is a relatively
permanent change, usually brought about intentionally. When we attend a course, search
through a book, or read a discussion paper, we set out to learn!
Difference between traditional and modern teaching
Traditionally the role of the teacher has been as a purveyor of information: the teacher was the
fount of all knowledge. This suggests a picture of students sitting in rows in front of the teacher
who is talking and passing information to students with the aid of a blackboard, while the
students either listen passively or, if the teacher is lucky, take their own notes.
This, of course, is not true anymore. The modern teacher is a facilitator: a person who assists
students to learn for themselves. Instead of having students sitting in rows, they are likely to
be in groups, all doing something different; some doing practical tasks, some writing, some not
even in the room but in another part of the building using specialist equipment or looking up
something in the library.
Traditional Teaching Modern Teaching

 Teacher-centric classrooms  Technology-driven classrooms
 Teachers in the mode of knowledge  Continuous comprehensive evaluation
dispensers rather than facilitators  Cross-curricular connections
 Chalk and talk methods  Inquiry-based learning
 Regimented classrooms  Emphasis on understanding of concepts
 Lack of collaboration and group  Linking curriculum with life
learning  Emphasis on skill building, life skills and
 More emphasis on examinations and values
results rather than understanding of  Smart interactive boards
concepts  BYOD – Bring your own device
 Improper alignment between  Collaborative learning
objectives, activities and assessments  Differential learning
 Activity-based learning and learning labs
 Interdisciplinary learning
 Integrative and social responsibility and
civic engagement
 Digitisation in teaching, learning
assessment and feedback
 Collaborative learning
 Differentiated instruction
 Flipped classroom
 Problem-based learning
Handout 6.5
Principles of Teaching
Following are the seven most important principles of teaching.

Principle 1: Encourage contact between students and teachers.
Building rapport with students is very important. The contact between students and teachers
are vital to the students' success. One of the main reasons students leave school is the feeling
of isolation that they experience. The concern shown will help students get through difficult
times and keep working.
Classroom tips:
 Invite students to visit outside of class.
 Know your students by name.
 Help students with problems in their extracurricular activities.
 Seek out students you feel are having a problem with the course or are frequently absent.
 Encourage students to present their views and participate in class discussions..
Principle 2: Develop cooperation among students.
When students are encouraged to work as a team, more learning takes place. Characteristics of
good learning are collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working together
improves thinking and understanding.
Classroom tips:
 Use cooperative learning groups
 Have students participate in activities that encourage them to get to know one another.
 Encourage students to join at least one organization on campus.
 Assign group projects and presentations
 Utilize peer tutoring.
 Encourage students to participate in groups when preparing for exams and working on
assignments.
 Distribute performance criteria to students is that each person's grade is independent of
those achieved by others.
 Encourage students from different races and cultures to share their viewpoints on topics
shared in class.
Principle 3: Encourage active learning.

Learning is an active process. Students are not able to learn much by only sitting in classes
listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and churning out answers. They
must be able to talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences,
and apply it to their daily lives. Students need to make learning a part of them.
Classroom tips:
 Ask students to relate what they are learning to something in real life.
 Use journaling.
 Give students concrete, real-life situations to analyze.
 Encourage students to suggest new reading, projects, or course activities.
 Ask students to present their work to the class.
 Use of simulation software to run "what-if" scenarios allows students to manipulate
variables and circumstances.
 Practice role modeling and use web-based case studies to practice new thinking skills.
 Encourage students to challenge your ideas, the ideas of other students, or those ideas
presented in readings or other course materials in a respectful matter.
 Set up problem solving activities in small groups and have each group discuss their solutions
with the class.
Principle 4: Give prompt feedback.
By knowing what you know and do not know gives a focus to learning. In order for students to
benefit from courses, they need appropriate feedback on their performance. When starting
out, students need help in evaluating their current knowledge and capabilities. Within the
classroom, students need frequent opportunities to perform and receive suggestions for
improvement.
For the regular classroom:
 Provide informative comments that show the students' errors and give suggestions on how
they can improve.
 Discuss the results of class assignments and exams with the class and individual students.
 Vary assessment techniques (tests, papers, journaling, quizzes)..
 Have question and answer sessions.
 Use audio and/or video recordings to assess performances.
 Return grades for assignments, projects, and tests within one week.
Principle 5: Emphasize time on task

Learning needs time and energy. Efficient time-management skills are critical for students. By
allowing realistic amounts of time, effective learning for students and effective teaching for
faculty are able to occur.
Classroom tips:
 Expect students to complete their assignments promptly.
 Clearly communicate to your students the minimum amount of time they should spend
preparing for class and working on assignments.
 Have realistic expectations (don't expect 10 papers in 10 weeks).
 Encourage students to prepare in advance for oral presentations.
 Teach time management.
Principle 6: Communicate high expectations
Expect more and you will get it. The poorly prepared, those unwilling to exert themselves, and
the bright and motivated all need high expectations. Expecting students to perform well
becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy when teachers and institutions hold high standards and make
extra efforts.
Classroom tips:
 Encourage students to excel at the work they do.
 Give students positive reinforcement for doing outstanding work.
 Encourage students to work hard in class.
 Tell students that everyone works at different levels and they should strive to put forth
their best effort, regardless of what level it is.
 Work individually with students who are struggling to encourage them to stay motivated.
 Encourage students to do their best instead of focusing on grades.
Principle 7: Respect diverse talents and ways of learning.
There are many different ways to learn and no two people learn the same way. Students bring
different talents and learning styles to the classroom. Students need the opportunity to show
their talents and learn in ways that work for them
Classroom tips:
 Encourage students to speak up when they do not understand.
 Use diverse teaching activities and techniques to address a broad range of students.
 Select readings and design activities related to the background of students.
 Provide extra material or activities for students who lack essential background knowledge
or skills.
 Use collaborative teaching and learning techniques and pair students so they complement
each other’s abilities.
 Give students a problem to solve that has multiple solutions. Guide them with clues and
examples.
 Consider field trips.
Handout 6.6
Characteristics of Good Teaching
"The aim of teaching is simple: it is to make student learning possible. To teach is to make an
assumption about what and how the student learns; therefore, to teach well implies learning
about students' learning" (Ramsden, 1992).
The task of the teacher involves the creation of a learning environment in which students are
encouraged to think carefully and critically and express their thoughts involves constantly
monitoring and reflecting on the processes of teaching and student understanding and seeking
to improve them. Most difficult of all perhaps, it involves helping students to achieve their own
aims. These are not easy tasks, and there is no simple way to achieve them. Still less are there
any prescriptions that will hold good in all disciplines and for all students. How we teach must
be carefully tailored to suit both that which is to be learnt and those who are to learn it. To put
it another way - and to add another ingredient - our teaching methods should be the outcome
of our aims (that is, what we want the students to know, to understand, to be able to do, and
to value), our informed conceptions of how students learn, and the institutional context - with
all of its constraints and possibilities - within which the learning is to take place.
Following are the characteristics of good teaching
1. Begins class promptly and in a well-organized way.
2. Treats students with respect and caring.
3. Provides the significance/importance of information to be learned.
4. Provides clear explanations. Holds attention and respect of students….practices
effective classroom management.
5. Varies his/her instructional techniques.
6. Provides clear, specific expectations for assignments.
7. Provides frequent and immediate feedback to students on their performance.
8. Praises student answers and uses probing questions to clarify/elaborate answers.
9. Provides many concrete, real-life, practical examples.
10. Draws inferences from examples/models….and uses analogies.
11. Creates a class environment which is comfortable for students….allows students to
speak freely.
12. Teaches at an appropriately fast pace, stopping to check student understanding and
engagement.
13. Communicates at the level of all students in class.
14. Has a sense of humor!
15. Uses nonverbal behavior, such as gestures, walking around, and eye contact to reinforce
his/her comments.
16. Presents him/herself in class as “real people.”
17. Focuses on the class objective and does not let class get sidetracked.
18. Uses feedback from students (and others) to assess and improve teaching.
19. Reflects on own teaching to improve it.
One set of characteristics of good teaching, extracted from research studies and summarised
from the individual lecturer's point of view (Ramsden, 2003) includes:
 A desire to share your love of the subject with students
 An ability to make the material being taught stimulating and interesting
 A facility for engaging with students at their level of understanding
 A capacity to explain the material plainly
 A commitment to making it absolutely clear what has to be understood at what level
and why
 Showing concern and respect for students
 A commitment to encouraging independence
 An ability to improvise and adapt to new demands
 Using teaching methods and academic tasks that require students to learn actively,
responsibly and co-operatively
 Using valid assessment methods
 A focus on key concepts, and students misunderstandings of them, rather than covering
the ground
 Giving the highest quality feedback on student work
 A desire to learn from students and other sources about the effects of teaching and how
it can be improved.
A similar set of characteristics has been derived from feedback from students is summarized in
the following section.
Teaching skills and practices
Content knowledge and delivery

 A teachers should deliver content in a way which is clear and helpe students to understand.
They make difficult work comprehensible without oversimplifying, and use simple language.
They speak clearly and at an appropriate speed and allow adequate time for students. They
used questions and activities to engage students' thinking and interest.
Students’ trainee teachers
 Student participation was encouraged, in lectures as well as tutorial or laboratory sessions.
During teaching, they provide frequent opportunities for questions from, students, and
attempted to answer all questions promptly and clearly. They treated all student questions
seriously and did not intimidate or ridicule.
Attitude towards students
Teachers demonstrate an empathy with student thinking, anticipating misconceptions and

allowing students to develop understanding in a variety of ways. They observe students in class
for signs of boredom, or clarity about the topic. They encourage student feedback on their
teaching, outside class time; they make a point of being approachable and willing to help
students. They try to avoid "spoon-feeding" and encourage students to take an active role in
working through their difficulties.
Personal qualities
Highly rated teachers show enthusiasm for their subject, professional area and teaching role.
The most frequently mentioned personal attribute of the highly rated teachers is the relax
atmosphere of the classes created due to their open mindedness and good behavior. Students
also get motivated due to appropriate humour and an attitude which suggest that learning is
enjoyable.
Handout 6.7
Indicators/ Checklist of Characteristics of Good Teaching
NOTE: Observe the role play and identify which of the following characteristics have been used
Following are the characteristics of good teaching
1. Begins class promptly and in a well-organized way.
2. Treats students with respect and caring.
3. Provides the significance/importance of information to be learned.
4. Provides clear explanations. Holds attention and respect of students….practices effective
classroom management.
5. Varies his/her instructional techniques.
6. Provides clear, specific expectations for assignments.
7. Provides frequent and immediate feedback to students on their performance.
8. Praises student answers and uses probing questions to clarify/elaborate answers.
9. Provides many concrete, real-life, practical examples.
10. Draws inferences from examples/models….and uses analogies.
11. Creates a class environment which is comfortable for students….allows students to speak
freely.
12. Teaches at an appropriately fast pace, stopping to check student understanding and
engagement.
13. Communicates at the level of all students in class.
14. Has a sense of humor!
15. Uses nonverbal behavior, such as gestures, walking around, and eye contact to reinforce
his/her comments.
16. Presents him/herself in class as “real people.”
17. Focuses on the class objective and does not let class get sidetracked.
18. Uses feedback from students (and others) to assess and improve teaching.
19. Reflects on own teaching to improve it.
HANDOUTS
Handout 7.1
Methods of Teaching (Traditional)
1. Lecture Method
This is the most common method of teaching and is used at all levels. It involves the systematic
presentation of information or instructions through oral exposition by the teacher,
supplemented by the use of appropriate teaching aids or instructional materials. This
method of teaching is often referred to as: “chalk and talk” method. It has been noticed that
teachers who have very few teaching aids or materials including books to use in the teaching-
learning situation have to rely heavily on this method.
It is important that what will be taught using this method should be presented or
expressed in clear and simple language, which the learners will readily understand. It can be
seen, here, that the term `lecture’ is used to describe teaching in which a large part, or possibly
the whole of the lesson is occupied by the teacher in exposition and by the learners in listening
or taking notes. The lecture method is, therefore, suitable for mature learners, especially in
Colleges, Polytechnics and Universities. Subject matter can be presented in an organized
manner to a small or large number of students who benefit from the knowledge and
experience of an expert. One advantage of the lecture method is that it can be used to
give the maximum amount of information in a limited time. The use of this method, on the
other hand, is limited by the passivity of the learners, minimal feedback, reliance on the hearing
sense and the limited retention of knowledge given in this way.
2. Textbook Method:
There are several different approaches for teaching your children to be productive, educated
learners. Let’s take a look at the traditional Textbook Approach. This traditional approach uses
graded textbooks or workbooks that follow a scope and sequence. Each subject is covered in
180 daily increments per school year for a span of 12 years. Teacher’s manuals, tests and record
keeping materials are usually available. Some questions to ask before you choose the
traditional textbook approach:
 If your child has been in a traditional school setting, did they perform well in a traditional
classroom?
 Does your child like to have defined goals and can they complete assignments on their own
without much supervision?
 Is your child academically oriented?

 Will you follow through with the lesson plans and pace your course of instruction?
 What are the strengths of the textbook approach?
o Everything is laid out for ease of use.
o It has definite levels of accomplishment.
o Testing and assigning grades is easy to do.
o What are the weaknesses of the textbook approach?
o The textbook/workbook approach doesn’t take into consideration your children’s
individual learning style or their interests.
o This approach assumes there is a set amount of information that constitutes an
education and this info can be broken down into daily lessons.
o This approach can be expensive when teaching multiple children of different ages.
o It doesn’t encourage original, independent thinking as much as non-traditional
approaches.
o You’ll discover that every teaching approach has its strengths and weaknesses. The key
is discovering which approach fits best with your family’s lifestyle and will help you and
your family to stay focused and consistent.
o There are a number of excellent textbook/workbook programs available.
Reference:
http://www.educatingtoday.com/the-textbook-approach-to-education/ retrieved on 08/11/19
3. Unit Method:
Thematic Unit Definition and How to Create One
A Thematic unit is the organization of a curriculum around a central theme. In other words, it's
a series of lessons that integrate subjects across the curriculum, such as math, reading, social
studies, science, language arts, etc. that all tie into the main theme of the unit. Each activity
should have a main focus toward the thematic idea. A thematic unit is much broader than just
choosing a topic. They cover a wide range such as Australia, mammals, or the solar system.
Many teachers choose a different thematic unit for their classroom each week, while others
plan their teaching themes for two to nine weeks.
Why Use Thematic Units
 It increases students interest
 Helps students to understand connections
 Expands assessment strategies

 Keeps students engaged
 compacts the curriculum
 Saves teachers time because it incorporates all subjects
 Draws on connections from the real world and life experiences
Tips for Creating Thematic Units
Here are three tips to help you create a thematic unit in your classroom.
1. Find an engaging theme - Themes can be planned around books, benchmarks, skills
students need to develop, or just from student interest. Find a theme that will motivate and
captivate students interest. Units are typically longer than a week, so it's important to find a
theme that will keep the students engaged.
2. Create fun activities - The activities you choose are the heart of the unit. These activities
need to cross the curriculum and keep students interest. Learning centers are a great way
for students to get hands-on experience while learning important skills.
3. Evaluate Students Learning - While finding a central theme, and creating engaging cross-
curriculum activities are important, so is evaluating what the students have
learned. Portfolio-based assessment is a great way to see students’ progress throughout a
period of time. For example, a habitat portfolio can be created to document the progress
the students made throughout the unit of habitats.
Reference
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-thematic-unit-2081360
Additional material
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00220973.1936.11016792?journalCode=vtss20
&#.XdTchDRAF9I.gmail
Handout 7.2
Concept Mapping
Concept Mapping is the process of creating a visual representation of your knowledge. This
type of system predates the development of alphabets and the written word and is a deeply
embedded way that humans organize and communicate information. It is a graphic organizer
that not only gives a visual representation of concepts and the relationships between and
among them and then identifies how they relate to each other.
You start with concepts or ideas that are placed in circles (or boxes, or clouds) and then
connected with lines and arrows. Along these lines you will write phrases such as: "gives rise
to", "results in", "is required by," or "contributes to" (Novak & Cañas, 2006, p.3) that indicate
relationships and movement. This technique for visualizing relationships among different ideas
is called "Concept Mapping". Mind Mapping is similar but only defines connections and not
relationships.
Concepts Maps can be used to:
 Develop an understanding of a body of knowledge.
 Explore new information and relationships.
 Access prior knowledge.
 Gather new knowledge and information.
 Share knowledge and information generated.
 Design structures or processes such as written
 Documents, constructions, web sites, web search, multimedia presentations.
 Problem solving options.
All of these are parts of the papers and documents that you need to produce in your university
courses. A Concept Map is a way for you to organize materials so that you can do the academic
writing needed.
Why Use Concept Maps?
Mapping is an active learning strategy that moves you beyond rote memorization to critical
thinking and helps you to learn about how you learn. This gets you beyond just knowing to
reflecting on what you know and how you know it.
Concept Mapping requires that you break down component parts to see how things are put
together. This promotes a richer construction of knowledge because you must organize, select,
relate and interpret data. It provides an explicit, encapsulated representation of important
ideas on one page which is great for review. It also helps you to see gaps in knowledge and
areas of oversimplification, contradiction, or mis-interpretation.
Why Relationships?
When you are organizing your understanding of ideas and concepts, it is critical to define for
yourself how they relate to each other and the context in which they occur. This reflection on
connections and relationships broadens and deepens your understanding of how things work
By using a diagrammed series of "nodes" consisting of linked topics (core concepts) and
subtopics (which include examples and evidence for the topics) you can identify and name
connections by cause/effect, relationships and inter-relationships, differences, or hierarchies
(University of Guelph , handout on Concept mapping, p.1)
https://www.kpu.ca/sites/default/files/Learning%20Centres/Reflect_ConceptMap_LA.pdf
A concept map is a general organizer that shows a central idea with its corresponding
characteristics.https://education.wm.edu/centers/ttac/documents/articles/graphic_organizers.
pdf Some Example of Concept Mapping:
A more complex concept map would show reciprocal relationships between concepts and have
more arrows indicating various and overlapping relationships among the concepts on the map.
Let's look at a concept map on depression for an example of a more detailed concept map.
Reference:
 https://www.kpu.ca/sites/default/files/Learning%20Centres/Reflect_ConceptMap_LA.pdf
 https://www.google.com/search?q=concept+map+in+mathematics+fractions&rlz=1C1CHBF
_enPK860PK860&sxsrf=ACYBGNTuW8K1pguEXVCKgMYF7tQ8LOdnrA:1573393055665&tbm
=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=BO54DVB9BoMrHM%253A%252CSBcDowatPIVwnM%252C_&
vet=1&usg=AI4_-
kRGq7M8sGpPtdd4XVUYqcd6N5pkOA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj56rLx4d_lAhVLURoKHS3lAR8Q
9QEwAnoECAgQDA#imgrc=RkbZbHEpr_1A_M:&vet=1
HANDOUTS
Handout 8.1
Role-Play
Role-play is an enactment (or simulation) of a scenario in which each participant is given a part
to act out. Trainees are provided with a description of the context—usually a topic area, a
general description of a situation, a description of their roles (e.g., their objectives, emotions,
concerns), and the problem they each face. In a role play you will put yourself in the shoes of
your character and argue a point that will best examine your point of view.
The degree to which a scenario is structured will depend on what the learning objectives are.
Spontaneous role-plays are loosely constructed interactions in which one of the trainee
teacher’s plays him while the other(s) play people with whom the first trainee interacted in the
past or will in the future. This type of role-play focuses on attitudes. It is typically used to
develop insight into our own behavior and its effect on others rather than to develop specific
skills.
In a single role-play, one group of trainees’ role-plays for the rest, providing a visual
demonstration of some learning points. Other trainees observe the role-play, analyzing the
interactions and identifying learning points. Although this format provides a single focus for
trainees and feedback from a skilled observer (the trainer), it does have some disadvantages.
Those chosen to act as the characters might experience acute embarrassment at being the
center of attention. They also do not have the advantage of watching others perform the roles.
In addition, they might not clearly portray the behaviors that are the focus of training.
How to Use the Role-Play Effectively
Role-plays can be strategically placed throughout the training to provide not only the skills
practice but also a change of pace.
Feedback is an important component in the role-play. The manner in which feedback is given
will depend on the amount of time available. Role-play is more effective when the
trainer/teacher can provide individual feedback. However, time constraint might limit the
degree to which this is possible. When time is limited, trainees may be asked to provide
feedback to other trainees.
It is important to avoid the following problems when selecting a role-play:
1. Confusion that results from incomplete, excess, or misleading information  
2. Confusion about how to behave in the role-play because the interrelationships are too
complex
3. Unrealistic or trivial scripts
Some concerns might arise about the trainees/students’ involvement in the role-play. For some
trainees/students, the role-play can be considered “fun” but not real, which lessens the
generalizability to the job. Others find it stressful to act out a role with others watching. The
following table provides tips on how to develop and present a role-play.
Tips on how to develop and present a role-play.
Developing
• Make a summary of the different skills that the role-play is intended to develop. Use these
to guide the role play you create.  
• Make it real. Use situations, issues and concerns from the company whenever possible.
• Set up your situation carefully so it creates the type of interaction that will illustrate your
points and engender the type of behavior on which you are focusing.
• Create a situation in which one player’s behavior causes  another player to either use the
skills taught or to illustrate what happens when those skills are not used. 
• Create whole characters. Give your characters enough background and context to illustrate
your key learning points.  
• Give your characters room to act. Unless you are teaching rote responses, a full script is not
needed. Providing the detailed background on habits, attitudes, goals, personalities, mood
and so on, should be enough.  
• A role-play should only focus on one key problem. Do not try for more than one issue;
otherwise, you will diffuse the impact and distract the learners with too much information.
Presenting
1. Begin by letting the trainee teachers know the objective of the role-play. Then provide them
with the background and context within which the role-play will be conducted. Sometimes
you may want to demonstrate the role-play with volunteers or other trainers.
2. Don’t let the role-plays or the debriefings get off topic. To prevent your role-play from going
in the wrong direction, make sure that trainee teacher’s understand what they are
supposed to do. A simple way to do this is to give them written instructions. If the role-play
gets off topic, stop the performance and ask, “What are the problems here? Why isn’t the
conversation moving in the right direction?” Be assertive to ensure that the trainee
teacher’s stay in character and on topic.  
3. If possible, you should plan to use observers to provide feedback. Provide them with an
observation sheet that lists the key behaviors to look for and allows space to record key
aspects of the performance.  

4. Always debrief after the role-play. This is how learning takes place. Ask questions of each
player, and observer. Allow the group to comment about what they learned from observing
the players.  
5. Encourage discussion. Challenge them with alternatives: “What would have happened if.?”
Reference:
https://slideplayer.com/slide/6673856/
https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/frame_found_sr2/tns/tn-29.pdf
Handout 8.2
Steps in Role-Playing
Follow These Steps
Step #1– Define Your Objectives
Questions to consider:
 What topics do you want the role play exercise to cover?
 How much class time do you have (or need) for the role play?
 How will you evaluate your students?
Step #2– Choose Context and Roles
 Provide students with a “realistic” work place setting and scenario.
 Provide students with Role Cards (optional)
 Provide students with Cue Cards (optional)
Step #3– Introduce the Exercise
 Describe the setting and the problem(s) to the students.
 If students are going to be divided into small groups, you can provide this information
on a handout.
Step #4 - Give Students Time To Prepare
 Give students time to look over their role cards, cue cards, handouts, etc.
 Allow students time to get into their roles for the exercise.
 Provide props if needed or desired.
Step #5- The Role Play
 Establish ground rules for student participation and behavior during the role play
exercise.
 Be aware of the potential conflicts or challenges that might arise, and be prepared to
handle them.
 Have students “perform” their role plays.
Step #6- Concluding Discussion
 Follow-up the role play with a debriefing session.
 Encourage students to discuss what they have learned from participating in and/or
watching the role play exercises.
 Prepare some higher-order questions to utilize during the discussion to stimulate the
students’ thinking and reflection.
Step #7– Assessment Options

 Assign [and grade] a written project associated with the role play.
 Evaluate the student’s participation in the role play. Establish grading criteria and use a
rubric or scorecard.
 Grade the role play itself. Some possible grading criteria include:
o Playing in-character
o Working to further the character’s goals
o Making statements that reflect the character’s perspective
o Being constructive, respectful, and courteous during the exercise
Closure
 What are some of the essential parts or features of a role play?
 What are some grounds rules that you would want to establish for your students during
a role play?
Reference:
 https://slideplayer.com/slide/6673856/
Handout 8.3
Role-Play in Social Studies
Role-play is an effective learning strategy in which students act the part of another character,
thereby gaining an appreciation for others’ points of view as well an understanding of the
complexity of resolving issues and problems in the real world. In the context of social studies,
this strategy may be used to learn about issues and decisions of the past (and how things might
have been different) or about current issues in the local community or in a broader setting.
Aside from knowledge acquisition, preparing and conducting a role-play activity strengthens
students’ knowledge acquisition skills, their creativity, their value clarification skills, and a
variety of interpersonal skills identified in the curriculum outcomes.
Preparation for Role-Play:
 Identify an appropriate issue or controversy, past or present, that requires resolution.
 Select an issue that involves a number of parties, each of which brings its own
perspectives to the debate or discussion.
 Students should have a good general knowledge of the issue before roles are selected.
 Clearly identify the parties and individuals involved and select roles accordingly.
 All students should have a specific role. In addition to trainee teacher’s in the actual
debate, there might be members of a commission, court personnel, civic leaders, media,
et cetera.
 Students conduct research to collect information about the specific views of the party or
Individual they represent in the role-play.
 Students use information they have collected to clarify their viewpoints and to develop
their arguments and strategies for maximum effect in the role-play activity.
 Students also seek to understand other viewpoints and to develop counter-arguments.
 The nature of the role-play activity (council meeting, public hearing, court case, etc.) is
determined and reviewed before proceeding.
Conducting the Role-Play:
 Ensure that the physical setting (room, furniture placement, necessary equipment) is
appropriate for the nature of the role-play.
 Props and costumes may be included to provide a more authentic experience.
 The issue and its real-life setting are reviewed before proceeding.
 Unless playing a specific character, the teacher’s role should be limited to occasional
procedural advice as appropriate. At no time should the teacher attempt to influence or
favour a particular viewpoint.
 The role-play activity should have an appropriate real-life conclusion, such as a
statement or decision announcement by the head of a commission, judge, or mayor.
 In the case of a hearing or court case, the role-play should include an opportunity for
the commissioners or jury to meet, discuss evidence provided, and reach a decision.
Debriefing
In order to maximize the role-play learning experience, it is critical for students to have an
opportunity to step out of their roles and debrief, including a discussion on how they felt
playing the role, and a review of the issues and the evidence and arguments presented.
Individual students’ positions may or may not have changed; however, they will have a much
better understanding of the issues as well as the complexity and importance of resolving real-
world problems. Solving problems involves debate, negotiations, and consensus building.
Reference:
 https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/frame_found_sr2/tns/tn-29.pdf
Handout 8.4
Questioning Techniques
How do you create a questioning friendly classroom?
The purpose of questioning is to promote learning and develop thinking. By asking increasingly
more challenging questions we can model more complex thinking and steer young people
towards becoming an independent thinker, or developing their own perspective.
There are 7 actions you can take

Handout 8.5
How and why we use questions?
How and why do we use Questions and Talk in the classroom?

Teachers use questioning as part of their teaching for many reasons, but often to:
 maintain the flow of the learning within the lesson;
 engage students with the learning;
 assess what has been learned, and check that what has been learnt is understood and
applied;
 test student memory and comprehension;
 to initiate individual and collaborative thinking in response to new information;
 seek the views and opinions of pupils;
 provide an opportunity for pupils to share their opinions/views, seeking responses from
their peers;
 encourage creative thought and imaginative or innovative thinking;
 foster speculation, hypothesis and idea/opinion forming;
 create a sense of shared learning and avoid the feel of a ‘lecture’;
 challenge the level of thinking and possibly mark a change to a higher order of thinking;
 model higher order thinking using examples and building on the responses of students.
All the following examples and many others are useful and necessary within different classroom
situations. They help teachers move students from simple responses, to engage in more
developed complex thinking. This helps them apply what they understand, to bridge learning
from other times and different situations, to think more actively in lessons and learn from the
answers given by other students.
Handout 8.6
Importance of questions
What is the importance of questioning in the classroom?
Paul and Elder (2000) state that ‘Thinking is not driven by answers but by questions. Had no
questions been asked by those who laid the foundation for a field…the field would never have
developed in the first place’. In order to keep a field of thought (or a concept/topic) alive
teachers have to constantly ask questions of it, rather than simply allowing that field to close
down. Teachers are then able to challenge existing or established answers through questioning
to challenge students’ thinking.
Cotton (2001) outlined these functions of questioning and states that ‘Instruction which
includes posing questions is more effective in producing achievement gains than instruction
carried out without questioning students’.
The word transcendence is derived from ‘trans’ (meaning beyond) and ‘scandare’ (to climb) and
links strongly to our role as teachers, to allow our students to reach beyond their current
academic level and to achieve the best possible outcomes. This is heavily linked to Dweck’s
concept of a growth mindset where we, as teachers,
attempt to express to our students:
 To see their faults and help them to work on them.
 To challenge them to become a better person.
 To encourage them to learn new things.
What types of questions can we use?
Essentially there are two categories of questions that we use within our classrooms:
 Lower cognitive questions: lower order, convergent or closed questions.
o Usually require memory recall of previously learnt information.
o There is often only one right or wrong answer such as ‘When was the Battle of Edgehill?’
The only answer to this is October 1642.
 Higher cognitive questions: higher order, divergent or open questions.
o These require students to analyze information and apply their knowledge.
o An example would be ‘what were the consequences of the Battle of Edgehill?’ There
could be a range of possible answers to this question, but they would all require the
students to think and engage with the learning.
However, the research conducted by Cotton (2001) and Hattie (2012) showed that:
20% of classroom questions are higher cognitive questions

20% are procedural questions (‘have you got your books with you?)
60% are lower cognitive questions.
Immediately, this suggests that teachers need to increase their use of higher cognitive
questions, in order to stretch and challenge their students’ thinking. However, it is not to
underestimate the value of lower cognitive questions.
1. Benefits of closed questioning
‘Practice at retrieving new knowledge or skill from memory is a potent tool for learning and
durable retention’
Brown et al., 2014
Retrieval of knowledge is an important aspect of embedding knowledge and Ebinghaus’
‘Forgetting Curve’ shows the impact that regular quizzing can have on the retention of
knowledge. As a result, lower cognitive questions play an important role in developing and
embedding the core knowledge that students need to be able to successfully engage with
higher cognitive questions.
2. Benefits of open questioning
Cotton (2001) states that divergent questioning results in the following, amongst high school
students:
 On-task behaviour
 Speculative thinking on the part of the students
 Relevant questions posed by the students.
However, he also states that ‘Simply asking higher cognitive questions does not necessarily
lead students to produce higher cognitive responses’. This view is supported by Lemov
(2015) who states that ‘without sufficient factual knowledge this (divergent questioning) will
lead to unfounded speculation’. As teachers, it is important that we plan the use of open
questions carefully and attempt to foresee the potential pitfalls of our questions.
The importance of teacher reaction to students answers
‘To raise your hand is a critical act that deserves some reflection…In a micro-sense, every time
students raise their hands, a milepost passes…To raise your hand is to mark the passage of an
event worthy of action…’
(Lemov, 2015)
Lemov’s quote is an important one and something which has to be seriously considered by
teachers. Lemov is stressing the importance of the student answering the question, not from
the actual level of knowledge but from the act itself. This student has shown a considerable
level of cognitive effort and has gone through the following processes:
 attending to the question (thinking)
 deciphering the meaning of the question (understanding)
 creating a covert response (forming the answer in their own mind)
 generating an overt response (raising their hand and then speaking their answer).
It is vital that, we as teachers, recognize this but once a student has actively engaged in the
learning that we develop that learning further through:
 Probing – eliciting further information by asking more questions
 Counterfactual answers – asking students for alternative answers or different points of
view
 Playing devil’s advocate – to challenge the students’ conviction with their answer
In essence, we are trying to develop greater levels of critical thinking within our students.
How should we ask questions?
Wait Time
It is also important to consider how we ask questions to our students. Studies have shown that
on average a student is given 1 second of thinking time before being required to answer a
question. By extending the ‘wait time’ for higher cognitive questions we can:
 Increase the number of higher cognitive responses
 Increase the length of responses
 Increase student achievement
 Generate greater participation and increase student-student interactions.
Cold Calling
Lemov refers to the ‘culture of engaged accountability’ where every student knows that it is a
possibility that they will have to answer a question. However, in order to achieve this a ‘safe’
classroom environment needs to be created. The advantages of selecting students to answer
(rather than hands-up) are:
 It sets clear expectations in your classroom – everyone participates.
 It removes the chance of relying too heavily on one or two confident students
As with all teaching strategies, a mixed approach is beneficial. Calling a students’ name first can
be beneficial; as it focuses them on the question. In addition, posing a demanding question at
the beginning of the lesson and stating that you will select students to answer it in 10 minutes
or at the end of the lesson, provides the opportunity for all of the students to think about the
question.
Summary
In summary questioning in lessons is an important aspect of teaching because it:
 drives learning
 creates a language rich environment
 reviews learning
 encourages engagement and motivation
 develops critical thinking
However, the type of and way in which we use questions needs to be carefully considered if we
are to maximize the potential of our students.
HANDOUTS
Handout 9.1
Worksheet 9.1
Instruction: What things or aspects should you consider?
1. Before the presentation
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. During the presentation
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. After the presentation
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Worksheet 9.2
Rubric for Assessment of Presentations
Indicators Did it Tried Didn’t exhibit

Confidence
Knowledge
Voice
I. Volume
II. Tone
Clarity
Eye contact
Facial Expression
Body language
I. posture
II. Gestures
Time-Management
Handout 9.2
The Case Study Method
DEFINITION:
Cases are narratives, situations, select data samplings, or statements that present unresolved
and provocative issues, situations, or questions (Indiana University Teaching Handbook, 2005).
The case method is a participatory, discussion-based way of learning where students gain skills
in critical thinking, communication, and group dynamics. It is a type of problem-based learning.
Often seen in the professional schools of medicine, law, and business, the case method is now
used successfully in disciplines such as engineering, chemistry, education, and journalism.
Students can work through a case during class as a whole or in small groups.
In addition to the definition above, the case method of teaching (or learning):
 Is a partnership between students and teacher as well as among student’s?
 Promotes more effective contextual learning and long-term retention.
 Involves trust that students will find the answers.
 Answers questions not only of “how” but “why.”
 Provides students the opportunity to “walk around the problem” and to see varied
perspectives.
(Bruner, 2002, and Christensen, Garvin, and Sweet, 1991)
WHAT IS THE VALUE OF THE CASE METHOD?
Bruner (1991) states that the case method:
 Is effective: It employs active learning, involves self-discovery where the teacher serves
as facilitator.
 Builds the capacity for critical thinking: It uses questioning skills as modeled by the
teacher and employs discussion and debates.
 Exercises an administrative point of view: Students must develop a framework for
making decisions.
 Models a learning environment: It offers an exchange and flow of ideas from one person
to another and achieves trust, respect, and risk-taking.
 Models the process of inductive learning-from-experience: It is valuable in promoting
life-long learning. It also promotes more effective contextual learning and long-term
retention.
 Mimics the real world: Decisions are sometimes based not on absolute values of right
and wrong, but on relative values and uncertainty.
WHAT ARESOME WAYS TO USE THE CASE METHOD APPROPRIATELY?
Choose an appropriate case
Cases can be any of the following (Indiana University Teaching Handbook, 2005):
 Finished cases based on facts; these are useful for purposes of analysis.
 Unfinished open-ended cases; where the results are not clear yet, so the student must
predict, make suggestions, and conclusions.
 Fictional cases that the teacher writes; the difficulty is in writing these cases so they
reflect a real-world situation.
Original documents, such as the use of news articles, reports, data sets, ethnographies; an interesting
case would be to provide two sides of a scenario.
Develop effective questions

Think about ways to start the discussion such as using a hypothetical example or employing the
background knowledge of your students.
Get students prepared
To prepare for the next class ask students to think about the following questions:
 What is the problem or decision?
 Who is the key decision-maker?
 Who are the other people involved?
 What caused the problem?
 What are some underlying assumptions or objectives?
 What decision needs to be made?
 Are there alternative responses?
Set ground rules with your students
For effective class discussion suggest the following to your students:
 Carefully listen to the discussion, but do not wait too long to participate.
 Collaboration and respect should always be present.
 Provide value-added comments, suggestions, or questions. Strive to think of the class
objective by keeping the discussion going toward constructive inquiry and solutions.
Other suggestions
 Try to refrain from being the “sage on the stage” or a monopolizer. If you are, students
are merely absorbing and not engaging with the material in the way that the case
method allows.
 Make sure the students have finished presenting their perspective before interjecting.
Wait and check their body language before adding or changing the discussion.
 Take note of the progress and the content in the discussion. One way is by using the
board or computer to structure the comments. Another way, particularly useful where
there is a conflict or multiple alternatives, is the two-column method. In this method,
the teacher makes two columns: ‘For and Against’ or “Alternative A and Alternative B.”
All arguments/comments are listed in the respective column before discussions or
evaluations occur. Don't forget to note supportive evidence.
 In addition to the discussion method, you can also try debates, role-plays, and
simulations as ways to uncover the lesson from the case.
 If you decide to grade participation, make sure that your grading system is an accurate
and defensible portrayal of the contributions.
In conclusion, cases are a valuable way for learning to occur. It takes a fair amount of
preparation by both the teacher and the students, but don't forget these benefits (Bruner,
2002):
 The teacher is learning as well as the students. Because of the interactive nature of this
method, the teacher constantly “encounters fresh perspective on old problems or tests
classic solutions to new problems.”
 The students are having fun, are motivated and engaged. If done well, the students are
working collaboratively to support each other.
Reference:
 https://citl.illinois.edu/citl-101/teaching-learning/resources/teaching-strategies/the-
case-method
Handout 9.3
Case Studies Ideas for Kids!
Problem Title Link Summary
Given a map of an amusement park, students are

asked to design a schedule and divide visitor students
Amusement Park
into groups so that they can optimize their field trip
visit.
Looking at the pictures, students compare the

modern day animals with their prehistoric cousins.
Ancient Crocodile
How do they think they are different? How are they
the same?
Given aerial photographs of caribou herds, students

Caribou are asked to develop a process for estimating
population numbers.
Students are asked to develop a mathematical model

Historic Hotels to maximize profit that can be calculated with a
quadratic equation.
Students study the map of the Moreno Valley Trash

Collection schedule. Students then figure out which
Labor Dispute areas they think have a bigger need for trash pick-up
and how many workers they think are needed to pick
up the trash in each district daily.
Given information on previous years, students must

Lawnmower
decide who to hire for a lawnmower business.
Meteorology Students are given weather maps for four days and
Madness are to predict what the fifth map should look like.
Students are asked to do a layout of a mini-golf

Mini Golf
course, given 18 designs and area constraints.
Students are asked to develop a ranking system to

On-Time Arrival determine which airlines are more likely to arrive on-
time.
For a paper airplane contest, students are asked to

develop a way to award the winners for: Most
Paper Airplanes
Accurate, Best Floater, Best Boomerang and Best
Overall
Students are asked to find the best phone plan for

Phone Plans their household, given information of previous phone
bills.
From a given quilt pattern, students are asked to

draw the templates in order to make a quilt of
specific dimensions. They are also required to explain
Quilt Problem
their procedure in making the templates so that this
method works with different quilt patterns and
different dimensions.
Given a street map, students are asked to design

Rush Popcorn
optimal routes for popcorn delivery.
Delivery
From a paper folding model used to form 8-sided

snowflakes, students are asked to revise the model
Snowflake
and develop one that can help them cut out 6-sided
snowflakes.
Students are asked to develop a system that will

make fair teams for girls playing softball. The
Softball
information given for each player includes coaches’
comments, and measures for throw, batting, and run.
Students are asked to develop a fair rating system to

Summer Reading award points to students participating in a summer
reading program.
Given information about walking plans and calories

Walking Works
burned, students are asked to design a procedure for
Wonders
a health club to meet client's needs.
Reference:
 https://engineering.purdue.edu/ENE/Research/SGMM/CASESTUDIESKIDSWEB/case_stu
dies_table.htm
Worksheet 9.3
Case
Problem / Situation / Narrative
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Identification of challenges
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Solutions
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Benefits
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Results
HANDOUTS
Handout 10.1
Individual Word Puzzle
Instructions:
 Work alone.
 Write down English words that use these letters ONLY.
 You can make a one-letter word or a seven-letter word.
 You cannot use a letter more than once.
 You have four minutes.
A E B N R S O
Reference: Professional Development Module-1 by Pre-Step

Handout 10.2
Group Word Puzzle
Instructions:
 Work alone.
 Write down English words that use these letters ONLY.
 You can make a one-letter word or a seven-letter word.
 You cannot use a letter more than once.
 You have four minutes.
T A R U E S N
Reference: Professional Development Module-1 by Pre-Step

Handout 10.3
Reflection and Discussion Questions
Performance/success
Were you more successful solving the math puzzle on your own or with a partner? When you did
the word puzzle, did you score more words on your own or in your group? What accounts for the
differences in performance?
Individual vs. collaborative work

How did you feel working alone? Did you like/dislike it? Did you wish,to work with someone
else? Why? Did he or she feel anxious? How did you feel working with a partner or in a group?
How was it different from working alone?
Performance in front of facilitator and peers

How did they feel when the facilitator announced he or she was going to choose someone to
come to the front of the class and demonstrate the correct answer? Did you feel the same way
when the facilitator said that he/she would select a group to share their answer?
Reference:
Professional Development Module-1 by Pre-Step
Handout 10.4
What is collaborative learning?
Collaborative learning is an educational approach to teaching and learning that involves groups
of students working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product.
According to Gerlach, "Collaborative learning is based on the idea that learning is a naturally
social act in which the trainee teacher’s talk among themselves
(Gerlach, J. M. (1994). "Is this collaboration?" In Bosworth, K. and Hamilton, S. J. (Eds.),
Collaborative Learning: Underlying Processes and Effective Techniques, New Directions for
Teaching and Learning No. 59)
 http://archive.wceruw.org/cl1/CL/moreinfo/MI2A.htm
Reference:
 https://castleberry.instructure.com/courses/4077/pages/five-basic-elements-of-
collaborative-learning retrieved on 09/11/19
Handout 10.5
Project-Based Learning
Project-Based Learning is an instructional approach built upon authentic learning activities that
engage student interest and motivation. These activities are designed to answer a question or
solve a problem, and generally reflect the types of learning and work people do in the everyday
world outside the classroom.
Project-Based Learning is synonymous with learning in depth. A well-designed project provokes
students to encounter (and struggle with) the central concepts and principles of a discipline.
Project-Based Learning teaches students 21st century skills as well as content. These skills
include communication and presentation skills, organization and time management skills,
research and inquiry skills, self-assessment and reflection skills, and group participation and
leadership skills.
Project-Based Learning is generally done by groups of students working together toward a
common goal. Performance is assessed on an individual basis, and takes into account the
quality of the product produced, the depth of content understanding demonstrated, and the
contributions made to the ongoing process of project realization.
Finally, Project-Based Learning allows students to reflect upon their own ideas and opinions,
exercise voice and choice, and make decisions that affect project outcomes and the learning
process in general.
Combining these considerations, we define Project-Based Learning as: a systematic teaching
method that engages students in learning essential knowledge and life-enhancing skills
through an extended, student-influenced inquiry process structured around complex,
authentic questions and carefully designed products and tasks.
Reference:
 http://pbl-online.org/About/whatisPBL.htm
 http://www.edutopia.org/project-based-learning.
Handout 10.6
Task Instructions
Team Leader Interviewer / Clarifier

 Organize the team  Ask initial and follow-up questions
 Delegate responsibilities  Ask questions for clarification
 Decide where you will go to gather  Coordinate with recorder to make sure all
information information is being captured
 Facilitate task attainment by introducing  Operate recording equipment, if necessary
the team and explaining task as necessary.

 Coordinate development of sharing
responses
Recorder Time Keeper

 Record all information in notebook  Keep track of time
 Ensure that electronic recording system  Ensure that team goals can be met in
are working allotted time
 Make sure to note names of all people and  During interviews, make sure that
places interviewer does not spend too much time
 Capture all appropriate images (cameras, on one questions
drawings, notes, etc.)  Help coordinate timely production of
 Coordinate with all other designated roles sharing resources and reports
 Responsible for returning the team
promptly in allotted time.
Handout 10.7
School Projects Ideas
For trainee teachers:
1. Advertisements: create an advertising campaign to sell a product. The product can be real
or imaginary. Try using this to teach persuasion, as an assignment for speech class, or to
reinforce skills learned in a consumer class.
2. Album Covers: create artwork for an album. The album may be connected to a skill (such a
multiplication) and should demonstrate or explain how that skill is used. Or the album
cover may be connected to a novel and the art work might present a relevant theme in the
story. Another use would be to have students create natural disaster album covers in a
science class where the cover would depict and explain the event.
3. Autobiographies: write the story of your life. This assignment may help you teach
autobiography or reinforce a broad range of writing skills.
4. Awards: create awards to present to historical figures, scientists, mathematicians, authors,
or characters from a novel.
5. Banners: create an informational banner. Students could create time lines of the American
civil war or the Spanish alphabet.
6. Bar Graphs: create illustrated bar graphs. These may be used to explore data sets, use
statistics to support a point, or illustrate a growth or change in a market.
7. Biographies: write the life story of someone else. It could be a friend, family member,
historical figure, or a fictional character.
8. Blogs: create blogs for literary characters or historical figures. Create an actual blog for free
at blogger.com or just have students write and organize articles on white printer paper if
the internet is not available.
9. Blueprints: create blueprints or floor plans of a scene described in a novel, an historic
setting, or an earthquake proof bridge or structure.
10. Board games: create board games where students review course concepts. Game play
should be based around answering review questions correctly.
11. Book Clubs: Students read either novels or selections from the text book and discuss the
readings in small groups. Students might be required to take notes about the discussion or
provide an audio recording of the discussion as the artifact to be evaluated. Students might
also create discussion questions beforehand and have these approved by the instructor.
This activity may be applied to reading selections in any subject.
12. Booklets: create an informational booklet. In the past I’ve had students create booklets
showing comma rules, narrator’s perspective, genre, figurative language, and more.
Booklets can be applied to almost any unit of study and all they require to make are some
blank white printer paper folded in half, one of my favorites.
13. Bookmarks: create illustrated bookmarks with relevant information. A bookmark might
summarize previous chapters or contain the definitions of challenging vocabulary words.
14. Brochures: brochures can be made as either tri-fold or bi-folds. Students can create
informational brochure’s about geographic locations, a story’s setting, or a natural event
such as how a tidal wave is formed or how the food chain works.
15. Calendars: create a calendar charting the dates of key events. This can be applied to an
historical event (like a famous battle), a scientific event (such the path of Hurricane Katrina),
or the sequence of events in story.
16. Casting Calls: select people (fictional, famous, or otherwise) to play the role in a movie
version of story or historic event. Explain which character traits were considered in each
selection.
17. Cheers: create a cheer explaining a scientific or mathematical process. Alternately, a cheer
could summarize the events of a novel or an historic episode.
18. Classified Ads: create classified type ads as seen in newspapers. It could be a wanted ad or
a M4F type ad depending on the age of your students. Update the concept and have
students create Craigslist ads or Ebay listings. Example applications include covering
vocabulary words, introducing multiple characters in a drama, examining figures in an
historical event, or studying endangered and extinct plants and animals.
19. Coat of Arms: create a family coat of arms for a character from a novel or a person from
history. A good activity for teaching symbolism.
20. Collages: create a collage or collection of images related to a topic. Images can be hand
drawn, printed, or clipped from a magazine or newspaper. These work best with large
thematic ideas that give students the ability to maneuver, like a collage representing
slavery, the 1920s, or an entire story.
21. Comic Strips or Books: create an illustrated comic strip or book representing events from
history or a work of fiction.
22. Crossword Puzzles: create a crossword puzzle to review definitions of challenging
vocabulary words. Great for science, social studies, reading, and even math terms.
23. Diary Entries: create diary entries for a person from history or a fictional character who
experienced an historic event. Can also be applied to characters in a story or survivors of a
disaster.
24. Dramas: create a play. Students might adapt an existing story or create original works and
plays can be centered on any event in history.
25. Editorials: provide an opinion about a hot topic in history or science. Should the space
program be reduced? Is US military intervention in current conflicts appropriate? Is global
warming a concern?
26. Fables: create fables that teach a lesson. Students may create illustrated story boards of
their original fables or even dramatic adaptations which they then perform. A good
character building activity.
27. Flags: create a flag representing either an actual county (like Libya) or fictitious place (like
Narnia). This project should be accompanied by a brief report explaining what ideas the
colors and images on the flags represent.
28. Flash Cards: create cards helpful for study and review. Flash cards can be created for any
subject and topic.
29. Flowcharts: students create flowcharts analyzing and representing a mathematical process,
a natural event, or an event in history or literature.
30. Glossaries: If students need to understand a large array of vocabulary words, consider
having them construct glossaries to help them study and review.
31. Hieroglyphics: create pictures that represent vocabulary words. Alternately, students could
retell the events of a story or historical episode in simple pictures.
32. ID Badges: create identification cards for characters from a work of literature or for people
involved in an historical event. Include relevant details on the badges.
33. Illustrated Quotes: Have students choose a meaningful quote from a text that they are
reading. They should explain why the quote interests them and then write the quote on a
blank sheet of paper and draw related images.
34. Instructions: write instructions on how to perform an operation or experiment, diagram a
sentence, or start a World War.
35. Inventions: create and illustrate your new invention that addresses a problem in nature or
society. Address environmental or sociological issues.
36. Limericks: write limericks about events from history or scientific discoveries such as, “There
once was a man named Sir Newton…”
37. Magazines: create magazines covering large units of study such as the Industrial Revolution
or Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, that way many articles can be written. Images may also be
drawn or printed and added to the publication.
38. Maps: create maps based on actual geographic or national boundaries and landmarks or
maps illustrating the setting of a story and the journey of a character.
39. Merit Badges: create vocabulary merit badges where the term is defined in three or fewer
words and a small image is drawn to represent the definition.
40. Movie Adaptations: plan a movie version of a novel, scientific discovery, or historical event.
Pick who will play what role, plan scenes, write dialog, and even create a soundtrack.
41. Murals: create a mural or a large drawing of many images related to a larger idea. A mural
about the Harlem Renaissance might contain images of Langston Hughes,Â Countee Cullen,
and W.E.B. DuBois.
42. Myths: write creation myths to account for scientific or historic events or for a creative
writing assignment.
43. Newscasts: deliver important information from literature, history, science, or math in the
form of a newscast. Newscast can be prerecorded or presented live.
44. Pen-pals: write letters to and from important people from history or the characters in a
story.
45. Poems and Raps: write a poem or rap reviewing any topic.
46. Postcards: similar to the pen-pals assignment above, but postcards have illustrations
representing thematic concepts.
47. Posters: create posters to review skills. As a bonus, many of these posters can often be
displayed during state tests, so if your students create high quality posters, the posters may
be a useful resource during the test.
48. Questionnaires: create a questionnaire and survey students to gather an understanding
about thematic issues from a text or social problems for a speech or presentation.
49. Radio Broadcasts: create a script for a radio program covering any appropriate field of
study.
50. Reader’s Theater: silently act out the events of a story or text alone or with a group of
people while someone reads the text aloud. Students should be given time to prepare their
acting.
51. Recipes: students can create recipes about how atoms combine to form molecules (H2O),
or how to create events like the French Revolution or World War I (add one Arch Duke).
52. Scrapbooks: create a scrapbook of your favorite poems or important events from a decade.
53. Skits: create a short skit to bring an historical event to life.
54. Slide Shows: if you have access to enough computers and a projector, I suggest having
students create PowerPoint presentations. With just a little instruction, students should be
able to create pretty flashy presentations, and you can combine this project with a research
paper as a culminating activity.
55. Soundtracks: create a soundtrack for a movie version of a novel or historical or natural
event. Use actual songs or just describe the mood of each song if you do not know song
titles. Explain why you feel that each song matches the event. A good activity to review
mood.
56. Stamps: students create commemorative stamps honoring people, depicting elements from
the periodic table, or challenging vocabulary terms.
57. Storyboards: create story boards summarize a short story or to plan a narrative, movie, or
presentation.
58. Tests: write a test to help you review unit goals and objectives. Questions can be multiple
choice, matching, and true or false. Answer keys should be provided.
59. Vocabulary Quilts: create quilts with badges representing the meanings of vocabulary
terms. Badges should have an image and a few words.
60. Websites: design websites that historical figures, scientists, mathematicians, authors, or
characters from novels would have had. Also, student can create websites for historical
movements, scientific theories, or literary concepts.
61. Worksheets: create review worksheets. Worksheets can be applied to any subject and
topic of study.
62. Yearbooks: create yearbooks reviewing the characters and events from several stories that
the class read or containing information about many important figures from history.
Worksheet 10.1
Jigsaw Method
A. Positive Interdependence
Positive Interdependence means the group has a clear task or goal so everyone knows the
expected outcome and that the efforts of the group will cause them to either sink or swim
together.
 The efforts of each person benefit not only the individual, but also everyone else in the
group.
 The key to positive interdependence is committing to personal success as well as the
success of every member of the group.
B. Individual and Group Accountability
The group is accountable for achieving its goals, and each member must be accountable for
contributing a fair share of the work toward the group goal. The performance of each individual
must be assessed and the results given back to the group.
C. Interpersonal and Small Group Skills
Interpersonal and small group skills are required to function as part of a group. These are basic
teamwork skills.
Group members must know how to - and be motivated to - provide effective leadership, make
decisions, build trust, communicate, and manage conflict.
 Completing tasks
 Communicating
 Decision making
 Managing conflict
 Appreciating group member
D. Face-to-Face Promotive Interaction
Face-to-face promotive interaction means that students promote each other's success by
sharing resources.
They help, support, encourage, and praise each other's efforts to learn.
Both academic and personal support are part of this mutual goal.
E. Group Processing
Group members engaging in GROUP PROCESSING need to feel free to communicate
openly with each other to express concerns as well as to celebrate accomplishments.
The group should regularly discuss how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining
effective working relationships.
Worksheet 10.2
Task Guidelines
Beauty Analysis Project
Consider:
 How would you judge the appearance of the environment? Against what criteria?
 Are there parts of the environment that are more attractive or less attractive?
 How would you enhance the appearance of your environment to make it more
attractive?
 Do you see illustrations where symmetry has been used to make the environment more
beautiful?
 What effect does the appearance of the environment have on its function?
People Analysis Project
Consider:
 In the trainings, who works with whom and why?
 Where do they work the rest of the time?
 Draw a web to show how people who work in the trainings are linked together.
 What are the functions of various people at the trainings? How do they perform these?
 How do various groups of people relate to each other?
 Would the trainings benefit by changing the roles or functions of one or more
individuals? How?
Communication Analysis Project
Consider:
 Who is communicating most of the time?
 Whom are they communicating with?
 How are they communicating?
 Why are they communicating? Information? Ideas? Results?
 Are communications efficient? Or are they unclear?
 Are all communications intentional? Which are not and what do they say?
Infrastructure Analysis Project
Consider:
 When was the building built and by whom?
 Why were these materials used?
 What repairs are required? What repairs are a priority and why?
 Is the building well designed for teacher education? Why?
 How would you make the design of the building better suited to teacher education?
 Is the construction of the building suited to the local climate? How?
Handout 10.8
Teacher Engagement Observation: Personal Affect
Teacher: _____________________________________ Date: ___________________

Observer: _____________________________________________________________
Grade: __________________ Subject: ______________________________________
Element Low Medium High

Score 1 2 3
Vocal Delivery Monotonous tone of Uses pleasant Many changes in tone
voice, minimum vocal variations of pitch, that are appropriate
inflection, little volume and speed; for the lesson; pitch
variation in speed of has overall good that seems to capture
speech, drones on and articulation. children’s attention;
on, poor articulation. use of voice helps to
manage noise,
movement, etc.
Score 1 2 3
Eyes Looks dull or bored; Appears interested; Makes regular eye
does not use eyes to makes good eye contact with all
express enthusiasm or contact with children; uses eye
indicate puzzlement, individual children; movement to
affirmation, etc. sweeps room with manage behaviour;
eyes to keep track of appears interested,
student involvement. enthusiastic, and
thoughtful in
response to
children’s questions
and ideas.
Score 1 2 3
Gestures Uses few appropriate Sometimes uses Uses a range of
gestures and little or appropriate gestures effective gestures
no physical to capture children’s appropriately in
movement. attention, manage relation to content
children’s movement, and lesson design to
emphasize points, keep students
etc. engaged and
learning.
Score 1 2 3
Facial Appears agreeable; Appears agreeable; Appears vibrant and
smiles appropriately; smiles appropriately; demonstrative;
looks pleased / looks pleased / shows appropriate
happy/sad when happy/sad when amounts of surprise,
obviously called for; obviously called for; awe, sadness joy,
can effectively use can effectively use thoughtfulness,
negative expression negative expression excitement, etc.

to convey displeasure to convey displeasure
reasonably. reasonably.
Score 1 2 3
Body Uses little movement; Uses some Uses movement to
seldom moves from movement to gain capture children’s
one spot. children’s attention. attention; appears
energetic when
appropriate; moves
throughout the
classroom.
Score 1 2 3
Acceptance of Ideas Shows little Accepts ideas and Quick and ready to
and Feelings Score indication of feelings, praises or accept, praise,
acceptance or clarifies; some encourage, or clarify;
encouragement of variation in response many variations in
children. May ignore but frequently response.
child’s feelings or repeats same ones.
ideas.
Handout 10.9
Classroom Management Observation: Pacing and Timing of Lesson
1 2 3 4
(Teacher will (Teacher will (Observer will (Observer will

complete before complete before complete during complete during
observation) observation) observation) observation)
Component of the Planned Time for Actual Time Taken Comments on the
Lesson Component for Component Pacing
Handout 10.10
Teacher Observation: Use of Questions
Teacher: _________________________________________ Date: ____________________

Observer: ________________________________________ Grade: ___________________
Subject: ________________Topic: _____________________________________________
Transcribe the questions being asked Categorize according to Bloom’s taxonomy

Handout 10.11
Teacher Observation: Lesson Competencies
Teacher: _____________________________________ Date: ________________________

Observer: _____________________________________Grade: _______________________
Subject: _________________Topic: _____________________________________________
Observe an entire lesson and rate the Teacher in each of the following categories:
Lesson Competency 1 2 3
Needs Satisfactory Competence
improvement/ evidence clearly evident
not evident observed
Provides a well-written lesson plan
Uses appropriate methods for getting
children’s
attention
Communicates learning outcomes to the
children
Speaks clearly
Gives clear directions
Asks questions to check for understanding
Nurtures critical thinking
Uses class time well; allows time for lesson
closureand review
Facilitates smooth transitions between
activities
within the lesson
Accommodates individual needs and learning
styles
Facilitates active participation
Facilitates cooperative learning activities
Uses visuals for clarification
Demonstrates knowledge of the content area
Has consistent expectations for all students
Is aware of all that is happening in the
classroom
Circulates among and assists all children
Handles behavioural issues effectively
Appears confident, enthusiastic

HANDOUTS
Handout 11.1
Meaning and Purpose of Instructional/Teaching Learning Materials
Teaching learning materials (TLMs) are, tools, which are used by teachers to help learners to
learn concept with ease and efficiency. TLMs have been in existence in our educational system
since ancient times, (Lal, 2011). The role of TLMs in the classroom are to make learning real,
practical and fun for children. Teachers use TLMs to illustrate or reinforce a skill, fact or idea.
TLMs also help in bringing novelty and freshness in classroom teaching as it relieves learners
from anxiety, fear and boredom.
Purpose of using TLMs
TLMs are used to enhance the learning of students in classrooms. A teacher uses it to make
teaching-learning effective. TLMs also help learners achieve the learning outcomes after
classroom teaching and learning. Some of reasons to use TLMs in classroom are of various types
as described below:
i) Motivate learners – Capturing attention is the first step to any learning and TLMs help in
capturing the attention of learner in classroom. Once motivated to look at TLMs, the
children are curious to learn new things. TLMs provide a variety of stimuli, which helps in
making classroom teaching most effective.
ii) Help in longer retention of information – The more the number of sensory channels
involved in interacting with TLMs, the longer will be the retention of information.
Therefore, the learning will be effective and will last long.
iii) Facilitate holistic learning – You have read about Blooms –Taxonomy of Objectives.
Learning objectives to be achieved through classroom teaching are in all domains-
cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Therefore, to achieve varied objectives, varied
learning experiences need to be provided, which can be done through the use of TLMs.
iv) Help in organizing classroom teaching – As a teacher you need to organize learning
experiences, making them as realistic as possible. You can use visual or verbal TLMs to
present accurate data in sequentially organized manner. This helps teacher to verbal and
visual communication in classroom. Thus, you may use TLMs to overcome shortcomings in
verbal or visual communication.
Motivate
Learners
Concept Help in
formation Retention of
Information
Making
learning fun Facilitate
TLMs
Holistic
learning
Practical Help in
applications Organizing
Facilitate Classroom
change in Teaching
Attitude
Fig: Purposes of using TLMs
v) Facilitate change in attitude – TLMs also help in changing attitude of learners towards
learning in general and subject content in particular. Pictures, models and other TLMs help
in inculcation of positive attitude of learners.
vi) Practical applications – TLMs show application of theoretical knowledge into practical
applications. The theoretical knowledge studied in class is shown in concrete form through
TLMs for effective learning.
vii) Making learning fun – TLMs help in making learning fun in the classroom. Students enjoy
the novelty of handling new objects and learn new concepts through them.
viii) Concept formation – TLMs facilitate the formation and attainment of concepts among
children. They concretize the abstract concepts; thus children are able to understand them
and not resort to rote learning.
Therefore, use of TLMs in classroom teaching is an essential aspect about which you should
focus your attention while designing and developing your lesson. There are a variety of TLMs to
choose from depending on the context, level of learners and availability.
Reference:
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/12
3456789/8511/1/Unit-7.pdf
Handout 11.2
Types of Teaching Learning Materials
Types of Teaching Learning Materials

Teaching learning materials are of various types and thus are classified and categorized in
several ways. Edgar Dale’s cone of experience is one of the simplest ways of categorizing TLMs.
He experimented with different TLMs and categorized them on the basis of type of experiences
the learner acquires – from concrete to abstract.
Another widely accepted and popular way of categorizing TLMs is based on the senses they
stimulate in learners, which, in turn affect the effectiveness of teaching learning process. TLMs
can broadly be classified into three categories.
Audio TLMs ii) Visual TLMs iii) Audio
Visual TLMs
Let us look: into these categories in details.
Audio TLMs: These TLMs primarily stimulate the hearing sense of learner. It includes human
voice, telephonic conversation, audio discs/tapes, gramophone records, Radio broadcast.
i) Visual TLMs: These types of TLMs involve the sense of vision. They stimulate the visual
impulses. These can be of various types as given below:
 Visual (Verbal) Print. (the text is the main instructional or teaching learning aid)
 Textbook, Supplementary book.
 Reference books, encyclopedia, etc.
 Magazine, Newspaper
 Documents and Clippings
 Duplicated written material
 Programmed material
 Case Studies/Reports etc.
 Visual (Pictorial- Non Projected )–
a) Non-projected two dimensional – Here the TLM is in form of an image or picture
explaining the concept. Examples of such type of TLMs are blackboard writing and
drawing Charts, Posters, Maps, Diagrams, Graphs, Photographs, Cartoons, Comic strips.
b) Non-Projected three-dimensional – This category includes three dimensional
representation of the real object or phenomenon. It helps learners in
conceptualization. It includes – Models, Mock-up, Diorama, Globe, Relief Map,

Specimen, Puppet, and Hologram.
 Visual (Projected but still) – Here the images are projected or displayed on a screen and
thus are nearer reality than visual non-projected ones. It includes – Slide, Filmstrips,
Over Head Projector (OHP), Microfilm, Micro card, etc.
 Audio Visual TLMs are the projected aids, which use both auditory and visual senses to
enhance learning. The greatest advantage of these is they are the closest representation
of reality. These include – Motion Picture Film, Television, Video discs/cassettes, slide –
tape presentations, Multimedia Computer.
Instructional materials can also be classified on their types, which include prints, visuals,
and audiovisuals:
Prints Textbooks, pamphlets, handouts, study guides, manuals
Audio Cassettes, microphone
Visuals Charts, real objects, photographs, transparencies
Audiovisuals Slides, tapes, films, filmstrips, television, video, multimedia
Electronic Interactive Computers, graphing calculators, tablets
Teaching Learning Materials can be in various forms. Broadly we may divide them into printed
and non-printed materials. These forms are not substitutes to each other, they complement
each other. Their use decides the effectiveness of teaching-learning process. They help in
sustaining learners’ interest in the subject. There are printed text books, reference books, audio
cassettes, audio-video computer assisted and authentic materials. All these have their specific
merit in language learning. Printed materials consist of all written material, excluding non-print
resources, which convey planned course information. Examples of print resources include, but
are not limited to: textbooks, reference books, newspapers, journals, and magazines. Printed
materials are those which have been printed and can be produced in a hard copy. Examples of
printed materials are books, magazines, scholarly journals, and newspapers. Non printed
materials include such as DVDs, CDs, computer software, etc.
Reference:
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/12
3456789/8511/1/Unit-7.pdf
Handout 11.3
Red Riding Hood
By Leanne Guenther
Once upon a time, there was a little girl who lived in a village near the forest. Whenever she
went out, the little girl wore a red riding cloak, so everyone in the village called her Little Red
Riding Hood.
One morning, Little Red Riding Hood asked her mother if she could go to visit her grandmother
as it had been awhile since they'd seen each other.
"That's a good idea," her mother said. So they packed a nice basket for Little Red Riding Hood
to take to her grandmother.
When the basket was ready, the little girl put on her red cloak and kissed her mother and said
goodbye.
"Remember, go straight to Grandma's house," her mother cautioned. "Don't dawdle along the
way and please don't talk to strangers! The woods are dangerous."
"Don't worry, mommy," said Little Red Riding Hood, "I'll be careful."
But when Little Red Riding Hood noticed some lovely flowers in the woods, she forgot her
promise to her mother. She picked a few, watched the butterflies flit about for a while, listened
to the frogs croaking and then picked a few more.
Little Red Riding Hood was enjoying the warm summer day so much, that she didn't notice a
dark shadow approaching out of the forest behind her...
Suddenly, the wolf appeared beside her.
"What are you doing out here, little girl?" the wolf asked in a voice as friendly as he could
muster.
"I'm on my way to see my Grandma who lives through the forest, near the brook," Little Red
Riding Hood replied.
Then she realized how late she was and quickly excused herself, rushing down the path to her
Grandma's house.
The wolf, in the meantime, took a shortcut...
The wolf, a little out of breath from running, arrived at Grandma's and knocked lightly at the
door.
"Oh thank goodness dear! Come in, come in! I was worried sick that something had happened
to you in the forest," said Grandma thinking that the knock was her granddaughter.
The wolf let himself in. Poor Granny did not have time to say another word, before the wolf
gobbled her up!
The wolf let out a satisfied burp, and then poked through Granny's wardrobe to find a
nightgown that he liked. He added a frilly sleeping cap, and for good measure, dabbed some of
Granny's perfume behind his pointy ears.
A few minutes later, Red Riding Hood knocked on the door. The wolf jumped into bed and
pulled the covers over his nose. "Who is it?" he called in a cackly voice.
"It's me, Little Red Riding Hood."
"Oh how lovely! Do come in, my dear," croaked the wolf.
When Little Red Riding Hood entered the little cottage, she could scarcely recognize her
Grandmother.
"Grandmother! Your voice sounds so odd. Is something the matter?" she asked.
"Oh, I just have touch of a cold," squeaked the wolf adding a cough at the end to prove the
point.
"But Grandmother! What big ears you have," said Little Red Riding Hood as she edged closer to
the bed.
"The better to hear you with, my dear," replied the wolf.
"But Grandmother! What big eyes you have," said Little Red Riding Hood.
"The better to see you with, my dear," replied the wolf.
"But Grandmother! What big teeth you have," said Little Red Riding Hood her voice quivering
slightly.
"The better to eat you with, my dear," roared the wolf and he leapt out of the bed and began to
chase the little girl.
Almost too late, Little Red Riding Hood realized that the person in the bed was not her
Grandmother, but a hungry wolf.
She ran across the room and through the door, shouting, "Help! Wolf!" as loudly as she could.
A woodsman who was chopping logs nearby heard her cry and ran towards the cottage as fast
as he could.
He grabbed the wolf and made him spit out the poor Grandmother who was a bit frazzled by
the whole experience, but still in one piece. "Oh Grandma, I was so scared!" Sobbed Little Red
Riding Hood, "I'll never speak to strangers or dawdle in the forest again."
"There, there, child. You've learned an important lesson. Thank goodness you shouted loud
enough for this kind woodsman to hear you!"
The woodsman knocked out the wolf and carried him deep into the forest where he wouldn't
bother people any longer.
Little Red Riding Hood and her Grandmother had a nice lunch and a long chat.
Handout 11.4
Non-Printed Materials
(A) Definitions
 Non-print materials are formats with special characteristics need to be discussed in term of
bibliographic control and access but often an ever-crossing amount of information.CD,
records, tapes, photographs, slides, films and video
 In defining what constitutes a non-print collection, it is important to distinguish among
three words commonly attached to such materials-media, non-book, and non-print.
Pointing out the various nuances of each term will facilitate a broader understanding of
non-print librarianship and how it is affected by the new information technologies.
o Media is perhaps the most elusive of these. On the one hand, a medium is a liaison in
which communication is transmitted from a sender to a receiver. Thus, language can
function as a medium just as well as can tape recorders and microcomputers.
o As with media, the terms non book and non-print are problematic. On a basic level,
both can be considered as species of the genus media. Yet media, as we have seen, is
simply too broad an expression. Non book and non-print must be differentiated with
respect to their peculiar structure. There are two options in this regard.
 On the one hand all materials which are not paper (i.e., non-book) may be placed in
a special collection. This would include databases, microcomputers, microfilm,
videocassettes, and records. This is not a non-print collection but a non-book
collection. This solution is sufficient to the extent that it is useful to define the
collection simply from a technical standpoint.
 A second option seems more promising since it takes into account the types of
media information and their relationship to the specific interests of users. Non print
items would here satisfy a three-fold definition that at the same time separates
them from non-book materials in general.
 A non-print collection then is distinguished from the purely technical
information provision of non-book in that it includes an aesthetic aspect. This is
not to deny that videocassettes are helpful in conveying technical information
(in their non-book capacity), but merely to suggest that their aesthetic quality
also qualifies them as non-print.
 As a matter of simplicity, there is a threefold definition of a non-print item:
1. The item must appeal to the sight and/or hearing of the students.
2. Under normal conditions, the item must require additional equipment for
usage.
3. The printed word must not represent the essence of the medium
(B) Non printed Instructional Materials
Non printed materials are:
 Electronic books
 Electronic Journal
 Electronic images
 Audio visual materials
 Electronic Materials
 Electronic tests/records
 Tape Recorder
 CD player
 Radio
 TV
 Internet
 Websites
 DVD
 USB
 Audio Visual Taps
(C) Selection Criteria
Interrelated criteria for the selection of non-printed material, regardless of format, shall be the
following:
 Capacity to reach the personal interest level and ability of students.
 Appropriate reading comprehension level for students.
 Age appropriate content.
 Capacity of the material to support the curriculum needs of the school.
 Importance of the subject matter for current or lasting interest.
 Consideration of non-printed:
o Appropriate binding and/or packaging of each item;
o Sound is clear and color reproduction is true;
o Appropriate size of print type;
o Equipment is available for use with material when required;

o Ease of access for electronic resources;
o Short and long term compatibility with infrastructure and equipment.
Non printed instructional materials shall not be excluded solely because of the race, gender
identity, nationality, political, or religious view of the author or producer.
Reference:
https://prezi.com/4q28au05fpxt/non-print-materials-electronic-materials-print-materials/
Handout 11.5
Importance of Non-Printed Instructional Materials
Using non printed rather than printed materials can have a number of advantages. The first
advantage most of us think about is probably the trees saved by using an electronic format
rather than publishing via ink on paper. As the number of non-print formats proliferates,
institutions such as schools, libraries must continue to evolve, adjusting the mix of print and
non-print materials and fulfilling the changing needs of their patrons
Non-print is faster
News by definition is a report of the latest and most recent events. Take for example the much
respected but not often read newspaper. The earliest it can report a story is one day ahead due
to printing and delivery. Online news on the other hand, reports it as it happens. So many
viewers continually tweet within no time.
Non-print is more interactive
Another benefit of online materials is it’s interactivity. Newspapers have the limit of being
paper. Online news allows readers to see other related stories though links at the side. Toolbars
allow readers to see news even when they are just simply browsing along the net. More
importantly, online event allows readers to see the event happening through videos. Non-print,
in some way, displays how we as people have evolved.
For those who look to the media to answer their more specialized interests, magazines have
been around since the last century or two. Readers of this generation are more into the style of
websites and blogs. As anyone can attest, absolutely anything can be found on the web. From
the online counterpart of TIME and Vogue, to the most obscure websites full of cute animal
pictures, there is a website for every specialized interest.
Non-print is more versatile and can be specialized
Customization is the next key element of online subscriptions; people can completely customize
their reading experience. Only interested in stories about sports? Getting rid of all other
nuisances is just a click away. Just choose all tags relating to him or her field. Being online
allows a huge element of versatility and personalization that print magazines or books cannot
offer.
Non-Print is more convenient

Most e book readers can hold up to more than 200 books. This makes non-print much more
convenient to carry around. The whole Harry Potter series can be in your bag at once, as
opposed to carrying around all 7 books. Non-print (through e book readers) is lighter, and
therefore more portable. In addition, if an e book reader gets damaged, one may have it
repaired, as opposed to an actual book—if it gets wet, that may be the end of it. E book users
can also share e books with their friends easily through email or through their UBS’s, possibly
making non-print more accessible and cost-efficient than print.
Non-Print is more environmentally friendly
In our slowly deteriorating world, eco-friendliness is an important part of life (or at least it
should be). According to an article online: “Reading the physical version of the NY times for a
year uses 7300 MJ of energy and 700kg of co2. Reading it on a Kindle uses 100MJ of energy and
emits 10kg of co2.” The article also stated that (print) books are responsible for four times the
greenhouse emission as e-readers. Indeed, non-print is more environmentally friendly.
Non-Print helps the handicapped more.
One thing people fail to recognize about non-print is how it helps the disabled. The blind can
enjoy a story of a book by simply getting an audio book. With audio books, the blind can still
enjoy a story, and with e books, the deaf can enjoy stories as well. Non-print not only allows
the blind to “read”, but also offers a customized experience. The experience of listening to an
e book is different from the experience of actually reading a book.
Search
Searching a document in non-print digital format on DVD is faster than searching a print book,
even one with a first-rate index, because you can skip ahead to individual chapters with just a
touch of the remote control.
Health Literacy
Health care providers sometimes learn that a patient did not follow the directions included
with prescription medications, and the instructions for diet and exercise, because of limited
language skills. Verbal directions and the readability level of instructional materials must
match the health literacy of the patient. When these and similar issues arise, the health
practitioner can consider the advantages of non-print teaching materials, such as DVDs, CDs,
videotapes, audiotapes and three-dimensional models.
Non-reader Education
Adults who cannot read, or who are just beginning the process of learning to read, can use
video documentaries for education and self-help. They are not able to use most printed books
for these purposes.
Theatrical plays, movies and TV comedies, dramas, game shows and reality series on DVD can
entertain and educate non-readers, whereas print novels and scripts cannot.
Availability
Non print materials can be available via the Internet 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and 365
days a year. Print materials that are not in your personal collection, or in that of an
immediate family member, aren’t likely to have this type of availability.
Lifetime
Libraries do not need to replace novels because of obsolescence. Librarians, however, do
replace paperback novels that are tattered and worn. Users can read and enjoy a novel many
more times when it is in digital than in print format, reducing its overall acquisition and
maintenance cost.
Cost
Subscribing to online databases costs less than acquiring and maintaining multiple copies of
multivolume reference books and encyclopedias.
Income Generation
Public agencies can choose to generate income from the rental of video materials, such as
DVDs, and from subscription sales of database access. Income from books is usually limited to
used book sales and fines for late returns.
Emotional Impact
Print versions of history tell stories that engage their readers. These same histories, captured
orally from their subjects, can leave a deeper impression on listeners because of the
immediate impact of the emotion heard in the voices of the storytellers. Listening to—rather
than reading about—a person recounting the joys and sorrows of his life can provide
additional insight into the world and life of the subject of autobiographical material.
Space Requirements
Non print materials require less shelf space. For example, multiple DVDs require much less
shelf space than a multivolume encyclopedia
Handout 11.6
Meaning of Multigrade Teaching
Teaching more than one grade at the same time in a class room by a teacher is called multi
grade teaching.
Multilevel Teaching
Teaching of students or groups having different level of achievements in a class room by a
teacher at a same time is called Multi level Teaching. In multilevel teaching, a teacher teaches
the content to the students of different learning levels or skills or abilities. All learners do not
possess the same level of learning ability. As a result, a teacher applies appropriate technology,
approach, technique, and learning method to enhance the students’ achievement skills in
multilevel teaching.
Teacher’s problems in Multigrade teaching
1. Handling of different classes simultaneously in a same room.
2. Preparation of Teaching Learning Materials for all subjects and for all classes.
3. To pay individual attention to the slow learners.
4. To provide sufficient reading practice and supervise the students.
5. In a two teacher school, attending all work in the absence of one teacher.
6. To act according to the individual differences of the learners.
7. Implementing Active Based Learning (ABL), Play way method and Learning by doing
method in the classroom.
8. Supervising of activities and assignments in the class.
9. More attention to the gifted learners.
10. Identify student’s difficult portion and teach them.
11. To concentrate in group activities.
12. To concentrate in Evaluation.
13. To concentrate in the allotment of activities.
14. Sufficient time preparation is to be made for proper assessment of all students.
In the distribution of above mentioned activities, the teacher faces many problems in the
multigrade teaching.
Advantages of Multigrade teaching for the students
It develops the skill of collecting data and the communication skill in the young age itself.
It develops co-operative learning, group learning, helping attitude among the students.
Students strengthen their learning by explaining the learned concepts to the other students.
They understand the concepts very clearly.
The much desired social habits like helping attitude, co-operation, service mentality are
developed among the learners.
Group discussion predominates in multigrade environment. Students give up shyness and fear
and helps one another to improve oneself.
This type of multigrade classroom helps to recapitulate the learnt materials and strengthen the
learning.
It provides chances to all the learners to participate in group discussions.
Techniques in Multigrade teaching
In multigrade teaching, the teacher applies techniques according to his professional skill and
experience. In a 5 teacher primary school, one teacher is in incharge of one standard. Due to
shortage of teachers, a teacher has to handle many standards at a same time. In these
circumstances the following time table is to be observed.
The teacher needs more attention and concentration in a multi grade class room. But the
classroom discipline is good because of less number of learners. In multigrade teaching, the
teacher can follow different approaches like direct observation, guidance of peer group
students, lesson oriented teaching, group learning and supervision method.
Imagine you are a multigrade class teacher .There are more than 30 students in each class.
Prepare a subject wise time table for one week to teach in a multigrade classroom with
teaching activities. Define the necessary teaching learning activities according to the standards
and subjects.
Direct Observation
A single teacher may face a situation to handle two or three or five classes at a time.
If the teacher happens to handle 2 or 3 classes at a time, he divides the periods into 2 or 3. In
one standard the teacher teaches the subject and the other 2 classes, the teacher gives
exercises and activities. The teacher designs the contents, lessons and learning activities well in
advance depending upon the subject and the standard.
Subject Oriented Teaching
If 2 classes are taught by a teacher at a time, he should be given in charge of two consecutive
standards. Example: First standard & Second standard,
Second standard & Third standard,

Third standard & Fourth standard, and Fourth standard & Fifth standard,
Subject oriented Teaching is possible if a teacher is given two consecutive standards. Practical
and activities are designed separately by the teacher for each standard. The reinforcement and
feedback of the students become possible if listening and reading activities are provided in
language subjects. So, planning is very important in subject oriented teaching.
These activities designed by the teacher for multi grade teaching can be effectively
implemented with the assistance of gifted children in the class. Motivation and Discipline is to
be followed. More tasks can be given according to the learners’ abilities.
Multigrade Teaching
It is assumed that teaching takes place in three types of situations. Situation 1: Class 1: By
showing pictures, the teacher makes the students express their ideas related to the pictures.
Situation 2: Class 2: The students are asked to sit in pairs. One student talks about his house
grade to the other. It is followed by the other Students afterwards. Situation 3: Class 3: The
students copy their lessons in their notebook / slate In the first situation, the I std students
listen to the teacher. The students are made to think.
In the second situation, the II std students express what they feel & whatever is registered in
their minds are expressed by them. In the third situation, children are involved in activities.
In these three situations of Learning, Knowledge, Register & Motivation’ takes place:
 In situation - 1, Group teaching takes place.
 In situation - 2, Learning takes place in small groups.
 In situation - 3, Learning takes place in one group to develop interest in writing, assign
writing work to 2 or 3 groups. Conduct competitions on writing.
Formation of groups
Points to ponder
The students group need not be a permanent one. It can be changed and divided according to
the subjects. The groups may belong to different grades. If it is one grade, students can be
grouped under three categories. (Gifted, Average and Slow learners)
1. Fully self & supported group
2. Partially teacher supported group
3. Fully teacher supported group
4. Peer group supported
5. TLM users group for learning (Self Learning)

Combined Class
The students in a combined class are divided according to their learning skills:
 The students are grouped according to the five categories mentioned above
 For integrated subjects, multigrade teaching can be done in one group.
 Verification of follow-up work is essential.
Seating arrangement of the students
In the multigrade teaching classroom, the students are seated in a circle / in small groups.
Direct attention or observation of the teacher is available in this type of seating arrangements.
The students get the opportunity to look at the teacher directly.
Planning of Teaching Activities
Proper planning makes the multigrade teaching easy and successful.
 Designing the time table
 Preparation of content related teaching learning materials.
Teaching Activities
a) Teaching Activities between Teachers – Student.
In Multigrade Teaching, learning occurs in many ways and the teacher is inevitable.
 During introduction of the lesson
 During conclusion of the lesson
 During evaluation and
 While implementing Remedial activities
The teacher in his teaching influences the students, stimulates their learning interests.
Learning occurrences among the students in Group learning
In Multigrade teaching, group learning plays an important role. Direct teaching does not take
place all the time. In these situations group learning may be implemented.
Group learning is useful for the students to continue their learning from their known
knowledge. Group learning is beneficial to the students if they are involved in reinforcement
activities. Gardening and arranging exhibitions are some of the other group learning activities.
In Multigrade teaching, the role of a leader is very important. So, a group leader is to be
selected for every group.
 Group leaders may be selected subject wise.
 Group leaders may be chosen on rotation basis.
 If the groups are divided in a same class / standard, the leader also is selected from the
same class.
 If the students group consists of different grades, the leader is selected from the highest
grade.
c) Learning occurrences between the Student & Teaching Learning Materials
Learning is consolidated when students use learning materials in their learning process. This
enhances interests of among the learners. The teacher concentrates more in preparing these
types learning materials for the learners.
Teaching Combined classes.
The following teaching activities can be undertaken by the teacher in a combined class.
 Maintain Personal ‘Hygiene’ and ‘Environmental cleanliness’.
 Gardening’ activities.
 Hand work ( crafts, sewing, embroidery)
 Games
 Group Exercises.
 Story telling
 Enacting Drama
 Participation in Competitions and
 Social Welfare Activities
Students develop their learning skills by adapting techniques from outdoor activities like Field
Trip, Educational Tour.
Teacher’s Multi Work Dimensions:
The professional skill of a teacher enhances when a teacher handles multigrade/ level classes.
The teacher’s multi-work dimension in a multigrade teaching are as follows:
 The teacher collects the students’ information.
 He identifies the behaviour, activities and participation of the child in the class room.
 He knows the needs of the children.
 He maintains diary to register the learning activities.
 He prepares notes of lesson weekly and annual syallabus.
 He designs the classroom objectivities and equally distributes in the weekly and daily
activities of the class to achieve it.
 Shares his experiences with his collegues.
 Renews knowledge through cognitive skills, In- service training and self-learning.
 He generates knowledge through classroom experiments, creative activities and action
research programmes.
 Possesses good qualities in the code of ethics, character and conduct.
 Implements school activities in an effective and useful manner.
 Arranges for the day- to-day learning materials and equipment’s for teaching.
 Distributes daily work according to the timetable. He allots group activities and
individual activities in the classroom.
 Exhibits the creative works of the students in order to motivate other students.
 Believes in the growth of learning skills among learners.
 Helps and Guides the students in their learning process.
 Creates a conducive atmosphere for group and individual learning.
 Provides a quality based multilevel teaching activities.
 Make them realize that failures and interventions are one of the steps in learning and
guides them in a constructive way.
 Reviews the daily activities and progress of the students constructively.
 Displays the student’s progress to others.
 Make the parents realize their wards future.
 Prepares self-appraisals and designs self-evaluation teaching tools to improve the
standard of living.
 According to the statement of Dilash Angelas, the following are considered important in
a multigrade teaching.
a. Successfully well designed teaching plans and group organization.
b. Proper classroom management for learning.
c. Keeping all types of resources readily available in multigrade school.
d. Systematic planning of daily activities.
 Creating conducive atmosphere for group learning, provisions for self-learning,
Teacher guided learning, student’s choice based learning, small group learning and peer-
group learning must be available to the learners. These techniques provide ample
chances for enhancement of students learning.
Worksheet- 11.1 (A)
Instruction: keeping in mind the text of the story “Little Red Riding Hood”, write the answer of
following questions.
Q-1 How many characters are there in the story and what are their names?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-2 What was the color of Little Red Riding Hood’s dress when she was leaving her home to
visit her Grandma?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-3 What was her mother doing when the girl came to her for permission?
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-4 Who helped the girl in wearing Red Hood?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-5 What were the colors of:
 Flowers she saw on her way………………………………………
 Her grandma’s home door…………………………………………
 Color of the dress of hunter……………………………………….
 Her mother’s dress color…………………………………………..
Q-6 Describe the structure of wolf.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-7 To whom she met on her way and enjoyed of seeing them?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-8 How many doors and window are there of Little Red Riding Hood‘s home?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-9 What was approaching her, which she did not notice?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-10 What type of voice the wolf has?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-11 What did she saw on the snow?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-12 Who heard the cry of Little Red Riding Hood?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-13 Give the detail of things in the last scene of story.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Worksheet- 11.1 (B)
Instruction: keeping in mind the video of the story “Little Red Riding Hood”, write the answer of
following questions.
Q-1 How many character are there in the story and what are their names?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-2 What was the color of Little Red Riding Hood’s dress when she was leaving her home to
visit her Grandma?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-3 What was her mother doing when the girl came to her for permission?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-4 Who helped the girl in wearing Red Hood?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-5 What were the colors of:
 Flowers she saw on her way………………………………………
 Her grandma’s home door…………………………………………
 Color of the dress of hunter……………………………………….
 Her mother’s dress color…………………………………………..
Q-6 Describe the structure of wolf.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-7 To whom she met on her way and enjoyed of seeing them?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-8 How many doors and window are there of Little Red Riding Hood ‘s home?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-9 What was approaching her, which she did not notice?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-10 What type of voice the wolf has?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-11 What did she saw on the snow?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-12 Who heard the cry of Little Red Riding Hood?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q-13 Give the detail of things in the last scene of story.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Worksheet 11.2
Instruction: Look at the non-printed instruction materials given in the column 1 and fill in the
columns 2 and 3
Non printed Instructional Where to use it … Subject, How to use it ………
Materials topic, concepts
 Electronic images
 Audio visual materials
 Electronic Materials
 Tape Recorder
 CD player
 Radio
 Internet
 Websites
 DVD
 USB
 Audio Visual Taps

Worksheet 11.3
Instruction: Keeping in view the importance of non-printed instruction materials. Fill the
columns of the following table. The first one is done.
Importance HOW? (give examples) WHERE? (give examples)
1. Low Cost / No Cost Need a set of pictures to Through Multimedia, CD,
explain a certain concepts in mobile can explain all the
science pictures without spending any
amount on preparing these
pictures.
HANDOUTS
Handout 12.1
Concept of National Curriculum
A common programme of study in schools that is designed to ensure nationwide uniformity of
content and standards in education. The National Curriculum is a fairly straightforward concept.
The goal was to standardize the content taught across all schools in the country and to give
parents the ability to exercise choice in what schools their children attended. The National
Curriculum has two aims - to establish a curriculum which provides opportunities for all pupils
to learn and achieve, and to promote pupils' spiritual, moral, social, and cultural development
while preparing them for the opportunities, responsibilities, and experiences of life. The second
aim, particularly the spiritual aspect, has provoked some controversy by requiring schools to
incorporate religious teachings into their curriculum.
An important aspect of the National Curriculum is the use of key stages, which set the expected
knowledge of a student at a particular point. Each of the key stages has a set of particular
objectives a student should meet by the end of the stage. For example, a student at the end of
key stage 1 will take a standardized assessment to test their abilities in reading, writing,
speaking and listening, math, and science. Performance on these assessments, combined with
teacher recommendations, determines how a student advances. The national curriculum is a
set of subjects and standards used by primary and secondary schools to ensure that children
learn the same things. It covers what subjects are taught and the standards and levels that
children are expected to reach in each subject, depending on their age.
Compulsory national curriculum subjects taught in primary schools are:
 English
 Maths
 Science
 History
 Geography
 Art and design
 PE
 Computing
 Languages e.g Urdu
Religious education (RE) is another national curriculum subject taught in primary school. the
arts and design, humanities and foreign languages (Arabic) are not compulsory national
curriculum subjects. Reaching this point, pupils will have options and can decide what their
areas of study are. Whilst having the entitlement to study these subjects, the core subjects are
still compulsory.
Handout 12.2
Summery of strands/competencies, standards/benchmarks, SLOs
The National Curriculum consists of the following:
1. Competency
2. Standards
3. Benchmarks
4. Student Learning Outcome (SLO)
Competency:
A key learning area which describes what students are supposed to know and be able to do.
They are further broken down into standards, benchmarks and Student Learning outcomes
(SLOs).
Example: competency1: “Reading and thinking skills”
Standard
A description of a particular competency by specifying broadly the knowledge, skills and
attitudes, which students will acquire throughout the developmental levels i.e. during twelve
years of schooling.
Example Competency 1 Standard 1: “All students will search for, discover and understand a
variety of text types through tasks which require multiple reading and thinking strategies for
comprehension, fluency and enjoyment.”
Benchmark:
An indication of what the students will be able to accomplish at the end of each develop mental
level in order to meet the standard.
Example Competency 1, Standard 1, Benchmark 1: “Identify digraphs, silent letters, and
Inflections in words, comprehend words, sentences and paragraphs as meaningful units of
expression.”
SLOs Student learning outcomes:
A statement that describes what students will be able to do as a result of instruction at a
particular grade.
Example competency 1, standard 1, benchmark 1, SLO Grade 5: “Articulate and syllabify words
containing digraphs, trigraphs and silent letter.”
Reference:
National Curriculum 2006 – English Language, Ministry of Education, Pakistan.
National Curriculum Framework (Draft 2016), Ministry of Federal Education and Provincial
Training, Pakistan.
Handout 12.3
Strands / Competencies
Structural elements of the curriculum designating the way in which content is organized for the
purpose of planning for student learning. The term ‘strands’ is used to indicate: (a) the
disciplines within a learning area, e.g. history, geography, economics and civics under ‘social
studies’, each with its own associated goals for learning; (b) domains that group the related
general and specific learning outcomes or achievement aims and objectives within a particular
learning area or discipline. For example, in the New Zealand Curriculum of 2007 science
education includes ‘nature of science’ as a core, unifying strand, and ‘the living world’, ‘the
planet earth and beyond’, ‘the physical world’ and ‘the material world’ as strands providing
contexts for learning. Another example is mathematics which can include, depending on the
country, the following content strands: ‘number sense and operations’, ‘algebra’, ‘geometry’,
‘measurement’, and ‘statistics and probability’.
The NCF specifies eight key competencies which are essential for individuals to live, learn and
contribute as active members of the nation and the world. These key competencies provide the
basis for lifelong learning and employability in a progressive and challenging world. Each key
competency is built on a combination of cognitive and practical skills, knowledge, values,
attitudes, and other social and behavioural components. These key competencies form the
basis of the curriculum. They form the crucial foundation on which the key learning areas are
built. Therefore the key competencies are a cross cutting dimension in the curriculum, as all key
learning areas work towards achieving the eight key competencies. Students are presented
with various opportunities which challenge them to acquire these eight interrelated key
competencies throughout their school life. They are exposed to different aspects of these key
competencies at different stages of their learning experience, with the aim of acquiring all eight
key competencies by the end of schooling.
Handout 12.4
Standards / Benchmarks
Academic benchmarks refer to assessments that measure students against institution standards
and learning goals. Benchmarking allows educators to identify students' strengths and
weaknesses, which can then inform their future instruction. The NSC aims to enhance the
quality of education offered to learners and improve the general academic performance,
attitude and behaviour of students, which will redound to the positive shaping of the national.
social and economic fabric. The group recommends having National Standards for both English
Language and the Vernacular Language. If there are only National English Language Standards,
it gives the impression to teachers and the community that Vernacular Language Arts is not a
priority of the National Government. The group also recommends having clustered benchmarks
in order to allow more flexibility for the country to define, in its own standards, more specific
grade level benchmarks that will ensure all students meet both National and State Standards.
Benchmarks for grade 5
 Respond to oral and visual communications. (For example, students will be able to engage
in conversations, discussions and debates and demonstrate understanding of plays,
presentations and illustrated talks by commenting and discussing and asking and answering
questions.)
 Speak appropriately for different audiences and purposes. (For example, students will be
able to deliver, with focused organization, clarity and accuracy, descriptions, presentations,
narratives and informal talks to peers, adults and others.)
 Demonstrate comprehension through retelling. (For example, students will be able to listen
to and accurately recall and analyze information and convey that information to others in a
logical and coherent way.)
 Apply knowledge of verbal and non-verbal language to build vocabulary. (For example,
students will be able to understand new vocabulary by recognizing roots)
 Identify a variety of word strategies to build meaning. (For example, students will be able to
show how to determine meaning using context clues and knowledge of word roots, prefixes
and suffixes.)
 Read and respond to a variety of texts. (For example, students will be able to read a variety
of texts including reports, narratives, descriptions and explanations and respond
appropriately such as by demonstrating understanding or following instructions.)
 Ask and answer questions at dif- 4 | National Curriculum Standards and Benchmarks ferent
cognitive levels. (For example, students will be able to compose and answer questions that
relate to Bloom’s cognitive levels: 1.Knowledge; 2. Comprehension; 3. Application; 4.
Analysis; 5. Synthesis; 6. Evaluation.)
 Use appropriate strategies to analyze and summarize information. (For example, students
will be able to use strategies such as critical reading and reading beyond the literal to
analyze texts and use strategies such as note-taking and using graphic organizers to
summarize.)
 Use text structure to read with fluency. (For example, students will be able to read aloud
with good expression by following the specific text structure such as line breaks and verses
in a poem.)
 Read a variety of level appropriate texts for a variety of purposes. (For example, students
will be able to read narratives, reports, descriptions, maps, charts and graphs in order to
find information, follow directions, critically analyze or for pleasure.)
Benchmarks for All High Schools
By the end of high school, all students will:
 Use new grade-appropriate vocabulary, including content area vocabulary, learned through
reading and word study.
 Read to acquire knowledge and skills to function appropriately in daily life.
 Use a variety of strategies and skills to independently conduct research and write a three to
five page paper on a topic of interest.
 Analyze and evaluate context to see how the author’s message was influenced by real-life
situations in society and culture.
 Demonstrate understanding of those factors that commonly affect the use of language,
such as gender, social class, family relationships and ethnicity.
 Compare history, form (discourse, word order, grammar), function (purpose, text type,
genre), and value of the vernacular language and that of the English language.
 Write a composition that demonstrates effective use of descriptive language to clarify and
enhance meaning and ideas. (For example, make effective use of adjectives, adverbs,
similes and metaphors)
 Write with a good command of grammar and mechanical conventions appropriate to high
school level.
 Use peer-coaching strategies to proofread and improve on the writing of final drafts.
 Ask questions as a way to broaden and enrich learning.
 Apply skills to participate in real life situations.
 View a presentation or show, recall important information and critique from a variety of
perspectives including cultural.
 Evaluate personal effectiveness in group discussions and make adjustments as necessary to
improve.
 Use active listening skills to stay engaged and understand what others are saying.
 Speak appropriately for different purposes and audiences, summarize and critically respond
to alternative perspectives on social issues. Benchmarks for Students in College Preparatory
Programs In addition to the benchmarks for all students, students who are in the college
preparatory programs should meet relevant benchmarks. These are best measured by end
of course assessments.
Benchmarks for Students in College Preparatory Programs
In addition to the benchmarks for all students, students who are in the college preparatory
programs should meet relevant benchmarks. These are best measured by end of course
assessments.
 Use new grade-appropriate vocabulary, including higher level content area vocabulary,
needed to understand classical literature.
 Read to experience a variety of literature, acquire knowledge and learn new skills.
 Effectively use reading strategies such as skimming, scanning and using context clues to find
written and implied meanings and confirm predictions.
 Use a variety of skills and strategies to independently gather information from different
sources as part of a research project.
 Write a variety of compositions, such as descriptive, expository, informative or
argumentative, that demonstrate effective use of language to clarify and enhance meaning
and ideas.
 Write with a good command of grammar and mechanical conventions appropriate for
students preparing to enter college.
 Ask higher level, probing questions that elicit synthesis and evaluation as a way to broaden
and enrich learning.
 View a presentation or show, recall important information, critique from a variety of

perspectives and develop high quality presentations.
 Use active listening skills to understand what others are saying and stay engaged, ask
meaningful questions and summarize what has been heard.
 Speak appropriately for different purposes and audiences, such as an address, debate or
other oral presentation, presenting coherent arguments and critiques.
Handout 12.5
SLOs
States and school districts across the country are embracing Student Learning Objectives (SLOs)
as a key component of new teacher and principal evaluation and performance-based
compensation systems. Developed by teachers, SLOs are carefully planned goals for what
students will learn over a given time period. This process is designed to evoke critical,
evidence-based thought about student growth. Planned and implemented effectively, SLOs go
beyond performance measurement alone—helping drive learning by strengthening instruction.
SLO Cycle
Process of building capacity in all four phases of the SLO cycle:
 Preparation to address pivotal planning decisions, design the SLO structures, and develop
training and rollout strategies.
 Development to train school personnel and craft SLOs.
 Implementation to monitor student and teacher progress, strengthen teaching practices
and increase student learning.
 Results Analysis to examine and translate student outcomes into the teacher evaluation
system, refine practices and make informed decisions based on results.
SLO Quality Rating Rubrics
SLO quality matters. There is a positive, significant relationship between the quality of the SLOs
and the results in student academic growth.
We support you in customizing and using the rubrics to:
 Guide teachers and principals when crafting SLOs
 Rate SLOs objectively and consistently
 Provide the data needed to assess the effectiveness of implementation
Policy Decision-Making
Successful implementation of SLOs depends on policy decisions from the boardroom to the
classroom. Deciding to go the SLO route is a policy decision that triggers many other policy
decisions. We support your efforts to make responsive decisions in areas such as:
 Guidelines for teachers in tested and non-tested grades and subjects
 Collective bargaining agreements
 Assessments and approval processes
 Leadership and professional development
Implementation That Works

The SLO process is manageable and effective when you take the right steps in implementation.
We help you to achieve success and avoid pitfalls by sharing protocols that are field-tested,
backed up by research and address issues such as:
 Alignment of SLOs with Common Core Standards, data-driven instruction and professional
learning communities
 Integration of SLOs, teacher observations, and metrics such as student growth percentiles
and value added measures
 Annotations of SLOs that lead to better practice and results
Handout 12.6
Scheme of work/ Academic Calendar
Education systems in most countries have been adversely affected by COVID-19, and has
prompted widespread country-wide school//college closures and physical distancing measures,
likewise in Pakistan, and specifically in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. Talking specifically of
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, for an enhanced education system-level response to the pandemic, The
Elementary & Secondary Education Department, Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
undertook substantial steps to ensure continuity of learning in an equitably. An important step
taken by the E&SED is the Development of Accelerated Academic Calendar for the Higher
Secondary classes. The Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa and other stakeholders highlighted the need for the development of Accelerated
Academic Calendar (ACC) at the Higher Secondary level classes i.e. 11th and 12th. These classes
have also suffered in terms of time lost, the same way as the lower grades. The students are at
the decisive entry point in pursuit of their academic career as they have to appear for the Board
Examination. For this academic session, the teaching learning time available is less than the
normal routine. Since this is a critical and complex level, with a complicated vertical and
horizontal alignments and closely knit progression of the course contents in each subject, it
cannot be left to the teachers to pick and choose the topics to be dropped or taught to the
students. There is a need for carefully and technically reviewing the course contents, and the
Academic Calendar, by the Subject Experts, and decide the selection of content to be taught to
students in the shortened time period, without disturbing its alignment. As this is high stake
intervention, which will enable the teachers to make effective and efficient use of the time
available and cover all the essential course contents, and help students to be able to show good
performance in summative assessment and examination. It will be mandatory for BISE to assess
the papers on the topics/contents mentioned in the AAC for the session 2020-2021.
 English 1-2 52-53
 Urdu (Compulsory) 3-4 54-55
 Islamiat (Compulsory) 5-6 ---
 Pakistan Studies --- 56-58
 Physics 7-9 59-62
 Biology 10-14 63-69
 Chemistry 15-18 70-75
 Mathematics 19-22 76-79

 Statistics 23-25 80-82
 Economics 26-27 83-84
 Computer Science 28-30 85-87
 Health & Physical Education 31 88
 Home Economics 32-33 89
 General Mathematics 34-36 90-93
 Islamic Studies 37-38 94-95
 Civics 39-40 96-97
 Islamic History 41-43 98-100
 Home Economics Group 44-46 101-103
 Urdu Advance 47 104
 Pashto 48-49 105-106
 Library Science 50 107
Geography 51 108

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HANDOUTS

Induction Program for Teachers (Phase III) 4

E. Eisner (1985): -A course, or a classroom can be conceived of as a series of planned events

 What are the needs of the locality, society, national &international?

Can you think of any other example? Please explain.

(1) Behaviorist or association theories

Handout 2.3 (B)

Applications of Piaget’s Cognitive Theory in the Classroom

Handout 2.3 (C)

Culture and its link with Curriculum

2. Social factors are very critical in designing a curriculum.

3. The principle of activity-centeredness

11. Environment centered

18. The principle of joint venture

Handout 3.2 (a)

(i) They clarify for teacher and learner what is to be accomplished.

Handout 3.2 (b)

Topics What I know? What I want to What I learnt?

1. Write any five names of the Principles of curriculum development.

2. Analyze the relationship among these principles

teachers but only for developers’? Why?

Handout 3.4 (a)

Handout 3.4 (b)

Goldilocks and the Three Bears

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Listen to others with respect.

Examples: Participates in class

overt behavior and are often identifiable. commitment. Informs management on

Examples: Recognizes the need for

Examples: Show self-reliance when

 It supports students to reflect on their own thinking

An Example of using SOLO

Date Learning Objective Learning Outcomes

Salient features of the existing curriculum

S.NO Characteristics of a good curriculum Rational: Why?

Q2. How many developmental levels are in National Curriculum 2006?

Q3. What do you mean by standards?

Q5. What is meant by student learning outcomes?

knowledge across different classes or disciplines. An integrated curriculum uses both

 Documenting curriculum improves the teaching process. It gives teachers tangible

3. Materials 4. Process or methodology used by teachers

(c) Formative and Summative Evaluation.

4. Define Curriculum evaluation in your own words?

1. Objectives 2. Content as Outlined in the Syllabus

3. Materials 4. Process or Methodology used by Teachers

Traditional Teaching Modern Teaching

Following are the seven most important principles of teaching.

Principle 3: Encourage active learning.

Principle 5: Emphasize time on task

Teaching skills and practices

Content knowledge and delivery

Teachers demonstrate an empathy with student thinking, anticipating misconceptions and

 Is your child academically oriented?

 Expands assessment strategies

aspects of the performance.

Step #7– Assessment Options

There are 7 actions you can take

How and why do we use Questions and Talk in the classroom?

aspects of the performance.  

Teacher: ___________________ Date: _

Teacher: _____________________ Date:

Teacher: _____________ Date: