Datum This is an arbitrary level surface to which the heights of all points are referred.

This
-

may be the National Datum (Australian Height Datum) or local datum point established on a
construction site.

Mean sea level (MSL) is the average (mean) height of the sea between High and Low tides

Reduced Level (RL) – A distance recorded as a Height Above or Below the DATUM. This
height is in metres.

A benchmark in every-day language is a point of reference for a measurement. In surveying a

benchmark is specifically any permanent marker placed by a surveyor with a precisely known
vertical elevation (but not necessarily a precisely known horizontal location). These reference
points may be chiselled into a wall, or more typically, marked by small brass or aluminium
disks, iron pins or bolts that are permanently attached to a stable foundation, such as concrete
posts, bridge abutments, buildings, or a specifically constructed concrete block. These markers
are then used as starting (control) points by subsequent surveyors and other users to establish
the elevation of nearby points.

The height of a benchmark is calculated relative to the heights of nearby benchmarks in a

network extending from a fundamental datum, a point with a precisely known relationship to
the level datum of the area, typically mean sea level.

Australian Height Datum (AHD)

The Australian Height Datum is a theoretical reference surface (datum) for altitude
measurement in Australia.
In 1971 the mean sea level for 1966-1968 was assigned the value of zero on the Australian
Height Datum at thirty tide gauges around the coast of the Australian continent.
The resulting datum surface, has been termed the Australian Height Datum (AHD) and was
adopted as the datum to which all vertical control for mapping (and other surveying functions)
is to be referred.
Benchmarks
 Tools For Leveling
Spirit Level - or bubble level is an instrument designed to indicate whether a surface is level
or plumb

Line Level - A line level is a level designed to hang on a builder’s string line. The body of the
level incorporates small hooks to allow it to attach and hang from the string line. The body is
lightweight, so as not to weigh down the string line, it is also small in size as the string line in
effect becomes the body; when the level is hung in the center of the string, each leg of the
string line extends the levels plane

Boning Rods

Boning rods are T-shaped and made of wood. Their height is

normally 100 cm and the cross-lath is 50 cm x 10 cm. The
bottom part is sometimes reinforced with metal
It is important that all boning rods have exactly the same
height (100 cm) and while working with the boning rods, the
sun should be kept in the back, as it would otherwise be
difficult to see them. Usually a total of 3 or 4 boning rods is
required.

Water Level

Description

The flexible tube water level, used for contour lines and measuring differences in elevation,
consists of two staffs with a length of about 2 m and a transparent flexible tube of about 14 m
long. The ends of the tube are firmly fixed to the staffs (see Fig. 41).

The tube is filled with muddy water so that the water level is about 1 m high in each of the tube
ends. It is essential that no air bubbles be trapped in the tube. Air bubbles can be removed by
tapping the tube with the finger.

Wherever the two staffs are set, the free water surfaces in the tube ends have the same level.
This is called the "communicating vessel" principle.
Measuring differences in elevation

For the measurement of differences in elevation between two points in the field, the tube
water level is adapted. Each staff is graduated in centimetres and used as a measuring staff.
The zero point usually coincides with the foot of the staff.

A. Measuring the difference in elevation between two close points

Suppose the difference in elevation between two points A and B has to be measured; A and B
are less than 10 m apart.

The first staff is set on point A and the second staff on point B (see Fig. 45). After the water
level in both stand tubes comes to a rest, a reading is made on both staffs. The difference in
elevation between points A and B is calculated by the formula:

Fig. 45 Determination of difference in elevation between two close points

In our example (see Fig. 45):

Measured
reading on staff A: 0.50 m
reading on staff B: 1.50 m

Answer
Difference in elevation between A and B =
reading A - reading B = 0.50 - 1.50 = -1.00 m

In this case, the reading on staff B is higher than the reading on staff A; the result of the
subtraction is negative which means that point B is below point A.

If the reading on staff B is lower than the reading on staff A, the result of the subtraction is
positive which means that point B is above point A.
Transit Levels

A transit level is a precision instrument. It is calibrated to indicate not only true horizontal but
also to provide a reading of the angle of inclination in degrees, minutes, and seconds. In the
hands of a professional, a transit level is a varied and flexible instrument capable of many
tasks, but some of its most basic applications are easy to master. As a result, this tool can be
invaluable to anyone planning to build a new structure.

The tool works like this. The transit itself is leveled using the spirit level. The telescope then
can be pivoted on a horizontal axis to point in any direction. With the help of an assistant who
positions the graduated rod, the transit operator can then sight the transit on the rod and
determine the relative height of the grade or the object on which the rod is located.

The transit level, thus, is invaluable for excavation and foundation work, as well as for
landscaping. Some framing contractors, especially timber framers, also find it very
useful when sighting in on flooring or ceiling surfaces to ascertain level

Definition

Line of Collimation -Imaginary line that

passes through leveling instrument at
Cross Hair
Automatic Levels

•The Automatic Level is an easy to use surveying

Instrument

•Instrument needs only to be setup level within its

circular level bubble

•Has a damping compensator that adjusts line of

collimation

•Generally accurate to +/- 2mm

1.Base Plate
2.Horizontal Circle
3.Eyepiece
4.Circular Bubble
5.Sighting Pointer
6.Objective Lens
7.Focusing Knob
8.Fine Motion Drive
9.Footscrew
10.Bubble Mirror

The Damping Compensator

Modern levels will all use some form of automatic compensator, which allows the user to level the
instrument with the circular bubble only. The compensator compensates any small departures from
level. The figure below shows a schematic illustration of one type of compensator:

In this device a fixed mirror to passes the image through a prism that then deflects the image of the
object, after which it is deflected by another mirror to the eyepiece. The prism is suspended by wires and
any deviation from level is corrected .

The geometry of the device is designed so that any tilt of the telescope tube is compensated by a tilt of
the prism and the collimation axis remains horizontal. The compensator has a limited range (a few
minutes of arc) and the level must be leveled reasonably well using the circular bubble before the
compensator will work correctly.
Leveling The Instrument

Levelling an instrument with a spherical

spirit level.

Align the telescope parallel to two-foot

screws.

Facing the instrument rotate both foot screws

in opposite directions at the same time.
Either thumbs moving inwards or thumbs
moving outwards.

The bubble moves in the direction of the left

thumb.

When the bubble has settled opposite the

centre mark the instrument is level on this
axis.

The bubble will probably be against the side

of the circular spirit level, and needs moving
in to the centre.

The first two screws are level so they must

not be touched.

Using the left hand adjust the third levelling

screw to centre the bubble. Again the
bubble will move in the same direction as
the left thumb.

With the bubble centred the instrument

should be level.

As a check rotate the instrument through

90°. If necessary re-level the original two-
foot screws and repeat the rotation to check
the third one.

The tube is engraved with a calibration

circle to show the centre. The bubble must
remain within this circle for the
compensator to work.
 Laser Levels

surveying, and construction the laser level is affixed to a tripod, levelled and then spun to illuminate a
horizontal plane. The laser beam projector employs a rotating head with a mirror for sweeping the laser beam
about a vertical axis. If the mirror is not self-leveling, it is provided with visually readable level vials and
manually adjustable screws for orienting the projector. A staff carried by the operator is equipped with a
moveable sensor which can detect the laser beam and gives a signal when the sensor is in line with the beam
(usually an audible beep). The position of the sensor on the graduated staff allows comparison of elevations
between different points of the terain

Errors particular to Lasers

Reflections from other glass objects ie car windscreens

Rotating Beacons
Lasers being used at other sites, typically lasers have range of 300m

ERRORS IN LEVELLING

There are a large number of potential sources of error in leveling. Many of these are only significant
for precise leveling over long distances. For the short segments of leveling that will occur in
connecting a TBM to nearby benchmarks there are only three worth mentioning:
• Collimation Error

• Parallax Error

• Error due to Earth Curvature

• Error due to Refraction

Collimation Error:

Collimation error occurs when the collimation axis is not truly horizontal when the instrument is
level. The effect is illustrated in the sketch below, where the collimation axis is tilted with respect to
the horizontal by an angle α:

In this particular example, the effect is to read too high on the staff. For a typical collimation error of
20", over a sight length of 50m the effect is 5mm. If the sight lengths for backsight and foresight are
equal, the linear effect is the same for both readings. When the height difference is calculated, this
effect cancels:

That is, the effect of the collimation error is eliminated if sight lengths are kept equal.
Earth Curvature:

Due to the curvature of the Earth, the line of sight at the instrument will deviate from a horizontal
line as one moves away from the level:

Ideally one would like the line of sight to be a curved line which is everywhere perpendicular to the
direction of gravity. The error in staff reading due to Earth curvature is given by:
s2
ec =
2R

where s is the sight length and R is the radius of curvature of the Earth. For a sight length of 100m
the effect is only 1mm. As with collimation error, the effect is eliminated by using equal sight
lengths for fore- and backsights.

Refraction:

The variable density of the Earth's atmosphere causes a bending of the ray from the staff to the level.
The effect is illustrated in the sketch below:

The light ray is bent in a path which has a curvature less than that of the Earth's surface, and the
combined effect is smaller than that due to Earth curvature alone:

1- k 2
er = .s
2R
 Here, k is the coefficient of refraction and represents the ratio of the radius of curvature of the Earth
to the radius of curvature of the light path. An average value of k is 0.13, from which:

er = 0.068.10-3.s2

where s is in metres and er in millimetres. For example, for s = 100m, er = 0.7mm.

The effect of refraction is almost totally eliminated by using equal fore- and backsights (because
atmospheric conditions along the fore- and backsights will not be completely identical, there will be
a small residual error).

Parallax Error

When using an optical instrument — both the image and cross hairs can be focused- if
either is imprecisely focused, the cross hairs will appear to move with respect to the
object focused, if one moves one's head horizontally in front of the eyepiece.

This is why it is important, especially when performing measurements, to carefully

focus both the image and cross hairs in order to 'eliminate the parallax', and to check
by moving one's head when taking readings.

DETERMINATION OF COLLIMATION ERROR (Two Peg Test)

Collimation error is much more significant than the other errors. It should be kept as small as
possible so that one need not be too precise in ensuring that fore- and backsights are of equal length
(these are usually paced out). It is possible to determine the collimation error and reduce its size
using the so-called Two-peg test. There are three steps involved in this procedure:

1. Set out and mark on the ground (with wooden pegs driven into the earth, or roofing nails in tar) two
point some 30m apart. Set up the level exactly mid-way (within 0.5m) between them:

Take measurements of backsight and foresight for this first setup. The height difference δh1 will be
free of the effects of collimation error:

δh1 = b1 - f1 = (b + sb.α) - (f + sf.α)

= b - f + α.(sb - sf)
= b - f (because sb = sf )
2. Next, move the level to a position just beyond the fore staff position (about 5m):

Then repeat the readings. In this case, sb = 35m and sf = 5m. Then:

δh2 = b2 - f2 = (b + sb.α) - (f + sf.α)

= b - f + α.(sb - sf)
≠ b - f (because sb ≠ sf)

Obviously, this height difference is burdened with the effect of a collimation error over 30m.

3. The difference δh2 - δh1 can be used to calculate what the true backsight reading would be for the
second setup, if collimation error were not present:

s b - sf 30
b = b2 - .(δh 2 - δh1 ) = b 2 - .(δh 2 - δh1 )
sb 35

In the case of older levels with tubular bubbles the adjustment consists of tilting the level using the
leveling screws until the desired staff reading appears on the cross hair. Then the adjusting screws on
the tubular level are adjusted until the bubble is level. For modern levels with automatic
compensators the adjustment involves moving the cross hairs vertically using their adjusting screws
until the desired reading is obtained.

The entire process should be repeated as a check. It is practically impossible to adjust the instrument
so that no collimation error exists - the purpose of the adjustment is to reduce the size of this error. If
the discrepancy δh2 - δh1 can be reduced to around 2mm this is perfectly adequate, provided sight
lengths are thereafter kept reasonably similar.

Online demonstration can be found at

http://www.cage.curtin.edu.au/leap/virtu-o-modules/virtu-o-
levelling/2b_TwoPegTest/2b_TwoPegTest.html
 Levelling staff.

Two staffs are shown on the right, note slight differences in the
marking and numbers. The "E" pattern is designed to make it
easy to read a small section of the scale when seen through a
telescope.

The staff is simply a large ruler, available in lengths of 3, 4 or 5

metres and usually made of aluminium with telescopic sections.

The sections have locking buttons to ensure accurate length is

maintained.

Some staffs also have an extended length scale in mm on the

back.

For the “E” Staff Measurements are in metres and cm (10mm

blocks) which enable heights to be estimated to 1 mm.
Alternating colours are used to differentiate each metre length,
the most common being black and red on a white background.

Major graduations occur at 100 mm intervals and are denoted by

figures. Minor graduations are at 10 mm intervals and form
coloured squares or intervening spaces. A band to form the
distinctive E pattern, which is designed to make reading a small
section of the staff in the telescope easier, joins the lower 50
mm of any 100 mm block.

Major graduations occur at 100 mm intervals and are denoted by figures. Minor
graduations are at 10 mm intervals and form coloured squares or intervening
spaces. A band to form the distinctive E pattern, which is designed to make
reading a small section of the staff in the telescope easier, joins the lower 50 mm
of any 100 mm block. Example staff readings are shown below

On line exercise may be found at

http://www.sli.unimelb.edu.au/planesurvey/prot/equip/equip1-2-4.html
• It is important to keep level plumb
• Slowly rock level back & forth towards level
• Use vertical line in level to keep plumb

Staff Reading Errors

• Misreading
• Confusing the “E” and reading upper 50mm of graduation (i.e. misread by 50mm)
• Reading meters from graduation above
• Telescoping staff not extended properly
• Dirt, mud concrete accumulating on bottom of staff
• Staff not plumb
Check that the staff is vertical.

It is essential that readings are taken when the staff is vertical. If the staff is not vertical the
reading will be larger than it should be, as you are measuring a slope distance, and will give errors.

Some staffs are fitted with a spherical spirit level and handles to help the staff person keep it
vertical. Even with a spirit level it is difficult to hold a staff vertical. This difficulty increases in wind.

To read the staff when vertical the surveyor use the vertical reticule line to direct the staff person
to move the top of the staff left or right of the sight line.

The staff person then slowly tilts the top of the staff towards and away from the instrument so that
it will pass through the vertical. The staff will appear to move up and down in the telescope field.
The lowest reading is recorded as this is the point at which the staff is vertical.

Important Note – The person

using the instrument keeps the
staff vertical by use of the
Vertical line in the instrument.

Step 1 Staff Slowly Leant

Towards Instrument

Step 2 Staff Slowly Tilted away Step 3 Staff Slowly Tilted

from Instrument. When Vertical away from instrument. Onc
lowest reading will be reading past vertical readings will
recorded increase
Stadia Reduction

Many levels have more than on Horizontal line in the telescope. These lines are called stadia lines.

The middle horizontal line marks the horizontal plane

through the telescope (height of collimation) and is the
reference for all height readings.

The other two short lines are stadia lines. Stadia are used
for measuring the distance to the staff by multiplying the
difference between the two stadia readings by a constant
(usually 100).

In this view the staff reading

is 2.993

Upper stadia = 3.040

Lower stadia = 2.946
Stadia difference = 0.094
Distance to staff = 0.094 x
100 = 9.4 metres

Note that stadia distances

have a low level of accuracy,
one mm error in staff reading
gives a distance error of 0.1
metre

Further Exercises may be found at

http://www.levelling.uhi.ac.uk/activity6.htm
Definition – Levelling Traverse (Traverse) - consists of a transfer of a level
to another location with the use of more than set up. The usual purpose of a
traverse is usually to establish benchmarks based on the Datum of the
starting station.

An open traverse begins at a point of known position and ends at a station

whose relative position is unknown. This type of traverse should never be
used

A closed traverse begins and ends at the same point whose position is
known. An example of this type of traverse is a perimeter survey of a tract of
land.

Definition – Misclose- is when closing of a traverse due to errors in

readings and instrument limitations there is a discrepancy.

The allowable discrepancy is (12 x square root of traverse in kilometres)

Schematic of a Traverse

B/S 2.301
B/S 2.510 F/S 1.517
F/S 1.202 Diff Between 0.784
Diff Between 1.308
Procedural Rules
1. Always commence and finish a level run on a Benchmark (B.M. or T.B.M.).
The Benchmark at the start may be different than that at the finish.
2. The length of foresight and backsight should be as equal as is practical.
3. The length of the lines of sight should be kept less than 100m and more
conventionally 50m.
4. Staff readings of less than 0.5m should be avoided to prevent errors due to
atmospheric refraction.
5. Change points should be located on suitable ground, for example the top of a
pointed rock, or a nail placed in a footpath or road.