HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE Theory

6.
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE


INTRODUCTION
Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce new living organisms similar to them. It
is one of the important characteristic of life.
• Purpose of Reproduction : Reproduction is aimed at multiplication and perpetuation
(stability) of the species. In other words it provides group immortality by replacing the
individuals with new ones. Animals reproduce in a variety of ways which are categorized in
two categories i.e. Asexual and sexual reproduction.
A. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
  Definition : Production of offsprings by a single parent without the formation and fusion of
gametes is called as asexual reproduction.
 • It is more primitive type of reproduction. It ensures rapid increase in number.
 Occurrence : Asexual reproduction occurs in protozoans and some animals such as sponges,
coelentrates, certain worms.
• It is absent among the higher invertebrates and all vertebrates.
  Types of asexual reproduction : Asexual reproduction takes place in the following principal
ways :
(a) Fission :
It is the simplest form of reproduction in which unicellular organism either divides into two or more
individuals.
 t is further divided into two types :
(i) Binary fission : It is a type of reproduction in which nuclear division is followed by the
appearance of a constriction in the cell membrane, which gradually deepens inward and
divides the cytoplasm into two parts, each with one nucleus. Finally two daughter cells are
formed. e.g. Amoeba, Euglena.
Fig.6.1 : Amoeba reproduction by binary fission.

(ii) Multiple fission : Sometimes the nucleus divides several times, into many daughter nuclei.
 • The daughter nuclei arrange at the periphery of the parent cell, and a bit of cytoplasm around
each daughter nuclei is present.
• Nucleus develops an outer membrane. Finally the multinucleated body divides into many
daughter cells. e.g. Plasmodium.
Fig.6.2 : Reproduction by multiple fission.

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6. HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE
(b) Budding :
Formation of a daughter individual from a small projection which is called as bud, arising on the
parent body is called as budding.
  Budding is also of two types :
(i) Exogenous budding : [External budding] In this, bud arises from the surface of parent body.
e.g., Hydra, Yeast.
(ii) Endogenous budding : [Internal budding] In this, bud arises inside or within the parent body.
e.g., Sponges.
Fig.6.3 : Budding

  Note : During the process of budding, the bud remains attached to the parent body so as to
derive it’s nutrition from the parent but as it matures, it get’s detached from the parent body.
(c) Fragmentation : 
 It is a type of reproduction or the regeneration ability of the organism to replace their lost part. In this
process an entire new organism can grow from certain pieces or cells of the parent organisms. e.g.
Spirogyra
Fig. 6.4 : Fragmentation in spirogyra (an algae)


(d) Spore formation : 


  t is a process of reproduction most commonly found in fungi, some cocci and bacillus bacteria. In
this process a structure is formed called as sporangium. In this structure nucleus divides several
times and each nucleus with a little trace of cytoplasm forms a spore. These spores are then
liberated out and develop into a new hyphae, e.g. Rhizopus.
Fig.6.5 : Reproduction through spore formation in fungus
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(e) Regeneration :
Ability to make up the lost part is called regeneration as in planaria and hydra.
Fig.6.6 : Regenration in Planaria

S.NO. FRAGMENTATION REGENERATION
1. Limited to invertebrates Present in both vertebrates as well as
invertebrates
2. A method of Reproduction It is a reproductive method as well as a
method to regenerate lost body parts
3. Fragmented part produces new organism It is not for reproduction, seperated part
cannot grow into a new organism
4. More common in plants (Non-vascular) More common in animals
5. found in only certain organisms Their various forms can be seen in all the
animals living on the earth.
(f) Vegetative propagation :

This is a type of reproduction found in higher plants in which a new plant is formed from a vegetative
part of the plant such as roots, stems or leaves for eg. in potato, bryophyllum, sweet potato etc.
 • Vegetative propagation occurs through leaf in Bryophyllum.
  It is of following types :
Vegetative propagation
Natural Artificial
Leaf Cutting
Stem Layering
Root Grafting
 Artificial vegetative propagation :
(i) Cutting : This is the very common method of vegetative propagation practised by the
gardeners. It is the process in which a vegetative portion from plant is taken and is rooted in
the soil to form a new plant. e.g. Grapes, Sugarcane etc.
(ii) Layering : n this process the development of adventitious roots is induced on a stem before it
gets detached from parent plant, e.g., Mango, roses etc.
 It is of two types :
(I) Mound layering : n this process of layering the lower stem branch of plant is used.
 • Leaves are removed from this stem.
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 • Then it is bent close to the ground, pegged and covered with the moist soil in such a way that
it’s growing tip remains above the soil surface.
 • This pegged down branch is called as layer.
 • After a few days the covered portion of stem develops roots.
  • This stem is then detached from the parent plant and is grown separately into a new individual.
e.g. Jasmine.
Fig.6.7 : The propagation of jasmine plants (chameli) by the layering method.
(II) Air layering : t is adopted in those plants where stem cannot be bent to the ground.
 • In this process the stem is girdled (i.e. ring of the bark is removed).
 • Then it is covered with moist moss or cotton and wrapped with a polythene sheet to preserve
the moisture.
  • After few weeks adventitious roots develop from the injured part. The branch along with roots
is then separated from the parent plant and planted to grow into a new plant. e.g. Orange,
Pomegranate etc.
Fig.6.8 : Showing Air layering.
(iii) Grafting : The process of joining together of two different plants in such a manner that they
live as one plants is called as grafting. Out of the two plants one is rooted in the soil and is
known as the stock.
 • The other part consists of a small shoot bearing one or more buds ,it is known as scion.
  • Their union is carried out in such a way that their cambium must overlap each other. e.g.
Mango, roses etc.
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Fig.6.9 : The grafting method for the artifical propagation of plants (or trees).
 
  Significance of vegetative propagation :

 
• Itis used to propagate a plant in which viable seeds are not formed or very few seeds are
produced. e.g. orange, pineapple, banana etc.

• Vegetative propagation helps us to introduce plants in new areas where the seed germination
fails to produce mature plant due to change in environmental factors and the soil.
• Vegetative propagation is a more rapid, easier and cheaper method of multiplication of plants.
• By this method a good quality of a race or variety can be preserved.
• Most of the ornamental plants are propagated through vegetative propagation. e.g. Rose, Tulip
etc.
 Micro propagation : t has now become possible due to recent techniques to produce a large
number of plantlets from a small piece of tissue taken from the shoot tip or other suitable plant
parts. This method of propagation is called as micropropagation. It involves the process of
tissue culture. e.g., orchids, ornamental plants etc.
 Parthenocarpy : Naturally or artificially induced production of fruits without fertilization,
resulting in a seedless fruit.
 • It is monoparental (i.e. fusion of gametes does not occur, only a single parent gives rise to a
new individual).
   Significance of asexual reproduction : It brings about multiplication of the species only. It
does not play a role in evolution as no variation is introduced into the new individual formed by it.
Q.1_ How to reproduce plasmodium.

Q.2 Is graf ting beneficial commercially? If yes then explain.
Q.3 Give one-one example of endogenous and exogenous budding.
Q.4 Give two example of layering.

B. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
  Definition : Production of offsprings by formation and fusion of special haploid cells called as
gametes. These are contributed generally by two parents i.e. male gamete and female gamete
is called as sexual reproduction.
  Occurrence : Sexual reproduction occurs nearly in all animals including those which
reproduce asexually.
 • In most animals there are two sexes male and female, and the differences between them are
genetically determined.
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  Characteristics of sexual reproduction :
• It is generally biparental [i.e. it involves two parents]
• It involves formation and fusion of gametes.
• Cell divisions are both meiotic & mitotic. Meiotic division occurs during gamete formation and
mitotic during development of zygote into an offspring.
• The offsprings are not genetically identical to the parents.
• Fertilization in case of humans is internal.
• Parental care is very well developed (in some animals).
  Significance of sexual reproduction :
• t results in multiplication and perpetuation of species.
• t contributes to evolution of the species by introducing variation in a population much more
rapidly than asexual reproduction.
  General Terms :
• Fertilization : It is the process of fusion of gametes.
• Unisexual organism : In case of humans, male and female sex organs are separate and
therefore called as unisexual.
• Bisexual : In some plants and some organisms like tapeworm, earthworm etc. both male and
female organs are present in the same individual and therefore called as bisexual.
• Gonads : Organs which are involved in the formation of gametes are called as gonads.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
It is always uniparental. It is generally biparental.
Gametes are not formed. Gametes are formed
There is no fertilization Fertilization occurs in it.
It involves mitotic cell division. It involves meiotic cell division.
Daughter individuals are genetically Daughter individuals are different
identical to the parent from the parents.
It does not contribute It contributes to the evolution by
to the evolution. introducting variation in the offspring
(a) Reproduction in a flowering plant :
Fig.6.10 : A vertical section of a typical flower

(i) A flower consists of following parts :
(I) Calyx : The sepals collectively are called as calyx. They are usually green in colour and
protect the inner whorls of a flower especially during bud formation.
(II) Corolla: t consists of coloured petals. They are normally large often fragrant and bright
coloured. Their primary function is to attract animals and insects for pollination.
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(III) Androecium / stamen/ male reproductive organ : The stamens are referred to as the male
reproductive organ. A typical stamen is differentiated into three parts, they are filament,
connective and anther.
1. Filament : It forms the stalk that bears more or less cylindrical or ovoid anther.
2. Connective : It connects anther to filament.
3. Anther : It is present on the top of filament. Each anther consists of two lobes that is why it is
called as bilobed. Each anther lobe has two pollen sacs which contain millions of tiny
microscopic pollen grains, called as microspores. The pollen grains are like yellow dusty
powder in appearance.
Fig.6.11 : (A) Ventral view showing connective (B) dorsal view (C) t.s. of anther showing
pollen chambers
(IV) Gynoecium / pistil / female reproductive organ :
 • It is located in the center of a flower.
 • It is composed of one or more carpels.
 • The freely occurring units of the carpels in a flower are called pistils.
 • Each pistil usually consists of three distinct parts – ovary, style and stigma.
1. Ovary : It is a basal, swollen part of the pistil. The ovary has one or more chambers called the
loculi which is distributed in a special cushion like parenchymatous tissue called the placenta,
from which the ovule develops.
2. Style : From the top of the ovary arises a long, elongated structure called as style.
3. Stigma : The terminal end of style is called as stigma. The stigma is normally rough, hairy or
sticky to hold pollen grains during pollination process.
Fig. 6.12 Gynoecium; Female reproductive part of a plant

(ii) Pollination : The transfer and deposition of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a
flower is called as pollination.
  Types of pollination : Pollination is of two types -
(I) Self pollination : t is the process of transfer of the pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
of either the same or genetically similar flower. It is further divided into two types :
1. Autogamy : It is a type of self pollination in which the pollen grains are transferred from the
anther to stigma of the same flower e.g. Wheat, rice, pea etc.
2. Geitonogamy : It is a type of self pollination in which the pollen grains are transferred from
the anthers of one flower to the stigma of another flower borne either on the same plant.
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Fig. 6.13 Gynoecium; Female reproductive part of a plant
  Significance of self pollination :

 • t maintains purity of race.
 • t also maintains the superiority of variety once developed.
(II) Cross pollination : It is the process of transfer of the pollen grains from the anther of one
flower to the stigma of another flower borne on a different plant of the same species.The
transfer of pollen grains occurs through various ways, which may be biotic or abiotic.
1. Abiotic factors Technical terms
Wind Anemophily
Water Hydrophily
2. Biotic factors
Insects Entomophily
Birds Ornithophily
Bats Chiropterophily
Snails Malacophily.
  Significance of cross pollination :
• Increase in yield and adaptability.
• It eliminates defective traits and produces new varieties.
• It also leads to the hybrid production.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SELF POLLINATION & CROSS POLLINATION
s.no. Self - pollination Cross-pollination
Pollen grains are transferred from the anther to Pollen grains are transferred from the anther
the stigma of the same flower (autogamy) or of one flower to the stigma of another
1.
another flower borne on the same plant flower borne on a different plant of
(geitonogamy). the same species (allogamy).
2. It can occur even when the flowers are closed. It occurs only when the flowers are open.
External agent is not required for self- An external agent abiotic or biotic,
3.
pollination. is essential for cross-pollination.
Self-pollination ultimately results in Cross-pollination produces the offsprings
4. same progenies which are which are hybrids i.e., heterozygous.
pure-lines i.e. homozygous. They show variations in characteristics.
5. It cannot eliminate useless or It can eliminate useless or
harmful characters. harmful characters.
6. Highly useful characters get Useful characters cannot be preserved
preserved in the race. in the progenies.
7.
Self-pollination does not introduce any Cross-pollination introduce variations in the
variations and hence the offsprings offsprings. These variations make these plants
are unable to adapt to the to adapt better to the changed environment
changed environment. for the struggle for existence.
8.
Self-pollination never helps in the Cross-pollination is a mechanism of producing
production of new varieties and species. new varieties and species among plants.
9. Both the anther and stigmas The anthers and stigmas mature at
mature simultaneously different times.
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(iii) Fertilization in a flowering plant :
 • Fertilization is a process of fusion of male gamete with the female gamete.
 • After reaching to stigma, pollen grains develops a pollen tube.
 • This pollen tube grows through the length of style, from where it reaches to ovule.
 • Pollen tube contain two male gametes, which is later on released in the embryo sac.
 • Here one male gamete fuses with the egg to form a diploid zygote and the other male gamete
fuses with the polar nuclei to form a triploid nucleus which is developed into endosperm.
 • The process of fusion of one of the male gamete with egg & the other male gamete with polar
nuclei is called as “double fertilization.”
 • The fusion of one male gamete with the two polar nuclei to form endosperm is called as “triple
fusion”.
 • Note : The endosperm is meant to provide nourishment to the developing embryo.
 • After fertilization sepals and petals fall and zygote undergoes a series of mitotic divisions to
form a multicellular embryo.
 • At maturity wall of ovules changes into seed coat of which outer one is hard and is known as
testa, while inner one is called as tegmen.
 • Ovule change into seed and ovary wall change into fruit wall.
  • Seed has three parts cotyledon (Store food), plumule (future shoot), Radicle (future root).
Fig.6.14 : Showing fertilization in a flower
Fig.6.15 : Showing Seed parts

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(b) Sexual Reproduction in humans :
  • Mammals / Humans are unisexual.
  • The primary sex organs are called as gonads. They produce sex cells or gametes and also
secrete sex hormones.
  • The gonads of males are called as testes, which produce sperms.
  • The gonads of females are called as ovaries, which produce ova or female gametes.
  • Secondary sex organs include the reproductive ducts which transport gametes and
reproductive glands which help in process of reproduction. These organs do not produce
gametes. 
  • e.g., n males : Vasa efferentia, epididymis, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory duct, urethra etc. n
females : Fallopian tube, uterus, vagina, mammary glands etc.
  • Accessory or external sex characters help to distinguish the two sexes of a species externally.
  • e.g., In male : Muscular body, more height, low pitched voice, moustaches etc.
   In female : High pitched voice, development of mammary glands etc.
   Puberty : Beginning of sexual maturity is known as puberty.
  • At this stage primary sex organs start functioning .
  • Secondary sex organs develop fully under the influence of sex hormones produced by primary
sex organs.
  • In the stage of puberty body growth is very rapid.
  • It occurs at the age of 10 – 14 years in girls and 13 – 15 years in boys.
(i) Male reproductive system :
Fig.6.16 : Male reproductive system

• Male reproductive system comprises of following parts
(i) Testes (ii) Duct system (iii) Urethra (iv) Penis
(I) Testis :
• They are soft, smooth, pinkish, oval organs. They are present in a sac like structure called as
scrotum.
Fig.6.17 : Longitudinal section of mammalian testis.

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• It consists of convoluted seminiferous tubules.
• In between seminiferous tubules, there are interstitial cells known as Leydig cells which
secrete male hormone called as testosterone. This hormone helps in the growth and
development of male sex hormone.
• Scrotum : t is a pouch of pigmented skin arising from the lower abdominal wall which protect
testes.
  • Scrotum has temperature 1 – 3 ºC lower than body temperature which favours the formation of
sperms.

  (II) Duct system :

1. Vasa efferentia : Testis is connected to epididymis through a fine tubule called as vasa
efferentia. They help in conduction of sperms.
2. Epididymis : They are long tubules which lie compacted along the testis from their upper
ends to lower back side. Its walls are muscular and glandular to provide or secrete nutritive
fluid which provides nourishment to the sperms.
3. Vas deferens : Paired epididymal duct finally opens into vas deferens.
4. Ejaculatory duct : They are short, straight, muscular tubes, each formed by the union of vas
deferens and duct of seminal vesicles.
(III) Urethra : It arises from urinary bladder forming a urinogenital canal. It carries urine, sperm
and secretion of seminal vesicles, prostrate and cowper’s glands.
(IV) Penis : It is a male copulatory organ which also passes urine.
 Semen : Sperm + secretion of accessory glands.
  • Semen has chemicals for nourishment of sperms neutralizing the acidity of urethra and vagina,
stimulating their movement in female tract.
 Structure of Sperm : Each sperm consists of following parts :
(i) Head (ii) Neck (iii) Middle piece (iv) Tail
• Head : t is oval in structure. It is composed of a large nucleus and a small acrosome. t is
formed of golgi complex. t consists of hydrolytic enzymes and is used to contact & penetrate
the egg during fertilization.
Fig.6.18 : Mammalian sperm

 • Middle piece : It is cylindrical in human sperms. It consists of mitochondrial ring in a thin layer
of cytoplasm. Mitochondria is coiled around the axial filament. It provides energy & it is said to
be the power house of the sperm.
• Neck : It is very short and contains two centrioles
.
• Tail : It is very long, slender and tapering. It’s main function is to provide movement to the
sperm.
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   Spermatogenesis : This process of formation of sperm from spermatogonia is called as
spermatogenesis.
(ii) Female reproductive system : Female reproductive system comprises of following parts :
• Ovaries • Fallopian tube • Uterus • Cervix • Vagina
Fig.6.19 : Female reproductive system.

(I) Ovaries : One pair of ovaries are present (oval shaped) near the kidney.
 • Ovary is divided into 2 parts : - Outer part is cortex made up of dense connective tissue with
reticular fibres, ovarian follicles and few blood vessels while inner or central part is medulla
made up of less dense connective tissue with elastic fibres, numerous blood vessels.
(II) Fallopian tube : It is about 10 cm. long muscular tube. It shows 4 regions :
 1. Infundibulum : It is the broad, funnel shaped proximal part of fallopian tube. It’s margin bears
finger like processes called as fimbriae. This is meant to carry ovum by ciliary movement to
the fallopian tube.
2. Ampulla : It is a long, wide part of the fallopian tube next to the infundibulum.
 3. Isthmus : It is the narrow part that follows ampulla.
4. Uterine part : It is also narrow and passes through the uterine wall.
(III) Uterus : It is large , highly elastic sac specialized for the development of the embryo.
  • It is situated in pelvic cavity.
  • It is attached to the fallopian tube from the sides and below it opens into vagina through cervix.
(IV) Cervix : Lower narrow cervix that projects into the vagina.
(V) Vagina : It is a large, median, elastic, muscular tube. It is also called as “Birth canal”.
(iii) Menstrual Cycle :
Fig.6.20 : A thick lining grows in the uterus to receive the fertilised egg cell (if any),
In case the egg cell is not fertilised, the thick uterus lining breaks down leading to bleeding.
This called menstruation (or periods).
If, a sperm is not available at the time of ovulation, then fertilisation of ovum (or egg) does not take
place. Since the ovum (or egg) is not fertilised , so the thick and soft uterus lining having lot of blood
capillaries in it is not required. Thus, the unfertilised ovum (or egg) dies within a day and the uterus
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lining also breaks down. Since the thick and soft uterus lining contains a lot of blood vessels, so the
breaking (or disintegration) of the uterus lining produces blood alongwith other tissues. This blood
and other tissues come out of the vagina in the form of ‘bleeding’ (see Figure). We can now say that
the breakdown and removal of the inner, thick and soft lining of the uterus alongwith its blood
vessels in the form of vaginal bleeding is called menstrual flow or menstruation.
 • The sexual cycle in females (or women) is called menstruation or menstrual cycle. This is
described below :
• When girl reaches puberty at the age of about 10 to 12 years, the sex hormones released into
her blood cause some of the ova (or egg cells) in her ovaries to become mature (or ripe).
• usually one mature ovum (or egg) is released from the ovary into the oviduct once every 28
days. This is called ovulation.
 • Before ovulation(or release fo ovum), the inner lining of uterus becomes thick and spongy, and
full of tiny blood vessels (or blood capillaries), and prepares itself to receive the fertilised ovum
or egg (in case it gets fertilised by sperm).
• If the ovum (or egg) does not get fertilised (due to non-availability of sperm in the female body)
then the thick and soft inner lining of uterus is no longer needed and hence it breaks. So, the
thick and soft innner lining of uterus alongwith the blood vessels and the dead ovum (or egg)
comes out of the vagina in the form of a bleeding called menstruation.
• menstruation usually occurs 14 days after ovulation and usually lasts for about 3 to 5 days.
• After menstruation is over, the inner lining of the uterus starts building up again so that it may
become ready to receive the next ovum (or egg) in case it gets fertilised.
• If the ovum (or egg) does not get fertilised even now, then menstruation takes place again.
This cycle of menstruation is repeated again and again in women after every 28 days (till the
time ovum gets fertilised ). The menstural cycle is controlled by hormones.
Menstruation stops temporarily when the ovum (or egg) gets fertilised and the woman gets
pregnant. This is because in this case the thick and soft lining of the uterus containing lot of
blood vessels is needed for the growth and development of the fertilised ovum (or fertilised
egg cell) to form a baby. Menstruation restarts after the birth of the baby.
• Oogenesis : Oogenesis is a process of formation of ovum. The ovum is a rounded , non–
motile cell.
(iv) fertilization :
  • It includes release of ovum from the ovary, where it remains viable for 12 – 24 hours.
  • Only one sperm is required for fertilization of the ovum.
  • The head of the sperm penetrates ovum.
  • This process is facilitated by acrosome and proteolytic enzymes.
  • After penetration only head enter inside the ovum.
  • Here the pronuclei of sperm and ovum fuse to form a new resultant nucleus each contributing
23 chromosomes, so that the resultant structure have 46 chromosomes.
  • Fusion of male & female gametes is called as fertilization.
  • Zygote starts developing in fallopian tube and forms embryo, this later on moves to uterus.
  • It gets attached to uterine walls and the whole process is called as implantation.
  • Placental formation occurs between uterine wall and the foetus, which provides nourishment to
the foetus.
  • The time period for which a developing foetus remains inside the mother’s womb is called as
gestation period. It extends for about 9 months or 40 weeks or 280 days.
• The process of giving birth to baby is called as parturition.
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Fig.6.21 : Fertilisation in human to form a zygote (fertilised egg). , Implantation of embryo in the
uterus.
Sperm
With the help of acrosomes & proteolytic

enzymes enter in the ovum
Tail & body of the sperm is

lost after it's entry in the ovum
Head of sperm swells up to

form male pronucleus
This male pronucleus fuses

with female pronucleus
Forms a
new resultant nucleus
with 46 chr. Each contributing about
23 of chromosomes.
Zygote
Embryo
Showing process of fertilization
(IV) Population Growth :
  • The term population refers to the total number of individuals of a species occupying particular
geographical area at a given time.
  • The scientific study of human population is called as “demography”.
  (i) Factors that lead to increase in population are :
• Illiteracy
• Desire of son
• Decline in death rate
• Desire for more earning hands
(ii) Birth control methods : The prevention of pregnancy in women (by preventing fertilisation) is
called contraception. Any device or chemical (drug) which prevents pregnancey in woman is
called a contraceptive. All the birth control methods can be broadly divided into three
categories.
1. Barrier methods 2. Chemical methods. 3. Surgical methods. 4. IUCD
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1. Barrier Methods : In the barrier methods of preventing pregnancy, the physical devices such
as condoms and diaphragm (or cap) are used. Condoms are used by males (by putting them
as a covering on the penis). Condom is called ‘nirodh’ in Hindi. Diaphragm (or cap )is used by
females (by putting it in the vagina to cover the cervix). Condom as well as diaphragm prevent
the sperms from meeting the ovum (or egg) by acting as a barrier between them . An
important benefit in the use of condom is that it protects a person from the sexualy transmitted
diseases such as gonorrhoea, syphilis and AIDS. No other method of contraception provides
protection against sexually transmitted diseases.
2. Chemical methods : In the chemical methods of preventing pregnacy, the females use two
types of pills : oral pills and vaginal pills, which are made of specific drugs.The oral pills
contain hormones which stop the ovaries from releasing ovum (or eggs) into the oviduct.Oral
pills are also called oral contraceptives.
3. Intra-Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) : The use of intrauterine contraceptive device

called Copper-T is also very effective in preventing pregnancy. A Copper-T is placed inside the
uterus by a doctor or a trained nurse. The IUCD or Coper-T prevents the implantation of
fertilised egg in the uterus. If a woman uses a Copper -T as method of contraception for
avoiding unwanted pregnancies, then Copper-T cannot protect her from acquiring sexually
transmitted diseases (if her partner has such a disease).
4. Surgical Methods : Surgical methods of birth control are available for males as well as
females. In males, a small portion of the sperm duct (or vas deferens) is removed by surgical
operation and both the cut ends are ligated (or tied) properly. This prevents the sperms from
coming out. The surgical procedure carried out in males is called ‘vasectomy’. In females, a
small portion of the oviducts is removed by surgical operation and the cut ends are ligated (or
tied). This prevents the ovum (or egg) from entering into the oviducts. The surgical procedure
carried out in females is called tubectomy.
   Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) : These diseases are transmitted through unsafe
sexual act.
   e.g.
(i) Gonorrhoea caused by Neisseria gonorrhoea (bacteria).
(ii) Syphilis caused by Treponema pallidum (bacteria).
(iii) AIDS (Acquired Immuno deficiency Syndrome) caused by human immuno deficiency virus
(HIV).
Q.1 What is semen ? Explain the structure and function of male reproductive system with suitable
diagram.
Q.2 In the human body what is the role of
(i) Seminal vesicles (ii) Prostate gland
Q.3 List two functions performed by testes in human beings.
Q.4 Name one sexually transmitted disease each caused due to bacterial infection and viral infection.
How can these be prevented ?

Class_X - 100
Some Additional Points


• Graafian follicles : 100,000 microscopic sacs that make up large portion of the
ovaries.Each follicle contains an immature ovum.
• Fimbria : Finger-like projection at the free end of the uterine tube.
• Perimetrium : Outer thin layer that covers the surface of the uterus
• Hymen : Fold of membrane found near the opening of the vagina.
• Mammary glands : Breast are milk-producing glands of the female. Each one consists
of 15-20 divisions or lobes.
• Menarche : Begining of menstruation.
• Menopause : Stopping of menstruation.
• Union of a spermatozoon (male gamete) with an ovum (female gamete) to form a
zygote in sexual reproduction is called fertilization or syngamy.
• Cleavage (mitotic divisions) convert the zygote into a solid, spherical morula of 16–32
blastometers in about 3 or 4 days after fertilization in the fallopian tube.
• Around the day 6 or 7, the blastocyst implants in the endometrium.
• Placenta is an intimate connection between chorion and uterine wall, bringing foetal
blood vessels very close to the maternal (uterine) blood vessels to allow exchange of
materials between the two.
• Placenta provides food and oxygen to the foetus from the mother’s blood and
removes carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes from the foetal blood to the maternal
blood.
• Placenta does not prevent the passage of harmful materials from the maternal blood
into the foetal blood. Nicotine, addictive drugs and viruses pass from the mother’s
blood into that of the foetus.
• Hence, the mother should not take these materials and should protect herself from
viral infections.
TOPIC NAME : HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE
TYPE (I) : VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS : [01 MARK EACH]
1. In a bisexual flower inspite of the young stamens being removed artificially, the flower produces
fruit. Provide a suitable explanation for the above situation.
2. Can you consider cell division as a type of reproduction in unicellular organism ? Give one reason.
3. Colonies of yeast fail to multiply in water, but multiply in sugar solution. Give one reason for this
TYPE (II) : SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS : [02 MARKS EACH]

4. What is a clone ? Why do offsprings formed by asexual reproduction exhibit remarkable similarity ?
5. Explain how, offspring and parents of organisms reproducing sexually have the same number of
chromosomes
TYPE (IV) : LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS [04 MARK EACH]

6. Is the chromosome number of zygote, embryonal cells and adult of a particular organism always
constant ? How is the constancy maintained in these three stages ?
7. What changes are observed in the uterus subsequent to implantation of young embryo ?
TYPE (IV) : VERY LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS [05 MARK EACH]
8. What are the benefits of using mechanical barriers during sexual reproduction ?
9. How are general growth and sexual maturation different from each other ?
Class_X - 101

HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE Theory

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6.

HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

Fig.6.1 : Amoeba reproduction by binary fission.

Fig.6.2 : Reproduction by multiple fission.

Fig. 6.4 : Fragmentation in spirogyra (an algae)

(d) Spore formation : 

Fig.6.5 : Reproduction through spore formation in fungus

Fig.6.6 : Regenration in Planaria

(f) Vegetative propagation :

Fig.6.7 : The propagation of jasmine plants (chameli) by the layering method.

Fig.6.8 : Showing Air layering.

  Significance of vegetative propagation :

Q.1_ How to reproduce plasmodium.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

(a) Reproduction in a flowering plant :

Fig.6.10 : A vertical section of a typical flower

Fig. 6.12 Gynoecium; Female reproductive part of a plant

Fig. 6.13 Gynoecium; Female reproductive part of a plant

  Significance of self pollination :

Fig.6.14 : Showing fertilization in a flower

Fig.6.15 : Showing Seed parts

Fig.6.16 : Male reproductive system

Fig.6.17 : Longitudinal section of mammalian testis.

  (II) Duct system :

Fig.6.18 : Mammalian sperm

Fig.6.19 : Female reproductive system.

With the help of acrosomes & proteolytic

Tail & body of the sperm is

Head of sperm swells up to

This male pronucleus fuses

3. Intra-Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) : The use of intrauterine contraceptive device

Some Additional Points

TOPIC NAME : HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

TYPE (II) : SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS : [02 MARKS EACH]

TYPE (IV) : LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS [04 MARK EACH]

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