International Journal of Mining Engineering, 1983, 1, 189-228 Cat. Design of underground plugs F.A. AULD Cementation Mining Ltd, Bentley House, P.O. Box 22, Doncaster DNS OBT, South Yorkshire, UK Received 24 December 1982 Summary The design of underground plugs is well documented for the gold mines of South Africa where reasonably hard rock and relatively high water pressures are experienced at deep levels. However, very little new information has been forthcoming in the last two decades, and published design data concerning other situations in softer rocks and with lower imposed hydrostatic pressures is virtually non-existent. This paper therefore sets out to review underground plug design with the object of bringing the subject to prominence and more up to date. An attempt has also been made to rationalize the design process in relation to current practice. Six sections are included in the paper, the various types of plug being described at the beginning. ‘The factors to be considered in plug design form the basis for discussion in the second section and design calculations are detailed in the third. Construction aspects follow while plug sealing and resistance to leakage are the topics included as the fifth section. To elucidate the contents of the previous five sections more fully, the last section comprises three current case studies of actual plugs. Based on the overall concepts contained in the paper, conclusions and recommendations for plug design are formulated at the end. Key words: Mining; mine water; water inrush; underground dams; concrete Introduction To sink mine shafts and drive-inclined drifts, underground roadways or tunnels successfully, experience and skill is needed to maintain excavation stability and to deal with and control ground water. The presence of the latter is possibly the most serious threat to working in the underground environment and the miner must always operate with care when approaching known zones of water-bearing strata. During development work in shafts and tunnels, techniques are available whereby strata water can be controlled temporarily prior to installing a water-tight lining. Such methods are: pumping, where the amount is not excessive; pre-grouting of the strata for reducing water makes to within the available pumping capacity; and freezing, if excessive amounts are expected. Before commencing development work hydrogeological boreholes are normally drilled from the surface to locate the water-bearing zones approximately. Pressure recovery tests are carried out within the boreholes to provide data for estimating water inflow quantities 0263-4546/83 $03.00 + .12 © 1983 Chapman and Hall Ltd.190 Auld which could be expected during excavation. Subsequently forward-probe drilling is carried out prior to each section of excavation to locate the water exactly. Such procedures allow development to take place safely irrespective of the presence of water, However, it is not always possible, or economic, to provide fully water-tight linings for shafts and tunnels and, throughout the life of the underground system, ground relax- ation and stress readjustment may allow further ingress of ground water. Accidental inrushes of large quantities of water are also a potential hazard if mining takes place too close to undetected sources and ground instability occurs or if drilling interconnects with unexpected water-bearing zones. Therefore it can be seen that, in many cases, water will be prevalent in underground workings, whether it is expected or unexpected, and the means must be provided for sealing off areas of the workings either for temporary water control while pumping to disposal or on a permanent basis. Plugs of concrete with a designed specific length and which fill the shaft or tunnel cross-section are used for this type of sealing. ‘The design of underground plugs is well documented for the gold mines of South Africa where reasonably hard rock and relatively high water pressures are experienced at deep levels (Garrett and Campbell Pitt, 1958, 1961; Lancaster, 1964). However, very little new information has been forthcoming since 1964 and published design data concerning other situations in softer rocks and with lower imposed hydrostatic pressures is virtually non- existent. This paper therefore sets out to review underground plug design with the object of bringing the subject to prominence and more up to date. An attempt has also been made to rationalize the design process in relation to current practice. Six sections are included in the paper. The following five sections are: a description of various types of plug; a discussion of the factors to be considered in plug design; detailed design calculations; construction aspects; and plug sealing and resistance to leakage. To elucidate the contents of these five sections more fully, the sixth section comprises three current case studies of actual plugs. Based on the overall concepts contained in the paper, conclusions and recommendations for plug design are formulated at the end of the paper. Types of plug Four different categories of underground plugs can be defined: (1) Precautionary plugs; (2) control plugs; (3) emergency plugs; and (4) temporary or consolidation plugs. Basic descriptions follow outlining the functions of each type. Precautionary plugs These plugs are normally constructed in underground roadways to limit the area of flooding should water inrushes occur. Watertight doors are built into them which can be shut when any danger of flooding arises. Precautionary plugs are installed as a safetyDesign of underground plugs 191 measure prior to development in areas known to be potential water-bearing zones and such plugs are designed to withstand full hydrostatic pressure from surface level. Control plugs Sealing off or controlling the inflow of water from abandoned mining areas involves the introduction of control plugs. Plugs constructed in boundary pillars between adjacent mines also fall into this category. They are referred to as boundary plugs and serve to prevent water flowing from abandoned areas of one mine into the workings of an adjacent mine. No means of access to the sealed off areas is provided through control plugs but normally drain pipes, with valves, are cast into them. These plugs are designed to resist full hydro- static pressure from surface level or the pressure imposed by the head of water to the highest overflow point. Emergency plugs Plugs of this type are constructed to seal off unexpected inrushes of water either tempor- arily or permanently. No means of access to the sealed-off areas is provided in such plugs and they are usually designed to withstand full hydrostatic pressure from surface level. Temporary or consolidation plugs Plugs which allow inflow water to be controlled or stopped while simultaneously providing the resistance for high pressure grouting and consolidation operations are known as temporary or consolidation plugs. They are normally removed after the water pressure zones are sealed. Full hydrostatic pressure from surface level may again be the dominant design parameter for these plugs. Factors to be considered in the design of plugs When designing underground plugs the following factors need to be considered: (1) the purpose for which the plug is to be constructed; (2) the type of excavation in which the plug is to be installed (shaft or tunnel); (3) where the plug is to be sited in relation to the prevailing rock and working conditions; (4) plug shape; (5) head of water to be withstood by the plug; (6) the condition of, and the stress in, the rock surrounding the plug; (7) the strength of, and stresses in, the material of the plug; and (8) the method of plug construction. Purpose for which the plug is to be constructed Each of the four categories of plug described above has a different specific function and the form of a particular plug will be dependent upon the prevailing situation.192 Auld Type of excavation in which the plug is to be installed (tunnel or shaft) Undisturbed ground stress conditions alter locally in the areas surrounding an excavation. The adjusted stresses differ depending upon whether the excavation is for a vertical shaft or a horizontal tunnel. A more uniformly distributed stress occurs around a shaft excavation whereas, for a tunnel, the vertical ground pressure may be different from the horizontal causing stress variations around the perimeter. In highly stressed ground a fracture zone may surround the excavation and its extent will also depend upon whether it encompasses a shaft or a tunnel. Therefore the installation of a plug in a shaft will require different design considerations than for construction in a tunnel. Where the plug is to be sited in relation to the prevailing rock and working conditions One of the most important factors in deciding where to place a plug is the condition of the surrounding rock. Preferably the ground should be free from geological disturbances which could provide leakage paths for water. However, there could be limitations for the choice of site and the presence of faults or dykes in the immediate vicinity may have to be accommo- dated. It is not advisable to site plugs in or near the fracture zones of highly stressed ground resulting from mining excavations although it is probably impossible always to avoid such situations, Control plugs may have to be located near mined out areas to restrict outflow of water and the distance of boundary plugs from the workings depends upon the width of the boundary pillars in which they are installed. Boundary plugs need careful inspection at all times as boundary pillars which are too thin will be pervious to water and the danger of plug failure could be present under high hydrostatic pressures. Plugs should be sited in ground which is not likely to be affected by subsequent ground movements resulting from mining operations. Damage to both the plug and the surrounding strata would annul the grout sealing integrity and introduce fresh leakage paths. The pre- vailing working conditions could also influence the choice of plug site. When there is an inrush of water, depending on the amount of water flowing into the workings, preference will be shown for a site which can be temporarily dammed upstream providing relatively dry construction conditions for the plug. Ventilation would be another criteria to be considered particularly for an underground environment where high temperatures prevail. However, in an emergency, an adequately ventilated site may not necessarily be forthcoming. Plug shape Three basic forms of solid plug can be considered (Fig. 1). The first consists of a thin reinforced concrete wall (Fig. 1a) or unreinforced arch (Fig. 1b) keyed into the excavation all around the perimeter in contact with the ground, Design of the slab involves calculation of bending moments, shear forces and axial forces, sufficient strength being incorporated in the structure to resist the applied pressure. The amount of keyed-in area is related to the bearing resistance of the surrounding ground. A solid plug of the second type possesses a longerDesign of underground plugs 193 Possible water Leakage paths through Possibe water leakage paths thraugh strata ‘strata Kater pressure Possible water leakage path through rolnarate . water . a water (c) (a) Steal bulkhead door, Water Pressure Steel load transfer cylinder Steal loot transer cylter (e) (f) Fig. 1. Plug shapes. (a) Reinforced concrete slab in rectangular opening (adequate strength but insufficient leakage resistance). (b) Unreinforced concrete arch in rectangular opening (adequate strength but insufficient leakage resistance). (c) Unreinforced concrete tapered plug in rectangular opening (adequate strength and leakage resistance but uneconomical). (d) Unreinforced concrete parallel plug in rectangular opening (economical with adequate strength and leakage resistance). (¢) Unreinforced concrete cylindrical parallel plug, with man access, in circular opening, (f) Unreinforced concrete cylindrical parallel plug, with roadway access, in circular opening. length, no reinforcement and incorporates a taper to provide the ground bearing area (Fig. 1c). Parallel plugs are the third type (Fig. 1d) and resistance to the applied end hydrostatic pressure is achieved through mechanical interlock with the rough excavation face of the surrounding rock. Garrett and Campbell Pitt (1958, 1961) consider plug length to be governed more by leakage resistance around the sides and through the surrounding rock than by structural194 Auld strength. The. longer length required for leakage sealing also ensures low shearing or bearing stresses at the concrete to rock interface. Thin barriers, although economic on materials, have very short, unsealable leakage paths at their extremities so are not suitable for underground piugs. Tapered plugs, when compared with parallel plugs, require more rock excavation which introduces further rock destressing, extra construction time and added cost, Increased quantities of concrete are involved and tapered plugs are subjected to larger pressures resulting from the greater projected end area at the maximum cross-section dimensions, Such factors are a disadvantage when plugs are required to be installed under emergency conditions. Although the leakage resistance paths are adequate with tapered plugs the other factors are prohibitive. Garrett and Campbell Pitt (1958, 1961) have reported the results of tests in South Africa on an experimental plug at West Driefontein, on plugs constructed at West Driefontein and ona Virginia/Merriespruit boundary plug which show conclusively that parallel but rough- sided excavations will retain a plug without any sign of failure under very heavy load conditions. On this basis, all further discussion on plugs in this paper is focussed predomi- nantly on parallel plugs. The section ‘plug length based on bearing strength of concrete or rock at the interface’ (p. 197), does however contain tapered plug design theory. Solid plugs installed in shafts or tunnels will have a cross-section of the excavation shape in which they are constructed. Shaft plugs will generally be circular in cross-section whereas for drifts, roadways or tunnels the shape may be square, rectangular, D-shaped, circular or otherwise. For precautionary plugs with access ways through them, either purely for man entry (Fig. le) or roadway access for materials transportation (Fig. 1f), a different concept is required. To resist high strata-grouting pressures, which are applied in the transverse direction for leakage-sealing purposes, only the circular shape provides adequate strength. Precautionary plugs with access through therefore need to be in the form of concrete cylinders with sufficient length for leakage resistance, adequate mechanical interlock automatically being provided. In plugs incorporating access roadways, the dimensions required for clearance govern the inner diameter while strength to resist radial grout pressure determines the wall thickness, These two criteria apply for part of the length in a plug which is only provided with man access, as a structural concrete wall can be incorporated integrally with the concrete cylinder at the upstream face (Fig. 1). In this case the strength of the wall is adequate, the concrete cylinder’ acting as a sufficiently long sleeve to provide leakage resistance and mechanical interlock with the surrounding ground. In addition to the concrete cylinder, two other steel components are necessary for the successful operation of a precautionary plug with an access way. One is the bulkhead door for sealing off the plug in an emergency and the other is a load transfer cylinder (Figs. le, f). The steel load transfer cylinder allows the bulkhead door pressure to be carried by the concrete cylindrical plug through bearing on the ring flanges. Enough flanges are provided to reduce the bearing stresses to permissible limits. Head of water to be withstood by the plug For the majority of plugs the design head of water will be that from ground surface to the level of plug installation. This should be taken as normal for all designs unless very clearlyDesign of underground plugs 195 defined lower overflow levels are shown to exist below ground surface which produce heads of water that cannot under any circumstances be exceeded. Condition of, and the stress in, the rock surrounding the plug The successful sealing of water flow by the introduction of a plug depends on the capacity of the surrounding rock to prevent leakage. Any discontinuities in the strata will make the job of sealing off more difficult. Fissures of geological origin or fracture planes resulting from high ground stress could endanger plug performance and installation of plugs in such areas should be avoided wherever possible, as indicated above in the section on plug siting. The type of rock in which a plug is constructed is also a very important factor in governing how well leakage paths can be sealed or how efficient the shearing resistance or bearing capacity will be along the concrete to rock interface. The presence of weak beds of shale, clay, sandstones or conglomerates will increase leakage potential and reduce inter face shearing resistance or bearing capacity. As indicated previously, undisturbed ground stresses alter once excavation takes place and the magnitude and variation of such stresses around an opening differ for shafts and tunnels. High ground stresses, which cause rock fracture, depend upon the following factors: (1) the depth below the surface; (2) the size of the opening; (3) the proximity of other mining excavations; and (4) the proximity of geological disturbances which may introduce tectonic stresses. The subject of stress evaluation around underground openings is a complex one and is too large a topic to be introduced into this paper. Nevertheless, it is a subject which must be fully understood if a true evaluation of concrete plug to rock interaction is to be formu- lated and more research into this area is required. Strength of, and stresses in, the material of the plug Five points warrant consideration when evaluating the stresses in, and strength of, underground plugs: (1) concrete compressive strength; (2) the early age development of strength; (3) the shear or bearing stress at the plug to rock interface; (4) the pore water pressure in the concrete; and (5) the possible end spalling of the plug due to high stresses set up by ground pressure. Provided the recommendations of current Codes of Practice for structural concrete (in the UK, British Standards Institution, 1969b, 1972, 1976) are followed, with Grade 25 concrete (characteristic strength 25 N mm”) as the minimum specified requirement, then dense, impermeable and durable concrete ought to be achieved easily. On this basis, in conjunction with the length required for sealing which ensures low stresses, no problems of strength should be encountered. Early age strength development is important from two aspects. First it is essential that plugs develop their specified strength without any detrimental effects occuring from shrinkage, thermal changes or ground pressures. Provided care is taken to overcome these factors, then the integrity of the concrete mass will be protected and leakage paths through plugs minimized. The second aspect of importance in relation to early age strength develop-196 Auld ment is how quickly a plug needs to be sealed. It is possible to use higher strength concrete mixes than are required purely for design strength. This allows higher strengths to be achieved at earlier ages and hence the problem of sealing can be tackled more quickly. ‘The factor of safety against shearing or bearing failure in the rock or concrete of the plug at their interface depends upon the magnitude of the induced stresses, which in turn is related to plug length. Since the length of a plug should be determined with leakage sealing in mind, which means providing a longer length than is necessary for structural strength purposes, relatively low interface stresses are inherent in good plug design. Knowledge of pore-water pressure behaviour within a concrete plug is limited. A pressure gradient exists from the hydrostatic pressure at the face in contact with the impounded water to zero at the opposite end. How the pressure and induced stresses are dissipated throughout the system and into the surrounding ground is a matter for conjecture at the present time and this area, in conjunction with rock stress evaluation, needs further research. However, it is unlikely that spalling of the free face of a plug will occur due to pore water pressure unless nonhomogeneous irregularities occur in the concrete mass. It is conceivable that high localized ground stresses at the ends of plugs could cause spalling at these points, reducing the effective resistance to applied pressure and leakage. Careful choice of site related to a study of the induced rock stresses and rock strength can avoid or minimize this risk. Additional plug length would also contribute to solving this problem. Method of plug construction For precautionary, control and temporary or consolidation plugs, which can generally be constructed in phase with and under normal mine-operating conditions in a relatively dry environment, the method of construction has little influence on design. However, in conditions of emergency, materials access problems and water inflow quantities may require consideration of different methods of construction. Normal concrete transportation, placing and compaction can be replaced by grouted concrete in which a mixture of cement, sand and water is introduced into pre-placed aggregate. This technique is particularly suit- able for the construction of plugs in areas where access is difficult or for plugs installed under water in flooded shafts. Concrete can also be placed by tremie under water if necessary. Resulting from the chosen method of construction, different concrete to rock interface allowable shear or bearing stresses may have to be used depending upon how dense and impermeable the plug mass is expected to be and how integral a contact can be achieved with the surrounding rock. Design calculations Formulae for calculating plug length and strength Plug length based on shear strength of concrete or rock at the interface. Garrett and Campbell Pitt (1961) quote the following formula which can be applied to parallel-sided plugs with rectangular cross-sections if interface shearing is accepted as the governing failureDesign of underground plugs 197 mechanism poh = 2(b + A)ipy. (la) where p is the intensity of applied pressure; b is the width of the plug; A is the height of the plug; / is the length of the plug; and p,. is the permissible punching shear stress of the rock or concrete at the interface. By transposing Equation 1, the length of plug can be obtained bh fs ar Pn (1b) For a square cross-section, Equation 1b becomes 1= (pb) (4P pe)» (1c) The length of circular plugs, of radius r, can be obtained from par? = Inrlpy. (2a) giving 1 = (pr)/ 2p pe) (2b) Plug length based on bearing strength of concrete or rock at the interface. Although the shear strength concept of the previous section can be employed, Garrett and Campbell Pitt (1961) also considered that, alternatively, the mechanism of interaction between concrete plugs and the surrounding rock could be more in the form of direct bearing rather than shearing at the interface. Mechanical interlocking action is achieved at an excavation face through the various inclined planes of its surface. Orientation of these planes can be in any direction lying between the extremes parallel with or normal to the general direction of the excavation face. An assumption can be made that half of the inclined planes resist movement by direct bearing (Fig. 2a) while the others are subjected to tensile stresses and therefore can be neglected. For a parallel plug, consider an element of the excavation face ABC (Fig. 2b) with a horizontal length AC =1', which contributes to the plug bearing resistance over the element of length /'/2. The permissible bearing stress in the concrete or the rock is p,, and F, represents the total bearing resistance over the element of plug bearing length BC, inclined at an angle of « to AC such that BC cos « = 1/2. (3) In the triangle of forces (Fig. 2b) P’ is the element of applied horizontal force which is resisted by the horizontally resolved component of F,. Therefore P= Fysina (4) however Fy = PBC. (5)198 Auld Water pressure vend area = Total force (P) Compression component of force on plug Fig. 2. Evaluation of parallel plug length based on bearing strength of concrete or rock at the interface (Garrett and Campbell Pitt, 1961). (a) Plug bearing resistance. (b) Element of plug bearing resistance. From Equation 3 BC = I'/(2 cos a) (6) and combining Equations 4, 5 and 6 gives P’ = (pyel'/2)tan a. (7) Summing all the forces on the plug results in = pbh = Spy ton a= 26+) Spr tana (8a)Design of underground plugs 199 from which = pbh (b+hA)p,. tana” Since the surface planes will be inclined at angles of between 0° and 90° to the direction of thrust, Garrett and Campbell Pitt (1961) considered the assumption that the average inclination « = 45° for a parallel-sided plug was justified. Equation 8b becomes (8b) pbh po Pe Bc OF hn co For a square cross-section, Equation 8c reduces to 1 = pb/2Dve (8d) ‘The length of circular parallel plugs can be obtained from L par = 2nr 5 Pe tana (9a) giving 1= pr/Pe (9b) for a = 45°. Tapered plugs can also be considered if appropriate amendments are made to Equations 3-9 (Fig. 3). The element of bearing length BC (Fig. 3b) is now inclined at an angle a + f to the horizontal and BC cos @ = 1'/2 cos B (10) where f is the angle of plug taper. From the triangle of forces (Fig. 3b) P= F,sin(e + B) (11) however = =p,.—__—_. 12) Fi = PuBC = Pe > cacosB (22) Combining Equations 11 and 12 gives v sin(a + B) _ P= Peet cosa cosB Bs f (tan a + tan 8). (13) Summing all the forces on the plug results in 7 L EP’ = P= phouhau = SPs (tana + tan f) = 2(by + iy) Prtan a + tan fp) (14a) where by. is the maximum plug width at the water face; hax is the maximum plug height at200 Auld oterprassure x end area = Total force 1) Compression component of force on plug Fig. 3. Evaluation of tapered plug length based on bearing strength of concrete or rock at the interface (developed from Garrett and Campbell Pitt, 1961). (a) Plug bearing resistance. (b) Element of plug bearing resistance. the water face; b,, is the average plug width along its length; and h,, is the average plug height along its length. From Equation 14a PP naxRax (ay + Aey)Pre(tan a + tan B)” For « = 45°, Equation 14b becomes (14)Design of underground plugs 201 PL max max ~ GF hapa + fan) (14e) and for a square section PP imax 2WDayPre(1 + tan B)” (144) The length of circular tapered plugs can be obtained from ; a Prt (Fan + Fa (5) + Cu ~ ran] Pate an) (asa) where ru is the maximum plug radius at the water face and ry, is the minimum plug radius at the face remote from water. Equation 15a gives Prax 2) ‘= ‘le T Fou) PLC tan Bp Pom ra oe) fora = 45°, An alternative form of bearing calculation for tapered plugs is that for a smooth-faced wedge driven into an opening. On this basis the whole surface area acts in bearing and the element of bearing length becomes AC (Fig. 3b), inclined at an angle 8 to the horizontal where AC cos B =I (16) and P' = Fy sin B a7) however Fy = PAC = Prel'/cos . (18) Combining Equations 17 and 18 gives P= pal’ tan B (19) Summing all the forces on the plug results in: DP! = P = pBgaltnar = Peel tan B = 2(byy + hay) tan B (20a) from which D rash = 36, thao tn a is derived. For a square section bis =m 20 |= Wenps. tan B (206)202 Auld Comparing Equations 20b and 20c with Equations 14c and 14d, respectively, if « = 45° is replaced by a = 0° in the latter two equations then compatibility is achieved except for the anomaly of reducing the length by half in the case of the wedge theory due to using the full bearing area. The equivalent length of circular tapered plugs based on the smooth-wedge principle can be obtained from rr hac = (rae + PoindLl? + (Faas ~ Fain)'] "Pre tn B (21a) where = Prine ~¢ =r” t= amp beta (ate) Cylindrical plug strength. The strength of cylindrical parallel plugs (Figs. le,f) can be determined using the standard Lamé elastic design theory for thick cylinders (Auld, 1979, 1982a) _ wilt + ry Wet or) =P (22) where o is the maximum tangential stress in the concrete cyclinder wall, occurring at the inside face; p, is the permissible concrete compression stress; p, is the externally applied radial pressure; r, is the inside radius of the cylinder; and ¢ is the concrete cylinder wall thickness. Bearing strength of cylinder walls. Plugs of the type shown in Fig. 1e, which carry load from a circular face wall back through a cylindrical rear section and thence into the surrounding rock, must have sufficient strength at the interconnection between the wall and cylinder. The cylinder end area must be sufficiently large to reduce the bearing stress imposed by the end wall to a value within the permissible limit. Hence, the calculated concrete bearing stress, P = < 23a Ao aga oP oe where p, is the permissible concrete bearing stress; and r, is the outside radius of the cylinder, and P is the horizontal applied force on the cylindrical rear section. ie. P = par— [the concrete or rock permissible surface resistance over length /* of the front wall]. (23b) Combined stress at the interconnection between the face wall and the cylindrical rear section. The cylinder stress and the bearing stress determined from the above sections act together at the interconnection to produce a combined compressive stress situation. Care should beDesign of underground plugs 203 taken to ensure that the calculated combined compression and bearing stress, fc = (0? + fi)? Sp... (23c) Punching shear of front wall. The punching shear resistance of the front wall against the cylindrical rear section (Fig. 1e) must also be adequate. Therefore, the calculated concrete punching shear stress fy = par?/2nrl" 1gD} 98 siveuBeR OZ 1 s60is Ng api sa}su0N eT | i T T a“ [ple : + i] ji i 1 | I | tae L a | 1 Ag eg 4 ' \ ! 1 7 To | / ' 1 | a aia ! | _ 4 OEEStrata end contact zone 4 grouting 12No holes per ring Service pipes to be fitted with glands ot each end Dawatrng pipe aye one ' I . LSS |e oatsom sine with een eee ants ontl| NOT debris gril. outbye ene Penmaes contest eft 3950 \ ited wth valve vate 1 \ . an (b) SECTION A-A Buikneod door with man access tube, Fabricated tn aNe segments trom 65mm thiek, Grade 63 steel Segments to be bolted together underground end cil joints fully protile welded ya, Sump with debris gril222 Auld National Coal Board North Selby Mine, England, 1982 (temporary consolidation plug) Cementation Mining Ltd are currently (December 1982) sinking two shafts at North Selby for the National Coal Board Selby project. Both shafts have reached the stage of sinking through the Ackworth Rock, which is a Coal Measures sandstone and an aquifer, No, 1 shaft sump (Fig.9) standing at —540.2 m (1772 ft) below surface level [hydrostatic pressure 5.4 N mm”? (783 lb in”*)]. The previous sump level in No. 1 shaft stood 13.8m (45 ft) above the present sump level and strata cover grouting was carried out from that level. During the period of strata cover grouting, problems of grout standpipe installation were experienced due to the poor rock conditions and deterioration and heave of the sump took place. The length of cover grouting was also long (over 40 m) whereas the preferred maximum length is approximately 30 m. To enable the wall of the cover grouting cone to be less prone to leakage at the lower level of treatment and to guarantee satisfactory grout standpipe installation, it was decided to sink to the — 540.2 level and install a concrete plug. This would be closer to the zone of strata requiring the major grout treatment and, by casting the grout standpipes into the plug, a pressure pad for the next cover of strata grouting could be provided. Due to the potential water inflows for sinking below the plug, it was necessary to install a pump lodge (Fig. 9) for stage pumping to surface. No choice of position was available for the pump lodge other than immediately below the last cast section of the shaft wall. At the time of placing the plug, shaft water inflow to the sump was approximately 11 litres s~! (150 gal min“). Fig. 10 shows the framework for supporting the grout pipes and the water control rising mains during casting of the plug. The concrete mix design for the plug is given in Table 3. Minimal heat of hydration existed in the concrete mass due to using the cement replacement material (Cemsave) and additional heat removal occurred through the rising mains and grout pipes. The Grade 55 concrete was the same as the shaft lining concrete. However, designing the plug on the basis of the seven-day cube test results 2 55 = 36.7N mm”? (5317 lb in) allowed pressurizing of the plug for water stopping, at the earliest opportunity. The benefit of the 28 day strength was taken for the wall bearing resistance. The recommendations given in the design calculation section for cylindrical plugs were followed for the plug design. Neglecting the bearing resistance of the tapered plug, the calculated punching shear stress for the concrete to rock interface was 0.89 N mm”? (129 Ib in~) and the pressure gradient 5.4/17.3 = 0.31 N mm? m™! (13.7 Ib in“? ft"'). Grouting up of the plug started from the bottom through 50 mm grout pipes installed in the rising mains. These pipes were grouted in, leaving the bottom free for injection into the gravel bed, and also secured by high-pressure flanges bolted together at the top of the rising mains. The bottom injection was phased to follow backwall injection of the shaft wall above the plug, and controlled using the standpipes as ‘tell-tales’ before closing off for final pressurizing. The shaft water make was reduced to approximately 0.45 litres s“! (6 gal min=') before final tightening up, this amount being predominantly from behind the shaft lining above the pump lodge. The pump lodge was restricted to a position close to the plug and remained aDesign of underground plugs 223 1200+ 200 overbreo Punp Lodge (a) section THROUGH SHAFT Strate grouting | Nandnnet bu | O12 3k Se (b) PLAN AT PUMP LODGE LEVEL Fig. 9. National Coal Board, North Selby Mine, England. Section through shaft, showing temporary consolidation plug (a) and plan at pump lodge level (b). Design and construction by Cementation Mining Ltd (1982). Information published by permission of the National Coal Board.224 Auld potential source for strata water to penetrate the shaft if it could not be scaled off by grouting. To enable the plug to be subsequently broken out without damaging the shaft wall, the bottom surface of the wall was painted with a bond breaking agent Setcrete 11 (Cementation Chemicals Ltd), the hanging rod ends were sleeved and two water bars incorporated, the inner one protected and the outer one sacrificial for plug sealing. Conclusions and recommendations ‘The first objective of this paper was to review underground plug design for the purpose of bringing the subject to prominence and more up to date, As an additional objective, design rationalization was attempted on the basis of current practice. The author considers the first objective to have been achieved. However, much more work needs to be carried out to quantify, in greater detail, strata leakage resistance in relation to plug length before the design procedure can be regarded as being completely rationalized. The philosophies of design included in the paper are based predominantly on the excellent work of Garrett and Campbell Pitt which was reported in 1958 and 1961. In addition to the normally accepted punching shear stress concept of design for plug interaction with the surrounding rock, they proposed a bearing stress concept which was related to the surface roughness and also carried out tests on both experimental and service plugs to quantify plug length in relation to leakage resistance. This is the only published work known to the author which relates to the latter factor. However, the work carried out by Garrett and Campbell Pitt is specifically applicable to the gold mines of South Africa where hard rocks of the quartzite type are encountered at deep levels and high water pressures are experienced (Fig. 4). The quoted data is not directly applicable to any other rock conditions, particularly those of the softer sandstone, limestone, marls and coal measures experienced in the UK (Fig. 4), where the aquifers are closer to the surface and the hydro- static pressures are much less. A study of the Garrett and Campbell Pitt work was essential in the paper to form the basis for applying their principles to other rock conditions, in line with modern construction Codes of Practice, as it appears that very little forward progress has been made in the subject of plug design during the last two decades. Considering the two parallel plug length design theories, one based on punching shear stress and the other on bearing stress, which have been proposed for resistance to horizontal thrust at the concrete to rock interface, it would appear that they are incompatible. Fig. 10. National Coal Board, North Selby Mine, England. General arrangement elevation of temporary consolidation plug (a) and sections A~A(b), B-B(c) and C-C(d) showing supporting framework for cast in grout stand pipes and water control rising mains. Design and construction by Cementation Mining Ltd. Information published by permission of the National Coal Board.226 Auld Comparing Equations 1c and 84, giving / = pb/4p,, and! = pb/2p,, respectively, using the value for py, = 3.75p,. from Table 1 indicates that the length based on permissible punching shear stress, as given by Equation 1c, will always be the longer by a factor of 1.875. Based on the concept of length being a priority for resistance to leakage, the bearing stress concept can be neglected in the design of parallel plugs. It should, however, be pointed out that although the permissible shear stress concept is recommended for determining length, in order to assist sealing by increasing the leakage resistance, the acutal strength will be greater because of the bearing action. ‘As already mentioned in the design calculations section, the two tapered plug design theories based on different bearing stress concepts are also not compatible. In this case, the longer length is given by the Garrett and Campbell Pitt rough surface-bearing resistance philosophy, as opposed to the smooth-faced wedge principle, and the former is therefore the recommended approach based on the longer length required for leakage resistance. With regard to the permissible stresses quoted in Table 1, the values of p., p, and p, are realistic for the current types of concrete now being used underground. The factor of safety equal to 4 used in connection with the p,, and p,, values at the concrete to rock interface is also probably realistic. However, care should always be taken to study rock strength and condition to confirm the values. It is interesting to note that the permissible shear stress values for the interface, which are quoted by South African practice (see p. 207), are less than the values recommended in Table 1. Although the South African values are not related directly to concrete or rock strengths, nor the rock condition, they result in longer plug lengths which err on the safe side for leakage resistance. On this basis, it can be seen that the stronger, and better quality, concretes now being employed in underground construc- tion will give shorter plug design lengths for strength but could have inherent leakage problems if sufficient length is not provided. At the present time it is not possible to define the exact length which is needed for sealing in relation to any particular ground conditions, The pressure gradient concept of Garrett and Campbell Pitt (1958, 1961) would appear to be a practical means for quantifying the resistance of rock to the passage of water through specific lengths but insufficient data is available as yet for general application of the principle. The allowable pressure gradient of 9.14 N mm? m7! (404 Ib in-? ft"), which the South Africans would accept for normally grouted rock, should not be adopted in the UK as it is based on plug to rock interface grouting pressures of 2 to 2} times hydrostatic. Such high pressures would not be adopted in the UK, values of 1.25 to 1.5 being more representative. Comparing the pressure gradients from the case studies with the Garrett and Campbell Pitt data in Fig, 4, the Sherburn Mine emergency plug value of 0.013 N mm~? m=! (0.59 Ib in™? ft”) is much less than that given by graph A [0.23 N mm~?m“? (20.8 Ib in” ft~)] showing it possessed a satisfactory leakage resistance without grouting. For the proposed precautionary plug the pressure gradient of 0.45 N mm~? m=! (19.9 Ib in”? ft!) was much less than that given by graph B [3.64 N mm~? m™! (161 Ib in”? ft)]. This indicates that although leakage would occur before grouting of the contact zone it would not leak after grouting the interface. The North Selby temporary consolidation plug was also in this category, possessing a greatly reduced pressure gradient [0.31 N mm? m7 (13.7 Ib in™? ft”})] than given by graph B.Design of underground plugs 227 It would appear that the Garrett and Campbell Pitt pressure gradient of 3.64 N mm=?m~ (161 Ib in ft”) could be used as an upper limit in the UK for plugs with the contact zones and strata grouted. However, much lower pressure gradients will result in the ability to seal off leakage more easily. Each plug scheme will generally be an individual design tailored to the particular situation. The above recommendations for pressure gradients should be used with caution and the rock leakage resistance in situ, which is associated with each design, must be investi- gated as thoroughly as possible prior to preparing any scheme. Successful plug design therefore, will rely heavily on the mining contractor’s experience and knowledge. Current concrete mix designs, using plasticizers for high workability, are much more easy to place and provide much tighter contact with the surrounding rock. Improved sealing will be achieved and leakage resistance much greater. Increased pressure gradients should be capable of being withstood by shorter lengths of plug and therefore, in future, the quantifying of such data by experiment and in situ monitoring is essential to progress and improve underground plug design. Understanding of plug mechanisms of resistance to horizontal thrust, when confined by the surrounding rock, can be enhanced by further studies into rock stresses resulting from excavations. Modification of these stresses during interface pressure grouting and the accompanying plug stressing needs to be investigated. Finally study of the effects of end pressures on such a combined stress system would lead to knowledge of how stresses are dissipated throughout the whole and possibly a clearer picture of the interface ultimate behaviour under load would emerge. Future research and experiment are therefore imperative to advance the state of the art of plug design. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Mr J.C. Black, Managing Director of Cementation Mining Ltd, for permission to publish the paper. Illustrations and details are included from the Selby New Mine Project and the author is indebted to Mr C.T. Massey, Deputy Director (Mining) - Selby Project, of the National Coal Board for his permission to use this infor- mation. Details of the Sherburn Mine incident are published by courtesy of British Gypsum Ltd, and thanks are due to Mr W.S. Gibson, Chief Mining Engineer, British Gypsum Ltd, and Mr R. Hird, the Mine Manager at the time of the incident, for their permission to include such data. Further thanks are extended to Mrs M. Mordue, who typed the manuscript. References Auld, F.A. (1979) Design of concrete shaft linings, in Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 2, Vol. 67, Sept., pp. 817-32. Auld, FA. (1982a) Ultimate strength of concrete shaft linings and its influence on design, Proceedings of the Symposium on Strata Mechanics, Newcastle upon Tyne, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, pp. 134-40.228 Auld Auld, F.A. (1982b) Concrete in underground works, Concrete Society Technical Report No. 105, The Concrete Society, London. Auld, F.A. (1982c) Concrete in underground works in The Concrete Society North West Region Symposium, Concrete in the Energy Industry. 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(1961) Reinforced Concrete Design, 2nd edn. Longmans, Harlow. Timoshenko, $.P, and Gere, J.M. (1961) Theory of Elastic Stability, 2nd edn, p. 49, McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd, Tokyo.