BFC 31703

GEOTECHNICS
Chapter 1:
Composition and Soil
Classification

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Phase relationship of soil
- Basic definitions, weight and volume
relationships, etc.
1.2 Composition of soil
1.3 Simple Physical Properties of Soils and
Classification tests

1
 1.0 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you
to soils
You will learn some basic descriptions of soils
and some fundamental, physical, soil properties
that you should retain for future use in this text
and in geotechnical engineering practice.
Soils, derived from the weathering of rocks, are
very complex materials and vary widely.
There is no certainty that all soils will have the
same properties within a few centimeters of its
current locations.

1.0 Introduction (continued…)

The main job of a Civil Engineer is the design
and construction of buildings, highways, airports
and in fact any structure that rests on the
ground.
In executing his job, he comes in contact with all
earth’s crust and as such in
the material on the earth’
the broadest sense this word i.e. soil in the civil
engineering field would define all the loose
unconsolidated, disintegrated material,
transported or un-
un-transported from its original
position, lying on top of hard rock below.
The solid rock underneath is defined as bedrock

Adapted from: A text book of Soil Mechanics by Dr. S. B. Sehgal, 1984

2
 1.0 Introduction (continued…)
Learning objectives:
You will learn how to:
Define phases by volume and mass or weight;
Derive terminology and terms related to soil parameters;
Identify the relationship of partially saturated, saturated
and dry; and
Solve problems related to the phase relationship.
Describe and classify soils
Determine particle size distribution in a soil mass
Determine the proportions of the main constituents in a
soil
Determine index properties of soils
Determine maximum dry unit weight and optimum water
content

1.1 Phase relationship

Before presenting any detailed theories of
“Soil Mechanics”
Mechanics”, it is essential that some
basic properties are presented in order to
give a clear picture to the student of what
follows thereafter.
This subchapter is being devoted
completely to the basic definitions, weight-
weight-
volume relationships and the like material

3
1.1 Phase relationship (continued…)
Soils consist of solids and voids.
The solids are the particles and the voids
are the spaces between the particles,
which can be filled with gases (air) or
liquids (water) or both.
We are going to take a volume of soil, V,
and put all the solids together, all the liquid
components of the voids together and all
the gas components of the voids together.

1.1 Phase relationship (continued…)

These three states of the soil (solid, liquid
& air) can be represented
diagrammatically as shown in following
figures.
Each figure is in two dimensions.

4
 1.1 Phase relationship (continued…)

Reproduced from: http://www.eng.fsu.edu/~tawfiq/soilmech/lecture.html

1.1 Phase relationship (continued…)

Our task is to build relationships among
water, air and solids.
We want to know, for example, how much
water is contained in a soil because the
greater the water content the softer the
soil.
Soft soils have lower strength and deform
more than stiff soils.

5
1.1 Phase relationship (continued…)

Figure: Soil composition

(reproduced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Soilcomposition.png)

(continued…)
1.1 Phase relationship (continued…

(Reproduced from: Soil Mechanics & Foundations by Muni Budhu, 2000)

6
 (continued…)
1.1 Phase relationship (continued…

(Reproduced from: Soil Mechanics & Foundations by Muni Budhu, 2000)

Relationships
among Unit
Weight, Void
Ratio,
Moisture
Content, and
Specific
Gravity

Reproduced from: Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Braja

M. Das, 2005)

7
Relationships
among Unit
Weight,
Porosity, and
Moisture
Content
(partially
saturated)

Reproduced from: Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Braja

M. Das, 2005)

Relationships
among Unit
Weight,
Porosity, and
Moisture
Content
(fully
saturated)

Reproduced from: Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Braja

M. Das, 2005)

8
 Some derivations using Basic
Definitions
Derive: eSr = w. Gs

Link to file:

Example 1:
Using a phase diagram, find each of the following
relationships in terms of given quantities. Assume that the
unit weight of water, gw is always given.
(a) Given the porosity, n determine the void ratio, e?
(b) Given specific gravity of solids, Gs, and water content,
w, determine void ratio, e for a fully saturated soil?
(c) Given specific gravity of solids, Gs, water content, w
and degree of saturation, Sr, determine mass unit
weight,g.
weight,g
(d) Given specific gravity of solids, Gs, and water content,
w, determine the submerged unit weight, gb, of a fully
saturated soil?

9
UNITY

Sub Chapter 1.2:

Composition of Soils

10
 Origin & Formation of Soils and
Soil Categories
Rocks are the parent material from which the
soils are formed
When a rock surface gets exposed to the
atmosphere for an appreciable time,
considerable changes take place in its structure,
which is known as weathering of rocks
Weathering can be broadly divided into two
types which are physical and chemical
weathering

11
 Origin & Formation of Soils and
Soil Categories (continued…)
Besides these complex factors that go to form
the soils, rocks are also of three major types –
Igneous,
Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic
Nature of weathering and rate of weathering
depend upon the rock
Harder minerals will naturally be more resistant
to weathering action
Also more chemically stable minerals will retain
their identity when chemical changes tend to
occur

12
 Origin & Formation of Soils and
Soil Categories (continued…)
The soils formed by weathering may
remain in position on the parent rock, in
which case they are termed as residual
soils
Or they may get transported by the various
transporting agencies such as wind, water,
ice or even gravity, etc. when they are
termed as transported soils.
soils.

Origin & Formation of Soils and

Soil Categories (continued…)
The transported materials can be further
divided into many types
Nomenclature for these types is presented
in Table below, depending upon their
transporting medium and the place of
deposition

13
 Origin & Formation of Soils and
Soil Categories (continued…)
Table 1.1: Nomenclature for soils (Source: Sehgal, S.B., 1984)

Bil.
Bil. Transporting medium & deposit Name
location
1. Transported by running water, e.g. Alluvial
rivers and streams
2. Transported by wind Aeoline
3. Transported by Glaciers Glacial
4. Deposited in Lakes Lacustrine
5. Deposited in sea Marine

Origin & Formation of Soils and

Soil Categories (continued…)
The broad classifications given above are
important to understand the general nature
of soils in a geological region
For a Geotechnical Engineer, however,
the soils can be classified into two broad
but distinct classes:
1. Coarse grained soils
2. Fine grained soils

14
 Soil Types (continued…)
Coarse-Grained Soils
These include sands, gravels and larger particles.
For these soils the grains are well defined and may be seen by the
naked eye.
The individual particles may vary from perfectly round to highly angular
reflecting their geological origins.
The engineering properties of coarse-grained soils depend mainly on the
grain size and the structural arrangement of the particles

Fine-Grained Soils
These include the silts and clays.
The particle sizes are generally smaller than 63μm.
The engineering properties of fine-grained soils depend mainly on
mineralogical factors
A thin layer of water is bonded to the mineral surfaces of soils and has
significant influences on the physical and mechanical characteristics of
fine-grained soils
Fine-grained soils have much larger surface areas than coarse-grained
soils and are responsible for the major physical and mechanical
differences between coarse-grained and fine-grained soils

15
 Soil Types (continued…)
Silts:
These can be visually differentiated from clays because they exhibit
the property of dilatancy.
If a moist sample is placed and shaken on the palm of one’s hand,
water will appear on its surface.
If the sample is then squeezed between the fingers, the water will
disappear.
Their gritty feel can also identify silts.

Clays:
Clays exhibit plasticity, they may be readily remoulded when moist,
and if left to dry can attain high strengths.
Clays are composed of three main types of minerals – kaolinite, illite
and montmorillonite
The bonds between the layers play a very important role in the
mechanical behaviour of clays. The bond between the layers in
montmorillonite is very weak compared with kaolinite and illite.
Water can easily enter between the layers in Montmorillonite
causing swelling

Soil Types (continued…)

Organic:
These may be of either clay or silt sized particles.
They contain significant amounts of vegetable matter.
The soils containing organic matter are usually dark grey
or black and have a noticeable odour from decaying
matter.
Generally, the organic matters are found on the ground
surface.
Peat layer may be found at few meters depth.
The organic soil can be classified as very poor soils for
most engineering purposes.

16
17
 Activity of clay
Clay absorbs water to its surface
The water absorbed by a soil provides
some estimate of the amount of clay
present in that soil
Skempton proposed a relationship
between the plasticity index and the
percentage (by weight) of clay sizes finer
2mm , which is known as activity of
than 2m
clay, A

18
Activity of clay (continued…)
Ip
A=
% finer than 2 mm

Activity, A Classification

A<0.7 Inactive clay

0.7<A<1.20 Normal clay

A>1.2 Active clay

Activity of clay (continued…)

Relative level of activity expected low for
kaolinite,
kaolinite, and thus stable
Medium for illite,
illite, and thus normal stability
High for montmorillonite and subject to
large volume changes

19
20
 Sub Chapter 1.3:
Simple Physical
Properties of Soil and
Classification tests

21
Simple Physical Properties of Soil
& Classification test
To physically identify the soils in the field as also
in the laboratory and to determine their simple
physical properties such as water content,
specific gravity, void ratio, plasticity index and
particle size distribution, etc., some procedures
have been developed
These procedures are not based upon any
complicated theories but involve very simple
calculations
Many agencies such as the ASTM, BSI and MS
have laid down set procedures standardized to
ensure uniformity in practice

Simple Physical Properties of Soil

& Classification test (continued…)
Some of the wide accepted standard of
test in Malaysia are
(i) MS1056:Part 1 to Part 9: 2005
(http://msonline.sirim.my/msonline/registrationAction.do?actionname=Default)

(ii) BS1377: Part 1 to Part 9:1990

(http://www.bsi-global.com/en/My-BSI/),

(iii) Vol. 04.08 & Vol. 04.09 ASTM

standards (http://www.astm.org)

22
Simple Physical Properties of Soil
& Classification test (continued…)
Method of classifying the soils after laboratory
testing is called classification of the soils
Numerical results, which are obtained from such
tests are called the Index Properties of the soils
Index properties of a soil can be studied under
two distinct headings – properties concerning
the individual grains studied from disturbed soil
samples and the ones concerning the soil as an
aggregate, studied from the mode, history of
deposition and the structure of the soil

Sub Chapter 1.3.1:

Particles size and grain
size distribution

23
 Particle Size and Grain Size
Distribution
The first analysis carried out in the
laboratory for soil classification is the
grain-size analysis
Grain size analysis of a soil is carried out
in two stages:
(a) Sieve analysis for the coarse grained
particles,
(b) Hydrometer analysis for the fine-
grained soils

24
25
 Effective Size
The diameter D10 is called the effective size of
the soil
Established by Allen Hazen (1893) in connection
with his work on soil filters
Is the diameter of an artificial sphere that will
approximately produce the same effect of an
irregular shaped particle
The higher the D10 value, the coarser the soil
and the better the drainage characteristics

Uniformity coefficient (UC)

Soil that has UC<4 contains particles of uniform
size (approximately one size)
Minimum value of UC is 1 and corresponds to an
assemblage of particles of the same size
Higher values of UC (>4) indicate a wider
assortment of particle sizes
Soil that has a UC >4 is described as a well-
well-
graded soil and is indicated by a flat curve

26
Coefficient of Curvature (CC)
Also known as coefficient of gradation and the
coefficient of concavity
The CC is between 1 and 3 for well-
well-graded soils
The absence of certain grain sizes, termed gap-
gap-
graded, is diagnosed by a CC outside the range
1 to 3 and a sudden change of slope in the
particle size distribution curve

27
 In Short
Real soils consist of a mixture of particle sizes
The selection of a soil for a particular use may
depend on the assortment of particles it contains
Two coefficients have been defined to provide
guidance on distinguishing soils based on the
distribution of the particles
That are UC and CC

Fine Grained soils

The screening process cannot be used for fine- fine-
grained soils (silts and clays) because of their
extremely small size.
The common laboratory method to determine
the size distribution of fine-
fine-grained soils is a
hydrometer test.
test.
The hydrometer test involves mixing a small
amount of soil into a suspension and observing
how the suspension settles in time.
Larger particles will quickly settle followed by
smaller particles.

28
 Fine Grained soils (continued…)
When the hydrometer is lowered into the
suspension, it will sink into the suspension until
the buoyancy force is sufficient to balance the
weight of the hydrometer.
The length of the hydrometer projecting above
the suspension is a function of the density,
density, so it
is possible to calibrate the hydrometer to read
the density of the suspension at different times.
The calibration of the hydrometer is affected by
temperature and the specific gravity of the
suspended solids.
Hence, must apply a correction factor to
hydrometer reading based on the test
temperatures.

Fine Grained soils (continued…)

The diameter, D of the particle at time tD is
Stoke’s Law as:
calculated from Stoke’

18mz
D=
(Gs - 1)g w t D

Where m = viscosity of water

20°c),
(10.09 millipoises at 20°
z = depth,
gw = unit weight of water,
Gs = specific gravity

29
 Fine Grained Soils (continued…)
Typically, is conducted by taking
a small quantity of a dry fine-
fine-
grained soil (approximately 10
grams) and thoroughly mixing it
Hydrometer with distilled water to form a
paste
The paste is placed in a 1 liter
Increasing density

glass cylinder and distilled water

Soil is added to bring the level to the
suspension
1 liter mark
The glass cylinder is then
repeatedly shaken and inverted
before being placed in a
constant-
constant-temperature bath
A hydrometer is placed in the
glass cylinder and a clock is
Figure 1.1: Hydrometer test simultaneously started

Sub Chapter 1.3.2:

Atterberg limit and Index

30
 Table 1.2: Typical Atterberg Limits for Soils

Soil Type W LL(%) WPL(%) Ip(%)

Sand Non plastic
Silt 30 – 40 20 – 25 10 – 15
Clay 40 – 150 25 – 50 15 - 100

31
Table 1.3: Plasticity Indices and Corresponding
States of Plasticity according to Burmister
(Source: Sehgal, S. B, 1984)

S. No. Plasticity Index State of Plastic

1. 0 Non-
Non-plastic
2. 1-5 Slight
3. 5-10 Low
4. 10-
10-20 Medium
5. 20-
20-40 High
6. Greater than 40 Very high

Liquid Limit (LL)

Liquid limit is referred to the moisture
content which marks the boundary of the
liquid and plastic states of the soil
At this moisture content, the soil has a
very small value of shear strength
There are two methods of determining the
liquid limit, LL of a soil, one is known as
the Casagrande Method and the other
one is Cone Penetrometer method

32
 Casagrande Method (ASTM D4318-93
and BS1377: Part 2: 1990:4.5)(Continued…)

Casagrande Method (ASTM D4318-93

and BS1377: Part 2: 1990:4.5)(Continued…)

33
 Casagrande
Method (ASTM
D4318-93
and BS1377:
Part 2:
1990:4.5)
(Continued…)

Casagrande Method (ASTM D4318-93 and BS1377: Part 2: 1990:4.5)

34
 Cone Penetrometer Method
(BS 1377: Part 2: 1990: 4.3)

Based on the measurement of penetration

into the soil of a standardised cone of
specified mass
At the liquid limit the cone penetration is
20mm
The penetration is measured after 5s
release the cone by pressing the button

Cone Penetrometer Method

(continued…)
(BS 1377: Part 2: 1990: 4.3) (continued…

35
 Cone Penetrometer Method
(continued…)
(BS 1377: Part 2: 1990: 4.3) (continued…

Typical plot of Liquid Limit

36
 Plastic Limit
After removing particles larger than the 0.4 mm (No 40
sieve size), a specimen of soil about 10 cm3 in size is
moulded to the consistency of putty.
If too dry, water must be added and if sticky, the
specimen should be spread out in a thin layer and
allowed to lose some moisture by evaporation.
Then the specimen is rolled out by hand on a smooth
surface or between the palms into a thread about 3 mm
in diameter.
The thread is then folded and re-rolled repeatedly.
During this manipulation, the moisture content is
gradually reduced and the specimen stiffens, finally
loses its plasticity and crumbles when the plastic limit is
reached.

37
 Example 2:
The results of limit tests on soil A are:
Liquid limit:
Cone 15.5 18.0 19.4 22.2 24.9
Penetration

Water 39.3 40.8 42.1 44.6 45.6

content (%)

Determine the liquid limit of the given soil.

Example 2 (continued…):

38
 Example 2 (continued…):

For soil A, the liquid limit is obtained by plotting

cone penetration against water content.
Answer: The percentage water content, to the
nearest integer, corresponding to a penetration of
20mm is the liquid limit and is 42

Example 3:
Based on the results of limit test on soil A from
Example 2, given that:

Plastic limit:
Water 23.9 24.3
content (%)

Determine the Plasticity index of the given soil.

Answer: The plastic limit is the average of the two
percentage water contents, to the nearest integer,
i.e. 24. Hence, the plasticity index is the difference
between the liquid and plastic limits, i.e. 18.

39
 Sub Chapter 1.3.3:
Compaction
N. Sivakugan

What is compaction?
A simple ground improvement technique,
where the soil is densified through external
compactive effort.

Compactive
effort

+ water =

40
 Compaction Curve
Dry density (rd)

Soil grains densely packed

- good strength and stiffness

rd, max - low permeability

optimum
water content Water content

Compaction Curve
What happens to the relative quantities of the three phases
with addition of water? air
water
Dry density (rd)

soil

difficult to expel all air

lowest void ratio and

highest dry density at
optimum w

Water content

41
 Zero Air Void Curve
Dry density (rd) - corresponds to 100% saturation

Zero air void curve (S=100%)

Gs r w
Eq : r d =
1 + wGs
S<100%
S>100% (impossible)

All compaction points should lie

to the left of ZAV curve

Water content

Effect of Compactive Effort

Dry density (rd)

Increasing compactive
effort results in:
Lower optimum
water content
E2 (>E1) Higher maximum dry
density

E1

Water content

42
 Compaction and Clay Fabric
Dry density (rd)

Higher water content or higher

more dispersed fabric

compactive effort gives more
dispersed fabric.

more dispersed fabric

Water content

Line of Optimum
Dry density (rd)

Compaction curves
for different efforts

Line of optimum

Water content

43
 Laboratory Compaction Test
(after BS1377:Part 4: 1990)
- to obtain the compaction curve and define the
optimum water content and maximum dry density for a
specific compactive effort.

Standard Proctor: hammer Modified Proctor:

• 3 layers • 3 to 5 layers

• 27 blows per layer • 27 blows per layer

• 2.5 kg hammer • 4.3 kg hammer

• 300 mm drop • 450 mm drop

1000 ml compaction mould

Compaction Control Test

rd Compaction
specifications
Compare!
rd,field = ?
w
wfield = ?

compacted ground

44
 Core-cutter method
core-cutter apparatus, which
Details of the core-
is suitable for cohesive soils, are given in
figure following
After the cutter has been first pressed into
the soil and then dug out, the soil is
trimmed to the size of the cutter and both
cutter and soil are weighed; given the
weight and dimensions of the cutter, the
bulk density of the soil can be obtained.

Figure: Core cutter

for clay soil
(Source: Smith, I.,
2006)

45
 Sand Replacement method
For granular soils the apparatus shown in figure
following is used
A small round hole (about 100 mm diameter and
150 mm deep) is dug and the mass of the
excavated material is carefully determined
The volume of the hole thus formed is obtained
by pouring into it with sand of known density
from a special graduated container; given the
weight of sand in the container before and after
the test, the weight of sand in the hole and
hence the volume of the hole can be determined.

Sand Replacement method

(continued…)
The apparatus shown in figure following is
suitable for fine to medium grained soils and is
known as the small pouring cylinder method.
For coarse grained soils a larger pouring
cylinder is used.
This cylinder has an internal diameter of 215
mm and a height of 170 mm to the valve or
shutter
The excavated hole in this case should be about
200 mm in diameter and some 250 mm deep.
This larger pouring cylinder can also be used for
fine to medium grained soils.

46
 Figure: Sand
replacement
method
(Source: Smith, I.,
2006)

Typical calculation sheet of Sand

Replacement method

Link to file:

47
 Sub Chapter 1.3.4:
Unified Soil
Classification System
(USCS) and AASHTO

Engineering Classification of Soil

Different soils with similar properties may be classified into groups
groups
and sub-
sub-groups according to their engineering behaviour
Classification systems provide a common language to concisely
express the general characteristics of soils, which are infinitely
infinitely
varied, without detailed descriptions
Currently, two elaborate classification systems are commonly used used
by soils engineers
Both systems take into consideration the particle-
particle-size distribution
and Atterberg limits
They are the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification system and the
Unified Soil Classification System
The AASHTO classification system is used mostly by highway
departments
Geotechnical engineers generally prefer the Unified system

48
 Unified Soil
Classification
system
(USCS)

Unified Soil Classification System

The USCS uses symbols for the particle size
groups.
These symbols and their representations are:
G – gravel, S – sand, M – silt, C – clay
These are combined with other symbols
expressing gradation characteristics – W for well
graded, P for poorly graded, and plasticity
characteristics – H for high and L for low, and a
symbol, O, indicating the presence of organic
material.
A typical classification of CL means a clay soil
with low plasticity, while SP means a poorly
graded sand.

49
 (continued…)
Unified Soil Classification System (continued…

In order to use the classification system, the following

points must be keep in mind:
The classification is based on material passing a
75 mm (3 in.) sieve
Coarse fraction = percent retained above No. 200
sieve = 100 – F200 = R200
Fine fraction = percent passing No. 200 sieve = F200
Gravel fraction = percent retained above No. 4 sieve
= R4

(Continued…)
Unified Soil Classification System (Continued…

According to the USCS, the soils are divided into three

major categories:
Coarse-grained soils – that are gravelly and sandy in
Coarse-
nature with less than 50% passing through the
No.200 sieve (that is, F200 < 50). The group symbols
start with prefixes of either G or S. G stands for gravel
or gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil
Fine-grained soils – 50% or more passing through the
Fine-
No. 200 sieve (that is, F200 > 50). The group symbols
start with prefixes of M, which stands for inorganic silt,
C for inorganic clay, and O for organic silts and clays.
Highly Organic Soils - The symbol Pt is used for peat,
muck and other highly organic soils

50
 Unified Soil Classification System
(Continued…)
(Continued…
A special classification, (Pt), is reserved for the highly
organic soils, such as peat, which have many
undesirable engineering characteristics.
Soil have an organic content greater than 75% are
considered as peat (Pt) (Jarrett, P. M., 1995)
No laboratory criteria are established for these soils,
as they generally can be easily identified in the field
by their distinctive color and odor, spongy feel, and
frequently fibrous texture.
Particles of leaves, grass, branches, or other fibrous
vegetable matter are common components of these
soils.

Unified Soil
Classification
flowchart for
coarse-
coarse-grained
soils

51
 Unified Soil
Classification Yes

flowchart for
fine-
fine-grained
soils

The Unified
Classification System
(Reprinted from
Cernica,
Cernica, 1995)

52
The Unified Classification
System (Reprinted from
Cernica,
Cernica, 1995)

Unified
Classification
System
(Based on
ASTM-
ASTM-2487)

53
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Organic soils
and silts

U-line, defines the upper limit of the correlation between plasticity index and liquid limit

American
Association of State
Highway and
Transportation
Officials (AASHTO)
classification system

54
 AASHTO Classification System

The soil is classified into seven major groups: A-

A-1
through A-
A -7

A-1, A-
A-2 & A-
A-3 are granular materials of which < 35%
of the particles pass through the No. 200 sieve

Soils of which > 35% pass through the No. 200 sieve
are classified under groups A-A-4, A-
A-5, A-
A-6, & A-
A-7,
these soils are mostly silt and clay-
clay-type materials

(continued….)
AASHTO Classification System (continued…

The classification system is based on the following

criteria:
i. Grain size
Gravel: fraction passing the 75-
75-mm (3-(3-in) sieve but retained on
the No.10 (2-
(2-mm) U.S. sieve
Sand: fraction passing the No.10 (2-(2-mm) U.S. sieve but retained
on the No. 200 (0.075-
(0.075-mm) U.S. sieve
Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve

ii. Plasticity
The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a
plasticity index of 10 or less. The term clayey is applied when the
fine fractions have a plasticity index of 11 or more

55
 (continued….)
AASHTO Classification System (continued…

iii. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75mm) are

encountered, they are excluded from the portion of the soil
soil sample
from which classification is made. However, the percentage
percentage of
such material is recorded

To classify a soil according to Table 1.3, one must apply the test
test
data from left to right

By process of elimination, the first group from the left into which
which
the test data fit is the correct classification

(continued….)
AASHTO Classification System (continued…
Table 1.3: Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials

56
 (continued….)
AASHTO Classification System (continued…
Table 1.4: Description of Classification groups
Subgroup A-
A-1a Includes those materials consisting predominantly of stone fragments
fragments or
gravel
Subgroup A-
A-1b Includes those materials consisting predominantly of coarse sand,
sand, either with
or without a well-
well-graded soil binder
Subgroup A-
A-3 Fine beach sand or fine desert loess sand without silty or clay fines or with a
very small amount of nonplastic silt
Subgroup A-
A-2-4 and Include various granular materials containing 35% or less passing
passing the 0.075
A-2-5 mm sieve and with a minus 0.425 mm in having the characteristics of the A-
A-4
and A-
A-5 groups
Subgroup A-
A-2-6 and Include material similar to that described under subgrades A-2-4 and A- A-2-5,
A-2-7 except that a fine portion contains plastic clay having the characteristics
characteristics of the
A-6 or A-
A-7 group
Subgroup A-
A-4 The typical materials of this group are the nonplastic or moderately plastic silty
soils
Subgroup A-
A-5 Similar to that described under group 2-
2-4, except that it is usually of
diatomaceus or micaceous character
Subgroup A-
A-6 Usually a plastic clay having 75% or more passing the 0.075 mm sieve
sieve
Subgroup A-
A-7-5 Includes materials with moderate plasticity indexes in relation to liquid limit
Subgroup A-
A-7-6 Includes materials with high plasticity indexes in relation to liquid
liquid limit

(continued….)
AASHTO Classification System (continued…

Group index (GI)

GI) is used to evaluate the quality of a soil as a
highway subgrade material
The group index is given by:

GI = (F200 -35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL

0.005(LL--40)]+0.01(F200-15)(PI
15)(PI--10) ….(Eqn
.(Eqn.. 1.1)

Where: F200 = percentage passing though the No. 200

sieve
LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index

0.005(LL--40)] – is the partial group index

(F200 -35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL
determined from the liquid limit
15)(PI--10) – is the partial group index determined from
0.01(F200-15)(PI
the plasticity index

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 (continued….)
AASHTO Classification System (continued…

Some rules for determining the group index:

1. If eqn.
eqn. 1.1 yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as 0
2. GI is rounded off to the nearest whole number (for instance, GI
=3.4 is rounded off to 3: GI = 3.5 is rounded off to 4)
3. No upper limit for the group index
4. GI for groups A-
A-1-a, A-
A-1-b, A-
A-2-4, A-
A-2-5, and A- A-3 is always 0
5. Calculating the GI for groups A-
A-2-6 and A-
A-2-7, use the partial
group index for PI,
PI, or

GI = 0.01 (F200 -15)(PI

15)(PI -10)

* The quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is

inversely proportional to the group index

Summary & Comparison between the

AASHTO & USCS

Similarity:
based on the texture and plasticity of soil
divide the soils into coarse-
coarse-grained and fine grained,
as separated by the No. 200 sieve

58
 Summary & Comparison between the
(Continued….)
AASHTO & USCS (Continued…

Differents:
Differents:
1. AASHTO, soil is considered fine- fine-grained > 35%
passes through the No. 200 sieve. However, for
USCS, soil is considered fine-
fine-grained > 50% passes
through the No. 200 sieve
* A coarse-
coarse-grained soil that has about 35% fine grains
will behave like a fine-
fine-grained material. This is because
enough fine grains exist to fill the voids between the
coarse grains and hold them apart. In this respect, the
AASHTO system appears to be more appropriate.

Summary & Comparison between the

(Continued….)
AASHTO & USCS (Continued…

Differents:
Differents:
2. AASHTO, the No. 10 sieve separated gravel from
sand. However, for USCS, the No. 4 sieve is used
* From the viewpoint of soil-
soil-separate size limits, the No.
10 sieve is the more accepted upper limit for sand. The
limit is used in concrete and highway base-
base-course
technology

59
 Summary & Comparison between the
(Continued….)
AASHTO & USCS (Continued…

Differents:
Differents:
3. USCS, the gravelly and sandy soils are clearly
separated; in the AASHTO system, they are not.

* The A-
A-2 group, in particular, contains a large variety
of soils. Symbols like GW, SM, CH, and others that
are used in the Unified systems are more
descriptive of the soil properties than the A symbols
used in the AASHTO system

Summary & Comparison between the

(Continued….)
AASHTO & USCS (Continued…

Differents:
Differents:
4. USCS, classified organic soils as OL, OH, and Pt.
However, under the AASHTO system, there is no
place for organic soils.

* Peats usually have a high moisture content, low

specific gravity of soil solids, and low unit weight

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End of Chapter 1

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