HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

1. Genetics : Branch of science that deals with study of Heredity and Variation.
2. Heredity : It means the transmission of features/ characters/ traits from one generation to the generation.
3. Variation : The differences among the individuals of a species are called variations.
4. Variations in Asexual reproduction are fewer. It occurs due to errors in DNA copying.
5. Variations in Sexual reproduction are large. It occurs due to crossing over, fusion of male and female gamete
(RECOMBINATION OF GENES) and mutations.
6. Importance of Variation: It increases the chances of survival in changing environment.
Q. why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessary for individual?
A. if some variations were to be present in a few individuals in a population, there would be some chance for them to
survive. For example - If there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters and suppose the water temperature
were to be increased by global warming. Most of these bacteria would die, but the few heat resistant variants would
survive and grow further. Variation is thus useful for the survival of species over time.
7. No two individuals are absolutely alike in a population due to variations that arise because of errors in DNA copying.
Q. A particular species shows asexual reproduction. If trait A exists in 10% of population of and trait B exists in 60% of
Population, which trait is likely to have risen First?
A. Trait B is likely to have risen first. Species is reproducing asexually. So few variations are created due errors in DNA
copying. Trait A which exists in 10% population may have originated later due to variations.

MENDEL AND HIS WORK ON INHERITANCE

1. Gregor Johann Mendel: did experiments on plant breeding and hybridization.
2. Gregor Johann Mendel was known as Father of Genetics
3. Plant selected by Mendel for his experiments: Pisum sativum (garden pea).
4. Mendel selected Pisum sativum for his experiments because of the following reasons
a) It is easily available b) It has several contrasting traits c) It can be self pollinated as well as cross pollinated
d) It has a short life span e) It produces large number of seeds
5. Mendel’s LAWS OF INHERITANCE ARE :
A) LAW OF DOMINANCE B) LAW OF SEGREGATION C) LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
Important terms:
Progeny: Off springs
F1 generation (first flial generation): Progeny obtained when the first set of parents are crossed.
F2 generation (second flial generation): Progeny obtained when F1 generation individuals are crossed among themselves.
Gene: It is basic unit of inheritance. It is functional segment of DNA that encodes for a protein. Protein controls
character/trait.
Allele : alternative forms of a gene that occupy the same locus on a particular chromosome.
Character: Any heritable feature. eg: height of pea plant
Trait: alternative forms of a character eg: tall and short are traits for height of pea plant.
Chromosomes: They are rod like structures present in nucleus of cell. Composition: DNA+proteins.
DNA: Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid. It is the genetic material of human beings. It is the information source for making proteins.
Genotype: Genetic make up i.e. composition of genes present in an organism (TT, Tt, tt)
Phenotype: Physical appearance (Tall or short)
Diploid: Paired condition of chromosomes
Haploid: single set of chromosomes. Male and female gametes i.e. sperm and egg are haploid.
Homozygous /pure condition: two dominant or two recessive alleles (TT or tt)
Heterozygous /hybrid condition: one dominant and one recessive allele (Tt).
Dominant trait: This trait is expressed in F1 generation. For this trait to be expressed one copy of dominant allele is enough.
Recessive trait: This trait whose expression is masked or hidden in F1 generation. For this trait to be expressed two copies
of recessive alleles are needed.
NOTE: Two letters are used to denote a character i.e. TT, Tt or tt to show that character is influenced by both maternal and
paternal DNA.
MONOHYBRID CROSS
Cross between two pea plants for one pair of contrasting traits/one character.

Mendel crossed pure line tall pea plant with short pea plant.
All F1 progeny were tall (no medium height plants). It means offspring inherits one of the traits of the parents, not mixture
of both.
He self pollinated F1 generation tall plants to see if F1 tall plants and parental tall plants are same
In F2 both tall and short plants are obtained . This means that F1 offspring gets both tall and short alleles from parents but
only tall trait is expressed in F1 generation.
Phenotypic ratio F2 – 3:1
Genotypic ratio F2 – TT: Tt: tt =1:2:1
Law of Dominance: Trait may be inherited but not expressed: F1 offspring gets both dominant and recessive alleles from
parents but only dominant trait is expressed in F1 generation.
Law of Segregation: During gamete formation both the alleles move away from each other.

Dihybrid cross
A cross made between two plants having two pairs of contrasting traits or two characters is called dihybrid cross.
Observations
1. When RRYY was crossed with rryy in F1 generation all were RrYy round and yellow seeds.
2. Self pollination of F1 plants gave parental phenotype + two mixtures (recombinants) Round wrinkled, green yellow
seeds plants appeared in the ratio of 9:3:3:1
Conclusions
1. Round and yellow seeds are DOMINANT characters
2. Occurrence of new phenotypic combinations show that genes for round and yellow seeds are inherited independently
of each other.
3. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT: If two or more traits are involved their genes assort independently resulting
in new combination of genes and new traits
Mechanism of Heredity
Characters or traits of an organism are controlled by the genes.
Gene is a segment of DNA on a chromosome.
Gene contains information for synthesis of a protein
Protein controls the character.

Sex Determination
It is phenomenon of determining the gender of an offspring.
Factors Responsible for Sex Determination
Environmental
Genetic
Environmental
In some animals the temperature at which the fertilized eggs are kept decides the sex of the offspring. eg.Turtle
Genetic
In some animals like humans sex of offspring is determined by a pair of chromosome called sex chromosome.
In human beings there are 23 pairs of chromosome.
Out of these 22 chromosomes pairs are called autosomes
the last pair of chromosomes that help in deciding gender of that individual are called sex chromosome.
The two sex chromosomes are X and Y.
 XX – Female ; XY – Male

• half the children will be boys and half will be girls.

• All children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother regardless whether they are boys or girls.
• Thus sex of children will be determined by what they inherit from their father, and not from their mother.

Q. “ The chromosome number of sexually reproducing parents and their offspring are the same. Explain.
A. Male individual has 46 chromosomes but male gametes i.e. sperms are haploid and have 23 chromosomes.
Female individual has 46 chromosomes but female gametes i.e. eggs are haploid and have 23 chromosomes.
During fertilization male and female gamete fuses with each other and restore the number of chromosomes in the
offspring.

Human blood groups

There are four types of blood groups: A, B, AB or O
Human blood groups are controlled by alleles- IA, IB and IO.
Alleles IA and IB are co dominant i.e. both express themselves equally.
both these alleles are dominant over IO gene
Blood group A- IAIA or IA IO
Blood group B-IBIB or IB IO
Blood group O- IOIO
blood group AB- IAIB