What are the different principles that govern an ecosystem?

The biotic factors in an ecosystem refer to the living organisms such as

bacteria, plants, and animals. The abiotic factors refer to the non-living things
such as soil, climate conditions, and terrain.
The fundamental principles of the ecosystem include adaptation and behavior,
organizational levels, biodiversity, and energy flow.

Adaptation and Behavior

The environment is constantly changing. Because of its changes, organisms
constantly undergo adaptation — the process of change to accommodate
environmental conditions over a short period of time.
Organisms are capable of adapting due to their behavior. Behavior is an
organism’s response to biotic and abiotic stimuli.
Abiotic factors in the environment which include climatic conditions can
influence an organism’s adaptation and behavior. For instance, certain
animals undergo hibernation during the winter season.
Biotic factors such as availability of prey, or predator-prey relationships can
dictate how organisms interact with each other. For example, when there is
limited prey for predators, mass migratory patterns may occur to ensure their
survival.

Example
Birds and monarch butterflies are capable of migration due to their behavior.
They can detect changes in the environment, allowing them to prepare for
migration. On the other hand, their predators will have to adapt to the lack of
available food resources.
Organizational Levels

The ecosystem is arranged in various levels. The levels of organization are

organized from smallest to largest.
The first level of organization pertains to an organism, which refers to the
individual species.
The second level is the population which refers to a group of organisms of the
same species in the same area. For instance, a population of green sea turtles
in Palawan is different from a population of green sea turtles in Zambales.
However, they can be under one population if they are grouped as a
population of green sea turtles in the Philippines.
The third level of organization is the community which involves more than one
species or more than one population. For instance, a live coral houses a
community of multiple aquatic organisms. It is important to note that both
population and community levels only refer to biotic factors.
The fourth level of organization is the ecosystem which involves several
communities combined with abiotic factors. For example, an area in Zambales
hosts different community of populations interacting with several factors in
the environment.
The last and final level is the biosphere which encompasses all ecosystems. The
biosphere is essentially the surface of the Earth.

Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variability of organisms in an ecosystem. It has three
types—species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecological diversity.
 Species diversity refers to the abundance and number of different species
in the same area. For example, there is an abundance of different bird
species in a forest.
 Genetic diversity refers to the variation in the genes within a particular
species or within a population. A very good example is the variability of
eye color in humans.
 Ecological diversity refers to the diversity in an ecosystem, habitat, and
natural community. It shows how different species interact with each
other and with their environment. It is the largest type of biodiversity.
For instance, the Amazon rainforest differs from the Congo rainforest
based on the different species found in both ecosystems as well as
abiotic factors such as the amount of rainfall. They are both rainforests
but have a lot of differences which make each of them unique.
The illustration below represents the global species diversity of organisms.
Energy Flow
For an organism to survive, it must be able to acquire energy from either the
environment or another organism.
The food chain shows the feeding relationships of organisms and depicts the
energy flow in an ecosystem. It starts in the organisms that are able to produce
chemical energy derived from the light energy of sun. They are called
producers which are also known as autotrophs. The organisms that feed on the
producers are called the consumers, also known as heterotrophs. The
consumers get their energy from the producers that they consume.

Consumers are further divided into herbivores that only eat plants, carnivores
that only eat other animals, omnivores that can consume both plants and
animals, and decomposers that feed on dead organic matter and bring the
energy back into the food web.
The food web is the sum of food chains and shows multiple pathways of energy
flow in an ecosystem. Just like in the food chain, the energy enters through the
producers or autotrophs.
It is important to note that all parts of the food chain, except for the sun, from
the pr

ECOLOGICAL CRISIS
LIEBIGS LAW OFMINIMUM
SPAC3S

Eco-cities

Some critical challenges for cities in future will be: How

can cities continue to harness the opportunities for
economic growth and poverty reduction offered by
urbanization, while also mitigating its negative impacts?
How can cities cope up with the speed and the scale of
urbanization, given their own capacity and constraints?
How can ecological and environmental considerations be
interlinked with development, so that they produce cumulative and lasting advantage for cities?
To address the above questions, Eco city concept was proposed. Richard Register first coined the
term "Eco-city" in his 1987 book, Eco-city: Building cities for a healthy future.  An  eco-city  in 
simple  terms  can  be  explained  as  an  ecologically healthy city. An Eco- city builds on the
synergy and interdependence of ecological and economic sustainability, and their fundamental
ability to reinforce each other in the urban context (World Bank 2010). Eco-Cities are a concept to
achieve this sustainability by taking the ecological principles as the central driving principles for
the planning of our cities (Huang G Y et al 2002).

 Eco city aims at:

• Developing an urban ecosystem which is ecologically sound minimizing the negative impact of
development on the environment.
• Reduction of ecological footprint of development thus shaping an improvement in the quality
of life.
• Achieving environmental sustainability through reduced greenhouse gas emissions, utilization
of renewable energy, and green transportation.
• Creation of a vibrant economy through environment-friendly production and industry that
supports high capita gross domestic product (GDP) level
• Maintaining high air and water quality standards and an above-average ratio of green space
per capita
• Social harmony with adequate educational and employment opportunities and a social safety
net
• Protection of ecologically sensitive habitats, physical and nonphysical cultural legacies and
promotion of green lifestyles and regional integration

Eco-city initiatives in China and India

In 1994, China announced its ‘Agenda 21’ and explicitly stressed the importance of sustainable
settlement. By 1996, the then State Environmental Planning Agency issued the policy document
‘Guidelines for the Building of Eco-Communities (1996-2050)’. The intention was to promote the
planning and construction of eco-communities across the country. Under this directive, between
2003 -2008 three Eco-cities were planned in China:Dongtan Eco-city near Shanghai, Tianjin City in
northern China, and Huangbaiyu, north-east China. In Japan starting 1997 six eco-cities have
been planned: Yokohama, Kitakyushu, Toyama City,
Obihiro , Shimokawa and Minamata.

In India discussions on Eco cities started in 2000 and

starting 2001 six medium and small Eco-cities were
planned by the Ministry of Environment and Forest
(MoEF) in association with Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) and with technical assistance from German
technical cooperation (GTZ). The focus of the project is
pollution control, improvement of environmental quality, protection of environmental resources
like rivers and lakes, improving sanitary conditions, improving the needed infrastructure and
creating aesthetic environs in the chosen towns. The cities included Tirupathi, Vrindavan,
Kottayam, Ujjain, Puri and Thanjavur.

The Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor Development Corporation (DMICDC) has also aimed to
develop smart Eco-cities along the Delhi Mumbai Corridor with investment from companies in
Japan. The DMICDC and the Haryana State Industrial & Infrastructure Development Corporation
(HSIIDC) have planned to develop an eco city at Manesar in Gurgaon, Haryana. This is planned as
a pilot model, and if it succeeds similar models will be developed in different regions of the
country in the future. This has been planned based on the Japanese Eco cities of Yokohama and
Kitakyushu. Sustainable eco villages and towns are also being advocated. The Prince of Wales,
through his charity Foundation for the Built Environment, is planning to construct an eco-friendly
community for 15,000 people outside either Bangalore or Kolkata. The design of the new shanty
town is inspired by the model village of Poundbury in Dorset, which has been the Prince of
Wales’ pet project for thirty years.

Many of these projects are at various stages of implementation, however planning and
developing an Eco-city is a tedious and uncertain process.  In China failure of eco-cities (such as
Dongton Eco-city) occurred mainly due to Implementation difficulties. Factors like land
availability, economic growth, Infrastructure facilities, Investment, political stability and much
more will play a critical role in making Eco-cities a success. Barriers and challenges have been
experienced with regards to the Eco-Towns in Japan too. It would be difficult to adopt the
process of the Eco-Town formation as-is to developing countries and cities because of lack of
funds, differences in the social and industrial structures, and low environmental consciousness.

Some of the key aspects to be considered while designing Eco city models particularly in the
developing countries are:
- Environmentally sound technology to reduce carbon emission, recycle waste and to create
sustainable transport
- Land acquisition and relocation of local people
- Involvement of multi stakeholders in town planning
- Enormous financial requirement

Way ahead

During the last two decades most Indian cities have experienced phenomenal growth which the
cities found difficult to cope with and as a consequence they are faced with problems in
infrastructure, water and air pollution and other environmental problems. These problems are
expected only to grow more in coming years. Social injustice and gap between urban rich and
poor is also increasing leading to more urban poor. If we are to absorb and sustain the powerful
wave of urbanization, while continuing to manage the existing built stock, we will need a
paradigm shift on the approaches towards planning and
managing cities.

Eco-cities  have  the  potential  to  address  many  of  the 

problems  associated  with  urban development and
failure of Eco-city models  should not dampen the interest
levels, however careful planning and implementation is
necessary.

The evolution of cities takes many years. Each city has its
own socio political, cultural and economic conditions and strategies adopted in shaping a
successful eco city at one place may not necessarily work for other cities. Achieving greater
sustainability in cities requires an in-depth understanding of the impacts of different urban
forms on movement pattern, social conditions, environmental quality, and of their capacities to
deliver future benefits. Success of Eco cities truly depends on planning taking, ecological and
environmental factors into consideration..
Eco- cities cannot be formed in isolation. These projects: (a) need to ensure inter-linkages to the
present city; or (b) should be aimed to develop present cities into Eco cities. Better planned eco-
cities cannot be successful unless human development is taking place simultaneously. The socio
cultural aspect of sustainability must also be taken into consideration while planning. With
increasing economic growth in India, the growth of Indian cities can be expected to be high and
it would be wise to start planning for Eco-cities today for a better sustainable future tomorrow.

Environment Protection Act (EPA)

India’s original Constitution did not contain any provision for the protection of the natural
environment. However, the Fundamental Duties, which were added by the 42nd Amendment to
the Constitution, prescribed the protection of the environment including forests, lakes, rivers and
wildlife as a duty of the citizens of the country.

Also read: Important International Conventions and Protocols for UPSC

This amendment also added new Directive Principles of State Policy, one of which was Article
48A, which directed the State to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests
and wildlife.

These developments were a result of the United Nations Conference on Human Environment,
held in Stockholm in 1972. First, the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was enacted. Then, the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was passed, followed by the Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act 1981. Then in 1986, the EPA was passed by the Parliament, in the wake
of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, which occurred on Dec 2, 1984 (Know more about the tragedy in the
link).

Get detailed notes on all the important acts passed by the Indian Parliament in the link.

Aims and Objectives of the EPA

The chief aims and objectives of the Environment Protection Act, 1986 are listed below.

1. Implementing the decisions made at the United Nations Conference on Human

Environment held in Stockholm.
2. Creation of a government authority to regulate industry that can issue direct orders
including closure orders.
3. Coordinating activities of different agencies that are operating under the existing laws.
4. Enacting regular laws for the protection of the environment.
5. Imposing punishments and penalties on those who endanger the environment, safety
and health. For each failure or contravention, the punishment includes a prison term of
up to five years or a fine of up to Rs. 1 lakh, or both. This can also be extended for up to
seven years in cases.
6. Engaging in the sustainable development of the environment.
7. Attaining protection of the right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution.
Main Provisions of Environment Protection Act
The EPA empowers the Centre to “take all such measures as it deems necessary” in the domain
of environmental protection.

 Under the law, it can coordinate and execute nationwide programmes and plans to
further environmental protection.
 It can mandate environmental quality standards, particularly those concerning the
emission or discharge of environmental pollutants.
 This law can impose restrictions on the location of industries.
 The law gives the government the power of entry for examination, testing of equipment
and other purposes and power to analyse the sample of air, water, soil or any other
substance from any place.
 The EPA explicitly bars the discharge of environmental pollutants in excess of prescribed
regulatory standards.
 There is also in place a specific provision for handling hazardous substances, which is
prohibited unless in compliance with regulatory requirements.
 The Act empowers any person, apart from authorised government officers, to file a
complaint in a court regarding any contravention of the provisions of the Act.

Industrial Revolution
The change from hand production methods to machines to
increase productivity

Updated April 8, 2021

What is the Industrial Revolution?

The Industrial Revolution started around 1760 and ended between
1820 and 1840. It originally began in Europe and slowly shifted over to
the United States in the early 1800s. The latter half of the 18th century
saw massive changes in the production of goods. Manufacturers were
turning away from hand production methods towards machines to
increase productivity.
The era saw new changes in chemical manufacturing, iron production,
textile production, as well as across many other industries. The rapid
development of steam power and water power were two of the core
driving factors of the industrial revolution. It was a turning point in
human history, changing how products were produced and the overall
standard of living for a vast majority of the population.

The first industrial revolution in the 18th century should not be confused

with a subsequent industrialization period, which occurred later in the
19th and 20th centuries and saw changes in metal (specifically, steel),
electric, and automobile production.

The original industrial revolution began in England with the British

textiles business and spread across other parts of Europe. Thousands
of miles of canals and roads sprung up across Britain to assist the
growth of the revolution. Also, steam-powered trains, both freight and
passenger, became much more popular and helped transport goods
across Europe.

The industrial revolution focused on economies of scale and turning to

mass production of products. Economies of scale bring fixed and
variable cost advantages to increases in production and technological
advances.

The Impact of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution caused an everlasting impact on society and

the living standards that we are familiar with today. It would be
challenging to find many aspects of life that were not altered by the
first industrialization period on the economy, production, and people.

Employment opportunities and wages increased across various sectors.

Factories began to be a more appealing job, given the potential
increase in income and benefits. It also increased the demand for
housing in cities, subsequently improving the overall city layout,
planning, and education systems. Due to increased education and the
need for more advanced technologies, new inventions skyrocketed.
Such a mindset ultimately continued to accelerate the revolution and all
of its beneficiaries.

Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita began to grow with the

industrial revolution, alongside the development of the modern
capitalist economy. It was the beginning of consistent GDP growth for
the next century. Countries that capitalized on industrialization started
to rely less on imports and became more self-sufficient.

However, there were also some downsides to the industrial revolution.

As a result of the extremely rapid changes in production, cities and
governments saw new problems arise. Inner-city pollution saw an
abrupt rise from factories and increased population as more workers
moved to the cities. Living conditions in some places plummeted;
sewage and waste flooded the streets and rivers.

Additionally, working conditions in factories decreased as companies

tried to cut costs and become more profitable to stay ahead of their
competitors. Child labor and employee health issues arose. The
governments ended up implementing labor, pollution, and other
regulations to ensure the safety of its people and the economy.
Financing and Banking

During the Industrial Revolution, banks saw greater importance in

financing, specifically geared towards industrial financing. The growth
demanded more capital from entrepreneurs and current business
owners. Although technology costs were decreasing, the overall
demand for infrastructure funding was on the rise.

Financing came from several sources; merchants, aristocrats, and

wealthy families were all key contributors at the start. With the ever-
increasing demand, general and specialist banks became more
common and would provide long-term loans to these entrepreneurs in
the revolution.

Summary

The Industrial Revolution, also known as the First Industrial Revolution,

changed the way companies operated and resulted in an everlasting
impact on the societies we see today. It stretched across the 1700s to
1800s.

Through economies of scale, businesses streamlined their processes

and created more products at reduced costs. It increased employment
opportunities and the wages associated with them. Workers flocked to
cities to find work at the factories being set up, which, in the beginning,
often paid more than farming.

Cities saw changes in their planning to adjust for the mass influx of
people and to keep living conditions acceptable. Governments put in
regulations to keep factory workers safe and reduce the exponential
increase in pollution that the era saw.

The change also saw entrepreneurs and current businesses in more

need of capital. Banks developed to be able to supply the necessary
capital for these high-growth areas.