4ee4-24 Emi Lab Manual

Anand International College of
Engineering, Jaipur
LAB-MANUAL
II Year IV SEM EE
4EE4-24
Measurement Lab
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL & POWER

ENGINEERING
SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 1

INDEX
S No. CONTENT Page No.

1. RTU Syllabus
3
Do’s & Don’ts
2. 4
Instructions to the Students
3. 5
4. Lab PEO 6
5. Lab Plan 12
Experiment as per RTU Syllabus
6. Exp-1 To study working and applications of (i) C.R.O. (ii) 13

Digital Storage C.R.O. & (ii) C.R.O. Probes
7. Exp-2 . To study working and applications of Meggar, Tong- 18

tester, P.F. Meter and Phase Shifter.
8. Exp-3. To measure power and power factor in 3-phase load by 24

(i) Two wattmeter method and (ii) One wattmeter method.
Exp-4. To calibrate an ammeter using DC slide wire
9. 30
potentiometer.
10. Exp-5. To calibrate a voltmeter using Crompton potentiometer 36
11. Exp-6 . To measure low resistance by Crompton potentiometer 39
Exp-7 To measure Low resistance by Kelvin's double bridge.

12. 45
Exp-8. To measure earth resistance using fall of potential

13 53
method.
14. Exp-9. To calibrate a single-phase energy meter by phantom 60

loading at different power factors
15. Exp-10 To measure self-inductance using Anderson's bridge. 66
Experiment Beyond Syllabus

Exp-1 To measure capacitance using De Sauty Bridge
16. 81
Exp-2 To measure frequency using Wein's bridge. 86
17.

Detailed Syllabus
Class: III Sem. B.Tech. Evaluation
Branch: E.E Examination Time = Three (2) Hours
Schedule per Week Maximum Marks = 75
Practical Hrs : 2 hr/week [Sessional (45) & End-term (30)]
S. No. List of Experiments as per RTU Syllabus

1. To study working and applications of (i) C.R.O. (ii) Digital Storage C.R.O. &
(ii) C.R.O. Probes
2. . To study working and applications of Meggar, Tong-tester, P.F. Meter and

Phase Shifter
3. To measure power and power factor in 3-phase load by (i) Two wattmeter
method and (ii) One wattmeter method.
4. To calibrate an ammeter using DC slide wire potentiometer.
5. To calibrate a voltmeter using Crompton potentiometer
6. To measure low resistance by Crompton potentiometer
7. To measure Low resistance by Kelvin's double bridge.
8. To measure earth resistance using fall of potential method.
9. To calibrate a single-phase energy meter by phantom loading at different

power factors
10. To measure self-inductance using Anderson's bridge.
List of Experiments Beyond Syllabus
11. To measure capacitance using De Sauty Bridge.
12. To measure frequency using Wein's bridge.

DO’S AND DONT’S
DO’S
1. Student should get the record of previous experiment checked before starting the new
experiment.
2. Read the manual carefully before starting the experiment.
3. Before starting the experiment, get circuit diagram checked by the teacher.
4. Before switching on the power supply, get the circuit connections checked.
5. Get your readings checked by the teacher.
6. Apparatus must be handled carefully.
7. Maintain strict discipline.
8. Keep your mobile phone switched off or in vibration mode.
9. Students should get the experiment allotted for next turn, before leaving the lab.
DONT’S
1. Do not touch or attempt to touch the mains power supply Wire with bare hands.
2. Do not overcrowd the tables.
3. Do not tamper with equipments.
4. Do not leave the without permission from the teacher.

Instructions to the Students
General Instructions
 Maintain separate observation copy for each laboratory.

 Observations or readings should be taken only in the observation copy.
 Get the readings counter signed by the faculty after the completion of the
experiment.
 Maintain Index column in the observation copy and get the signature of the
faculty before leaving the lab.
Before Entering the Lab
 The previous experiment should have been written in the practical file,
without which the students will not be allowed to enter the lab.
 The students should have written the experiment in the observation copy
that they are supposed to perform in the lab.
 The experiment written in the observation copy should have aim, apparatus
required, circuit diagram/algorithm, blank observation table (if any),
formula (if any), programmed (if any), model graph (if any) and space for
result.
When Working in the Lab
 Necessary equipments/apparatus should be taken only from the lab assistant

by making an issuing slip, which would contain name of the experiment,
names of batch members and apparatus or components required.
 Never switch on the power supply before getting the permission from the
faculty.
Before Leaving the Lab
 The equipments/components should be returned back to the lab assistant in

good condition after the completion of the experiment.
 The students should get the signature from the faculty in the observation
copy.
 They should also check whether their file is checked and counter signed in
the index.

PROGRAM EDUCATION OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES
Subject Name/Code: 3EE11 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LAB

Class: B. Tech. II Yr III Sem. Electrical Engineering L T P
0 0 2
External Marks: 30 Internal Marks: 45 Total Marks: 75
(1) Program Description: To offer high quality education in the field of Electrical
Engineering and to prepare students abreast of latest global industrial and research
requirements and fulfill responsibility towards community.
(2) Program Objective:

I. Preparation: To prepare undergraduate students with appropriate blend of
theoretical foundations, experimentation & technical implementation to
comprehend and pinpoint problems in the field of electrical Engineering to excel in
postgraduate programs or to succeed in industry / technical profession.
II. Core competence: To provide students with a solid foundation in mathematical,
scientific and engineering fundamentals required to solve electrical engineering
problems and also to pursue higher studies. Student will be able to employ his
knowledge along with necessary techniques & tools for modern engineering
applications.
I. Breadth: To train students with good scientific and electrical engineering breadth
so as to comprehend, analyze, design, and create novel products and solutions for
the real life problems in the present electrical system.
II. Professionalism: To inculcate in students professional and ethical attitude,
Communication Skills, teamwork Skills, computer programming skill and an ability
to relate electrical engineering issues to broader social context.
III. Learning Environment: To provide student with an academic environment aware
of excellence, leadership, and the life-long learning needed for a successful
professional career through independent studies, thesis, internships etc.

(3) Program Outcomes:
A. Graduates will demonstrate knowledge of advanced mathematics, science and
electrical engineering with the ability to apply the theoretical knowledge and
concepts to the disciplines of electrical engineering.
B. Graduates will demonstrate an ability to identify, formulate, pinpoint and solve
Electrical engineering problems keeping in view the present day power and energy
requirement and its future prospect.
C. Graduate will demonstrate an ability to design electrical and power electronic
circuits and conduct experiments that serve as the blue print for the complex
electrical circuitry associated with our day to day electricity transmission and
protection process related with power systems, analysis, protection and distribution.
D. Graduates will demonstrate an ability to design study and analyze the digital and
analog systems and components that serve as the fundamental components of the
power engineering methods being increasingly used with the new technological
advances.
E. Graduates will demonstrate an ability to visualize and work on laboratory and
identify the theoretical models as predictors of real world behavior. This may
include evaluating, establishing of validating a relationship between data and
underlying physical principles.
F. Graduate will demonstrate skills to use modern engineering tools, software,
equipment to design, protect or assemble the system using specific methodologies
with the help of appropriate tools to satisfy requirements.
G. Graduates will demonstrate knowledge of professional and computer language
skills that will eventually develop them into skilled researchers in an atmosphere
that is technically advanced and conductive.
H. Graduate will be able to communicate effectively in both verbal and written form.
They will develop a better presentation skill on academic and personal grounds that
will enhance their personality in all aspects.
I. Graduate will understand the impact of engineering solutions on the society and
also be aware of contemporary issues relating to the exhausting resources and
alternatives to continue uninterrupted power supply.
J. Graduate will develop confidence, self motivation, positive belief, consistency,
perseverance and team work.

K. Graduate will be able to participate and succeed in campus placements and
competitive examinations like Public sector, GATE, GRE etc.
L. An understanding of the industry needs through direct exposure with the industries
under the Entrepreneurship Development Cell.
M. An ability to take interest in higher education, research avenues through various
trainings and research laboratory exposure.
(4) Mapping of Program Objective with Program Outcome
Program Program Outcomes
Objective A B C D E F G H I J K L M
I √ √ √ √ √ √ √
II √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
III √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
IV √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
V √ √ √ √ √ √ √
(5) Course Objectives :
The study of subject Electrical Measurement Lab in undergraduate program in

Electrical Engineering Branch will achieve the following major objectives:
1. This Lab helps the student how to solve electrical measurement problems.
2. In this lab we analyze, synthesize and study of various types of instruments used in
electrical measurements.
3. This lab gives the brief idea of bridges used in measuring of different types of
electrical elements.
4. This lab will help in analysis of calibration of different type of measuring
instruments.
(6) Course Objective Contribution to Program Outcomes:

Course Objective Program Outcome
1. This Lab helps the student B. Graduates will demonstrate an ability to
how to solve electrical identify, formulate, pinpoint and solve
measurement problems. Electrical engineering problems keeping in
view the present day power and energy
2. In this lab we analyze,
requirement and its future prospect.
synthesize and study of
various types of instruments E. Graduates will demonstrate an ability to
used in electrical visualize and work on laboratory and
measurements. identify the theoretical models as
predictors of real world behavior. This
3. This lab gives the brief idea of
may include evaluating, establishing of
bridges used in measuring of
validating a relationship between data and
different types of electrical
underlying physical principles.
elements.
J. Graduate will develop confidence, self
4. This lab will help in analysis
motivation, positive belief, consistency,
of calibration of different type
perseverance and team work
of measuring instruments
K. Graduate will be able to participate and
succeed in campus placements and
competitive examinations like Public
sector, GATE, GRE etc.
L. An understanding of the industry needs

through direct exposure with the industries
under the Entrepreneurship Development
Cell.
(7) Course Objective to Program Outcomes Mapping:

Course Program Outcomes
Objective A B C D E F G H I J K L M
1 √
2 √ √ √
3 √ √
4 √ √
(8) Instructional Methods:

1. Direct Instructions:
I. Black board presentation
II. Multimedia presentation
2. Interactive Instruction:
I. Experiment Table Instruction.
II. Quiz/Viva Voice
3. Indirect Instructions:
I. Problem Solving
II. Lab Assignment
4. Independent Instructions:
I. Lab Records
II. Performing experiments
(9) Learning Materials:

1. Lab Manuals
2. Multimedia material
3. Related Software.
(10) Assessment of Outcomes:

1. Session tests/ internal assessment (one in each semester).
2. End term exam/External assessment (Conducted by RTU, Kota)

(11) Outcomes will be achieved through following:
1. Class room/Lab teaching.
2. Experiment performance.
3. Video lectures.

Lab Plan
Turn No. of Experiments

No./EXP. No. 1 2 3,4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
G1, G3 G5, G7 G9, G11

1
G2 ,G4 G6 ,G8 G10
G11 G1 G3, G5, G7, G9
2
,G2 G4 G6 G8 G10
G9, G11 G1, G3, G5 G7,
3
G10 G2 G4 ,G6 G8
G7, G9, G11 G1, G3 G5
4
G8 G10 G2 ,G4 ,G6
G5 G7, G9 G11 G1, G3,
5
,G6 G8 ,G10 G2 G4
G3, G5, G7, G9, G11 G1,
6 G4
G6 G8 G10 G2
G1, G3 G5, G7 G9, G11
7
G2 ,G4 G6 ,G8 G10
G11 G1 G3, G5, G7, G9,
8
,G2 G4 G6 G8 G10
G9, G11 G1, G3, G5 G7,
9
G10 G2 G4 ,G6 G8
G7, G9, G11 G1, G3 G5
10
G8 G10 G2 ,G4 ,G6
G5 G7, G9 G11 G1, G3,
11
,G6 G8 ,G10 G2 G4
G3, G5, G7, G9, G11 G1,
12 G4
G6 G8 G10 G2

EXPERIMENT NO# 1
OBJECT : - Study working and applications of (i) C.R.O. (ii) Digital

Storage C.R.O. & (ii) C.R.O. Probes
APPRATUS REQUIRED :- Cathode-ray oscilloscope, millimeters, and

oscillator.
INTRODUCTION :-
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory

instrument that provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of
voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and
ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument.
The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig.
The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated
cathode (negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen.

The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode
(positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the
electron beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun
and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to
provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented to give
vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the
horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two
deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen.
Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light
is emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy into light allows
us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is

first amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the
beam vertically and at the same time a voltage that increases linearly with
time is applied to the horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to
be deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant) rate. The signal applied to
the vertical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The
horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished

by use of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry.
The voltage output of such a generator is that of a saw tooth wave as shown in
Fig. 2. Application of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases
linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected
linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls to
zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back
to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated
periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external
controls.

To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of
the unknown signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated
with each cycle of the sweep generator. Thus, with such a matching of
synchronization of the two deflections, the pattern on the tube face repeats
itself and hence appears to remain stationary. The persistence of vision in the
human eye and of the glow of the fluorescent screen aids in producing a
stationary pattern. In addition, the electron beam is cut off (blanked) during
fly back so that the retrace sweep is not observed.
CRO Operation:-
A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3.

In general, the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to
be displayed is amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the vertical
deflection plates of the CRT. A portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is
applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then
generates a pulse coincident with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering
signal. This pulse turns on the sweep generator, initiating the saw tooth wave
form. The saw tooth wave is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied
to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional provisions signal are
made for applying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60 Hz line for
triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external signal
applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.

CRO Control:-
The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of

operating conditions and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since
many of these controls are common to most oscilloscopes a brief description
of them follows.
CATHODE-RAY TUBE:-
Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination

of the graticule.
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

VERTICAL AMPLIFIER SECTION:-
Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.

Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display
Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the

calibrated steps. Normally the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable
knob is in the fully clockwise position.
AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied
to vertical amplifier, or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the
input directly to the amplifier; selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor
before going to the amplifier thus blocking any constant component.
HORIZONTAL-SWEEP SECTION:-
Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits
external signal to horizontal amplifier.
Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep rates.

Calibrated position is fully clockwise.
Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to

horizontal amplifier through Ext. Horizon Connector.
TRIGGER:-
The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-

) portion of trigger signal.

Coupling: Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or ac level.
Source: Selects the source of the triggering signal.
INT - (internal) - from signal on vertical amplifier

EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the EXT.
LINE - 60 cycle trigger
Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is
triggered. It also allows automatic (auto) triggering of allows sweep to run
free (free run).
CONNECTIONS FOR THE OSCILLOSCOPE :-
Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y
(or vertical) amplifier. The lower jack is grounded to the case.
Horizontal Input: A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the

horizontal amplifier. The lower terminal is grounded to the case of the
oscilloscope.
External Trigger Input: Input connector for external trigger signal.
Cal. Out: Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 mill
volts for use in calibrating the gain of the amplifiers.
Accuracy of the vertical deflection is + 3%. Sensitivity is variable.
Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of sweep is

variable.
Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall

receptacle, set the controls as follows:

(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the center of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the center of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1
Plug line cord into a standard ac wall receptacle (nominally 118 V). Turn
power on. Do not advance the Intensity Control.
Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two minutes, then turn the
Intensity Control until the beam is visible on the screen.
WARNING :-
Never advance the Intensity Control so far that an excessively bright

spot appears. Bright spots imply burning of the screen. A sharp focused spot
of high intensity (great brightness) should never be allowed to remain fixed in
one position on the screen for any length of time as damage to the screen may
occur.
Adjust Horizontal and Vertical Centering Controls. Adjust the focus to give a
sharp trace. Set trigger to internal, level to auto.
PROCEDURE:-
I. Set the signal generator to a frequency of 1000 cycles per second. Connect
the output from the generator to the vertical input of the oscilloscope.
Establish a steady trace of this input signal on the scope. Adjust (play with) all
of the scope and signal generator controls until you become familiar with the
functionof each. The purpose fo such "playing" is to allow the student to
become so familiar with the oscilloscope that it becomes an aid (tool) in

making measurements in other experiments and not as a formidable obstacle.
Note: If the vertical gain is set too low, it may not be possible to obtain a
steady trace.
II. Measurements of Voltage: Consider the circuit in Fig. 4(a). The signal
generator is used to produce a 1000 hertz sine wave. The AC voltmeter and
the leads to the vertical input of the oscilloscope are connected across the
generator's output. By adjusting the Horizontal Sweep time/cm and trigger, a
steady trace of the sine wave may be displayed on the screen. The trace
represents a plot of voltage vs. time, where the vertical deflection of the trace
about the line of symmetry CD is proportional to the magnitude of the voltage
at any instant of time.
To determine the size of the voltage signal appearing at the output of

terminals of the signal generator, an AC (Alternating Current) voltmeter is
connected in parallel across these terminals (Fig. 4a). The AC voltmeter is

designed to read the dc "effective value" of the voltage. This effective value is
also known as the "Root Mean Square value" (RMS) value of the voltage.
The peak or maximum voltage seen on the scope face (Fig. 4b) is V m
volts and is represented by the distance from the symmetry line CD to the
maximum deflection. The relationship between the magnitude of the peak
voltage displayed on the scope and the effective or RMS voltage (VRMS) read
on the AC voltmeter is
VRMS = 0.707 Vm (for a sine or cosine wave).
Thus
Agreement is expected between the voltage reading of the millimeter

and that of the oscilloscope. For a symmetric wave (sine or cosine) the value
of Vim may be taken as 1/2 the peak to peak signal Up
The variable sensitivity control a signal may be used to adjust the display to
fill a convenient range of the scope face. In this position, the trace is no
longer calibrated so that you can not just read the size of the signal by
counting the number of divisions and multiplying by the scale factor.
However, you can figure out what the new calibration is an use it as long as
the variable control remains unchanged.

Caution: The mathematical prescription given for RMS signals is valid only
for sinusoidal signals. The meter will not indicate the correct voltage when
used to measure non-sinusoidal signals.
III. Frequency Measurements: When the horizontal sweep voltage is applied,

voltage measurements can still be taken from the vertical deflection.
Moreover, the signal is displayed as a function of time. If the time base (i.e.
sweep) is calibrated, such measurements as pulse duration or signal period can
be made. Frequencies can then be determined as reciprocal of the periods.
Set the oscillator to 1000 Hz. Display the signal on the CRO and
measure the period of the oscillations. Use the horizontal distance between
two points such as C to D in Fig. 4b.
Set the horizontal gain so that only one complete wave form is
displayed.
Then reset the horizontal until 5 waves are seen. Keep the time base
control in a calibrated position. Measure the distance (and hence time) for 5
complete cycles and calculate the frequency from this measurement. Compare
you result with the value determined above.
Repeat your measurements for other frequencies of 150 Hz, 5 kHz, 50

kHz as set on the signal generator.
RESULT: We have studied this experiment successfully.

EXPERIMENT NO.-2
OBJECT:-Study working and applications of Meggar, Tong-tester, P.F.

Meter and Phase Shifter.
THEORY:-
MEGGER METER:-
A meggar, or a mega ohmmeter, uses a high voltage to test the
insulation value of wires. A megaohm is equal to 1,000,000 ohms of
resistance. This high value of resistance measurement ensures that the wire's
insulation does not have any breaks along the length of wire. In order to
measure the high resistance value, a high voltage is placed on the wire
conductor--in some cases, as much as 15,000 V. Most battery-type meggars
generate a voltage from 1000 to 3000 V
PROCEDURE:-
1. Remove all electrical power from the wire that is being tested. Use the
appropriate electrical hand tools to isolate the wires from any portion of the
circuit. Due to the complexity of some electrical circuits, various tools maybe
required to isolate the wire that requires testing.
2. Remove all electrical connections from the wire. Expose both ends of the
wire by revealing the bare copper connection point. Cover one end of the
wire's copper connection with a wire nut. This will insulate the conductor
from accidentally shorting to ground and giving a false reading.
3. Attach the positive (+) end of the mega ohmmeter to the other end of the
bare copper connection on the wire being tested. Connect the ground wire
from the meter to the metal ground of the electrical system. Typically, this
point will be the metal conduit or the main electrical panel box.
4 Switch the meter to the "on" position. Most mega ohmmeters have a charge
button located on the face of the meter. Press the charge button and observe
the meter. It generally takes from three to five seconds for the meter to charge
the wire to the full high voltage.
TONG TESTER
A multimeter with built in clamp.Pushing the large button at the bottom

opens the lower jaw of the clamp, allowing the clamp to be placed around a
conductor.
An electrical meter with integral AC current clamp is known as a clamp

meter, clamp-on ammeter or tong tester.
In order to use a clamp meter, only one conductor is normally passed through
the probe; if more than one conductor is passed through then the measurement
would be the vector sum of the currents flowing in the conductors and would
depend on the phase relationship of the currents. In particular if the clamp is

closed around a two-conductor cable carrying power to equipment the same
current flows down one conductor and up the other, with a net current of zero.
Clamp meters are often sold with a device that is plugged in between the
power outlet and the device to be tested. The device is essentially a short
extension cord with the two conductors separated, so that the clamp can be
placed around only one conductor.
The reading produced by a conductor carrying a very low current can be

increased by winding the conductor around the clamp several times; the meter
reading divided by the number of turns is the current, with some loss of
accuracy due to inductive effects.
Clamp meters are used by electricians, sometimes with the clamp incorporated
into a general purpose millimeter.
It is simple to measure very high currents (hundreds of amperes) with the

appropriate current transformer. Accurate measurement of low currents (a few
mill amperes) with a current transformer clamp is more difficult.
Less-expensive clamp meters use a rectifier circuit which actually reads

mean current, but is calibrated to display the RMS current corresponding to
the measured mean, giving a correct RMS reading only if the current is a sine
wave. For other waveforms readings will be incorrect; when these simpler
meters are used with non-sinusoidal loads such as the ballasts used with
fluorescent lamps or high-intensity discharge lamps or most modern computer
and electronic equipment, readings can be quite inaccurate. Meters which
respond to true RMS rather than mean current are described as "true RMS".
Typical hand-held Hall effect units can read currents as low as 200 ma, and
units that can read down to 1ma are available.

The tong test ammeter, manufactured by Wechsler Instruments, is an
example of the iron vane type, used for measuring large AC currents up to
1000 amperes. The iron jaws of the meter direct the magnetic field
surrounding the conductor to an iron vane that is attached to the needle of the
meter. The iron vane moves in proportion to the strength to the magnetic field
and thus produces a meter indication proportional to the current. This type of
ammeter can measure both AC and DC currents and provides a true RMS
current measurement of non-sinusoidal or distorted AC waveforms.
Interchangeable meter movements can be installed in the clamping assembly
to provide various full-scale current values up to 1000 amperes. The iron vane
is in a small cylinder that is inserted in a space at the hinged end of the clamp-
on jaws. Several jaw sizes are available for clamping around large conductors
and bus bars up to 41⁄2 inches (110 mm) wide.
RESULT: We have studied this experiment successfully

PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Make connection should be tight & right
2. Take reading very carefully.
3. Do not touch any wire without permission.

EXPERIMENT NO.-3
OBJECT: - Measure power and power factor in 3-phase load by (i) One
wattmeter method and (ii) Two wattmeter method
APPARATUS:-
• Ammeter (0 - 5A)
• A. C. 3 phase Variac (0 - 415V)
• A. C. Voltmeter (0 - 300V)
• Wattmeter (300V, 5A, 625Watts)
• Variable power factor load.
USES&AIM:-To measure active and reactive power in three phase balanced

load by one wattmeter method.
PRIOR CONCEPTS:
• Active power, reactive power, power factor in 3 phase circuit.
• 3 phase power system balanced and unbalanced load, phasor diagrams.
• Multiplying factor of wattmeter.
PROPOSITION 1: Measurement of power in 3 phase circuit
Power in 3 phase system may be measured by using
1 Three single phase wattmeter - This method is used for a star
connected, 4 wire system, balanced or unbalanced load.
2 Two 1 phase wattmeter - This method is suitable for 3 phase, 3 wire
system and widely used. It is applicable to both delta and star system,
balanced or unbalanced load.
3 One single phase wattmeter - This method is applicable to balanced
load only.

4 One 3 phase wattmeter - 3 phase wattmeter consists of two or three
wattmeter elements mounted together in one case with moving coils mounted
on the same spindle
PROPOSITION 2 : wattmeter method for measurement of active power is
One for 3 phase balanced load only. The current coil of the wattmeter is
connected in one of the lines and one end of pressure coil is connected to the
same line. The readings are taken by connecting other terminal of pressure
coil alternately to other 2 lines. The sum of the two readings gives active
power.
PROPOSITION 3:
It is often convenient and even essential that reactive power be measured. For
example in load monitoring, such a measurement gives the operator the
information of the nature of load. Also the reactive power serves as a check on
power factor measurements, since ratio of reactive and active power is tan f =
Q/P ; Where Q & P are the reactive and active power respectively.

PROPOSITION 4:-
One wattmeter method for measurement of reactive power is for 3
phase balanced load only. The current coil of the wattmeter is connected in
one of the lines. The pressure coil is connected across two lines. The reactive
power is 3 times the wattmeter reading.
STEPWISE PROCEDURE :
Part A
• Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
• Check and adjust zero indication of wattmeter and note the multiplying
factor of wattmeter.
• Switch on the supply.
• Adjust required amount of supply voltage with variac.
• Adjust balanced load.
• Note voltmeter, ammeter & wattmeter reading W1 with switch at 'a'.
• Note wattmeter reading W2 with the switch at 'b'.
• Take four readings for different current for balanced load.
• Switch off the supply.
• Calculate total active power and power factor.
Part B
• Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
• Switch on the supply.
• Adjust the same values of current for balanced loads as in part (a).
• Note wattmeter, voltmeter & ammeter reading.
• Switch off the supply
Observations :
Part A - Measurement of active power
Part B - Measurement of reactive power

RESULT:- We have done this experiment successfully.
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Make connection should be tight & right.

EXPERIMENT NO:-4
OBJECT: - To calibrate an ammeter using DC slide wire potentiometer.
THEORY:-
A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring the potential (voltage)

in a circuit. Before the introduction of the moving coil and digital volt meters,
potentiometers were used in measuring voltage, hence the '-meter' part of their
name. The method was described by Johann Christian Poggendorff around
1841 and became a standard laboratory measuring technique. [1]
In this arrangement, a fraction of a known voltage from a resistive slide wire

is compared with an unknown voltage by means of a galvanometer. The
sliding contact or wiper of the potentiometer is adjusted and the galvanometer
briefly connected between the sliding contact and the unknown voltage. The
deflection of the galvanometer is observed and the sliding tap adjusted until
the galvanometer no longer deflects from zero. At that point the galvanometer
draws no current from the unknown source, and the magnitude of voltage can
be calculated from the position of the sliding contact.
This null balance measuring method is still important in electrical metrology

and standards work and is also used in other areas of electronics.
Measurement potentiometers are divided into four main classes listed below.

Constant current potentiometer:-
Constant current potentiometer

A potentiometer being calibrated and then measuring an unknown voltage.
R1 is the resistance of the entire resistance wire. The arrow head represents the
moving wiper.
In this circuit, the ends of a uniform resistance wire R1 are connected to a

regulated DC supply VS for use as a voltage divider. The potentiometer is first
calibrated by positioning the wiper (arrow) at the spot on the R1 wire that
corresponds to the voltage of a standard cell so that,
A standard electrochemical cell is used whose emf is known (eg 1.0183 volts
for a Weston standard cell).
The supply voltage VS is then adjusted until the galvanometer shows zero,
indicating the voltage on R2 is equal to the standard cell voltage.
An unknown DC voltage, in series with the galvanometer, is then connected to

the sliding wiper, across a variable-length section R3 of the resistance wire.
The wiper is moved until no current flows into or out of the source of
unknown voltage, as indicated by the galvanometer in series with the
unknown voltage. The voltage across the selected R3 section of wire is then

equal to the unknown voltage. All that remains is to calculate the unknown
voltage from the fraction of the length of the resistance wire that was
connected to the unknown voltage.
The galvanometer does not need to be calibrated, as its only function is to read
zero or not zero. When measuring an unknown voltage and the galvanometer
reads zero, no current is drawn from the unknown voltage and so the reading
is independent of the source's internal resistance, as if by a voltmeter of
infinite resistance.
Because the resistance wire can be made very uniform in cross-section and
resistivity, and the position of the wiper can be measured easily, this method
can be used to measure unknown DC voltages greater than or less than a
calibration voltage produced by a standard cell without drawing any current
from the standard cell.
If the potentiometer is attached to a constant voltage DC supply such as a

Lead-acid battery, then a second variable resistor (not shown) can be used to
calibrate the potentiometer by varying the current through the R1 resistance
wire.
If the length of the R1 resistance wire is AB, where A is the (-) end and B is
the (+) end, and the movable wiper is at point X at a distance AX on the R 3
portion of the resistance wire when the galvanometer gives a zero reading for
an unknown voltage, the distance AX is measured or read from a preprinted
scale next to the resistance wire. The unknown voltage can then be calculated:

Circuit diagram of basic potentiometer
CALIBRATION:-
The calibration example below is used for reference only.
Calibration is essentially the same for units with other input spans.
Procedure:-
1. The unit should be calibrated using the actual slide wire.
2. The output voltage or current must be measured to 0.05% accuracy or
better for proper results.
3. The Zero and Span adjustments are accessible on the front panel of the
transmitter, for their location.
4. The screwdriver blade used to adjust the potentiometers should not be
more than 0.1 inch (2.54mm) wide.
Transmitter - Calibration Example:-
1. Set the slidewire to its minimum position for your application. Adjust
the Zero (Z) pot until the output reads 4.000mA DC.
2. Set the slidewire to its maximum position for your application. Adjust
the Span (S) pot until the output reads 20.000mA DC.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the readings converge.
4. Instrument is now calibrated. Several mid-point values should also be
checked to verify proper operation of the transmitter.
RESULT:- We have done this experiment successfully.

PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Make connection should be tight & right’
\
EXPERIMENT NO.-6
OBJECT: - To measure low resistance by Crompton potentiometer.
THEORY:-
A potentiometer informally, a pot joystick. , is a three-terminal resistor

with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider, current divider
or other devices. If only two terminals are used (one side and the wiper), it
acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to
control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment.
Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers,
for example, in a
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than
a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable
to the power in the controlled load (see infinite switch). Instead they are used
to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio
equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light
dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIAC and so
indirectly control the brightness of lamps
PROCEDURE:-
Construction of a wire-wound circular potentiometer.
The resistive element (1) of the shown device is trapezoidal, giving a non-
linear relationship between resistance and turn angle. The wiper (3) rotates
with the axis (4), providing the changeable resistance between the wiper
contact (6) and the fixed contacts (5) and (9). The vertical position of the axis
is fixed in the body (2) with the ring (7) (below) and the bolt (8) (above).
A potentiometer is constructed with a resistive element formed into an arc of a

circle, and a sliding contact (wiper) travelling over that arc. The resistive
element, with a terminal at one or both ends, is flat or angled, and is
commonly made of graphite, although other materials may be used. The wiper
is connected through another sliding contact to another terminal. On panel
potentiometers, the wiper is usually the center terminal of three. For single-
turn potentiometers, this wiper typically travels just under one revolution
around the contact. "Multiturn" potentiometers also exist, where the resistor
element may be helical and the wiper may move 10, 20, or more complete
revolutions, though multiturn potentimeters are usually constructed of a
conventional resistive element wiped via a worm gear. Besides graphite,
materials used to make the resistive element include resistance wire, carbon
particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermet.
One form of rotary potentiometer is called a String potentiometer. It is a

multi-turn potentiometer operated by an attached reel of wire turning against a
spring. It is used as a position transducer.
In a linear slider potentiometer, a sliding control is provided instead of a dial

control. The resistive element is a rectangular strip, not semi-circular as in a
rotary potentiometer. Due to the large opening slot or the wiper, this type of
potentiometer has a greater potential for getting contaminated.
Potentiometers can be obtained with either linear or logarithmic relations

between the slider position and the resistance (potentiometer laws or "tapers").
A letter code ("A" taper, "B" taper, etc.) may be used to identify which taper
is intended, but the letter code definitions are variable over time and between
manufacturers.
Potentiometer applications
Potentiometers are widely used as user controls, and may control a very wide
variety of equipment functions. The widespread use of potentiometers in
consumer electronics declined in the 1990s, with digital controls now more
common. However they remain in many applications, such as volume controls
and as position sensors
Theory of operation
A potentiometer with a resistive load, showing equivalent fixed resistors for

clarity.
The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain a manually

adjustable output voltage at the slider (wiper) from a fixed input voltage
applied across the two ends of the potentiometer. This is the most common
use of them.
The voltage across RL can be calculated by:
If RL is large compared to the other resistances (like the input to an

operational amplifier), the output voltage can be approximated by the simpler
equation:
(dividing throughout by RL and cancelling terms with RL as denominator)
As an example, assume
, , , and
Since the load resistance is large compared to the other resistances, the output
voltage VL will be approximately:
Due to the load resistance, however, it will actually be slightly lower: ≈ 6.623
V.
One of the advantages of the potential divider compared to a variable resistor

in series with the source is that, while variable resistors have a maximum
resistance where some current will always flow, dividers are able to vary the
output voltage from maximum (VS) to ground (zero volts) as the wiper moves
from one end of the potentiometer to the other. There is, however, always a
small amount of contact resistance.In addition, the load resistance is often not
known and therefore simply placing a variable resistor in series with the load
could have a negligible effect or an excessive effect, depending on the load.
RESULT: We have measured this experiment successfully.
PRECAUTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO:-7
OBJECT: - To measure Low resistance by Kelvin's double bridge.
THEORY:-
A Kelvin bridge (also called a Kelvin double
bridge and in some countries a Thomson bridge) is a measuring instrument
invented by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin. It is used to measure an
unknown electrical resistance below 1 Ω. Its operation is similar to the
Wheatstone bridge except for the presence of additional resistors. These
additional low value resistors and the internal configuration of the bridge are
arranged to substantially reduce measurement errors introduced by voltage
drops in the high current (low resistance) arm of the bridge.
Accuracy:
There are some commercial devices reaching accuracies of 2% for resistance
ranges from 0.000001 to 25 Ω. Often, ohmmeters include Kelvin bridges,
amongst other measuring instruments, in order to obtain large measure ranges,
for example, the Valhalla 4100 ATC Low-Range Ohmmeter.The instruments
for measuring sub-ohm values are often referred to as low-resistance
ohmmeters, milli-ohmmeters, micro-ohmmeters, etc.
Principle of operation
The measurement is made by adjusting some resistors in the bridge, and the
balance is achieved when:
Resistance R should be as low as possible (much lower than the measured

value) and for that reason is usually made as a short thick rod of solid copper.

If the condition R3·R`4 = R`3·R4 is met (and value of R is low), then the last
component in the equation can be neglected and it can be assumed that:
Which is equivalent to the Wheatstone bridge
A requirement for this to be a measurement system is to have a set of variable

resistors available whose resistances are precisely known, to serve as
reference standards. For example, if we connect a bridge circuit to measure an
unknown resistance Rx, we will have to know the exact values of the other
three resistors at balance to determine the value of Rx:
Each of the four resistances in a bridge circuit are referred to as arms. The
resistor in series with the unknown resistance Rx (this would be Ra in the
above schematic) is commonly called the rheostat of the bridge, while the
other two resistors are called the ratio arms of the bridge.
Accurate and stable resistance standards, thankfully, are not that difficult to
construct. In fact, they were some of the first electrical "standard" devices

made for scientific purposes. Here is a photograph of an antique resistance
standard unit:
This resistance standard shown here is variable in discrete steps: the amount
of resistance between the connection terminals could be varied with the
number and pattern of removable copper plugs inserted into sockets.
Wheatstone bridges are considered a superior means of resistance

measurement to the series battery-movement-resistor meter circuit discussed
in the last section. Unlike that circuit, with all its nonlinearities (nonlinear
scale) and associated inaccuracies, the bridge circuit is linear (the mathematics
describing its operation are based on simple ratios and proportions) and quite
accurate.
Given standard resistances of sufficient precision and a null detector device of

sufficient sensitivity, resistance measurement accuracies of at least +/- 0.05%
are attainable with a Wheatstone bridge. It is the preferred method of
resistance measurement in calibration laboratories due to its high accuracy.
There are many variations of the basic Wheatstone bridge circuit. Most DC
bridges are used to measure resistance, while bridges powered by alternating
current (AC) may be used to measure different electrical quantities like
inductance, capacitance, and frequency.

An interesting variation of the Wheatstone bridge is the Kelvin Double bridge,
used for measuring very low resistances (typically less than 1/10 of an ohm).
Its schematic diagram is as such:
The low-value resistors are represented by thick-line symbols, and the wires
connecting them to the voltage source (carrying high current) are likewise
drawn thickly in the schematic. This oddly-configured bridge is perhaps best
understood by beginning with a standard Wheatstone
bridge set up for measuring low resistance, and evolving it step-by-step into
its final form in an effort to overcome certain problems encountered in the
standard Wheatstone configuration.
If we were to use a standard Wheatstone bridge to measure low resistance, it

would look something like this:

When the null detector indicates zero voltage, we know that the bridge is
balanced and that the ratios Ra/Rx and RM/RN are mathematically equal to each
other. Knowing the values of Ra, RM, and RN therefore provides us with the
necessary data to solve for Rx . . . almost.
We have a problem, in that the connections and connecting wires between R a

and Rx possess resistance as well, and this stray resistance may be substantial
compared to the low resistances of Ra and Rx. These stray resistances will
drop substantial voltage, given the high current through them, and thus will
affect the null detector's indication and thus the balance of the bridge:

Since we don't want to measure these stray wire and connection resistances,
but only measure Rx, we must find some way to connect the null detector so
that it won't be influenced by voltage dropped across them. If we connect the
null detector and RM/RN ratio arms directly across the ends of Ra and Rx, this
gets us closer to a practical solution:
Now the top two Ewire voltage drops are of no effect to the null detector, and
do not influence the accuracy of Rx's resistance measurement. However, the
two remaining Ewire voltage drops will cause problems, as the wire connecting
the lower end of Ra with the top end of Rx is now shunting across those two
voltage drops, and will conduct substantial current, introducing stray voltage
drops along its own length as well.
Knowing that the left side of the null detector must connect to the two near
ends of Ra and Rx in order to avoid introducing those Ewire voltage drops into
the null detector's loop, and that any direct wire connecting those ends of R a
and Rx will itself carry substantial current and create more stray voltage drops,
the only way out of this predicament is to make the connecting path between
the lower end of Ra and the upper end of Rx substantially resistive:

We can manage the stray voltage drops between Ra and Rx by sizing the two
new resistors so that their ratio from upper to lower is the same ratio as the
two ratio arms on the other side of the null detector. This is why these
resistors were labeled Rm and Rn in the original Kelvin Double bridge
schematic: to signify their proportionality with RM and RN:
With ratio Rm/Rn set equal to ratio RM/RN, rheostat arm resistor Ra is adjusted
until the null detector indicates balance, and then we can say that R a/Rx is
equal to RM/RN, or simply find Rx by the following equation:

The actual balance equation of the Kelvin Double bridge is as follows (Rwire is
the resistance of the thick, connecting wire between the low-resistance
standard Ra and the test resistance Rx):
So long as the ratio between RM and RN is equal to the ratio between Rm and
Rn, the balance equation is no more complex than that of a regular Wheatstone
bridge, with Rx/Ra equal to RN/RM, because the last term in the equation will
be zero, canceling the effects of all resistances except Rx, Ra, RM, and RN.
A Kelvin bridge is a measuring instrument is used to measure an

unknown electrical resistance below 1 Ω. Its operation is similar to the
Wheatstone bridge except for the presence of additional resistors

PRECAUTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO:-8
OBJECT :- To measure Earth resistance using fall of potential method.
Fall-of-Potential Measurement:-
The Fall-of-Potential test method is used to measure the ability of an earth
ground system or an individual electrode to dissipate energy from a site
THEORY & PROCEDURE:-
First, the earth electrode of interest must be disconnected from its connection
to the site. Second, the tester is connected to the earth electrode. Then, for the
3-pole Fall-of-Potential test, two earth stakes are placed in the soil in a direct
line—away from the earth electrode. Normally, spacing of 20 meters (65 feet)
is sufficient. For more detail on placing the stakes, see the next section.
A known current is generated by the Fluke 1625 between the outer

stake (auxiliary earth stake) and the earth electrode, while the drop in voltage
potential is measured between the inner earth stake and the earth electrode.

Using Ohm's Law (V = IR), the tester automatically calculates the resistance
of the earth electrode.
Connect the ground tester as shown in the picture. Press START and read out
the RE (resistance) value. This is the actual value of the ground electrode
under test. If this ground electrode is in parallel or series with other ground
rods, the RE value is the total value of all resistances.
Distance Distance
Depth of the ground
to the to the
electrode
inner stake outer stake
2m 15 m 25 m
3m 20 m 30 m
6m 25 m 40 m
10 m 30 m 50 m
To achieve the highest degree of accuracy when performing a 3–pole ground

resistance test, it is essential that the probe is placed outside the sphere of
influence of the ground electrode under test and the auxiliary earth.
If you do not get outside the sphere of influence, the effective areas of
resistance will overlap and invalidate any measurements that you are taking.
The table is a guide for appropriately setting the probe (inner stake) and
auxiliary ground (outer stake).
To test the accuracy of the results and to ensure that the ground stakes are
outside the spheres of influence, reposition the inner stake (probe) 1 meter (3
feet) in either direction and take a fresh measurement. If there is a significant

change in the reading (30 %), you need to increase the distance between the
ground rod under test, the inner stake (probe) and the outer stake (auxiliary
ground) until the measured values remain fairly constant when repositioning
the inner stake (probe).
The Fall-of-Potential test method is used to measure the ability of an earth

ground system or an individual electrode to dissipate energy from a site.
RESULT:- We have measured this experiment successfully.
PRECAUTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO.-9
OBJECT: - Calibrate a single-phase energy meter by phantom loading at

different power factors.
APPARTUS REQUIRED:-
THEORY:-
1) To calibrate the given single phase energy meter at
i) 0.5 pf lag and 0.5 pf lead by three phase circuit arrangement using
substandard
ammeter and voltmeter
ii) unity pf by using single phase circuit
2) To test the meter with direct loading and phantom loading arrangements
FORMULA USED

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:-
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METERS:-
Induction type of energy meters are used to measure the energy
consumed in domestic and industrial A.C. circuits. Induction type meters
possess lower friction and higher torque. Also these meters are inexpensive
and accurate and retain their accuracy over a wide range of loads and
temperature
conditions. The four main parts of operating mechanism in an energy meter
are:
i) Driving System ii) Moving System iii) Braking System iv) Registering
System
The driving system of the meter consists of two electromagnets. One of the
electromagnet is excited by
the load current and the coil wound on it is called current coil. The coil of the
second electromagnet is
connected across the supply and the coil is called pressure coil. The moving
system consists of an
aluminium disc mounted on a light alloy shaft. This disc is positioned in the
air gap between the two
electromagnets. The aluminium disc moves in the field of the magnet and thus
provides the braking
torque. When the supply is applied across the pressure coil, the current
produces a flux, which goes
across the aluminium the current rating of a meter under test is high, a test
with actual loading disc and hence is responsible for production of driving
torque.

PHANTOM LOADING:-
When arrangements would involve a considerable waste of power. In
order to avoid this ‘phantom’ or ‘fictitious’ loading is done.
Phantom loading consist of supplying the pressure circuit from a circuit of
required normal voltage, and the current circuit from a separate low voltage
supply. It is part of the current circuit with a low voltage supply as the
impedance of this circuit is very low. With this arrangement the total power
supplied for the test is that due to the small pressure coil current at normal
voltage, plus that due to the current circuit current supplied at low voltage.
The total power, therefore, required is comparatively very small.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Phantom Loading:-
PROCEDURE:
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram shown.
2. Note down the energy meter constant from the energy meter.
3. Adjust the value of load current to a desired value by varying the resistive
load.
4. Note down the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
5. Start the stopwatch, when the red mark on the disc of the energy meter
passes the observation point and note down the number of revolutions made
by the disc for 5 seconds.
6. Repeat the steps 2 to 5 for different values of load current.
7. Calculate the % error and plot the curve between current and error.
Phantom Loading
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set the supply voltage to 220 V and ac excitation voltage to 10V.

3. Vary the position of the rheostat and note down the ammeter and voltmeter
readings of pressure and current coil.
4.Calculate the power consumed.
.
RESULT:- We have measured this experiment successfully.

PRECAUTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO.-10
OBJECT: - Measure self-inductance using Anderson's bridge.
THEORY:-
AC bridges are often used to measure the value of an unknown
impedance for example self/mutual inductance of inductors or capacitance of
capacitors accurately. A large number of AC bridges are available for the
accurate measurement of impedances. An Anderson Bridge is used to measure
the self inductance of a coil (Fig. 1). This is an old experiment and has been a
part of the graduation curriculum since ages. In fact the oldest publication on
sensitivity of A.C. bridges is Rayleigh’s paper. As it usually happens in such
old subjects, modern textbooks have diluted the attention paid to the details
and intricacies of the experiment. Most of the textbooks tend to merely state
the balance condition without discussing the design of the experiment for
greater sensitivity. Over the years of instructing young graduate students in
the lab, the authors have observed unsatisfactory results reported by the
students in terms of accuracy. One reason reported by the students was an
inability to get a mute on balance condition in the head-phone. That is, the
human perception of point of minima rendered results inaccurate. The fact that
human ears perceive in decibels makes the situation worse. A question that
invariably arose was whether ―urbanisation and sound pollution was
effectively contributing to the inaccuracies of this experiment (physiological
constraints) or rather it was ignorance of the relevant physics contributing. As
a test experiment, a careful experimentalist from among the under the circuit
schematics for Anderson Bridge.

Anderson's bridge
.
/ = / ; where
L=C ( )…………………………………………(1)
OBSERVATION:-
Given values:
= =1k
=……………………..
=…………………..mH, =………………….mH
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
S. No. Value Of C Resistance Inductance

F rΩ L mH
Mean Value
L=……..mH

CALCULATION:-
L=C ( )Henry
L=C ( )× mH
The resistance rL is the resistance of the coil whose self-inductance is being

determined. Notice that the student was not able to resolve the minimum for a
range of ‘r’ values (of the order of 50). The results reported by the remaining
students of the class by and large suffered from more inaccuracies. Under
such circumstances, it warrants a more serious analysis of the experiment. An
Anderson Bridge is used to measure the self inductance of a AC bridges and
are often used to measure the value of an unknown impedance for example
self/mutual inductance of inductors or capacitors.
PRECAUTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO.-11
OBJECT: - Measure capacitance using De Sauty Bridge.
Theory:-
Bridges are the some of the most accurate measuring devices for
measuring impedance, capacitance, resistance,etc. For our purpose, i.e. for
measuring Capacitance, using a de Sauty’s or Schering bridge is best. They
are based on the principle of Wheatstone bridge that they have two arms. One
of which has the unknown parameter. By getting the bridge balanced using the
Null detector we can find this value.
The de Sauty’s bridge is a direct carry over of the Wheatstone bridge
with the DC source replaced by an AC source. The null detector we will
be using also has an amplifier where the gain can be adjusted. This is
connected to DMM which is used for getting the null point.
De Sauty Bridge
We can use the principle of wheat stone bridge to calculate Cx as Cx =

R1CR2.
A Schering bridge is a alternating-current bridge used to measure capacitance
and dissipation factor; bridge balance is independent of frequency. It is an
improvement over the de Sauty Bridge in that it enables an accurate
measurement of very low capacitance too due to the parallel capacitor element
which is useful in getting the sensitivity for a better balance. Though the
bridge takes longer for the balancing. The bridge setup is as follows.
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figures above.
2. For the de Sauty bridge,set the frequency to about 1KHz on the function
generator and set the gain on the null detector to max.
3. Now balance the bridge by varying the capacitance(C) and resistance (R2)
until we get the most stable and best nullpoint. Do this for various values of
R1 and also for different frequencies.
4. For Schering bridge, do the same as above and balance the bridge with the
extra fact that use the Capacitance. They are based on the principle of
Wheatstone bridge that they have two arms. One of which has the unknown
parameter. By getting the bridge balanced using the Null detector we can find
this value.
Observations
Frequency = 1.073KH
Sr.No. R1 ohm R2 ohm C μF Cx μF

PRECAUTIONS:-

EXPERIMENT NO:-12
OBJECT:- To measure the unknown value of frequency using Wien’s

Frequency Bridge kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 Panel with two ratio dial X (1, 10, 100, 1000W) marked with R3& R4.
 Two decade dial X (.01, 0.1) for capacitance marked C1.
 Three decade dials X (10,100 & 1000W) marked R1.
 Three decade dials X (1, 10,100 W) marked R2.
THEORY:-
Alternating current bridge methods are of outstanding importance for

measurement of electrical quantities. Measurement of inductance, capacitance,
storage factor, loss factor may be made conveniently and accurately by
employing AC bridge networks. The AC bridge is a natural outgrowth of the
Wheatstone bridge. An AC bridge, in its basic form, consists of four arms, a
source of excitation, and a balance detector. In an AC bridge each of the four
arms is impedance, and the battery and the galvanometer of the Wheatstone
bridge are replaced respectively by an AC source and a detector sensitive to
small alternating potential differences. The usefulness of AC bridge circuits is
not restricted to the measurement of unknown impedances and associated
parameters like inductance, capacitance, storage factor, dissipation factor etc.
these circuits find other applications in communication systems and complex
electronic circuits. Alternating current bridge circuits are commonly used for
phase shifting, providing feedback paths for oscillators and amplifiers,
filtering out undesirable signals and measuring the frequency of audio signals.
For measurements at low frequencies, the power line may act as the source of
supply to the bridge circuits. For higher frequencies electronic oscillators are
universally used as bridge source supplies. These oscillators have the
advantage that the frequency is constant, easily adjustable, and determinable
with accuracy.
The waveform is very close to a sine wave, and their power output is
sufficient for most bridge measurements. A typical oscillator has a frequency
range of 40Hz to 125 KHz with a power output of 7 W. The detectors
commonly used for AC bridges are
1. Head phones
2. CRO
Head phones are widely used as detectors at frequencies of 250 Hz and

over up to 3 or 4 KHz. They are most sensitive detectors for this frequency
range.
General equation for Bridge balance: Fig. (1) Shows a basic AC bridge.
The four arms of the bridge are impedance Z1, Z2, Z3&Z4
The condition for balance of bridge require that there should been current
through the detector. This requires the potential difference between points
b & c should be zero. This will be the case when voltage drop from a to b
equal to voltage drop from a to c, both in magnitude & phase. In complex
notation we can, thus, write.
Or E1 = E2 (1)
I1Z1=I2Z2 (2)
Also at balance I1=I3 =----------Z1+Z3
And I2=I4 = ----E----
Z2+Z4
Substitution eqns. (3) & (4) into eqn. (2) gives:
(5) Z1Z4 =Z2Z3

Considering the polar form, impedance can be written as Z=/q where Z
represent s the magnitude & /q represent the phase angle of the complex
impedance. So eqn. (5) can be re-written as:
(6) (Z1/q1) (q1+q4) = (Z2/q2) (Z3/q3)
Thus for balance, we must have:
(7) Z1Z4/(q1+q4)=Z2Z3/(q2+q3)
Wein`s Frequency Bridge: The Wein`s bridge is primarily known as a
frequency determining bridge and is described here not its application in
various other useful circuits. A Wein`s Bridge, for example, may be
employed in a harmonic distortion analyzer, where it is used as notch filter,
discriminating against one specific frequency. The Wein`s bridge also
finds applications in audio and HF oscillators as the frequency determining
device.
At balance
(R1/1jwC1R1)R4 = (R2-J/WC2)R3
or, R4 R3 =R2/R1+C1/C2+J(WC1R2-1/WC2R1)
Equating the real and imaginary parts,
Or R4/R3 =R2/R1+C1/C2
And wC1R21-/WC2R1 =0
From which w =1/ (R1R2C1C2)1/2
And Frequency F = 1/2p (R1R2C1C2)1/2Hz
OBSERVATION TABLE
Frequency
Sr. no. Resistance Resistance Capacitor Capacitor Calculated Actual
R1 R2 C1 C2 value

RESULT:
PRECAUTION:-
1. Initially the output of frequency oscillator should be kept low.

2. If head phone is used these should be silence in the neighboring.
3. Plug type resistance box should not be used.
4. For greater sensitivity of the bridge resistance in the four arms should be
same.

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Anand International College of

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL & POWER

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 1

S No. CONTENT Page No.

Experiment as per RTU Syllabus

6. Exp-1 To study working and applications of (i) C.R.O. (ii) 13

7. Exp-2 . To study working and applications of Meggar, Tong- 18

8. Exp-3. To measure power and power factor in 3-phase load by 24

10. Exp-5. To calibrate a voltmeter using Crompton potentiometer 36

11. Exp-6 . To measure low resistance by Crompton potentiometer 39

Exp-7 To measure Low resistance by Kelvin's double bridge.

Exp-8. To measure earth resistance using fall of potential

14. Exp-9. To calibrate a single-phase energy meter by phantom 60

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 2

15. Exp-10 To measure self-inductance using Anderson's bridge. 66

Experiment Beyond Syllabus

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 3

S. No. List of Experiments as per RTU Syllabus

2. . To study working and applications of Meggar, Tong-tester, P.F. Meter and

4. To calibrate an ammeter using DC slide wire potentiometer.

5. To calibrate a voltmeter using Crompton potentiometer

6. To measure low resistance by Crompton potentiometer

7. To measure Low resistance by Kelvin's double bridge.

8. To measure earth resistance using fall of potential method.

9. To calibrate a single-phase energy meter by phantom loading at different

List of Experiments Beyond Syllabus

11. To measure capacitance using De Sauty Bridge.

12. To measure frequency using Wein's bridge.

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 4

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 5

 Maintain separate observation copy for each laboratory.

Before Entering the Lab

When Working in the Lab

 Necessary equipments/apparatus should be taken only from the lab assistant

Before Leaving the Lab

 The equipments/components should be returned back to the lab assistant in

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 6

Subject Name/Code: 3EE11 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT LAB

(2) Program Objective:

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 7

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 8

(4) Mapping of Program Objective with Program Outcome

Program Program Outcomes

(5) Course Objectives :

The study of subject Electrical Measurement Lab in undergraduate program in

(6) Course Objective Contribution to Program Outcomes:

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 9

L. An understanding of the industry needs

(7) Course Objective to Program Outcomes Mapping:

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 10

(8) Instructional Methods:

(9) Learning Materials:

(10) Assessment of Outcomes:

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 11

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 12

Turn No. of Experiments

G1, G3 G5, G7 G9, G11

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 13

OBJECT : - Study working and applications of (i) C.R.O. (ii) Digital

APPRATUS REQUIRED :- Cathode-ray oscilloscope, millimeters, and

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory

SEPE/LAB MANUAL/4EE4-24 Measurement Lab Page 14

In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is