Pulse tube refrigerator- an alternative

cryocooler?
R.N. Richardson

Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3P J,

UK

Received 2 January 1986; revised 12 March 1986

The pulse tube refrigerator may offer an alternative to cryocooler designs such as those based on
the Stirling cycle or of the Gifford--McMahon type. In the pulse tube, refrigeration is produced
without the use of active components operating at low temperature thus obviating a major source
of unreliability. Despite this potentially significant advantage pulse tube refrigeration apparently
has never been exploited in a practical cryocooler design. Although the coefficient of performance
of a pulse tube refrigerator is likely to be lower than that of alternative systems it is not apparent
why this should be sufficient to account for the relative lack of interest in the device given its
obvious advantage of inherent reliability. This Paper reviews previous pulse tube research and
presents both theoretical and experimental results from a new investigation which help explain
the nature of the device. The analysis includes a method of predicting optimum pulse rate. It is
possible that a better understanding of pulse tube refrigeration may provide an insight into the
non-ideal behaviour observed in other types of cryocooler.

Keywords: cryocoolers; refrigerators

N o m e n c l a t u re 7 Ratio of specific heats (cp/cv)

Cp Specific heat at constant pressure ~Q Ratio of heat transferred
en Particular element of gas 8 Transformed temperature
f Frequency of pulsation k. Eigen value (roots of J0[knRl = 0)
Jo Bessel function of first kind, order 0 p Gas density
Jl Bessel function of first kind, order 1 (~,- l)/~,
P Pressure v Time period
O Quantity of heat r(r) Initial radial temperature distribution
r Radius ~b Angular displacement about axis z
R Radius (of pulse tube)
rp Pressure ratio
Subscripts
T Temperature
t Time c Cold
W Quantity of work g Gas
Z Coordinate direction normal to r h High (pressure), hot (temperature)
a Thermal diffusivity 1 Low

t~ Transformed Eigen value (hnR) w Wall

In recent years considerable effort has been devoted to electronic components and sensors which typically
the development of miniature closed cycle refrigerators~. dissipate less than a few watts of heat and operate at
These devices find wide application in the cooling of temperatures in the range 150-4K or below. To

0011-2275/86/O60331-10 $03.00
© 1986 Butterworth Et Co (Publishers) Ltd Cryogenics 1 986 Vol 26 June 331
Pulse tube refrigerator R.N. Richardson
distinguish this particular class of refrigerators,
sometimes called cooling engines, from other types of
cooling system the term cryocooler has been generally
adopted.
In many applications the cryocooler is envisaged
as an alternative to the use of stored cryogens or Joule-
Thomson coolers which are, in general, of limited
endurance. Unfortunately miniature closed cycle
refrigerators have so far failed to demonstrate the
desired levels of reliability despite considerable
development. It is in this respect that the pulse tube
refrigerator may offer considerable potential since it is
an inherently simple device.
The most successful cryocooler are based on the
Stirling2 and Gifford-McMahon (G-M) 3 cycles which
employ a minimum of active components, particularly
moving parts at low temperature, and include periodic
flow heat exchangers known as regenerators. The G - M
cycle is particularly interesting in that it is not possible
to describe the cycle on a thermodynamic property
diagram in the usual way since each element of the
working fluid (gas) undergoes a slightly different series
of processes 4. This leads to extreme difficulty in
analysing the heat and work transfers of the cycle,
Whilst it might be assumed that similar difficulties are
unlikely to be encountered with a cryocooler based
upon the well known Stifling cycle, this is in fact not
the case. In practice the thermodynamic cycle executed
by the working fluid in a 'Stifling' cryocooler bears
only limited resemblance to that of the ideal reversed
Stifling cycles. This is due, primarily, to the influence
of dead volume in the machine. At this scale the
volume of the cryocooler occupied by flow passages,
heat exchangers and the regenerator is a significant
proportion of, or perhaps even greater than, the volume
of the compression and expansion spaces. The conse-
quence of this is that very little, if any, of the working
Eompressor
• / Qh
w°m ,od
F'ul;o tube
Re
• Cold end
L heot exchnnger
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of a pulse tube refrigerator
332 Cryogenics 1986 Vol 26 June
fluid of the- machine is transported directly between the
compression and expansion spaces as would be the
case in the ideal cycle. Thus, as in a G - M machine,
each element of gas in a practical Stifling cryocooler
will undergo a slightly different series of processes.
This reinforces the view that it is necessary to look
beyond the ideal cycle to explain the operation of these
cryocoolers.
The influence of dead volume on cryocooler
performance has been conclusively demonstrated in
experimental investigations 6. However, the precise
nature of this effect and, in the case of Stifling
machines, the actual, rather than ideal, mechanism of
heat pumping is still unclear. The pulse tube
refrigerator, in common with other types of cryocooler,
executes a regenerative cycle but unlike either G - M or
Stifling machines it has no moving parts at low
temperature. It is particularly significant that the
mechanism of heat transport in the pulse tube is such
that refrigeration may be produced despite the fact that
no element of gas is displaced sufficiently during the
cycle to transport heat directly from the low tempera-
ture region of the device to the ambient temperature
heat exchanger. It is possible that an understanding of
the heat pumping mechanism which occurs in a pulse
tube refrigerator may help provide a more complete
explanation of the behaviour observed in other types of
cryocooler.
Essential elements of the pulse tube
refrigerator
A pulse tube refrigerator is shown schematically in
Figure 1. The pulse tube itself is simply a slender thin
walled cylinder with a heat exchanger located at each
end. Heat is rejected via the closed end heat exchanger
and a thermal load may be supported at the heat
exchanger linking the pulse tube and regenerator.
Other geometric configurations may be devised inclu-
ding compact coaxial designs and multi-stage pulse
tubes which may reach very low temperatures. One of
the simplest configurations is presented here in the
interest of clarity.
It is in the region at the base of the pulse tube
that the lowest temperatures in the system are attained
and as such the cold end heat exchanger might be
considered analogous to that in the expansion space of
a G - M or Stifling cryocooler. This is in fact not strictly
correct since in the pulse tube, as will be explained, the
refrigeration effect is distributed in terms of both
location and the temperature at which it is produced.
The pulse tube is supplied with gas from a compressor
assembly. Pressure pulses are produced by the action
of valves which alternately fill and exhaust the pulse
tube. The pulse rate is dictated, primarily, by the
dimensions of the device. The pressurization/depres-
surization results in displacement and near isentropic
compression and expansion of gas within the pulse
tube. This results in the transport of heat from the
open to the closed end of the pulse tube, against a
temperature gradient, by a mechanism that has come
to be known as surface heat pumping. In common with
the G - M cycle each element of gas in a pulse tube
refrigerator undergoes a slightly different series of
processes and as such it is not possible to plot a cycle
for the bulk gas on a properly (T-S) diagram. The
G - M cycle has been described, somewhat misleadingly,
as a no-work cycle since none of the work of expan-

sion at low temperature is recovered. A similar
argument might be applied to the pulse tube refri-
gerator. Clearly, if no work is done by the working
fluid there can be no cooling. In fact work is done on
the gas leaving the working space by the gas still
remaining and expanding. The unconventional nature
of this process has led to difficulty, to an even greater
extent than in G - M machines, in analysing the heat
and work interactions in a pulse tube refrigerator. It
will be clear, however, that if the cycles followed by
each element of gas in the system could be plotted the
sum of the enclosed areas would represent the thermo-
dynamic work input to the device. On a macroscopic
scale the overall coefficient of performance (COP) will
be given by (referring to Figure 1) the net refrigerator
capacity, Q~, divided by the input to the compressor, I41.
This practical work input will be much greater than the
ideal represented by the work equivalent of the
difference between the heat rejected in the warm end
heat exchanger and that absorbed at the lowest
temperature in the system, given by (Qh - QI), because
of the irreversibilities in the cycle which are caused,
primarily, by the throttle (pulse control) valves.
Review of pulse tube research
The pulse tube refrigerator was first described by
Gifford and Longsworth 7 in 1964. It seems likely that
the device developed from the work on G - M refrigera-
tors which had commenced a few years earlier. In this
first paper Gifford and Longsworth suggest that only
those elements of incoming gas travelling between the
cold and warm end heat exchangers are responsible for
the refrigeration effect. This led to the concept of a
critical pressure ratio below which the pulse tube
would not function as a refrigerator. In an attempt to
describe the nature of the flow processes a 'gas-piston'
model was developed and a relationship derived for
the temperature of the gas flowing out of the pulse tube
based upon the temperature of the closed end heat
exchanger and the dimensions of the device. This
model predicted temperatures considerably lower than
those observed in practice. A temperature of 173 K is
reported for a two-stage pulse tube operating on helium
although a pressure ratio is not quoted. It is suggested
that 60 K could be reached in four stages.
In a second paper, published only months after
the first, Gifford and Longsworth 8 reported useful
refrigeration in a pulse tube operating well below the,
previously supposed, critical pressure ratio. It became
apparent that elements of gas not considered in the
earlier discussion do in fact contribute to the heat
pumping mechanism. The possibility of a 'reversible'
pulse tube in which pressure pulses are produced by a
reciprocating piston was introduced. It was suggested
that by reversibly raising and lowering the pressure in
the pulse tube the losses due to irreversible free
expansion through the exhaust valve could be elimi-
nated and the overall efficiency of the device increased.
It is not clear whether a reversible pulse tube was
constructed, no results were presented for such a
device. The results of further experiments using valved
pulse tubes were reported, temperatures of 123 K and
85 K being reached in two and three stages,
respectively.
Having concluded that a significant heat
pumping effect may be produced even at very low
pressure ratios Gifford and Longsworth 9 described a
P u l s e t u b e refrigerator: R.N, R i c h a r d s o n
mechanism which has come to be known as surface
heat pumping. This provided a much better qualitative
explanation of pulse tube operation although the
behaviour observed during the initial stages of cooling
may not be adequately described by this model.
Longsworth i° acknowledged the difficulty in
deriving a quantitative theory of pulse tube operation
and reference was made to the problem of isolating the
work input to the device although the point was not
elaborated upon. An extensive experimental prog-
ramme was reported in which a wide range of geome-
tries, pulse rates, and pressure ratios were investigated.
It was reported that operation of the pulse tube was
characterized by the Fourier number and an empirical
correlation derived for the heat pumping rate.
Gifford and Kyanka H returned to the problem of
the reversible pulse tube and attempted to compare
operation with that of a valved pulse tube, although it
would seem that this experimental comparison was
based on limited data. It was concluded that other
factors being equal the base temperature, and hence
refrigeration capacity, of a reversible pulse tube is
inferior to that of the valved variety.
Subsequent to the initial work under Gifford,
various other workers have investigated the pulse tube
refrigerator but no further sustained investigation is
recorded. Thornton iz and Lechner and Ackerman 1~
independently, suggested the concentric (or co-axial)
pulse tube design. Those researchers who published
work of an essentially theoretical nature include
Hrycak and Levy~4, Seleznev~s, Rauh x6, Yani ~7 and
Mikulin et al, 18. Further experimental investigations of
pulse tube refrigerators were reported by Colangelo et
al. ~9, Shnide z° and Narayankedkar and Mane 2~. A
recent report of research by Radebaugh et al. 22 would
appear to indicate a resurgence of interest in what have
previously been called 'reversible' pulse tube refri-
gerators in which pressure pulses are produced by the
oscillation of a piston or diaphragm.
Despite past interest in pulse tube refrigeration
the phenomenon remains poorly understood. Although
earlier work, particularly that of Gifford and
Lo.ngsworth, has helped to explain various aspects of
pulse tube operation, correlation with experimental
observations remains poor. In particular the precise
manner by which a temperature gradient is established
along the length of the pulse tube during the initial
transient period of operation would not appear to have
been adequately explained. This behaviour during
'cooldown' is clearly fundamental to the operation of
the device. Research has been conducted z3 which
demonstrates how a significant temperature difference
may be established, and is maintained, along the pulse
tube. The distributed nature of the refrigeration effect
has also been demonstrated. It is hoped that an
understanding of this behaviour may provide further
insight into the operation of other types of cryocooler.
Temperature stratification
It is likely that limited surface heat pumping occurs in
many systems subject to pressure oscillations although
the magnitude of this effect will probably be such that
it is not readily apparent. To exploit the effect to
provide a useful cooling capacity it is necessary to
optimize the geometry of the system.
Consider the process of pressurization and
subsequent depressurization of a slender cylinder as
found in the pulse tube refrigerator. The cylindrical
Cryogenics 1986 Vol 26 June 333
Pulse tube refrigerator: R.N. Richardson
ini f i01 gas ' J"
l_ extrcz gas _ini'fial g a s '
ATi TcI
PO
S Although the heat exchange between the gas and the
Figure2 Graphical illustration of temperature stratification
geometry is such that mixing of the gas during
compression and expansion is minimized. It will be
assumed that the entire system is initially at ambient
temperature. If the filling process occurs rapidly .the
gas occupying the tube at low pressure, the 'initial' gas,
may be compressed isentropically whilst being dis~
placed towards the closed end of the tube. The
temperature resulting from isentropic compression of
the 'initial' gas will be considerably higher than the
average gas temperature 24.
The degree of compression experienced by the gas
that flows into the tube, the 'extra' gas, will depend on the
point at which it enters during the filling process.
Referring toFigure2 the element of'extra' gas immediately
following the imaginary boundary with the 'initial' gas
will experience the full pressure change whilst the very last
element of gas which enters the tube as pressure equili-
brium is reached will have undergone no compression
and hence the ambient temperature will prevail. There-
fore, at the end of the filling process a significant
temperature gradient will exist in the gas. This pheno-
menon is known as temperature stratification and has
been shown to occur in practice by Schmidlin ~5, although
this work was not connected with pulse tube refrigeration.
If filling is followed by a quiescent period at high pressure
the temperature of the gas will fall as a result of heat
transfer to the surroundings. It follows that on expansion
the temperature of the gas will be reduced further. If the
expansion process is isentropic, or at least polytropic with
an index equal to that of the compression process, the gas
remaining in the tube when the exhaust process is
complete will be at a temperature below that at the
beginning of pressurization,, i.e. below ambient.
In the absence of a regenerator the refrigeration
potential of those elements of cold gas that flow out of the
334 Cryogenics 19 8 6 Vol 26 June
tube is not recovered and the minimum temperature
limited to that achieved in a single expansion. This
minimum value will be attained for isentropic expansion
of the gas and will depend, for a given pressure ratio, on
the temperature of the gas immediately prior to expansion
and its thermodynamic properties. To maximize the effect
a high value of,/, the ratio of the specific heats, is required
and for this reason a monatomic such as helium is most
suitable. If a regenerator is employed the refrigeration
potential accumulated during earlier cycles is used to cool
the 'extra' gas before it enters the tube. The peak gas
temperature at the end of pressurization should therefore
reduce and consequently the temperature at the end of the
subsequent expansion process should also be lower than
in the previous cycle. This progressive reduction in
temperature with each cycle continues until the cooling
effect is balanced by the imposed and parasitic heat
loads.
Heat pumping cycle
Temperature stratification results in the establishment of
a temperature gradient along the pulse tube which is
maintained by the surface heat pumping mechanism. It is
necessary to consider heat exchange between the stratified
gas column and pulse tube wall to see how thermal
transport against the temperature gradient is achieved by
surface heat pumping.
wall takes place along the length of the pulse tube it must
be emphasized that only in the region of the warm end
heat exchanger can heat be rejected from the system. At all
other locations the wall absorbs heat during the high
pressure half of the cycle and gives up heat at low pressure.
This mechanism of heat exchange between the gas and
the wall takes place in isolation from the surroundings
and may be regarded as a regenerative effect wholly within
the system. It is important to note, therefore, that it is
impossible for an element of'extra' gas, or indeed 'initial'
I
-_ ¸ .... El, '
ee ei
•
t
Woil temperature Tw
,,'P1
j"
__. .'J
Tw
S
ELement ell Element ei
Figure3 The surface heat pumping cycle

gas, that never reaches the warm end heat exchanger to
reject heat directly to the surroundings. It is undoubtedly
this fact that led to the minimum pressure ratio
concept.
Figure 3 shows a pulse tube refrigerator which is
operating at an equilibrium condition with a temperature
gradient established along the wall and through the
regenerator. Two particular elements of gas are identified,
one 'initial' gas e i and the other 'extra' gas e e. This is the
most general case, the same argument could be applied
where both elements were either 'initial' or 'extra' gas. The
elements are chosen such that for the given pressure ratio
the position occupied by element e i at low pressure is the
final position ofe e at high pressure. It should be noted that
for each wall location there will be associated a different
pair of such elements. By following each element through
a complete pressurization/depressurization cycle it is
possible to plot the individual processes on a temperature-
entropy diagram.
Consider first the element of 'extra' gas. In its
passage through the regenerator the gas will cool whilst at
the same time its pressure will increase. At some
intermediate pressure the element will enter the pulse tube
and from this point onwards the compression will be,
ideally, isentropic. During the quiescent high pressure
period some of the heat of compression will be transferred
to the tube wall and the temperature of the gas will fall at
constant pressure. During the exhaust process the element
will follow an isentropic expansion path until it re-enters
the regenerator after which the gas temperature increases
as heat is absorbed from the regenerator and pressure is
reduced to the initial value.
The path followed by the element of 'initial' gas is
more straightforward since the entire cycle takes pl'ace in
the pulse tube. The heat of compression is again
transferred to the wall but because the gas has been
displaced into the isothermal region of the tube the heat of
compression is rejected directly to the cooling medium of
the heat exchanger. On expansion the element finally
comes to rest close to the original location but with a
temperature lower than that of the adjacent wall. The heat
absorbed by the gas during the quiescent low pressure
period causes its temperature and volume to increase
slightly and restores the element to its original position.
The series of processes executed by the element of 'initial"
gas are those of the Brayton cycle.
The heat pumping mechanism of the pulse tube is
shown to be an essentially regenerative process in which,
over the period of a complete pressurization/depressuri-
zation cycle, the wall alternately receives and gives up heat
to (different) elements of gas. The displacement of these
elements which accompanies the pressure excursions
results in the transport of heat from the open to the closed
end of the pulse tube. Although in the example chosen the
pressure ratio assumed was such that element e i was
displaced directly into the warm end heat exchanger thi s
is not necessarily always the case. The heat pumping effect
is distributed along the length of the pulse tube. At very
low pressure ratios heat transferred to the wall at some
location near the pulse tube entrance may be rejected and
re-absorbed at a number of successively higher levels
(higher both in terms of physical distance from the
entrance and also temperature) until finally reaching the
warm end heat exchanger. In this way heat may be
transported the length of the pulse tube in a number of
discrete steps, dictated by pressure ratio but without
critical limit. At each level the heat transported, together
with the heat of compression which accompanies dis-
Pulse tube refrigerator: R.N. Richardson
placement, is transferred to the wall to be re-absorbed half
a cycle later by another element of gas. Thus, at each
successive level the quantity of heat transported increases
until finally the heat absorbed at the lowest temperature
near the base of the pulse tube is rejected along with the
heat equivalent of the work required to effect the
transport.
Tube wall energy balance
In most refrigeration systems the physical boundaries
serve only to contain the working fluid, in the pulse tube
refrigerator the containment vessel itself is crucial to the
operation of the device. However, whilst the wall of the
pulse tube is essential to the regenerative heat pumping
mechanism it is at the same time the factor that ultimately
limits the lowest temperature that the system may attain.
Inseparable from the cooling effect is the establishment of
an adverse temperature gradient along the tube wall
which acts to restore temperature equilibrium and
diminish the base temperature.
Reception and rejection of heat at the tube wall takes
place at different times in the cycle whilst conduction
along the wall will occur continuously. Although the
temperature change at the inner surface of the wall will
follow that of the gas closely, the thermal capacity of the
wall will be such that the rate of change of 'bulk' wall
temperature will be slow compared with the pulse period
and may be difficult to detect when superimposed upon a
steady reduction of temperature as the system cools down.
An average wall temperature may therefore be assumed
over the period of a single cycle. To maintain the
temperature of the wall at any point in the pulse tube the
heat removed from that section must equal the sum of the
heat rejected at this section by gas which originated at a
point lower in the tube and the net heat flow by
conduction along the tube wall into this section. This
balance assumes that convective and radiative heat
exchange with the surroundings is negligible as would be
the case for a pulse tube refrigerator operating in vacuum,
the usual practice for cryocoolers. If the heat flow terms
are not in balance the temperature of the wall will rise or
fall, as appropriate, to restore equilibrium. Hence, the
equilibrium temperature distribution describes the condi-
tion at which the net heat flux in any section of the wall is
zero.
The overall action of the heat pumping mechanism
should now be clear together with the distributed nature of
the refrigeration effect. Heat being conducted down the
tube wall is intercepted by the action of the heat pumping
mechanism and transported back to a higher level.
However, in the region of lowest temperature at the base of
the pulse tube an additional load is imposed due to
conduction along the regenerator and regenerator in-
efficiency. This load together with any heat that is not
intercepted at a higher level in the pulse tube must be
supported by the heat pumping mechanism. This thermal
load supported at low temperature must ultimately be
dissipated in the warm end heat exchanger. However, heat
that would flow by conduction into the low temperature
region in the absence of the heat pumping mechanism is
being intercepted at a higher level and must also be
dissipated in the warm end heat exchanger. Therefore,
although it is very difficult to isolate the thermodynamic
work input to the pulse tube, that is the sum of the work
terms represented by the areas of the T-S loops for all the
gas elements in the cycle, it is possible to demonstrate that,
as in a more conventional cryocooler, the heat rejected at
high temperature exceeds that absorbed at low tempera-
Cryogenics 1986 Vol 26 June 335
Pulse tube refrigerator. R.N. Richardson
ture and conventional interpretation suggests that the
difference between these two quantities should be a
measure of the work input to the cycle.
Analysis of the heat pumping cycle
Since each element of gas in the pulse tube refrigerator
undergoes a slightly different series of processes the device
is not amenable to conventional cycle analysis. As in the
case of the Gifford-McMahon cycle it has not, as yet,
proved possible to devise an analytical expression for the
heat pumping rate although, as will be shown, the nature
of the heat pumping mechanism and validity of our
qualitative model may be demonstrated by experiment It
is, however, likely that a numerical solution may prove
feasible and in developing this approach it is possible to
demonstrate that the assumption is correct that heat
transfer between the gas and the wall during the quiescent
periods is the controlling factor in the cycle whilst not
necessarily needing to derive the complete numerical
solution.
A general expression of the conduction equation for
a homogeneous isotropic medium, written in cylindrical
coordinates, is
l aT _ 1 a --T-T
o + (1)
0-7 r ar r + r 2 O~2 az 2
For the case of an axisymmetric system in which
longitudinal conduction is small compared with that in
the radial direction, as assumed for the pulse tube, this
reduces to
I OT _ I O (OT)
at r ar r ~- (2)
Separate expressions should be written for the radial
temperature distributions in the gas and through the pulse
tube wall which are linked by a heat flux continuity
condition at the gas/wall boundary. However, since the
thermal capacity of the wall will be much greater than that
of the gas the simplification may be introduced that the
wall is essentially isothermal during the period of heat
exchange with the gas. Having calculated this heat
transfer the small temperature change for a given wall
element may be calculated on the basis of its thermal
capacity and a correction term introduced. By making the
transformation 0(r, t) = Tg--Tw the problem may be
reduced to one involving two homogeneous boundary
conditions and a non-homogeneous initial condition. The
formulation of the problem in terms of the transformed
variable O(r, t) is
0tg at r Or r- (3)
with initial condition
0 = Tg(r)-Tw=r(r) O<r<R.t=O
and boundary conditions
00
- 0 r=0;t>0
Or
0 =0 r=R;t>O
336 Cryogenics 1986 Vol 26 June
Separating'variables and introducing a product solution
leads to a general solution. Invoking the initial condition
leads to a Fourier Bessel series for r(r)which substituted in
the general solution may be shown 23 to give the solu-
tion
{ ~ rr(r)J°(~nr)dr} exp(--a~2nt)J°(knr)
o=2 0
n=l R2J1 (;knR)
(4)
With the assumption that the predominant mode of heat
transfer in the pulse tube is radial conduction and that the
tube wall may be considered isothermal over the period of
a single cycle, Equation (4) may be used to predict the
radial temperature distribution in the gas at the end of a
quiescent period for a given initial temperature distri-
bution r(r). In principle it is therefore possible to use the
equation as the basis of a 'marching' solution in which the
pulse tube is divided into a number of elements and the
initial condition is one of uniform, ambient, temperature.
Taken to its conclusion, and allowing for regenerator
losses and viscous effects this could provide a method of
predicting the steady state temperature distribution,
Because of the considerable computational effort
required it has not yet been possible to pursue this
solution and indeed such an approach may not be
appropriate until further experimental work has been
completed. However, by developing the result of Equation
(4) further it will be shown how the optimum pulse rate for
a given pulse tube configuration may be accurately
predicted thus accomplishing the prime objective at this
stage of validating the qualitative model.
The result of Equation (4) may be differentiated to
give the temperature gradient at the gas/wall interface for
a given initial condition and combined with appropriate
values of thermal conductivity and heat transfer area (in
this case the wall area for a particular element) to give the
heat flow by conduction across the interface. By inte-
grating with respect to time over a complete half cycle the
heat transferred per unit length of tube may be shown to
be
(exp(-ax r)- 1)
QR = --4~rR2pgcpTw(r~ - 1) (s)
n=l
For long time periods where r --" oo we arrive at the
theoretical maximum amount of heat that could be
transferred from the gas for the given conditions. Thus
QRmax is
QRmax=-41rR2pgcpTw(rt~-l) ~(~) (6)
n=l
Dividing Equation (5) by Equation (6) we arrive at the
ratio (t/Q) of the actual heat transferred from the gas in a
given period to the maximum amount of heat that could
be transferred given sufficient time. Assuming equal
periods of high and low pressure, the time period, r, is one
half the reciprocal of frequency of pulsation,fi It will be
appreciated that depending on the frequency of pulsation
the amount of heat transferred to the wall may be
considerably less than the total stored in the gas.
To demonstrate the significance of the result we will
 Pulse tube refrigerator: R.N. Richardson

Figure 4 Pulse tube used in the experiments described

substitute variables appropriate to the pulse tube shown in alone and takes no account of the resistance to flow
Figures 4 and 5, experimental data for which are presented imposed by the regenerator and incidental pipework. The
in the following section. The value o f t is for the pulse tube actual pressure rise time, which is limited by viscous
effects, has been measured for a range of pressure ratios.
As the pulse rate increases the pressure rise (or fall)
occupies a proportionally greater part of each half cycle.
Consequently, the quiescent periods, during which the
Woler majority of heat transfer is presumed to occur, are actually
Pressure
/ i f
'
.... much shorter than the pulse rate would suggest.
transducers Ultimately the pulse rate may become so great that the
time required for pressure equilibrium to be achieved in
the system exceeds the duration of the half cycle. Under
i_
these conditions depressurization will be initiated before
the pressure in the pulse tube can reach the supply value
which obviously sets a limit to the useful operating
frequency. By modifying the value o f t to take account of
t : this effect the optimum pulse rates for a range of pressure
~._L..-J._,
ratios may be calculated using Equations (5) and (6). The
results of these calculations for pressure ratios in the range
2-6 are shown in Figure 6. The working fluid is helium gas.
The optimum pulse rate corresponding to each pressure is
clearly seen. It must be emphasized that this solution gives
a relative measure of heat transferred at a particular
pressure ratio to the maximum that could be transferred,
at the same pressure ratio, given sufficient time. It does not
enemtor give an absolute measure of heat pumping rate and it is
not therefore valid to con]pare values of t/Q for different
pressure ratios.

Pulse Experimental verification and results

Tube
A considerable number of pulse tube refrigerators of
various sizes and configurations has been investigated.
Cold end The results of this work, which are more fully documented
heat .
V OCUUilrt elsewherez3 together with a comprehensive description of
Vessel the apparatus, have enabled the qualitative description of
pulse tube operation to be developed and have provided
performance data by which the practical potential of the
devices may be evaluated and the model validated. By way
SinterKI of example we will present here typical data for the pulse
bror=e
flow sfra i(
tube, already referred to, shown in Figures 4 and 5. All the
0 SO results are for helium as the working fluid.
mm This pulse tube assembly is of the most straight-
forward design with the pulse and regenerator tubes
Figure 5 Schematic diagram of experimental pulse tube fabricated from thin walled stainless steel and arranged in

Cryogenics 1 9 8 6 Vol 2 6 June :337

Pulse tube refrigerator." R.N. Richardson
2"0 r- 2~.0

230

~220

o-

1.0
~
O.
210

8
r

o_ 20O _ /

Ell
q
L.

~190

v 180
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
~17o
Pulse rate Hz E

Figure 6 Prediction of optimum pulse rate using Equations (5) and Q,I
(6). r/o = Ratio of heat transferred, reference (low) pressure = 1 bar. I/$
Pressure ratio: O, rp = 2; r-I, rp = 3; A, rp = 4; II, rp = 5; ~n 160
XT, rp= 6

parallel configuration, the two being connected by the
cold end heat exchanger assembly. Pressure pulses are
produced by a rotary valve (not shown in the diagrams)
which is connected to the regenerator inlet by a short
length of flexible tube. The regenerator consists of
approximately 800 stainless steel gauze discs 11 m m in
diameter and of 100 mesh. In operation the pulse tube/
regenerator assembly is surrounded by radiation shields
and contained within a vacuum vessel so that heat leak
from the surroundings should be minimized. Not only is
this important to maximize the useful cooling potential of
the pulse tube but also to ensure accurate measurement of
the heat pumping rate and temperature profile along the
pulse tube. Heat is rejected at the closed end of the pulse
tube via a water cooled coil which forms an integral part of
the warm end heat exchanger. A thermal load may be
imposed at the cold end via an electric resistance heater
wound around the heat exchanger.
Thermocouples are used to measure the pulse tube
and regenerator wall temperatures and the cooling water
temperature rise. Pressure transducers are installed at the
closed end of the pulse tube and at the inlet to the system
above the regenerator. The outputs from these sensors
pass through signal conditioning amplifiers and then to a
microcomputer-based data logging system.
Figure 7 shows the temperature of the cold end heat
exchanger as a function of pulse rate for different pressure
ratios. It is immediately apparent that a significant
refrigeration effect is produced even at pressure ratios
below that required if gas is to be displaced the length of
the pulse tube (i.e. there would appear to be no minimum
pressure ratio). For each pressure ratio there exists a well
defined optimum pulse rate which is seen to correspond
150
lz, O I l I I I I I t I I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pulse rate Hz
Figure 7 Optimum pulse rate - experimental results. Reference
(low) pressure = 1 bar. Pressure ratio: O, rp = 2; A , rp = 3;
n, rp = 4; ~7, rp = 5; e, ro= 6
almost exactly with that predicted by Equation (5) as
shown graphically in Figure 6. The variation in this
optimum with pressure ratio (and hence mean and
m a x i m u m pressure) is caused primarily by the
dependence of the thermal diffusivity of the gas (working
fluid) on pressure and temperature. Since there is very
good agreement between the predicted and actual results
it seems appropriate to conclude that the model based on
transient radial conduction as the dominant mode of heat
transfer, which leads to Equation (5), is substantially
correct. This would seem to confirm Longsworth's '0
empirical findings that heat transfer in the pulse tube is
characterized by the Fourier number.
The transient behaviour of the pulse tube is
illustrated in Figures 8 and 9 for a pressure ratio of 5 at the
optimum pulse rate for imposed thermal loads of 0
and ~ 3 W, respectively. These data are typical of those
recorded for a wide range of pressure ratios, pulse rates
and imposed loads. The temperature histories at seven
locations along the length of the pulse tube, as measured

338 Cryogenics 1 9 8 6 Vol 2 6 June


350
300
o
E
~- 250
200
150 t-
| 1 I ._ I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time(rains)
Figure 8 Transient behaviour. O I = 0 . 0 0 W , p = 5, f = 2.8 Hz,
reference (low) pressure = 1 bar. Distance from cold end heat
exchanger: O, 2 0 0 mm; [], 1 6 0 mm; A, 120 mm; II, 8 0 mm;
V, 40 mm; 0 , 20 mm; &, O m m
by the thermocouples, are plotted from the time when
pressure pulses are initiated until equilibrium is approached.
It will be immediately apparent that during the initial
stages of operation the wall temperature near the closed
end of the pulse tube rises very rapidly. In fact irrespective
of pressure ratio, pulse rate or imposed load it has been
found that only in the region within 100 mm of the cold
end heat exchanger, almost three-quarters of the pulse
tube length distant from the closed end, is any fall in
temperature observed during the first few hundred cycles
of operation. This behaviour accords with the predictions
based upon temperature stratification and the process of
heat exchange between the gas column and tube wall due
to surface heat pumping.
Since at the end of the first pressurization process
the temperature of the gas at all locations beyond the
entrance to the pulse tube will be higher than that of the
adjacent wall it follows that the wall temperature must
increase during the subsequent quiescent high pressure
period at all locations outside the warm end heat
exchanger whilst that of the gas is reduced. On
depressurization, the temperature of the gas in the pulse
tube falls. The cooling potential of the 'extra' gas is
Pulse tube refrigerator: R.N. Richardson
3so!
30C
t_
L
p-
25(
200
.. I i I I I I
0 10 20 )0 L,0 50 60
Time (rains}
Figure 9 Transient behaviour. O I = 3 . 3 6 W , rp = 5, f = 2.8 Hz,
reference (low) pressure = 1 bar. Distance from cold end heat
t exchanger as in Figure 8
60
accumulated by the regenerator and used to pre-cool the
incoming gas on the subsequent cycle. The 'initial' gas
comes to rest at a lower position (relative to that
occupied at high pressure) and is now colder than the
adjacent wall. Obviously, only if the heat absorbed at a
particular location at low pressure exceeds that deposited
at high pressure can a net fall in wall temperature occur at
that location. During the initial cycles this condition will
only occur close to the entrance to the pulse tube. As the
number of cycles increases the gas entering the pulse tube
via the regenerator becomes progressively colder. It
follows that the peak gas temperature generated as a result
of pressurization will also fall with each cycle. However,
the temperature of the sink to which the heat of
compression must ultimately be rejected (the warm end
heat exchanger) remains essentially constant, whilst the
temperature of the wall at all locations remote from the
warm end heat exchanger will be determined by the net
heat flux to the wall during the previous cycle. Therefore,
at all locations the gas-to-wall temperature difference falls
and the amount of heat transferred to the wall during the
quiescent high pressure period decreases. A point is
reached at which the lower temperature achieved on
depressurization results in the absorption of more heat
from the wall during the quiescent low pressure period
than was deposited at the same location half a cycle earlier
at high pressure. This corresponds to the turning points of
the curves of Figures 8 and 9. The temperature will then
continue to fall until equilibrium is reached at which the
Cryogenics 1986 Vol 26 June 339
Pulse tube refrigerator:. R.N. Richardson
150
100
B
3:
2 surface heat pumping to the non-ideal behaviour
o 5
g~
:z: 3
/
I I
O 150 200 250
Bose temperature K
Figure 10 Energy balance, rp = 5, f = 2.8 Hz, reference (low)
pressure = 1 bar. r-I, Work input to compressor; A, heat rejected at
2 9 0 K; ©, net refrigeration capacity at base temperature
net heat flux at each wall location over a complete cycle is
0. However, even at a condition of equilibrium the
continuous flow of heat by longitudinal conduction
through the tube wall means that at each location the gas
must absorb more heat from the wall at low pressure than
it rejects at high pressure. This is, of course, the essence of
the heat pumping mechanism.
By analysing the equilibrium operating state for a
range of imposed thermal loads it is possible to determine
the performance of the pulse tube refrigerator as a
function of base temperature. Such an overall energy
balance is presented in Figure 10. There is, of course, no
shaft work input to the pulse tube itself but a high pressure
gas supply must be maintained (or pressure pulses
generated by oscillation of a piston in the case of the
'reversible' pulse tube) which will require a work input. By
defining the system so as to include the gas compressor it
becomes clear that the actual work input to the system,
rather than the ideal thermodynamic work input to the
pulse tube in isolation, depends on the mean gas flow rate
and pressure ratio. It will be apparent that for the work
input defined in this way the coefficient of performance
(COP) of the pulse tube is very low. The major part of the
work input to the system will be accounted for by the
irreversible processes inherent in the system with only a
very small part of the total accounted for by the difference
between the heat absorbed at low temperature and that
rejected at high temperature. Further research will be
required to identify more precisely the sources of
340 Cryogenics 1986 Vol 26 June
irreversibili~ in the system and isolate the ideal thermo-
dynamic work input to the pulse tube. However, from the
practical viewpoint it is the acceptability of actual
performance data, such as presented in Figure 10, that will
determine the potential of pulse tube refrigerators.
Conclusions
It has been shown that transient radial heat transfer is the
dominant effect in the pulse tube refrigerator. An
analytical solution which enables optimum pulse rate to
be calculated has been developed and the result verified
by experiment. The research has enabled a more
comprehensive explanation of the heat pumping
mechanism to be presented. The possible relevance of
observed in certain types of cryocooler has been
highlighted. It would seem that this connection has never
before been suggested. Although the data presented here
were intended, primarily, to support and validate the
qualitative and quantitative explanations of pulse tube
refrigeration they may also prove a useful indicator of the
practical potential of a pulse tube refrigerator. Despite a
relatively low coefficient of performance it seems likely
that the pulse tube's inherent simplicity and absence of
vibration could prove particularly attractive in certain
applications and should warrant further investigation of
the device.
References
1 US Department of Commerce NBS Special Publication 508
(1981)
2 Walker, G. Cryocoolers Plenum Press, USA (1983)
3 Gifferd, W.E. and MeMahon, H.O. Proc lOth Int Cong Ref
(1959)
4 Gifford, W.E. Adv Cryo Eng (1965) 11 52
5 Orlowska, A.H. D Phil Thesis University of Oxford, UK
(1985)
6 Orlowska, A.H. Private communication
7 Gifford, W.E. and Longsworth, R.C. Trans ASME J Eng Ind
(1964) 63 264
8 Gifford, W.E. and Lengsworth, R.C. Int Adv Cryo Eng 10
(1964) 69
9 Gifford, W.E. and Longsworth, R.C. Adv Cryo Eng (1965) It
171
10 Lengsworth, R.C.Adv Cryo Eng (1966) 12 608
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(1979)
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467
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Macshinostr (1977) 536.1:612.5 95
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Adv Cryo Eng (1967) 13 494
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24 Bun'el, G.3. Bull Mech Eng Educ (1965) 4 115
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