Chapter three

Methods of advanced enhanced oil recovery (EOR)

3-1- Gas injection in miscible way

Gas injection is the most widely applied EOR process for light oils. Oil recoveries for gas
injection processes are usually greatest when the process is operated under conditions
where the gas can become miscible with the reservoir oil. The primary objective of miscible
gas injection is to improve local displacement efficiency and reduce residual oil saturation
below the levels typically obtained by waterflooding. Examples of miscible gas injection are
CO2 or N2 at sufficiently high pressure, dry gas enriched with sufficient quantities of LPG
components, and sour or acid gases containing H2S.

3-1-1- Nitrogen and flue gases

Compact air, nitrogen and produced gases are the cheapest gases. The combination of
these gases also can be injected, because the minimum miscible pressure of these gases is
close to each other so they can be used continually for oil recovery. Beside, corrosion was a
problem resulted in better preference of nitrogen injection rather than other produced gases.

Parameter confine in running

Parameter Desirable
projects
Oil API degree - 35-54
Oil viscosity ˂0.4 0.07-0.3
High percentage of it, are formed from light
Oil combination
hydrocarbons
Oil saturation rate
˃40 59-80
(%)
Sand rock or carbonate rocks or low fracture with
Reservoir rock
high permeability
Reservoir Net Relatively with low Net Thickness unless it is
Thickness(ft) inclined
Depth (ft) ˃6000 10000-18500
Permeability (md) It is not criterion
It’s not important, although there is high heat
o
Temperature (f ) degree and pressure in those reservoirs which are
located in high depths
Table 3-1- suitable parameters in order to run flue gases and nitrogen gas injection projects (NIOC)

Beside, its low price and availability is another advantage toward other similar gases.
Unfortunately, since minimum miscible pressure is high, the possibility of its injection is just
in deep reservoirs.

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Mechanisms

Mechanisms which occur in this method include:

1- Steaming of light ingredients of oil and creating miscibility in high and enough
pressure
2- Creating gas drive in a place in which a large part of reservoir volume is full of gas
3- Increase of gravity drainage drive which occurs in inclined reservoir.

Figure 3-1- Nitrogen injection (Advanced CERT Canada Inc.)

Limitations and problems

Since proper miscible ability is formed with light oil and in high pressure, so this action is
done in deep reservoirs. In inclined reservoirs, gravity drainage drive role can be
determinant in low permeability. Corrosion makes problem in produced gas injection but at
present time, in those projects which produced gas is used formally, nitrogen is used
successfully.

3-1-2- hydrocarbon gas injection

Before introducing the concepts of minimum miscible pressure, hydrocarbon injection had
been used for many years. In necessary pressure part, hydrocarbon located between
nitrogen that needs high pressure and CO2 that needs intermediate pressure for miscible
replacement. In this case, methane is completely correct, anyway in a low depth reservoir

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which has low pressure it can be done by increase in the percentage of saturated
hydrocarbons (C2 – C4). If it is reasonable economically, in those places in which CO2 is not
available (such as Canada) It is a good choice for EOR.

Mechanisms:

Different methods which are used in hydrocarbon gas injection include:

Enriched gas injection, lean gas injection, gas injection in high pressure, LPG injection

Figure 3-2- hydrocarbon gas injection (Advanced CERT Canada Inc.)

We can inject some other gases for EOR in miscible way like: Enriched gas, Lean gas
injection and LPG (liquid petroleum gas).

3-1-3- CO2 injection

The EOR technique that is attracting the most new market interest is CO2-EOR. First tried in
1972 in Scurry County, Texas, CO2 injection has been used successfully throughout the
Permian Basin of West Texas and eastern New Mexico, and is now being pursued. Until
recently, most of the CO2 used for EOR has come from naturally-occurring reservoirs. But
new technologies are being developed to produce CO2 from industrial applications such as
natural gas processing, fertilizer, ethanol, and hydrogen plants in locations where naturally
occurring reservoirs are not available. When we inject CO2 into an oil reservoir, it becomes
mutually soluble with the residual crude oil as light hydrocarbons from the oil dissolve in the
CO2 and CO2 dissolves in the oil. When the injected CO2 and residual oil are miscible, the

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 physical forces holding the two phases apart (interfacial tension) effectively disappears. This
enables the CO2 to displace the oil from the rock pores, pushing it towards a producing well
just as a cleaning solvent would remove oil from reservoir rocks.

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Figure 3-3- CO injection (Advanced CERT Canada Inc)

Limitations and problems

We need a good and cheap source of CO2; meanwhile, there are corrosion problems,
especially if CO2 is seen in production well.

Parameter confine in running

Parameter Desirable extent
projects
Oil API degree ˃22 27-44
Oil viscosity ˂10 0.3-6
Oil composition High percentage of intermediates (C5 to C12)
Oil saturation degree ˃40 15-70

Reservoir rock type Relatively thin sandstone or carbonate unless

dipping
Reservoir Net It is not criterion but the injection rate should be
Thickness(ft) sufficient and continuous
For miscible displacement, depth must be great
Depth (ft) and enough to allow injection pressures greater than the
o 4040-15900
temperature (f ) MMP, which increase with temperature and for
heavier oils.
2
Table 3-2- proper parameters to apply CO gas injection project in a miscible way (NIOC)

It should be considered that depth depends on oil gravity rate. So in table 3-4- this relation is
studied in more detail.

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 Injection kind Oil API degree Desirable depth (major) ft
More than 40 2500
32-39.9 2800
Miscible injection 28-31.9 3300
22-27.9 4000
Less than 22 Mix is not possible
13-21.9 1800
Immiscible injection
Less than 13 Injection fails in any depth
2
Table 3-3- the study of relation between depth and gravity to apply CO gas injection project (NIOC)

3-2- gas/CO2 injection in immiscible way

When insufficient reservoir pressure is available or the reservoir’s oil composition is less
favorable (heavier), the injected carbon dioxide will not become miscible with the reservoir’s
oil. Then, another oil displacement mechanism, immiscible carbon dioxide flooding, occurs.
The immiscible carbon dioxide flooding process has considerable potential for the recovery
of moderately viscous oils, which are unsuited for the application of thermal recovery
techniques. The main mechanisms involved in immiscible carbon dioxide flooding are: 1. Oil
phase swelling which is as a result of oil saturation with carbon dioxide. 2. Viscosity
reduction of the swollen oil and carbon dioxide mixture.

Parameter Desirable extent

Oil API degree ˃12
Oil viscosity ˂600
Oil compound Is not criterion
Oil saturation degree (%) ˃35
Reservoir rock type Is not criterion
Main Net Thickness(ft) If the inclined is suitable and vertical relative permeability is good
Permeability (md) Is not criterion
Depth (ft) ˃1800
o
Temperature degree (f ) Is not criterion
Table 3-4- suitable parameters for immiscible transfer (NIOC)

3-3- water injection

One of the most common methods for increasing production from an oil reservoir is water
injection to the reservoir; in this method water acts as a piston and drive oil forward. Since oil
and water are immiscible so this transfer is called immiscible transfer, finally water bank
receive to production wells and much water percentage is produced by reduction of oil
percentage. If the production is not economical the injection should not be continued.

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