Muhammad

‫َّٰل‬
Muhammad ibn Abdullah[n 1] (Arabic: ‫ُم َح َّم د ٱبن َع ْب د ٱل ه‬, romanized: Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh
Classical Arabic pronunciation: [muˈħammad]; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE)[1][2] was an Arab religious,
social, and political leader and the founder of the world religion of Islam.[3] According to
Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet, divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic
teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.[3][4][5][6] He is believed to be
the final prophet of God in all the main branches of Islam, though the modern Ahmadiyya
movement diverges from this belief.[n 2] Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity,
with the Quran as well as his teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious
belief.
 The Holy Prophet

Muhammad

‫ُم َح َّم د‬

"Muhammad, the Messenger of God."

inscribed on the gates of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina

Personal

Born c. 53 BH (570 CE)[1]

Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia

Died 8 June 632 (aged 61–62)

Medina, Hejaz, Arabia

Resting place Green Dome at al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina,

Arabia
24°28′03″N 39°36′41″E (https://geohack.toolforg
e.org/geohack.php?pagename=Muhammad&pa
rams=24_28_03_N_39_36_41_E_type:landmark_
scale:5000_region:SA&title=Green+Dome)

Spouse See Muhammad's wives

Children See Muhammad's children

Parents Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (father)

Amina bint Wahb (mother)

Known for Founding Islam

Other names Abu al-Qasim (nickname)

Rasūl Allāh (Messenger of God)

(see Names and titles of Muhammad)

Relatives Family tree of Muhammad, Ahl al-Bayt  ("Family

of the House")

Signature


Seal of Muhammad
Arabic name

Personal (Ism) Muhammad

Patronymic (Nasab) Muḥammad ibn Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib

ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusai ibn Kilab

Teknonymic (Kunya) Abu al-Qasim

Epithet (Laqab) Khātam an-Nâbîyīn (Seal of the prophets)

Muhammad was born approximately 570 CE in Mecca.[1] He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd
al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. His father Abdullah was the son of Quraysh tribal leader
Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, and he died a few months before Muhammad's birth. His mother
Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan.[7] He was raised under the care
of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib.[8] In later years, he would
periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer.
When he was 40, Muhammad reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave[1][9] and receiving
his first revelation from God. In 613,[10] Muhammad started preaching these revelations
publicly,[11] proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "submission" (islām) to God[12] is the
right way of life (dīn),[13] and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the
other prophets in Islam.[14][15][16]

Muhammad's followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan
polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to
Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as
Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also
known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution
of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes,
Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca.
The conquest went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed.
In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. By the
time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.[17][18]

The revelations (each known as Ayah – literally, "Sign [of God]") that Muhammad reported
receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim
"Word of God" on which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad's teachings and
practices (sunnah), found in the Hadith and sira (biography) literature, are also upheld and
used as sources of Islamic law (see Sharia).
 Quranic names and appellations

"Muhammad" written in Thuluth, a script variety of Islamic calligraphy

The name Muhammad (/mʊˈhæməd, -ˈhɑːməd/)[19] means "praiseworthy" and appears four
times in the Quran.[20] The Quran also addresses Muhammad in the second person by various
appellations; prophet, messenger, servant of God ('abd), announcer (bashir),[Quran 2:119 (https://w
ww.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D2%3Averse%3D119) ]
witness
(shahid),[Quran 33:45 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D3
3%3Averse%3D45) ]
bearer of good tidings (mubashshir), warner (nathir),[Quran 11:2 (https://www.perseu
s.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D11%3Averse%3D2) ] reminder
(mudhakkir),[Quran 88:21 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asur
a%3D88%3Averse%3D21) ] one who calls [unto God] (dā'ī),[Quran 12:108 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hoppe
r/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D12%3Averse%3D108) ] light personified (noor),
[Quran 05:15 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D05%3Avers

e%3D15) ] and the light-giving lamp (siraj munir).[Quran 33:46 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?do

c=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D33%3Averse%3D46) ]

Sources of biographical information

Quran
A folio from an early Quran, written in Kufic script (Abbasid period, 8th–9th centuries)

The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of
God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad.[21][22][23] The Quran, however, provides
minimal assistance for Muhammad's chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not
provide significant historical context.[24][25]

Early biographies

Important sources regarding Muhammad's life may be found in the historic works by writers
of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era (AH – 8th and 9th century CE).[26] These
include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which provide additional information
about Muhammad's life.[27]

The earliest written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn
Ishaq's Life of God's Messenger written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the original work was
lost, this sira survives as extensive excerpts in works by Ibn Hisham and to a lesser extent by
Al-Tabari.[28][29] However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of Muhammad
that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq's biography that "would distress certain people".[30]
Another early history source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by al-Waqidi (death
207 AH), and the work of Waqidi's secretary Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (death 230 AH).[26]

Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic, though their accuracy is
unascertainable.[28] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions
touching legal matters and purely historical events. In the legal group, traditions could have
been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional cases, may have been
only subject to "tendential shaping".[31]

Hadith
Other important sources include the hadith collections, accounts of verbal and physical
teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad. Hadiths were compiled several
generations after his death by Muslims including Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj,
Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi, Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai, Abu Dawood, Ibn Majah, Malik ibn
Anas, al-Daraqutni.[32][33]

Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical
sources.[32] Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been
compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their
compatibility with the events and figures.[34] Muslim scholars on the other hand typically
place a greater emphasis on the hadith literature instead of the biographical literature, since
hadiths maintain a traditional chain of transmission (isnad); the lack of such a chain for the
biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes.[35]

Pre-Islamic Arabia

Main tribes and settlements of Arabia in Muhammad's lifetime

The Arabian Peninsula was, and still is, largely arid with volcanic soil, making agriculture
difficult except near oases or springs. Towns and cities dotted the landscape, two of the
most prominent being Mecca and Medina. Medina was a large flourishing agricultural
settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.[36]
Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, supporting indigenous
tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle. Tribal affiliation, whether based on kinship
or alliances, was an important source of social cohesion.[37] Indigenous Arabs were either
nomadic or sedentary. Nomadic groups constantly traveled seeking water and pasture for
their flocks, while the sedentary settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic
survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases; nomads did not view this as a
crime.[38][39]

In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their
spirits associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As well as being the site of an
annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities. Three
goddesses were worshipped, in some places as daughters of Allah: Allāt, Manāt and al-'Uzzá.
Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.[40] Hanifs –
native pre-Islamic Arabs who "professed a rigid monotheism"[41] – are also sometimes listed
alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although scholars dispute their
historicity.[42][43] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of
the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham.[44] After a century of exhaustive archaeological
investigation, no evidence has been found of a historical Abraham or Ishmael.[45]

The second half of the sixth century was a period of political disorder in Arabia and
communication routes were no longer secure.[46] Religious divisions were an important cause
of the crisis.[47] Judaism became the dominant religion in Yemen while Christianity took root
in the Persian Gulf area.[47] In line with broader trends of the ancient world, the region
witnessed a decline in the practice of polytheistic cults and a growing interest in a more
spiritual form of religion.[47] While many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those
faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points.[47]

During the early years of Muhammad's life, the Quraysh tribe to which he belonged became a
dominant force in western Arabia.[48] They formed the cult association of hums, which tied
members of many tribes in western Arabia to the Kaaba and reinforced the prestige of the
Meccan sanctuary.[49] To counter the effects of anarchy, Quraysh upheld the institution of
sacred months during which all violence was forbidden, and it was possible to participate in
pilgrimages and fairs without danger.[49] Thus, although the association of hums was
primarily religious, it also had important economic consequences for the city.[49]

Life

Childhood and early life

 Timeline of Muhammad's life

Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad

Date Age Even

Death o
c. 570 – father,
Abdulla

Possible
date of
12 or 17
c. 570 0
Rabi al A
in Mecc
Arabia

Death o
c. 577 6 mother,
Amina

His
grandfa
c. 583 12–13
transfer
him to S

Meets a
c. 595 24–25 marries
Khadijah

Birth of
Zainab,
first
daughte
followed
c. 599 28–29
Ruqayya
Umm
Kulthum
and Fati
Zahra

610 40 Qur'anic
revelatio
begins i
Cave of
on the J
an-Nour
"Mounta
Light" ne
Mecca.
age 40,
Angel
Jebreel
(Gabriel
was said
 appear t
Muham
on the
mounta
and call
"the Pro
of Allah

Begins i
secret to
gather
follower
Mecca

Begins
spreadin
messag
c. 613 43
Islam
publicly
all Mecc

Heavy
persecu
c. 614 43–44
of Musl
begins

Emigrat
of a gro
c. 615 44–45
Muslims
Ethiopia

Banu
Hashim
c. 616 45–46
boycott
begins

Banu
Hashim
boycott
ends

The yea
619 49 sorrows
Khadija
wife) an
Abu Tali
(his unc
die

c. 620 49–50 Isra and

Mi'raj
(reporte
ascensi
 heaven
meet Go

Hijra,
emigrat
622 51–52 to Medi
(called
Yathrib)

Battle o
624 53–54
Badr

Battle o
625 54–55
Uhud

Battle o
Trench (
627 56–57 known a
the sieg
Medina)

The Mec
tribe of
Quraysh
the Mus
commu
628 57–58 in Medin
sign a 1
year truc
called th
Treaty o
Hudayb

Conque
630 59–60
Mecca

Farewel
pilgrima
event of
Ghadir
632 61–62
Khumm
death, in
what is
Saudi A

This box:
view talk edit (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Muhammad_timeline_in_Mecca&action=edit)

Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim[50] was born in
Mecca[51] about the year 570[1] and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-
awwal.[52] He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, part of the Quraysh tribe, which was one of
Mecca's prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad's early
lifetime.[16][53] Tradition places the year of Muhammad's birth as corresponding with the Year
of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha,
Yemen's king, who supplemented his army with elephants.[54][55][56]
Alternatively some 20th
century scholars have suggested different years, such as 568 or 569.[8]

Miniature from Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's Jami al-Tawarikh, c. 1315, illustrating the story of Muhammad's role in re-
setting the Black Stone in 605. (Ilkhanate period)[57]

Muhammad's father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born.[58] According to
Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as
desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition's
historicity.[59] Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her
husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother
Amina to illness and became an orphan.[59][60] For the next two years, until he was eight years
old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of
the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the
new leader of the Banu Hashim.[8] According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt
there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in
Mecca during the 6th century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death,
but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim
seem to have been declining at that time."[61]

In his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain
experience in commercial trade.[61] Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either
nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk
or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad's career as a prophet of
God.[62]
Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth as available information is fragmented,
making it difficult to separate history from legend.[61] It is known that he became a merchant
and "was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea."[63] Due to
his upright character he acquired the nickname "al-Amin" (Arabic: ‫)االمين‬, meaning "faithful,
trustworthy" and "al-Sadiq" meaning "truthful"[64] and was sought out as an impartial
arbitrator.[9][16][65] His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful
businesswoman. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy
one.[63]

Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad was
involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the
Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, was removed during renovations to the
Kaaba. The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its
place. They decided to ask the next man who comes through the gate to make that decision;
that man was the 35-year-old Muhammad. This event happened five years before the first
revelation by Gabriel to him. He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center. The
clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right
spot, then Muhammad laid the stone, satisfying the honor of all.[66][67]

Beginnings of the Quran

Muhammad began to pray alone in a cave named Hira on Recite in the name of your
Mount Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca for several weeks every Lord who created—Created
[68][69]
year. Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits man from a clinging
to that cave, in the year 610 the angel Gabriel appeared to him substance. Recite, and your

and commanded Muhammad to recite verses that would be Lord is the most Generous—
Who taught by the pen—
included in the Quran.[70] Consensus exists that the first
Taught man that which he
Quranic words revealed were the beginning of Quran 96:1.[71]
knew not.
Muhammad was deeply distressed upon receiving his first
— Quran 96:1–5
revelations. After returning home, Muhammad was consoled
and reassured by Khadijah and her Christian cousin, Waraka
ibn Nawfal.[72] He also feared that others would dismiss his claims as being possessed.[39]
Shi'a tradition states Muhammad was not surprised or frightened at Gabriel's appearance;
rather he welcomed the angel, as if he was expected.[73] The initial revelation was followed by
a three-year pause (a period known as fatra) during which Muhammad felt depressed and
further gave himself to prayers and spiritual practices.[71] When the revelations resumed he
was reassured and commanded to begin preaching: "Thy Guardian-Lord hath not forsaken
thee, nor is He displeased."[74][75][76]
The cave Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour where, according to Muslim belief, Muhammad received his first
revelation

Muhammad receiving his first revelation from Gabriel in Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashīd al-Dīn Ṭabīb (1307)

Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing his revelations as "sometimes it is (revealed)

like the ringing of a bell". Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very
cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)".[77]
According to Welch these descriptions may be considered genuine, since they are unlikely to
have been forged by later Muslims.[16] Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish
his own thoughts from these messages.[78] According to the Quran, one of the main roles of
Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Quran 38:70,[79]
Quran 6:19).[80] Occasionally the Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided
examples from the history of extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries
of similar calamities (Quran 41:13–16 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Pers
eus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D41%3Averse%3D13) ).[81] Muhammad did not
only warn those who rejected God's revelation, but also dispensed good news for those who
abandoned evil, listening to the divine words and serving God.[82] Muhammad's mission also
involves preaching monotheism: The Quran commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise
the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with
God.[81]

The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his
creator; the resurrection of the dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of
the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise, and the signs of God in all aspects of life.
Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for
forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need,
rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life
of Mecca), being chaste and not committing female infanticide.[16]

Opposition

The last verse from An-Najm: "So prostrate to Allah and worship." Muhammad's message of monotheism challenged
the traditional order

According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a
prophet.[83] She was followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close
friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid.[83] Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the
public (Quran 26:214 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A
2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D26%3Averse%3D214) ).[11][84] Most Meccans ignored and
mocked him, though a few became his followers. There were three main groups of early
converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out
of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected
foreigners.[85]
According to Ibn Saad, opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that
condemned idol worship and the polytheism practiced by the Meccan forefathers.[86]
However, the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as Muhammad started public
preaching.[87] As his followers increased, Muhammad became a threat to the local tribes and
rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Ka'aba, the focal point of Meccan religious
life that Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad's denunciation of the Meccan
traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the
guardians of the Ka'aba.[85] Powerful merchants attempted to convince Muhammad to
abandon his preaching; he was offered admission to the inner circle of merchants, as well as
an advantageous marriage. He refused both of these offers.[85]

Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment

Have We not made for
towards Muhammad and his followers.[16] Sumayyah bint Khayyat,
him two eyes? And a
a slave of a prominent Meccan leader Abu Jahl, is famous as the tongue and two lips?
first martyr of Islam; killed with a spear by her master when she And have shown him
refused to give up her faith. Bilal, another Muslim slave, was the two ways? But he
tortured by Umayyah ibn Khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his has not broken through
chest to force his conversion.[88][89] the difficult pass. And
what can make you
In 615, some of Muhammad's followers emigrated to the Ethiopian know what is the
Kingdom of Aksum and founded a small colony under the difficult pass? It is the

protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.[16] freeing of a slave. Or
feeding on a day of
Ibn Sa'ad mentions two separate migrations. According to him,
severe hunger; an
most of the Muslims returned to Mecca prior to Hijra, while a
orphan of near
second group rejoined them in Medina. Ibn Hisham and Tabari, relationship, or a needy
however, only talk about one migration to Ethiopia. These accounts person in misery. And
agree that Meccan persecution played a major role in then being among
Muhammad's decision to suggest that a number of his followers those who believed
seek refuge among the Christians in Abyssinia. According to the and advised one
another to patience
famous letter of ʿUrwa preserved in al-Tabari, the majority of
and advised one
Muslims returned to their native town as Islam gained strength and
another to mercy.
high ranking Meccans, such as Umar and Hamzah converted.[90]
— Quran (90:8–17)
However, there is a completely different story on the reason why
the Muslims returned from Ethiopia to Mecca. According to this
account—initially mentioned by Al-Waqidi then rehashed by Ibn Sa'ad and Tabari, but not by
Ibn Hisham and not by Ibn Ishaq[91]—Muhammad, desperately hoping for an accommodation
with his tribe, pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses
considered to be the daughters of Allah. Muhammad retracted the verses the next day at the
behest of Gabriel, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself. Instead, a
ridicule of these gods was offered.[92][n 3][n 4] This episode, known as "The Story of the
Cranes," is also known as "Satanic Verses". According to the story, this led to a general
reconciliation between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Abyssinia Muslims began to
return home. When they arrived Gabriel had informed Muhammad that the two verses were
not part of the revelation, but had been inserted by Satan. Notable scholars at the time
argued against the historic authenticity of these verses and the story itself on various
grounds.[93][94][n 5] Al-Waqidi was severely criticized by Islamic scholars such as Malik ibn
Anas, al-Shafi'i, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Al-Nasa'i, al-Bukhari, Abu Dawood, Al-Nawawi and others
as a liar and forger.[95][96][97][98] Later, the incident received some acceptance among certain
groups, though strong objections to it continued onwards past the tenth century. The
objections continued until rejection of these verses and the story itself eventually became the
only acceptable orthodox Muslim position.[99]

In 616 (or 617), the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans,
declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it into
withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted three years but eventually
collapsed as it failed in its objective.[100][101] During this time, Muhammad was able to preach
only during the holy pilgrimage months in which all hostilities between Arabs were
suspended.

Isra and Mi'raj

The Al-Aqsa Mosque, part of the al-Haram ash-Sharif complex in Jerusalem and built in 705, was named the "farthest
mosque" to honor the possible location to which Muhammad travelled in his night journey.[102]

Islamic tradition states that in 620, Muhammad experienced the Isra and Mi'raj, a miraculous
night-long journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel. At the journey's beginning, the
Isra, he is said to have traveled from Mecca on a winged steed to "the farthest mosque."
Later, during the Mi'raj, Muhammad is said to have toured heaven and hell, and spoke with
earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.[103] Ibn Ishaq, author of the first
biography of Muhammad, presents the event as a spiritual experience; later historians, such
as Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir, present it as a physical journey.[103]

Some western scholars hold that the Isra and Mi'raj journey traveled through the heavens
from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur (heavenly prototype of
the Kaaba); later traditions indicate Muhammad's journey as having been from Mecca to
Jerusalem.[104]

Last years before Hijra

Quranic inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock. It marks the spot Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have
ascended to heaven.[105]

Muhammad's wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being known
as the "Year of Sorrow". With the death of Abu Talib, leadership of the Banu Hashim clan
passed to Abu Lahab, a tenacious enemy of Muhammad. Soon afterward, Abu Lahab
withdrew the clan's protection over Muhammad. This placed Muhammad in danger; the
withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted.
Muhammad then visited Ta'if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector,
but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger.[16][101] Muhammad was
forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut'im ibn Adi (and the protection of the
tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him to safely re-enter his native city.[16][101]

Many people visited Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. Muhammad took this
opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful
negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina).[16] The Arab
population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance
of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there.[16] They also hoped, by the means
of Muhammad and the new faith, to gain supremacy over Mecca; the Yathrib were jealous of
its importance as the place of pilgrimage. Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes
in Medina; by June of the subsequent year, seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for
pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what is
known as the "Second Pledge of al-'Aqaba", or, in Orientalists' view, the "Pledge of War".[106]
Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to
Yathrib. As with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration.
However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.[107]

Hijra
 Timeline of Muhammad in Medina

Invasion o
Sawiq

Al Kudr
Invasion

624 53–54 Raid on D

Amarr,
Muhamm
raids
Ghatafan
tribes

Battle of
Uhud:
Meccans
defeat
Muslims

Invasion o
Hamra al-
Asad,
successfu
terrifies th
enemy to
625 54–55
cause a
retreat

Assassina
of Khaled
Sufyan
Tragedy o
Raji and B
Maona

Banu Nad
expelled a
Invasion

Expedition
Badr al-
Maw'id, D
626 55–56
al-Riqa an
Dumat al-
Jandal

Battle of t
Trench

Invasion o
627 56–57
Banu Qura
successfu
siege

628 57–58 Treaty of

Hudaybiyy
 gains acc
to Kaaba

Conquest
the Khayb
oasis

First hajj
pilgrimage

Attack on
629 58–59 Byzantine
Empire fa
Battle of
Mu'tah

Bloodless
conquest
Mecca

Battle of
Hunayn

Siege of T
630 59–60
Attack on
Byzantine
Empire
successfu
Expedition
Tabuk

Rules mos
631 60–61 the Arabia
peninsula

Farewell h
pilgrimage
632 61–62 Death, on
June 8 in
Medina

This box:
view talk edit (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Muhammad_timeline_in_Medina&action=edit)

The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE.
In June 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca
and moved his followers to Medina,[108] 450 kilometres (280 miles) north of Mecca.[109]

Migration to Medina

A delegation, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina,

invited Muhammad to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community; due to his status as
a neutral outsider.[110][111] There was fighting in Yathrib: primarily the dispute involved its Arab
and Jewish inhabitants, and was estimated to have lasted for around a hundred years before
620.[110] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially
after the Battle of Bu'ath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the
tribal concept of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was
one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.[110] The delegation from Medina
pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and
physically protect him as one of themselves.[16]

Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina, until nearly all his followers left
Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure, according to tradition, the Meccans plotted to
assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, Muhammad fooled the Meccans watching him,
and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.[112] By 622, Muhammad emigrated to
Medina, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad
became known as muhajirun (emigrants).[16]

Establishment of a new polity

Among the first things Muhammad did to ease the longstanding grievances among the tribes
of Medina was to draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina, "establishing a kind
of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca;
this specified rights and duties of all citizens, and the relationship of the different
communities in Medina (including the Muslim community to other communities, specifically
the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book").[110][111] The community defined in the Constitution
of Medina, Ummah, had a religious outlook, also shaped by practical considerations and
substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.[16]

The first group of converts to Islam in Medina were the clans without great leaders; these
clans had been subjugated by hostile leaders from outside.[113] This was followed by the
general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, with some exceptions.
According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh (a prominent
Medinan leader) to Islam.[114] Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim
emigrants find shelter became known as the ansar (supporters).[16] Then Muhammad
instituted brotherhood between the emigrants and the supporters and he chose Ali as his
own brother.[115]

Beginning of armed conflict

Following the emigration, the people of Mecca seized property of Muslim emigrants to
Medina.[116] War would later break out between the people of Mecca and the Muslims.
Muhammad delivered Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans (see sura Al-
Hajj, Quran 22:39–40 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A
2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D22%3Averse%3D39) ).[117] According to the traditional account,
on 11 February 624, while praying in the Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Medina, Muhammad received
revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer.
Muhammad adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his
lead, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.[118]

Muhammad ordered a number of raids to capture Meccan

Permission has been
caravans, but only the 8th of them, the Raid of Nakhla, resulted in
given to those who are
actual fighting and capture of booty and prisoners.[119] In March being fought, because
624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a they were wronged.
Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the And indeed, Allah is
caravan at Badr.[120] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded competent to give
the Muslims. A Meccan force was sent to protect the caravan and them victory. Those

went on to confront the Muslims upon receiving word that the who have been evicted
from their homes
caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr commenced.[121] Though
without right—only
outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle,
because they say, "Our
killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. Lord is Allah." And
They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including Abu were it not that Allah
[122]
Jahl. Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom checks the people,
were ransomed.[123][124][125] Muhammad and his followers saw the some by means of

victory as confirmation of their faith[16] and Muhammad ascribed others, there would
have been demolished
the victory to the assistance of an invisible host of angels. The
monasteries, churches,
Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with
synagogues, and
practical problems of government and issues like the distribution mosques in which the
[126]
of spoils. name of Allah is much
mentioned. And Allah
The victory strengthened Muhammad's position in Medina and
will surely support
[127]
dispelled earlier doubts among his followers. As a result, the those who support
opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet Him. Indeed, Allah is
converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two Powerful and Exalted
pagans, Asma bint Marwan of the Aws Manat tribe and Abu 'Afak in Might.

of the 'Amr b. 'Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and — Quran (22:39–40)
insulting the Muslims.[128] They were killed by people belonging to
their own or related clans, and Muhammad did not disapprove of
the killings.[128] This report, however, is considered by some to be a fabrication.[129] Most
members of those tribes converted to Islam, and little pagan opposition remained.[130]

Muhammad expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes,[16] but
some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad's death.[131]
According to al-Waqidi, after Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy spoke for them, Muhammad refrained from
executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Medina.[132] Following the Battle of
Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect
his community from attacks from the northern part of Hejaz.[16]

Conflict with Mecca

"The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the Battle of Uhud", from a 1595 edition of the Mamluk-Turkic
Siyer-i Nebi

The Meccans were eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain economic prosperity, the
Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been reduced at Badr.[133] In the ensuing
months, the Meccans sent ambush parties to Medina while Muhammad led expeditions
against tribes allied with Mecca and sent raiders onto a Meccan caravan.[134] Abu Sufyan
gathered an army of 3000 men and set out for an attack on Medina.[135]

A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The
next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, a dispute arose over how best to repel the
Meccans. Muhammad and many senior figures suggested it would be safer to fight within
Medina and take advantage of the heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that
the Meccans were destroying crops, and huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim
prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the younger Muslims and readied the Muslim
force for battle. Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (the location of
the Meccan camp) and fought the Battle of Uhud on 23 March 625.[136][137] Although the
Muslim army had the advantage in early encounters, lack of discipline on the part of
strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat; 75 Muslims were killed, including Hamza,
Muhammad's uncle who became one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The
Meccans did not pursue the Muslims; instead, they marched back to Mecca declaring victory.
The announcement is probably because Muhammad was wounded and thought dead. When
they discovered that Muhammad lived, the Meccans did not return due to false information
about new forces coming to his aid. The attack had failed to achieve their aim of completely
destroying the Muslims.[138][139] The Muslims buried the dead and returned to Medina that
evening. Questions accumulated about the reasons for the loss; Muhammad delivered
Quranic verses 3:152 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A
2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D3%3Averse%3D152) indicating that the defeat was twofold:
partly a punishment for disobedience, partly a test for steadfastness.[140]

Abu Sufyan directed his effort towards another attack on Medina. He gained support from
the nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina; using propaganda about Muhammad's
weakness, promises of booty, memories of Quraysh prestige and through bribery.[141]
Muhammad's new policy was to prevent alliances against him. Whenever alliances against
Medina were formed, he sent out expeditions to break them up.[141] Muhammad heard of
men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, and reacted in a severe manner.[142] One
example is the assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu
Nadir. Al-Ashraf went to Mecca and wrote poems that roused the Meccans' grief, anger and
desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr.[143][144] Around a year later, Muhammad expelled
the Banu Nadir from Medina[145] forcing their emigration to Syria; he allowed them to take
some possessions, as he was unable to subdue the Banu Nadir in their strongholds. The rest
of their property was claimed by Muhammad in the name of God as it was not gained with
bloodshed. Muhammad surprised various Arab tribes, individually, with overwhelming force,
causing his enemies to unite to annihilate him. Muhammad's attempts to prevent a
confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces
and stopped many potential tribes from joining his enemies.[146]

Siege of Medina
The Masjid al-Qiblatayn, where Muhammad established the new Qibla, or direction of prayer

With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan mustered a
force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form
of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay
open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian.
The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks.[147] Abu Sufyan's troops
were unprepared for the fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to
return home.[148] The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27 (https://
www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D3
3%3Averse%3D9) .[87]
During the battle, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located to the
south of Medina, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad.
Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be
overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him.
No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by
Muhammad's scouts.[149] After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza
of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually
surrendered; according to Ibn Ishaq, all the men apart from a few converts to Islam were
beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.[150][151] Walid N. Arafat and Barakat
Ahmad have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq's narrative.[152] Arafat believes that Ibn
Ishaq's Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years after the event, conflated this account with
memories of earlier massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an
unreliable historian by his contemporary Malik ibn Anas, and a transmitter of "odd tales" by
the later Ibn Hajar.[153] Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of
the fighters were merely enslaved.[154][155] Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely
convincing", while Meir J. Kister has contradicted the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.[156]
In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim
community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria
vanished.[157] Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the
north, both ended without any fighting.[16] While returning from one of these journeys (or
some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made
against Aisha, Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad
announced he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that
charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24, An-Nur).[158]

Truce of Hudaybiyyah

"In your name, O God!

This is the treaty of peace between Muhammad Ibn Abdullah and Suhayl Ibn Amr. They have agreed
to allow their arms to rest for ten years. During this time each party shall be secure, and neither
shall injure the other; no secret damage shall be inflicted, but honesty and honour shall prevail
between them. Whoever in Arabia wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with Muhammad can do
so, and whoever wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with the Quraysh can do so. And if a
Qurayshite comes without the permission of his guardian to Muhammad, he shall be delivered up to
the Quraysh; but if, on the other hand, one of Muhammad's people comes to the Quraysh, he shall
not be delivered up to Muhammad. This year, Muhammad, with his companions, must withdraw
from Mecca, but next year, he may come to Mecca and remain for three days, yet without their
weapons except those of a traveller; the swords remaining in their sheaths."

—The statement of the treaty of Hudaybiyyah[159]

Although Muhammad had delivered Quranic verses commanding the Hajj,[160] the Muslims
had not performed it due to Quraysh enmity. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad
ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to prepare for a pilgrimage (umrah) to
Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision when he was
shaving his head after completion of the Hajj.[161] Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400
Muslims, the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by
taking a more difficult route, enabling his followers to reach al-Hudaybiyya just outside
Mecca.[162] According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage was
based on his dream, he was also demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam did not
threaten the prestige of the sanctuaries, that Islam was an Arabian religion.[162]
The Kaaba in Mecca long held a major economic and religious role for the area. Seventeen months after
Muhammad's arrival in Medina, it became the Muslim Qibla, or direction for prayer (salat). The Kaaba has been rebuilt
several times; the present structure, built in 1629, is a reconstruction of an earlier building dating to 683.[163]

Negotiations commenced with emissaries traveling to and from Mecca. While these
continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been
killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad called upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to
stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with
Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" or the "Pledge under the
Tree". News of Uthman's safety allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled
to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.[162][164] The main
points of the treaty included: cessation of hostilities, the deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage
to the following year, and agreement to send back any Meccan who emigrated to Medina
without permission from their protector.[162]

Many Muslims were not satisfied with the treaty. However, the Quranic sura "Al-Fath" (The
Victory) (Quran 48:1–29 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%
3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D48%3Averse%3D1) ) assured them that the expedition must
be considered a victorious one.[165] It was later that Muhammad's followers realized the
benefit behind the treaty. These benefits included the requirement of the Meccans to identify
Muhammad as an equal, cessation of military activity allowing Medina to gain strength, and
the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the pilgrimage rituals.[16]

After signing the truce, Muhammad assembled an expedition against the Jewish oasis of
Khaybar, known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to housing the Banu Nadir
who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain prestige from what appeared as
the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.[135][166] According to Muslim tradition,
Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date
is given variously in the sources).[16][167][168] He sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of
the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and
to some others.[167][168] In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad directed
his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu'tah.[169]

Final years

Conquest of Mecca

A depiction of Muhammad (with veiled face) advancing on Mecca from Siyer-i Nebi, a 16th-century Ottoman
manuscript. The angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail, are also shown.

The truce of Hudaybiyyah was enforced for two years.[170][171] The tribe of Banu Khuza'a had
good relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had allied with the
Meccans.[170][171] A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza'a, killing a few of
them.[170][171] The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some
sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.[170] After this event, Muhammad sent a
message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were:
either the Meccans would pay blood money for the slain among the Khuza'ah tribe, they
disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr, or they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyyah
null.[172]

The Meccans replied that they accepted the last condition.[172] Soon they realized their
mistake and sent Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, a request that was declined by
Muhammad.
Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.[173] In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca
with 10,000 Muslim converts. With minimal casualties, Muhammad seized control of
Mecca.[174] He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who
were "guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war and disrupted the
peace".[175] Some of these were later pardoned.[176] Most Meccans converted to Islam and
Muhammad proceeded to destroy all the statues of Arabian gods in and around the
Kaaba.[177][178] According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad
personally spared paintings or frescos of Mary and Jesus, but other traditions suggest that
all pictures were erased.[179] The Quran discusses the conquest of Mecca.[87][180]

Conquest of Arabia

Conquests of Muhammad (green lines) and the Rashidun caliphs (black lines). Shown: Byzantine empire (North and
West) & Sassanid-Persian empire (Northeast).

Following the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the
confederate tribes of Hawazin who were raising an army double the size of Muhammad's.
The Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the Banu Thaqif
(inhabiting the city of Ta'if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the
prestige of Meccans.[181] Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the Battle of
Hunayn.[16]

In the same year, Muhammad organized an attack against northern Arabia because of their
previous defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah and reports of hostility adopted against Muslims. With
great difficulty he assembled 30,000 men; half of whom on the second day returned with
Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, untroubled by the damning verses which Muhammad hurled at them.
Although Muhammad did not engage with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the
submission of some local chiefs of the region.[16][182]
He also ordered the destruction of any remaining pagan idols in Eastern Arabia. The last city
to hold out against the Muslims in Western Arabia was Taif. Muhammad refused to accept
the city's surrender until they agreed to convert to Islam and allowed men to destroy the
statue of their goddess Al-Lat.[119][183][184]

A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to surrender to Muhammad
and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad to safeguard against his attacks
and to benefit from the spoils of war.[16] However, the bedouins were alien to the system of
Islam and wanted to maintain independence: namely their code of virtue and ancestral
traditions. Muhammad required a military and political agreement according to which they
"acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies,
and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious levy."[185]

Farewell pilgrimage

Anonymous illustration of al-Bīrūnī's The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries, depicting Muhammad prohibiting Nasī’
during the Farewell Pilgrimage, 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century (Ilkhanate) manuscript (Edinburgh
codex).

In 632, at the end of the tenth year after migration to Medina, Muhammad completed his first
true Islamic pilgrimage, setting precedent for the annual Great Pilgrimage, known as Hajj.[16]
On the 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah Muhammad delivered his Farewell Sermon, at Mount Arafat east
of Mecca. In this sermon, Muhammad advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic
customs. For instance, he said a white has no superiority over a black, nor a black any
superiority over a white except by piety and good action.[186] He abolished old blood feuds
and disputes based on the former tribal system and asked for old pledges to be returned as
implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability
of women in his society, Muhammad asked his male followers to "be good to women, for they
are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You took them in God's trust, and
legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and
hear my words ..." He told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do
so with kindness. He addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of
paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and forbade his followers to leave their
wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each
year.[187][188] According to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this
event: "Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen
Islam as a religion for you" (Quran 5:3 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Pers
eus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D5%3Averse%3D3) ).[16] According to Shia tafsir, it
refers to the appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the pond of Khumm as Muhammad's
successor, this occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to
Medina.[189]

Death and tomb

A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days
with fever, head pain, and weakness. He died on Monday, 8 June 632, in Medina, at the age of
62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha.[190] With his head resting on Aisha's lap, he asked her
to dispose of his last worldly goods (seven coins), then spoke his final words:

O Allah, to Ar-Rafiq Al-A'la (exalted friend, highest Friend or the

uppermost, highest Friend in heaven).[191][192][193]

— Muhammad

According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Muhammad's death may be presumed to have been
caused by Medinan fever exacerbated by physical and mental fatigue.[194] Academics Reşit
Haylamaz and Fatih Harpci say that Ar-Rafiq Al-A'la is referring to God.[195]

Muhammad was buried where he died in Aisha's house.[16][196][197] During the reign of the
Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded
to include the site of Muhammad's tomb.[198] The Green Dome above the tomb was built by
the Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although the green color was
added in the 16th century, under the reign of Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.[199]
Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his companions (Sahabah), the
first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, and an empty one that Muslims believe awaits
Jesus.[197][200][201]

When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold
and jewel ornamentation.[202] Adherents to Wahhabism, Saud's followers, destroyed nearly
every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration,[202] and the one of
Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped.[203] Similar events took place in 1925,
when the Saudi militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.[204][205][206] In the
Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.[203] Although the
practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a ziyarat—a ritual
visit—to the tomb.[207][208]

Al-Masjid an-Nabawi ("the Prophet's mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, with the Green Dome built over Muhammad's
tomb in the center

After Muhammad

Expansion of the caliphate, 622–750 CE.

    Muhammad, 622–632 CE.
    Rashidun caliphate, 632–661 CE.
    Umayyad caliphate, 661–750 CE.

Muhammad united several of the tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in
the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who his
successor would be.[18] Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad,
nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad's friend and collaborator. With additional support Abu Bakr
was confirmed as the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's
companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated
the successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr immediately moved to strike
against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat,
although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an event that Muslim historians
later referred to as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[209]

The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires. The
Roman–Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making the empires
unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by
Muslims many Christians (Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and Copts) were disaffected
from the Eastern Orthodox Church which deemed them heretics. Within a decade Muslims
conquered Mesopotamia, Byzantine Syria, Byzantine Egypt,[210] large parts of Persia, and
established the Rashidun Caliphate.

Islamic social reforms

According to William Montgomery Watt, religion for Muhammad was not a private and
individual matter but "the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he
found himself. He was responding [not only]... to the religious and intellectual aspects of the
situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary
Mecca was subject."[211] Bernard Lewis says there are two important political traditions in
Islam—Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad as a rebel in Mecca. In his
view, Islam is a great change, akin to a revolution, when introduced to new societies.[212]

Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as social security, family
structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the status quo of Arab
society.[212][213] For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic
privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents".[212]
Muhammad's message transformed society and moral orders of life in the Arabian Peninsula;
society focused on the changes to perceived identity, world view, and the hierarchy of
values.[214]
Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue
in pre-Islamic Mecca.[215] The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit
of the poor; as Muhammad's power grew he demanded that tribes who wished to ally with
him implement the zakat in particular.[216][217]

Appearance
A hilya containing a description of Muhammad, by Ottoman calligrapher Hâfiz Osman (1642–1698)

In Muhammad al-Bukhari's book Sahih al-Bukhari, in Chapter 61, Hadith 57 & Hadith
60,[218][219] Muhammad is depicted by two of his companions thus:

God's Messenger was neither very tall nor short, neither absolutely
white nor deep brown. His hair was neither curly nor lank. God sent
him (as a Messenger) when he was forty years old. Afterwards he
resided in Mecca for ten years and in Medina for ten more years.
When God took him unto Him, there was scarcely twenty white
hairs in his head and beard.

— Anas

The Prophet was of moderate height having broad shoulders (long)

hair reaching his ear-lobes. Once I saw him in a red cloak and I had
never seen anyone more handsome than him.

— Al-Bara

The description given in Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi's book Shama'il al-Mustafa, attributed
to Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hind ibn Abi Hala is as follows:[220][221][222]

Muhammad was middle-sized, did not have lank or crisp hair, was
not fat, had a white circular face, wide black eyes, and long eye-
lashes. When he walked, he walked as though he went down a
 declivity. He had the "seal of prophecy" between his shoulder blades
... He was bulky. His face shone like the moon. He was taller than
middling stature but shorter than conspicuous tallness. He had thick,
curly hair. The plaits of his hair were parted. His hair reached
beyond the lobe of his ear. His complexion was azhar [bright,
luminous]. Muhammad had a wide forehead, and fine, long, arched
eyebrows which did not meet. Between his eyebrows there was a
vein which distended when he was angry. The upper part of his nose
was hooked; he was thick bearded, had smooth cheeks, a strong
mouth, and his teeth were set apart. He had thin hair on his chest.
His neck was like the neck of an ivory statue, with the purity of
silver. Muhammad was proportionate, stout, firm-gripped, even of
belly and chest, broad-chested and broad-shouldered.

The "seal of prophecy" between Muhammad's shoulders is generally described as having

been a type of raised mole the size of a pigeon's egg.[221] Another description of Muhammad
was provided by Umm Ma'bad, a woman he met on his journey to Medina:[223][224]

I saw a man, pure and clean, with a handsome face and a fine figure.
He was not marred by a skinny body, nor was he overly small in the
head and neck. He was graceful and elegant, with intensely black
eyes and thick eyelashes. There was a huskiness in his voice, and his
neck was long. His beard was thick, and his eyebrows were finely
arched and joined together.
When silent, he was grave and dignified,
and when he spoke, glory rose up and overcame him. He was from
afar the most beautiful of men and the most glorious, and close up
he was the sweetest and the loveliest. He was sweet of speech and
articulate, but not petty or trifling. His speech was a string of
cascading pearls, measured so that none despaired of its length, and
no eye challenged him because of brevity. In company he is like a
branch between two other branches, but he is the most flourishing
of the three in appearance, and the loveliest in power. He has
friends surrounding him, who listen to his words. If he commands,
they obey implicitly, with eagerness and haste, without frown or
complaint.
Descriptions like these were often reproduced in calligraphic panels (Turkish: hilye), which in
the 17th century developed into an art form of their own in the Ottoman Empire.[223]

Household

The tomb of Muhammad is located in the quarters of his third wife, Aisha. (Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina)

Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca
(from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have
had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd and
Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine[225][226]). Eleven of the thirteen marriages occurred
after the migration to Medina.

At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years
old.[227] The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.[228] Muhammad did not enter
into marriage with another woman during this marriage.[229][230] After Khadijah's death,
Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry Sawda bint Zama, a
Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said
to have asked for arrangements to marry both.[158] Muhammad's marriages after the death of
Khadijah were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons. The women were
either widows of Muslims killed in battle and had been left without a protector, or belonged to
important families or clans with whom it was necessary to honor and strengthen
alliances.[231]

According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to
Muhammad,[158][232][233] with the marriage not being consummated until she had reached
puberty at the age of nine or ten years old.[241] She was therefore a virgin at marriage.[232]
Modern Muslim authors who calculate Aisha's age based on other sources of information,
such as a hadith about the age difference between Aisha and her sister Asma, estimate that
she was over thirteen and perhaps in her late teens at the time of her marriage.[247]

After migration to Medina, Muhammad, who was then in his fifties, married several more
women.

Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and
repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to
their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.[248][249][250]

Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad,
Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-
Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad, who both died in childhood). All but one of
his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.[251] Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was
Muhammad's only daughter.[252] Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn
Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old.[251]

Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him.[226] Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's
favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping
assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni
branch of Islam.[158]

Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These
are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'.
As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the
Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.[253]

Zayd ibn Haritha was a slave that Muhammad bought, freed, and then adopted as his son. He
also had a wetnurse.[254] According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad did not try
to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that
slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad
treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem".[255]

Legacy

Islamic tradition

Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad's prophethood is
the main aspect of the Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in Shahadah: "I testify that there
is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of God." The Shahadah is the
basic creed or tenet of Islam. Islamic belief is that ideally the Shahadah is the first words a
newborn will hear; children are taught it immediately and it will be recited upon death.
Muslims repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (adhan) and the prayer itself. Non-Muslims
wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[256]

In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet sent by God.[257][258] Quran 10:37
(https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asur
a%3D10%3Averse%3D37) states that "...it (the Quran) is a confirmation of (revelations) that
went before it, and a fuller explanation of the Book—wherein there is no doubt—from The Lord
of the Worlds." Similarly, Quran 46:12 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perse
us%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D46%3Averse%3D12) states "...And before this
was the book of Moses, as a guide and a mercy. And this Book confirms (it)...", while 2:136 (ht
tps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%
3D2%3Averse%3D136) commands the believers of Islam to "Say: we believe in God and
that which is revealed unto us, and that which was revealed unto Abraham and Ishmael and
Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which Moses and Jesus received, and which the
prophets received from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and unto
Him we have surrendered."

The Muslim profession of faith, the Shahadah, illustrates the Muslim conception of the role of Muhammad: "There is
no god except the God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God." in Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, Turkey

Muslim tradition credits Muhammad with several miracles or supernatural events.[259] For
example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have interpreted the
Surah 54:1–2 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.0
2.0006%3Asura%3D54%3Averse%3D1) as referring to Muhammad splitting the Moon in
view of the Quraysh when they began persecuting his followers.[260][261] Western historian of
Islam Denis Gril believes the Quran does not overtly describe Muhammad performing
miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad is identified with the Quran itself.[260]
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was attacked by the people of Ta'if and was badly
injured. The tradition also describes an angel appearing to him and offering retribution
against the assailants. It is said that Muhammad rejected the offer and prayed for the
guidance of the people of Ta'if.[262]

Calligraphic rendering of "may God honor him and grant him peace", customarily added after Muhammad's name,
encoded as a ligature at Unicode code point U+FDFA.[263] ‫ﷺ‬‎.

The Sunnah represents actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as
Hadith) and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals,
personal hygiene, and burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between
humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has
to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught
Muslims to offer each other, "may peace be upon you" (Arabic: as-salamu 'alaykum) is used by
Muslims throughout the world. Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers,
the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran.[264]

Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of
Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles have permeated popular Muslim
thought and poetry. Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, Qasidat al-Burda ("Poem of the
Mantle") by the Egyptian Sufi al-Busiri (1211–1294) is particularly well-known, and widely held
to possess a healing, spiritual power.[265] The Quran refers to Muhammad as "a mercy
(rahmat) to the worlds" (Quran 21:107 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Pers
eus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0006%3Asura%3D21%3Averse%3D107) ).[16] The association of
rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud
dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives
the seemingly dead earth (see, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif).[16]
Muhammad's birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding
Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.[266] When
Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with the Arabic phrase
ṣallā llahu ʿalayhi wa-sallam (may God honor him and grant him peace) or the English phrase
peace be upon him.[267] In casual writing, the abbreviations SAW (for the Arabic phrase) or
PBUH (for the English phrase) are sometimes used; in printed matter, a small calligraphic
rendition is commonly used (‫)ﷺ‬.

Sufism

The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of
the first Islamic century.[268]
Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner
meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not
only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being. All Sufi orders trace their chain of
spiritual descent back to Muhammad.[269]

Depictions

In line with the hadith's prohibition against creating images of sentient living beings, which is
particularly strictly observed with respect to God and Muhammad, Islamic religious art is
focused on the word.[270][271] Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and
mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not
images or sculptures.[270][272] Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—
designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed
in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–
15%).[273] While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past,[274]
Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare.[270] They have mostly been limited to the private
and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad
with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.[272][275]
Muhammad's entry into Mecca and the destruction of idols. Muhammad is shown as a flame in this manuscript.
Found in Bazil's Hamla-i Haydari, Jammu and Kashmir, India, 1808.

The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian
miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad.[275][276]
During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni
and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their
particular interpretation of Islam's key events.[277] Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of
representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was
unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a "broader shift in Islamic artistic
culture away from abstraction toward representation" in "mosques, on tapestries, silks,
ceramics, and in glass and metalwork" besides books.[278] In the Persian lands, this tradition
of realistic depictions lasted through the Timurid dynasty until the Safavids took power in the
early 16th century.[277] The Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a
departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad's
face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous
essence.[279] Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were
defaced.[277][280][281] Later images were produced in Ottoman Turkey and elsewhere, but
mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad.[274] Illustrated accounts of the
night journey (mi'raj) were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid
era.[282] During the 19th century, Iran saw a boom of printed and illustrated mi'raj books, with
Muhammad's face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the manner of
graphic novels. Reproduced through lithography, these were essentially "printed
manuscripts".[282] Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are
available in some Muslim-majority countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on posters,
postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in most other parts of the Islamic
world, and when encountered by Muslims from other countries, they can cause considerable
consternation and offense.[274][275]

Medieval Christians

The earliest documented Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from Byzantine sources.
They indicate that both Jews and Christians saw Muhammad as a false prophet.[283] Another
Greek source for Muhammad is Theophanes the Confessor, a 9th-century writer. The earliest
Syriac source is the 7th-century writer John bar Penkaye.[284]

According to Hossein Nasr, the earliest European literature often refers to Muhammad
unfavorably. A few learned circles of Middle Ages Europe – primarily Latin-literate scholars –
had access to fairly extensive biographical material about Muhammad. They interpreted the
biography through a Christian religious filter, one that viewed Muhammad as a person who
seduced the Saracens into his submission under religious guise.[16] Popular European
literature of the time portrayed Muhammad as though he were worshipped by Muslims,
similar to an idol or a heathen god.[16]

In later ages, Muhammad came to be seen as a schismatic: Brunetto Latini's 13th century Li
livres dou tresor represents him as a former monk and cardinal,[16] and Dante's Divine Comedy
(Inferno, Canto 28), written in the early 1300s, puts Muhammad and his son-in-law, Ali, in Hell
"among the sowers of discord and the schismatics, being lacerated by devils again and
again."[16]

European appreciation

Muhammad in La vie de Mahomet by M. Prideaux (1699). He holds a sword and a crescent while trampling on a
globe, a cross, and the Ten Commandments.

After the Reformation, Muhammad was often portrayed in a similar way.[16][285] Guillaume
Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad when he argued
that Muhammad should be esteemed by Christians as a valid prophet.[16][286] Gottfried
Leibniz praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from the natural religion".[16] Henri
de Boulainvilliers, in his Vie de Mahomed which was published posthumously in 1730,
described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.[16] He presents him as
a divinely inspired messenger whom God employed to confound the bickering Oriental
Christians, to liberate the Orient from the despotic rule of the Romans and Persians, and to
spread the knowledge of the unity of God from India to Spain.[287] Voltaire had a somewhat
mixed opinion on Muhammad: in his play Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète he vilifies
Muhammad as a symbol of fanaticism, and in a published essay in 1748 he calls him "a
sublime and hearty charlatan", but in his historical survey Essai sur les mœurs, he presents
him as legislator and a conqueror and calls him an "enthusiast."[287] Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
in his Social Contract (1762), "brushing aside hostile legends of Muhammad as a trickster
and impostor, presents him as a sage legislator who wisely fused religious and political
powers."[287] Emmanuel Pastoret published in 1787 his Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad,
in which he presents the lives of these three "great men", "the greatest legislators of the
universe", and compares their careers as religious reformers and lawgivers. He rejects the
common view that Muhammad is an impostor and argues that the Quran proffers "the most
sublime truths of cult and morals"; it defines the unity of God with an "admirable concision."
Pastoret writes that the common accusations of his immorality are unfounded: on the
contrary, his law enjoins sobriety, generosity, and compassion on his followers: the "legislator
of Arabia" was "a great man."[287] Napoleon Bonaparte admired Muhammad and Islam,[288]
and described him as a model lawmaker and a great man.[289][290] Thomas Carlyle in his book
Heroes and Hero Worship and the Heroic in History (1840) describes Muhammad as "[a] silent
great soul; [...] one of those who cannot but be in earnest".[291] Carlyle's interpretation has
been widely cited by Muslim scholars as a demonstration that Western scholarship validates
Muhammad's status as a great man in history.[292]

Ian Almond says that German Romantic writers generally held positive views of Muhammad:
"Goethe’s 'extraordinary' poet-prophet, Herder’s nation builder (...) Schlegel’s admiration for
Islam as an aesthetic product, enviably authentic, radiantly holistic, played such a central role
in his view of Mohammed as an exemplary world-fashioner that he even used it as a scale of
judgement for the classical (the dithyramb, we are told, has to radiate pure beauty if it is to
resemble 'a Koran of poetry')."[293] After quoting Heinrich Heine, who said in a letter to some
friend that "I must admit that you, great prophet of Mecca, are the greatest poet and that your
Quran... will not easily escape my memory", John Tolan goes on to show how Jews in Europe
in particular held more nuanced views about Muhammad and Islam, being an ethnoreligious
minority feeling discriminated, they specifically lauded Al-Andalus, and thus, "writing about
Islam was for Jews a way of indulging in a fantasy world, far from the persecution and
pogroms of nineteenth-century Europe, where Jews could live in harmony with their non-
Jewish neighbors."[294]

Modern historians

Recent writers such as William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell dismiss the idea that
Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad "was absolutely
sincere and acted in complete good faith"[295] and Muhammad's readiness to endure
hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no rational basis for hope, shows his
sincerity.[296] Watt, however, says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: in
contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his subconscious for divine
revelation.[297] Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking
impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam's development.[298][299] Alford T. Welch
holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief
in his vocation.[16]

Other religions

Followers of the Baháʼí Faith venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or

"Manifestations of God". He is thought to be the final manifestation, or seal of the Adamic
cycle, but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh, the
founder of the Baháʼí faith, and the first Manifestation of the current cycle.[300][301]

Druze tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets",[302] and Muhammad is considered
an important prophet of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who
appeared in different periods of history.[303][304]

Criticism

Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad was decried by
his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, and by the Jewish tribes of
Arabia for his unwarranted appropriation of Biblical narratives and figures,[305] vituperation of
the Jewish faith,[305] and proclaiming himself as "the last prophet" without performing any
miracle nor showing any personal requirement demanded in the Hebrew Bible to distinguish
a true prophet chosen by the God of Israel from a false claimant; for these reasons, they gave
him the derogatory nickname ha-Meshuggah (Hebrew: ‬‫ְמ ֻׁש ָּג ע‬, "the Madman" or "the
Possessed").[306][307][308] During the Middle Ages various[309][310][311][312] Western and
Byzantine Christian thinkers considered Muhammad to be a perverted,[309][311] deplorable
man,[309][311] a false prophet,[309][310][311] and even the Antichrist,[309][310] as he was frequently
seen in Christendom as a heretic[313][309][310][311] or possessed by demons.[313][311] Some of
them, like Thomas Aquinas, criticized Muhammad's promises of carnal pleasure in the
afterlife.[311]

Modern religious[309][314] and secular[315][316] criticism of Islam[314][315][316] has concerned

Muhammad's sincerity in claiming to be a prophet, his morality, his ownership of
slaves,[317][318] his treatment of enemies, his marriages,[319] his treatment of doctrinal
matters, and his psychological condition. Muhammad has been accused of sadism and
mercilessness—including the invasion of the Banu Qurayza tribe in Medina[320][321][322]—
sexual relationships with slaves, and his marriage to Aisha when she was six years old,[319]
which according to most estimates was consummated when she was nine.[323]

See also

Ashtiname of Muhammad List of notable Hijazis

Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad and the Bible

Muhammad
Muhammad in film
Companions of the Prophet (aka Sahabah)
Muhammad's views on Christians
Diplomatic career of Muhammad
Possessions of Muhammad
Glossary of Islam
Prophethood (Ahmadiyya)
List of founders of religious traditions
Relics of Muhammad

Portals: Biography Islam

Notes

1. He is referred to by many appellations, including Messenger of Allah, The Prophet Muhammad,

Allah's Apostle, Last Prophet of Islam, and others; there are also many variant spellings of
Muhammad, such as Mohamet, Mohammed, Mahamad, Muhamad, and many others.

2. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community considers Muhammad to be the "Seal of the Prophets" (Khātam
an-Nabiyyīn) and the last law-bearing Prophet, but not the last Prophet. See:
Simon Ross Valentine (2008). Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at: History, Belief, Practice (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=MdRth02Q6nAC&pg=PA134) . Columbia University Press.
p. 134. ISBN 978-1-85065-916-7.

"Finality of Prophethood | Hadhrat Muhammad (PUBH) the Last Prophet" (http://www.alislam.or

g/books/truth/finality.html) . Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20110724234544/http://www.alislam.org/books/truth/finality.html) from the original
on 24 July 2011.
There are also smaller sects which believe Muhammad to be not the last Prophet:
The Nation of Islam considers Elijah Muhammad to be a prophet (source: African American
Religious Leaders – p. 76, Jim Haskins, Kathleen Benson – 2008).

United Submitters International believe that Muhammad was the last prophet, but they also
consider Rashad Khalifa to be a messenger. (Source: Daniel Pipes, Miniatures: Views of Islamic
and Middle Eastern Politics, p. 98 (2004))
3. The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53),
as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after
verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are
the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three
goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166

4. "Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting,
unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism." (The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad,
Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35)

5. "Although, there could be some historical basis for the story, in its present form, it is certainly a later,
exegetical fabrication. Sura LIII, 1–20 and the end of the sura are not a unity, as is claimed by the
story, XXII, 52 is later than LIII, 2107 and is almost certainly Medinan; and several details of the story
—the mosque, the sadjda, and others not mentioned in the short summary above do not belong to
Meccan setting. Caetani and J. Burton have argued against the historicity of the story on other
grounds. Burton concluded that the story was invented by jurists so that XXII 52 could serve as a
Kuranic proof-text for their abrogation theories."("Kuran" in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition,
Vol. 5 (1986), p. 404)

References

1. * Conrad, Lawrence I. (1987). "Abraha and Muhammad: some observations apropos of chronology
and literary topoi in the early Arabic historical tradition1". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and
African Studies. 50 (2): 225–40. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00049016 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS00
41977X00049016) . S2CID 162350288 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162350288) .
Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby (1901). Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan calendars: with
rules and tables and explanatory notes on the Julian and Gregorian calendars (https://archive.or
g/details/elementsofjewish00burnuoft) . G. Bell. p. 465 (https://archive.org/details/elementso
fjewish00burnuoft/page/465) .

Hamidullah, Muhammad (February 1969). "The Nasi', the Hijrah Calendar and the Need of
Preparing a New Concordance for the Hijrah and Gregorian Eras: Why the Existing Western
Concordances are Not to be Relied Upon" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121105021544/htt
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2. Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63, gives 8 June 632 CE, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier
(primarily non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the Muslim conquest of
Palestine. See Stephen J. Shoemaker,The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's Life and the
Beginnings of Islam, page 248, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.
 3. Alford T. Welch; Ahmad S. Moussalli; Gordon D. Newby (2009). "Muḥammad" (http://www.oxfordisla
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February 2017. "The Prophet of Islam was a religious, political, and social reformer who gave rise to
one of the great civilizations of the world. From a modern, historical perspective, Muḥammad was
the founder of Islam. From the perspective of the Islamic faith, he was God's Messenger (rasūl
Allāh), called to be a "warner," first to the Arabs and then to all humankind."

4. Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.

5. Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians (https://archive.org/details/islamguidefor
jew00fepe/page/9) . Princeton University Press. p. 9 (https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew0
0fepe/page/9) . ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.

6. Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 12.
ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.

7. "Early Years" (https://www.al-islam.org/life-muhammad-prophet-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/early-ye

ars) . Al-Islam.org. 18 October 2012. Retrieved 18 October 2018.

8. Watt (1974), p. 7.

9. Encyclopedia of World History (1998), p. 452

10. Howarth, Stephen. Knights Templar. 1985. ISBN 978-0-8264-8034-7 p. 199

11. Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to
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opr/t125/e1087) . www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Retrieved 25 July 2018.

13. Anis Ahmad (2009). "Dīn" (http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e1102) . In John

L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171205093241/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/arti
cle/opr/t236/e1102) from the original on 5 December 2017. "A second important aspect of the
meaning of the term emerges in Meccan revelations concerning the practice of the Prophet
Abraham. Here it stands for the straight path (al-dīn al-ḥanīf) toward which Abraham and other
messengers called the people [...] The Qurʿān asserts that this was the path or practice followed by
Abraham [...] In the final analysis, dīn encompasses social and spiritual, as well the legal and political
behaviour of the believers as a comprehensive way of life, a connotation wider than the word
"religion.""

14. F.E. Peters (2003), p. 9.

15. Esposito (1998), p. 12; (1999) p. 25; (2002) pp. 4–5

16. Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. (1993). "Muḥammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 360–
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17. "Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world

18. See:
Holt (1977a), p. 57

Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32

19. "Muhammad" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/muhammad) Archived (https://web.archiv

e.org/web/20141215011659/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Muhammad) 15 December
2014 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.

20. Jean-Louis Déclais, Names of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Quran

21. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʾān" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Qura

n) . Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150505001543/htt
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22. Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, p. 338, I.B. Tauris
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23. Quran 17:106 Quran 17:106 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2

002.02.0006%3Asura%3D17%3Averse%3D106)

24. Clinton Bennett (1998). In search of Muhammad (https://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQ

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25. Francis E. Peters (1994). Muhammad and the origins of Islam (https://books.google.com/books?id=
Jrq6boXdJOAC&pg=PA261) . SUNY Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-0-7914-1876-5. Archived (https://web.
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26. Watt (1953), p. xi

27. Reeves (2003), pp. 6–7

28. S.A. Nigosian (2004), p. 6

29. Donner (1998), p. 132

30. Holland, Tom (2012). In the Shadow of the Sword (https://books.google.com/books?id=5u3Ukw7Aft

wC&pg=PT28) . Doubleday. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-7481-1951-6. "Things which it is disgraceful to
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31. Watt (1953), p. xv

32. Lewis (1993), pp. 33–34

33. Jonathan, A.C. Brown (2007). The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and
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Nāsaʾī (d. 303/915). The Five Book canon, which is first noted in the sixth/twelfth century,
incorporates the Jāmiʿ of al-Tirmidhī (d. 279/892). Finally, the Six Book canon, which hails from the
same period, adds either the Sunan of Ibn Mājah (d. 273/887), the Sunan of al-Dāraquṭnī (d.
385/995) or the Muwaṭṭaʾ of Mālik b. Anas (d. 179/796). Later ḥadīth compendia often included
other collections as well. None of these books, however, has enjoyed the esteem of al-Bukhārīʼs and
Muslimʼs works."

34. Madelung (1997), pp. xi, 19–20

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39. John Esposito, Islam, Expanded edition, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–5

40. See:
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43. cf. Uri Rubin, Hanif, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an

44. See:
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280. Elizabeth Edwards; Kaushik Bhaumik (2008). Visual sense: a cultural reader (https://books.google.co
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281. D. Fairchild Ruggles (2011). Islamic Art and Visual Culture: An Anthology of Sources (https://books.g
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Christiane J. Gruber; Frederick Stephen Colby (eds.). The Prophet's ascension: cross-cultural
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283. Kaegi, Walter Emil, Jr. (1969). "Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest". Church History. 38
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284. Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 10th edition (1970), p. 112.

285. Lewis (2002)

286. Warraq, Ibn (2007). Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism. Prometheus Books.
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prophet."

287. Brockopp, Jonathan E (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Muḥammad (https://archive.org/detail

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288. Talk Of Napoleon At St. Helena (https://archive.org/stream/talkofnapoleonat007678mbp#page/n32

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289. Brockopp, Jonathan E., ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad (http://www.cambridg
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290. Younos, Farid (2010). Islamic Culture (https://books.google.com/books?id=NUEaAgAAQBAJ&pg=

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291. Carlyle, Thomas (1841). On heroes, hero worship and the heroic in history (https://archive.org/detail
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293. Ian Almond, History of Islam in German Thought: From Leibniz to Nietzsche, Routledge (2009), p. 93
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295. Watt, Bell (1995) p. 18

296. Watt (1974), p. 232

297. Watt (1974), p. 17

298. Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 37

299. Lewis (1993), p. 45.

300. Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith (https://archive.org/details/conciseency

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305. The Jews [...] could not let pass unchallenged the way in which the Quran
appropriated Biblical accounts and personages; for instance, its making
Abraham an Arab and the founder of the Ka'bah at Mecca. The prophet,
who looked upon every evident correction of his gospel as an attack upon
his own reputation, brooked no contradiction, and unhesitatingly threw
down the gauntlet to the Jews. Numerous passages in the Quran show
how he gradually went from slight thrusts to malicious vituperations and
brutal attacks on the customs and beliefs of the Jews. When they justified
themselves by referring to the Bible, Muhammad, who had taken nothing
therefrom at first hand, accused them of intentionally concealing its true
meaning or of entirely misunderstanding it, and taunted them with being
"asses who carry books" (sura lxii. 5). The increasing bitterness of this
vituperation, which was similarly directed against the less numerous
Christians of Medina, indicated that in time Muhammad would not
hesitate to proceed to actual hostilities. The outbreak of the latter was
deferred by the fact that the hatred of the prophet was turned more
forcibly in another direction, namely, against the people of Mecca, whose
earlier refusal of Islam and whose attitude toward the community
appeared to him at Medina as a personal insult which constituted a
sufficient cause for war.

— Richard Gottheil, Mary W. Montgomery, Hubert Grimme,

"Mohammed" (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10918-moham
med) (1906), Jewish Encyclopedia, Kopelman Foundation.

306. Norman A. Stillman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=bFN2ismyhEYC&pg=PA236) . Jewish Publication Society. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-
8276-0198-7.

307. Ibn Warraq, Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism (https://books.google.com/
books?id=M8o6UZ37ppUC&pg=PA255#v=onepage&q&f=false) , p. 255.

308. Andrew G. Bostom, The Legacy of Islamic Antisemitism: From Sacred Texts to Solemn History (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=vjFNPT52XjUC&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false) , p. 21.

309. Quinn, Frederick (2008). "The Prophet as Antichrist and Arab Lucifer (Early Times to 1600)". The Sum
of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought (https://archive.org/details/sumofallheresie
s0000quin) . New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 17 (https://archive.org/details/sumofallheresie
s0000quin/page/17) –54. ISBN 978-0-19-532563-8.

310. Goddard, Hugh (2000). "The First Age of Christian-Muslim Interaction (c. 830/215)". A History of
Christian-Muslim Relations (https://archive.org/details/historychristian00godd) . Edinburgh
University Press. pp. 34 (https://archive.org/details/historychristian00godd/page/n46) –41.
ISBN 978-1-56663-340-6.
311. Curtis, Michael (2009). Orientalism and Islam: European Thinkers on Oriental Despotism in the
Middle East and India (https://archive.org/details/orientalismislam00curt) . New York: Cambridge
University Press. p. 31 (https://archive.org/details/orientalismislam00curt/page/n42) . ISBN 978-0-
521-76725-5.

312. John of Damascus, De Haeresibus. See Migne, Patrologia Graeca, Vol. 94, 1864, cols 763–73. An
English translation by the Reverend John W. Voorhis appeared in The Moslem World, October 1954,
pp. 392–98.

313. Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. (1993). "Muḥammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam. 7 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 360–376.
ISBN 90-04-09419-9.

314. Cimino, Richard (December 2005). " "No God in Common": American Evangelical Discourse on Islam
after 9/11". Review of Religious Research. 47 (2): 162–74. doi:10.2307/3512048 (https://doi.org/10.
2307%2F3512048) . JSTOR 3512048 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3512048) .

315. Ibn Warraq (2000). The Quest for the Historical Muhammad. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books.
ISBN 978-1-57392-787-1.

316. Robert Spencer (2006). The Truth About Muhammad. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-59698-028-0.

317. Gordon, Murray (1989). "The Attitude of Islam Toward Slavery" (https://archive.org/details/slaveryina
rabwor00gord/page/18) . Slavery in the Arab World. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 18–47 (htt
ps://archive.org/details/slaveryinarabwor00gord/page/18) . ISBN 978-0-941533-30-0.

318. Willis, John Ralph, ed. (2013). Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Islam and the Ideology of
Enslavement. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. pp. vii–xi, 3–26. ISBN 978-0-7146-3142-4.; Willis, John
Ralph, ed. (1985). Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: The Servile Estate. Vol. 2. New York:
Routledge. pp. vii–xi. ISBN 978-0-7146-3201-8.
319. During the twenty-five years of his union with Ḥadijah Muhammad had
no other wife; but scarcely two months had elapsed after her death (619)
when he married Sauda, the widow of Sakran, who, with her husband,
had become an early convert to Islam and who was one of the emigrants
to Abyssinia. At about the same time Muhammad contracted an
engagement with 'A'ishah, the six-year-old daughter of Abu Bakr, and
married her shortly after his arrival at Medina. 'A'ishah was the only one
of his wives who had not been previously married; and she remained his
favorite to the end. [...] In his married life, as well as in his religious life, a
change seems to have come over Muhammad after his removal to Medina.
In the space of ten years he took twelve or thirteen wives and had several
concubines: even the faithful were scandalized, and the prophet had to
resort to alleged special revelations from God to justify his conduct. Such
was the case when he wished to marry Zainab, the wife of his adopted son
Zaid.

— Richard Gottheil, Mary W. Montgomery, Hubert Grimme,

"Mohammed" (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10918-moham
med) (1906), Jewish Encyclopedia, Kopelman Foundation.

320. The messenger of God went out into the marketplace of Medina and had
trenches dug in it; then he sent for them and had them beheaded in those
trenches. They were brought out to him in groups. Among them were the
enemy of God, Huyayy b. Akhtab, and Ka’b b. Asad, the head of the tribe.
They numbered 600 or 700—the largest estimate says they were between
800 and 900. As they were being taken in groups to the Messenger of God,
they said to Ka’b b. Asad, "Ka’b, what do you understand. Do you not see
that the summoner does not discharge [anyone] and that those of you
who are taken away do not come back? By God, it is death!" the affair
continued until the Messenger of God had finished with them.

— Al-Tabari, Victory of Islam, Volume 8 (https://books.google.com/boo

ks?id=-ppPqzawIrIC&pg=PA201) , translated by Michael Fishbein
(1997), State University of New York Press, pp. 35–36, ISBN 978-0-
7914-3150-4.

321. Watt, W. Montgomery (1 July 1952). "The Condemnation of the Jews of Banu Qurayzah". The Muslim
World. 42 (3): 160–71. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.1952.tb02149.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1478-
1913.1952.tb02149.x) . ISSN 1478-1913 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1478-1913) .
322. Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, Saifur (2005), The Sealed Nectar (https://books.google.com/books?id=-ppP
qzawIrIC&pg=PA201) , Darussalam Publications, pp. 201–05, ISBN 9798694145923, "They [the
Jews killed] numbered 600 or 700—the largest estimate says they were between 800 and 900."

323. Spellberg, Denise A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi
Bakr. Columbia University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-231-07999-0.

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William H. McNeill; Jerry H. Bentley; David Christian, eds. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World
History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1
 https://archive.org/details/berkshireencyclo0004unse_k2y1 (https://archive.org/details/berkshireenc
yclo0004unse_k2y1) . {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

Richard C. Martin; Said Amir Arjomand; Marcia Hermansen; Abdulkader Tayob; Rochelle Davis; John
Obert Voll, eds. (2003). "Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World: M-Z, Index. Volume 2".
Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.

P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). "Encyclopaedia of
Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912 (https://www.world
cat.org/issn/1573-3912) .

Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-
0-02-865733-2 https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_v8f2 (https://archive.org/detail
s/encyclopediaofre0000unse_v8f2) . {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title=
(help)

Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. (2005). "Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān". Encyclopedia of the Qur'an. Brill
Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12356-4.

Encyclopedia of World History. Oxford University Press. 1998. ISBN 978-0-19-860223-1

https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780198602231 (https://archive.org/details/isbn_978019860223
1) . {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

The New Encyclopædia Britannica (Rev ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated. 2005. ISBN 978-
1-59339-236-9. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

Margoliouth, David Samuel (1911). "Mahomet"  (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%

A6dia_Britannica/Mahomet) . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). pp. 399–410.

Fayda, Mustafa; Kandemır, M.Yaşar; Durmuş, İsmaıl; Özel, Ahmet; Topaloğlu, Bekır; Donmez, İ.Kâfı;
Çağrici, Mustafa; Çelebi, İlyas; Uludağ, Süleyman; Kanar, Mehmet; İsmet Uzun, Mustafa; Toker, Halıl;
Serın, Muhıttın; Özcun, Nurı; Avcı, Casım; Birişik, A.Hamıt; Görgün, Hılal (2005). MUHAMMED – An
article published in 30th Volume of TDV Encyclopedia of Islam (https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/muha
mmed) (in Turkish). Vol. 30. Istanbul: İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 408–481. ISBN 978-97-53-89425-8.

Further reading

Books
Berg, Herbert, ed. (2003). Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins. E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-
04-12602-2.

Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-287605-8.

Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad: A translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah (https://
archive.org/details/TheLifeOfMohammed) . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-636033-1.

Hamidullah, Muhammad (1998). The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam. Islamabad: Islamic
Research Institute. ISBN 978-969-8413-00-2.
 Motzki, Harald, ed. (2000). The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources – Islamic History
and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11513-2.

Musa, A.Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New
York: Palgrave, 2008

Rubin, Uri (1995). The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims (A
Textual Analysis). Darwin Press. ISBN 978-0-87850-110-6.

Schimmel, Annemarie (1985). And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in
Islamic Piety (https://archive.org/details/andmuhammadishis00schi) . The University of North
Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4128-0.

Articles
Ali, Tariq, "Winged Words" (review of Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad, translated by Anne
Carter, NYRB, March 2021, 373 pp., ISBN 978 1 68137 492 5), London Review of Books, vol.
43, no. 12 (17 June 2021), pp. 11–14.

Online
Muḥammad (http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550) , in The Oxford
Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, by Ahmad S. Moussalli, Gordon D. Newby, Ahmad Moussalli

Muhammad: Prophet of Islam (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105853/Muhammad) , in

Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by Nicolai Sinai and W. Montgomery Watt

External links

Muhammad
at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions from
Wiktionary

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Quotations from
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Data from Wikidata

Muhammad (https://curlie.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/Prophets/Muha
mmed) at Curlie
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
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