CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER I & II

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

A structure is any load bearing construction; in other words it is an organized assembly of connected parts designed
to provide mechanical resistance and stability.

Assumptions made in structural design.

a) Structures are designed by appropriately qualified and experienced personnel.
b) Adequate supervision and quality control is provided in factories, plants and site.
c) Construction is carried out by personnel with appropriate skills and experience.
d) The construction materials and products are used as specified in euro code II or in the relevant materials or
product specifications.
e) The structure will be adequately maintained.

Structural design procedure

The architect determines arrangement of elements to meet the client’s requirements. This is availed to the structural
engineer as architectural plants. The structural engineer determines the best structural system to fit the architect’s
concept.
There are two structural systems are
- framed
- framed with shear walls
After completing the structure arrangement/ structure lay out, the design process consists of the following steps.
i) Idealization of the structure into load bearing frames and elements for analysis and design.
ii) Estimation of loads based on materials and use of structure.
iii) Analysis to determine the maximum moments, axial forces, shear and torsional forces, and deflection for
design.
iv) Design of concrete sections and reinforcement areas and layout for slabs, beams, columns, walls and
foundations.
v) Production of detailed drawings and bar bending schedules.

Historical Perspective
Uganda being a former British protectorate has followed the British system of design; to 1972, the British system
was designing structures; using the elastic design/ Modular ratio method of designing.

The Elastic Design.

It is based on the assumption that the stress-strain behavior of both steel and concrete remain elastic i.e. stress is
proportional to strain.
Force
Stress 
Area
change in length
Strain 
original length
Stress
Modulus of Elasticty 
Strain
 Both the concrete and steel have a constant modulus of elasticity; Es  Ec , and therefore there is a fixed ratio
E
of moduli that n  s .
Ec
It further implies that the stresses are limited to permissible values.
The code of practice in use was CP 114.

CP 114
 Multiplies a factor of a third (1 / 3) by the cube stress to obtain the permissible stress of concrete under
bending/flexure.
 If divides the yield stress by factor of 1.8 to get the permissible stress in steel.
 The permissible stress of steel was limited to 230 N / mm2 whatever the grade of steel. This limitation aimed at
controlling the crack width since at the permissible stress of steel in tension, the surrounding concrete has cracked.

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 Introduction to limit state design.

In 1972, a limit state design code CP110 was introduced but it was not until 1986 that Engineers in Uganda
switched to limit state design.
In 1985. CP110 was withdrawn.
A new limit state design code BS 8110 was introduced. This has undergone a series of amendment until it was
withdrawn in 2010.
Euro code II was introduced in 2000 and has been working hand in hand with BS8110.
Euro code II applies to normal weight concrete.
The design rules of Euro code II is based only on the f ck of cylinders at 28days. Cube strength is mentioned only as
an alternative to prove compliance.

Why change to Euro code II from BS8110

 Euro code II results in more economic structures.
 Euro code II is less restrictive than British standards.
 Euro code II is extensive and comprehensive.
 The new Euro codes are claimed to be the most technically advanced codes in the world.
 Europe, all public works most follow Euro codes for structural design, implying that KYU graduates would be
able to work in Europe and probably the whole of Africa.
 Euro codes are logical and organized to avoid repetition.

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CE311 STRUCTURAL DESIGN I CHAPTER I & II

CHAPTER II. PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

2.0 Introduction
Reinforced concrete consists of both concrete and steel.
Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that can be formed into many varied shapes and ranging
from a simple rectangular column, to a slender curved dome or shell, its utility and versatility are achieved by
combining the best features of concrete and steel.
Table 2-1: properties of steel and concrete
Property concrete steel
Strength in tension Poor Very good
Strength in compression Good Very good but slender bars will buckle
Strength in shear Fair Very good
Durability Good Poor, corrodes if unprotected
Fire resistance Good Poor-suffers rapid loss of strength at
high temperature

As seen from table 2-1, concrete is poor in tension, good in compression, and fair in shear. On the other hand, steel
is very good in tension, compression and shear. Thus, when they are combined, the steel is able to provide the
tensile strength and probably some of the shear strength while the concrete, strong in compression, protects the
steel to give durability and fire resistance.
i) In beams, slabs, and stair cases, where there is tension, the concrete must be reinforced by steel.
ii) In areas where the compression forces are very high such as columns, concrete must be reinforced by steel
and the steel must be tied and surrounded by concrete in order not to buckle.
Steel is poor in durability and fire resistance while concrete is good, therefore concrete must provide cover to
protect the steel.
2.1 Composite action
The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength. Because of this , nearly all
reinforced concrete structures are designed on the assumption that the concrete does not resist any tensile forces.
Reinforcement is designed to carry these tensile forces, which are transferred from concrete to steel by bond which
is achieved by;
i) Using concrete with f ck  20 N / mm2
ii) Well compacted concrete around reinforcement bars.
iii) Ribbed and twisted bars to give an extra mechanical grip
If this bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the concrete and there will not be a composite
action. Composite action is achieved when there is perfect bond such that the strain in steel equals to that in the
adjacent concrete.
The coefficients of thermal expansion for steel and for concrete are nearly the same; therefore differential
expansion does not affect bond over normal temperature ranges.
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion, 
 for steel  10 10 6 per C
 for concrete  (7 ~ 12)  10 6 per C
Figure 2-1 illustrates the behavior of a simply supported beam subject to bending and shows the position of steel
reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, while the compression forces in the top of the beam are carried by the
concrete.
Load A

Compression

Tension Strain Section A-A

Distribution
Cracking
Reinforcement A
Fig.2-1 Composite action

Since concrete is poor in tension, the bottom concrete will crack.

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However, this cracking does not detract from the safety of the structure provided there is good reinforcement
bonding to ensure that the cracks are restrained from opening so that the embedded steel continues to be protected
from corrosion.

2.2 Stress-strain relations

The loads on a structure cause distortion of its members with resulting stresses and strains in the concrete and the
steel reinforcement. To carry out the analysis and design of a member it is necessary to have a knowledge of the
relationship between these stresses and strains. This knowledge is particularly important when dealing with
reinforced concrete which is a composite material; for in this case the analysis of the stresses on a cross-section of a
member must consider the equilibrium of the forces in the concrete and steel.

 Stress- Strain relationship of concrete

Concrete is a very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress-strain curves. A typical curve for
concrete in compression is shown in figure 2.2. As the load is applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains is
approximately linear at first and the concrete behaves almost as an elastic material with virtually a full recovery of
displacement if the load is removed. Eventually, the curve is no longer linear and the concrete behaves more and
more as a plastic material. If the load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be
complete and a permanent deformation would remain. The ultimate strain for most structural concretes tends to be
a constant value of approximately 0.0035, irrespective of the strength of the concrete. The precise shape of the
curve is very dependent on the length of time the load is applied. Figure 2.2 is typical for a short-term loading.
The stress/strain diagram for concrete subject to uniaxial compression is shown in the figure below.

c <0
simplification
fc actual
cu fc peak stress

0.4f c cl strain at the peak stress fc

Ec cu ultimate stress
Ecm
c <0
cl cu
Fig.2-2 Stress-strain diagram for uniaxial compression
 CL  0.0022
 CU  0.0035
Ecm  Mean value of the secant modulus

Strength classes of concrete

The design shall be based on the strength classes of concrete which correspond to characteristic strength values
given in table 3.1 of euro code II.
Table 3.1 gives the f ck of concrete and the corresponding tensile strength.
 The quality of concrete are described by characteristic cylinder strength/ characteristic cube strength, e.g.
C30/37.
 In the U.K and consequently in Uganda, compressive stress has been measured and expressed in terms of
150mm cube crushing strength at an age of 28days.
Most other countries use 150mm diameter cylinders which are 300mm long. For normal strength concrete, the
cylinder strength is equal to 0.8 of the cube strength.
 All design calculations to Euro code II are based on the characteristic cylinder strength f ck .

Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity depends on;
i) Strength class of concrete
ii) Properties of aggregates used
iii) The mean value of the secant modulus Ecm for a particular class is obtained from table 3.2 of the code.
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Table 2.2 Values of the secant modulus of elasticity E cm (in kN/mm 2 ) (based on table 3.2 EC II)
Strength class C C12/15 C16/20 C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
E cm 26 27.5 29 30.5 32 33.5 35 36 37
The values in table 3.2 are based on the equation.
Ecm  9.5 f ck  8
1/ 3

Where Ecm is in KN / mm2

f ck Is in N / mm2 , f ck is strength at 28days
Thus Ecm is also for 28days.
The modulus of elasticity is required.
a) When investigating deflection of a structure.
b) When investigating cracking of a structure.
c) When considering both short term and long term effects of creep and shrinkage.
Poisson’s Ratio
For design purpose; the Poisson’s ratio for elastic strain is 0.2

 Stress- Strain relationship of steel

Figure 2.3 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) hot rolled yield steel, and (b) cold-worked high yield steel.
Mild steel behaves as an elastic material, with the strain proportional to the stress up to the yield, at which point
there is a sudden increase in strain with no change in stress. After the yield point, mild steel becomes a plastic
material and the strain increases rapidly up to the ultimate value. High yield steel, which is most commonly used
for reinforcement, may behave in a similar manner or may, on the other hand, not have such a definite yield point
but may show a more gradual change from an elastic to a plastic behaviour and reduced ductility depending on the
manufacturing process. All materials have a similar slope of the elastic region with elastic modulus
E  200 kN / mm 2 approximately.

0.2% proof
Yield stress
stress
stress

stress

Strain 0.002 Strain

(a) Hot rolled steel (b) Cold worked steel
Fig.2.3 Stress-strain curves for high yield reinforcing steel
The specified strength used in design is based on either the yield stress or a specified proof stress. A 0.2 per cent
proof stress is defined in figure 2.4 by the broken line drawn parallel to the linear part of the stress-strain curve.
Removal of the load within the plastic range would result in the stress-strain diagram following a line
approximately parallel to the loading portion - see line BC in figure 2.4. The steel will be left with a permanent
strain AC, which is known as ‘slip’. If the steel is again loaded, the stress-strain diagram will follow the unloading
curve until it almost reaches the original stress at B and then it will curve in the direction of the first loading. Thus,
the proportional limit for the second loading is higher than for the initial loading. This action is referred to as ‘strain
Hardening’ or ‘work hardening’.

B
stress

Fig.2.4 Strain hardening

A C
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2.3 Shrinkage and thermal movement

This is the reduction in volume as concrete hardens.
This shrinkage is liable to cause cracking of the concrete, but it also has beneficial effect of strengthening the
bond between the concrete and the steel reinforcement. Shrinkage begins to take place as soon as the concrete is
mixed.
It is caused by;
a) Initial absorption of the water by the concrete and the aggregate.
b) Evaporation of the water which rises to the concrete surface.
c) During the hydration of cement, a great deal of heat is generated and as concrete cools, the thermal
contraction results in further shrinkage.
d) The hardened concrete continuous drying resulting in further shrinkage.

How it can be controlled

Thermal shrinkage may be reduced by restricting temperature rise during hydration, which can be achieved by;
a) Use a mix design with a low cement content or suitable cement replacement.
b) Avoid rapid hardening and finely ground cement if possible.
c) Keep aggregate and mixing water cool.
d) Use steel shuttering and cool with a water spray.
e) Strike the shuttering early to allow the heat of hydration to dissipate.

A low water-cement ratio will help to reduce drying shrinkage by keeping to a minimum the volume of moisture
that can be lost.
If the change in volume of the concrete is allowed to take place freely and without restraint, there will be no stress
change within the concrete. Restraint of the shrinkage, on the other hand, will cause tensile strains and stresses. The
restraint may be caused externally by fixity with adjoining members or friction against an earth surface, and
internally by the action of the steel reinforcement. For a long wall or floor slab, the restraint from adjoining
concrete may be reduced by constructing successive bays instead of alternate bays. This allows the free end of
every bay to contract before the next bay is cast.

When tensile stresses caused by shrinkage or thermal movement exceed the strength of concrete, cracking will
occur. To control cracking, steel reinforcement must be provided close to the concrete surface.

Calculation of stresses induced by shrinkage

(a) Shrinkage restrained by the reinforcement
The shrinkage stresses caused by reinforcement in an otherwise unrestrained member may be calculated quite
simply. The member shown in figure 2.5 has a free shrinkage strain of  cs if made of plain concrete, but this
overall movement is reduced by the inclusion of reinforcement, giving a compressive strain  sc in the steel and
causing an effective tensile strain  ct the concrete.
Original member -
as cast
cs
Plain concrete -
unrestrained
ct
Reinforced concrete -
unrestrained
sc
ct

Reinforced concrete -
fully restrained

Fig.2.5 Shrinkage strains

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The free shrinkage strain in concrete  cs is given by;

 cs   ct   sc
Where  ct  tensile strain in concrete.
 sc  Compressive strain in steel.
stress f
But we know, strain (  )  
Young' s Modulus E
f ct f
 cs   ct   sc   sc (1)
Ecm Es
Where f ct is the tensile stress in concrete area Ac and f sc is the compressive stress in steel area As .
Equating forces in the concrete and steel for equilibrium gives
Ac f ct  As f sc (2)
As
Therefore f ct  f sc
Ac
Substituting for f ct in equation (1)
As f sc f
 cs   sc
Ac Ecm Es
 A 1
 cs  f sc  s  
 Ac Ecm E s 
Es
Thus if n 
Ecm
 nA 1
 cs  f sc  s  
 Ac Es Es 
f sc  nAs 
   1
Es  Ac 
Therefore the steel stress
  cs E s 
f sc    (3)
1  nAs / Ac 

Example 2.1
Calculation of shrinkage stresses in concrete that is restrained by reinforcement only
A member contains 1.0 per cent reinforcement, and the free shrinkage strain  cs of the concrete is 200  10 6 . For
steel, Es  200 KN / mm2 and for concrete Ecm  15KN / mm2 .
Determine the stresses in steel and concrete given that the member is restrained by reinforcement only.
Solution.
As A
1%   100  s  0.01
Ac Ac
From equation (3)
 cs E s
Stress in reinforcement f sc 
1 nAs / Ac
Es 200
Where Ecs  200 10 6 , Ecm  15KN / mm2 , Es  200 KN / mm2 and  n  
Ecm 15
200 10 6  200 103
 f sc 
1  200 / 15  0.01
f sc  35.3 N / mm2 (Compression)

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As
Stress in reinforcement f ct  f sc
Ac
 0.01  35.3
 0.35 N / mm2 (Tension)
Note: The stresses produced in members free from external restraint are generally small as example 2.1, and can be
easily withstood both by the steel and the concrete.

(b) Shrinkage fully restrained

If the member is fully restrained, then the steel cannot be in compression since  sc  0 and hence f sc  0 (figure
2.5). In this case the tensile strain induced in the concrete  ct must be equal to the free shrinkage strain  cs , and the
corresponding stress will probably be high enough to cause cracking in immature concrete.

Example 2.2
Calculation of fully restrained shrinkage stresses
If the member in example 2.1 above was fully restrained, determine the tensile stress in concrete.

Solution.
If the member in example 2.1 was fully restrained, the stress in the concrete would be given by
f ct   ct Ecm
Where
 ct   cs  200  10 6
Then
f ct  200  10 6  15  10 3
 3.0 N / mm2

Shrinkage of concrete depends on;

a) Ambient humidity.
b) Dimensions of the elements.
c) Compressive of concrete.
Table 2-3 (Table 3.4 of euro code II) gives the final shrinkage strain of a normal weight concrete subject to a
compressive stress not exceeding 0.45 f ck at the time of first loading.
i) For values in table 3.4 variation in temperature between  20C and  40C are acceptable.
ii) Variations in humidity between relative humidity (RH 20%  100%) are acceptable.
iii) Linear interpolation between the values in the table are acceptable.
Table 2.3- Final shrinkage strain  cs of normal weight concrete (Table 3.4 of euro code II)
Relative humidity Notional size 2 Ac / u (mm)
Location of the member
(%)  150 600
Inside 50 -0.60 -0.50
Outside 80 -0.33 -0.28
where Ac cross-sectional area of concrete
u perimeter of that area

2.4 Creep 
Creep is the continuous deformation of a member under sustained load. It is a phenomenon associated with many
materials, but it is particularly evident with concrete. It depends on;
i) The aggregates and the mix design (Composition of concrete).
ii) Ambient humidity
iii) Member cross-section.
iv) Age at first loading.
v) Duration of loading.
vi) Magnitude of loading.
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The Characteristic of Creep are

 The final deformation of the member can be three to four times the short-term elastic deformation.
 The deformation is roughly proportional to the intensity of loading and to the inverse of the concrete
strength.
 If the load is removed, only the instantaneous elastic deformation will recover; the plastic deformation will
not.
 There is a redistribution of the load between the concrete and any steel present.
The redistribution of load is caused by the changes in compressive strains being transferred to the
reinforcing steel. Thus the compressive stresses in the steel are increased so that the steel takes a larger
proportion of the load.
The effects of creep are particularly important in beams, where the increased deflections may cause;
a) Opening of cracks.
b) Damage to finishes.
c) Non-alignment of mechanical equipment.
Redistribution of stress between concrete and steel occurs primarily in the uncracked compressive areas and has
little effect on the tension reinforcement other than reducing shrinkage stresses in some instances. The provision of
reinforcement in the compression zone of a flexural member, however, often helps to restrain the deflections due to
creep.

Values in table 2-4 (Table 3.3 of euro code II) can be considered as the final creep coefficient  (, to ) of a normal
weight concrete subjected to a compressive stress not exceeding 0.45 f ck .

Table 2.4- Final creep coefficient  (, to ) of normal weight concrete

Age at Notional size 2 Ac / u (in mm)

loading 50 150 600 50 150 600
t o (days) Dry atmospheric conditions (inside) Humid atmospheric conditions (outside)
(RH=50%) (RH=80%)
1 5.5 4.6 3.7 3.6 3.2 2.9
7 3.9 3.1 2.6 2.6 2.3 2.0
28 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.5
90 2.4 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.2
365 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0

Linear interpolation between the values in table is permitted.

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