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Coursenotes m232 2018F
Coursenotes m232 2018F
2
§6.1 - VELOCITY AND NET CHANGE
Example. A squirrel is running up and down a tree. The height of the squirrel from
the ground over time is given by the function s(t) graphed below, where t is in seconds
and s(t) is height in meters.
A. After 5 seconds, how far is the squirrel from its original position?
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§6.1 - VELOCITY AND NET CHANGE
Example. If I get in a 25 meter long pool on the shallow end, and swim 5 laps, what is
my displacement and what is my distance traveled?
4
§6.1 - VELOCITY AND NET CHANGE
Example. A swimmer is swimming left and right in a long narrow pool. Her velocity
over time is given by the following graph, where velocity v(t) is in meters per second
and time t is in seconds.
Here, distance is measured from the left end of the pool, so a positive velocity means
and a negative velocity means .
A. Describe the swim. Was the swimmer swimming at a constant speed? When was
the swimmer swimming left vs. right? At what time(s) did the swimmer turn
around?
5
§6.1 - VELOCITY AND NET CHANGE
B. What is the displacement of the swimmer between time 0 and time 12?
6
§6.1 - VELOCITY AND NET CHANGE
• The distance traveled by the object between time t = a and time t = b is given by ...
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§6.1 - VELOCITY AND NET CHANGE
Example. The velocity function for a particle moving left and right is given by v(t) =
t2 − 2t − 3, where v(t) is in meters per second and t is in seconds.
1. When does the particle turn around?
4. If the particle starts at position 2, give a formula for the position of the particle at
time t.
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§6.1 - VELOCITY AND NET CHANGE
Example. Suppose f (t) represents the rate of change of a quantity over time (e.g. the
rate of water flowing out of a resevoir). Then
Z b
• f (t) dt represents ...
a
Z b
• If F(0) is the amount of the quantity at time 0, then F(0) + f (t) dt represents ...
a
Z b
• | f (t)| dt represents ...
a
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§6.1 - VELOCITY AND NET CHANGE
Example. The population of bacteria is changing at a rate of f (t) = e−t − 1/e. What is
the net change in population between time t = 0 and time t = 2?
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§6.1 - VELOCITY AND NET CHANGE
Extra Example. The acceleration of a particle moving up and down is given by a(t) =
3π sin(πt), where a(t) is given in m/s2 and t is given in seconds. Suppose that v(0) = 2
and s(0) = −1. Find the velocity and position functions. What is its displacement in
the first 2 seconds? How much total distance did it travel in the first 2 seconds.
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§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
12
§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
Recall: to compute the area below a curve y = f (x), between x = a and x = b, we can
divide up the region into rectangles.
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§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
To compute the area between the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x), between x = a and
x = b, we can divide up the region into rectangles.
15
§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
Review. The area between two curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) between x = a and x = b
is given by:
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§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
Review. The area between the curves y = 2x + 1 and y = 5 − 2x2 is given by:
Z 1
A. 2x + 1 − 5 + 2x2 dx
−2
Z 1
B. 5 − 2x2 − 2x + 1 dx
−2
Z 1
C. 5 − 2x2 − 2x − 1 dx
−2
Z 5
D. 5 − 2x2 + 2x + 1 dx
−3
E. None of these.
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§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
Example. The shaded area between the curves y = cos(5x), y = sin(5x), x = 0, and
x = π4 is given by:
Z π/4
A. sin(5x) − cos(5x) dx
0
Z π/4
B. cos(5x) − sin(5x) dx
0
C. Both of these answers are correct.
D. Neither of these answers are correct.
18
§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
Extra Example. Set up the integral to find the shaded area bounded by the three curves
in the figure shown.
• f (x) = x2 − x − 6
• g(x) = x − 3
• h(x) = −x2 + 4
19
§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
Note. The area between two curves x = f (y) and x = g(y) between y = c and y = d is
given by:
To compute the area between the curves x = f (y) and x = g(y), between y = c and
y = d, we can again divide up the region into rectangles.
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§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
y2 36 + y3
p
Example. Find the area between the curves f (y) = sin(y)+5, g(y) = , y = −2,
6
and y = 2.
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§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
Example. The area between the curves y = x2 and y = 3x2, and y = 4 is given by:
Z 2
A. x2 − 3x2 dx
0
Z 2
B. 3x2 − x2 dx
0
2
Z r
√ y
C. y− dy
0 3
4
Z r
√ y
D. y− dy
0 3
4
Z r
y √
E. − y dy
0 3
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§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
Extra Example. In the year 2000, the US income distribution was: (data from World
Bank, see http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/2.9)
Income Category Fraction of Fraction of Cumulative Cumulative
Population Total Income Fraction of Fraction of
Population Income
Bottom 20% 0.20 0.05 0.20 0.05
2nd 20% 0.20 0.11 0.40 0.16
3th 20% 0.20 0.16 0.60 0.32
4th 20% 0.20 0.22 0.80 0.54
Next 10% 0.10 0.16 0.90 0.70
Highest 10% 10 0.30 1.00 1.00
The Lorenz curve plots the cumulative fraction of population on the x-axis and the
cumulative fraction of income received on the y-axis.
The Gini index is the area between the Lorenz curve and the line y = x, multiplied by
2.
Estimate the Gini index for the US in the year 2000 using the midpoint rule.
24
§6.2 - AREA BETWEEN CURVES
Extra Example. Find the area between the curves 2x = y2 − 4 and y = −3x + 2 that lies
above the line y = −1
25
§6.2 - VOLUMES
§6.2 - Volumes
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§6.2 - VOLUMES
If you can break up a solid into n slabs, S1, S2, . . . Sn, each with thickness ∆x, then
Volume of solid ≈
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§6.2 - VOLUMES
x2 y2
Example. Find the volume of the solid whose base is the ellipse + = 1 and whose
4 9
cross sections perpendicular to the x-axis are squares.
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§6.2 - VOLUMES
Volumes found by rotating a region around a line are called solids of revolution.
For solids of revolution, the cross sections have the shape of a or the
shape of a .
When the region is rotated around the x-axis, or any other horizontal line, then we
integrate with respect to .
When the region is rotated around the y-axis, or any other vertical line, then we
integrate with respect to .
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§6.2 - VOLUMES
√
Example. Consider the region bounded by the curve y = 3 x, the x-axis, and the line
x = 8. What is the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating this region
around the x-axis?
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§6.2 - VOLUMES
√
Example. Consider the region in the first quadrant bounded by the curves y = 3 x and
y = 14 x. What is the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating this region
around the x-axis? The y-axis?
END OF VIDEO
31
§6.2 - VOLUMES
Review. Suppose a 3-dimensional solid can be sliced perpendicular to the x-axis and
the slice at position x has area given by the function A(x). Then the volume is given
by:
Review. If the volume is a solid of revolution, then the volume is given by:
32
§6.2 - VOLUMES
Example. The region between the curves y = ex, x = 0, and y = e3 is rotated around
the x-axis, to make a solid of revolution. When computing the volume, what are the
cross-sections and which variable do we integrate with respect to?
33
§6.2 - VOLUMES
Example. The region between the curve y = ex, x = 0, and y = e3 is rotated around
the y-axis, to make a solid of revolution. When computing the volume, what are the
cross-sections and which variable do we integrate with respect to?
34
§6.2 - VOLUMES
Set up an integral to calculate the volume if this region is rotated around the line x = 5
instead of the y-axis.
35
§6.2 - VOLUMES
Set up an integral to compute the volume of the solid obtained by rotating this region
about the line x = 12 .
36
§6.2 - VOLUMES
√
Example. Find the volume of the solid whose base is the region between y = x, the
x-axis, and the lines x = 1 and x = 5, and whose cross sections perpendicular to the
x-axis are equilateral triangles.
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§6.2 - VOLUMES
√
Example. Find the volume of the solid whose base is the region between y = x, the
x-axis, and the lines x = 1 and x = 5, and whose cross sections perpendicular to the
y-axis are equilateral triangles.
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§6.2 - VOLUMES
Extra Example. Find the volume of a pyramid with a square base of side length a and
height h.
39
§6.2 - VOLUMES
Extra Example. Find the volume of a cone with a circular base of radius a and height
h.
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§6.2 - VOLUMES
Extra Example. Set up an integral to find the volume of a bagel, given the dimensions
below.
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§6.5 - ARCLENGTH
§6.5 - Arclength
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§6.5 - ARCLENGTH
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§6.5 - ARCLENGTH
END OF VIDEO
45
§6.5 - ARCLENGTH
Review. For a curve y = f (x), the arclength of the curve between x = a and x = b is
given by the formula:
√
Example. Set up an integral to calculate the arc length of the curve y = x between
x = 0 and x = 3.
46
§6.5 - ARCLENGTH
ex +e−x
Example. Find a function a(t) that gives the length of the curve y = 2 between x = 0
and x = t.
47
§6.5 - ARCLENGTH
Note. Although arc length integrals are usually straightforward to set up, the square
root sign makes them notoriously difficult to evaluate, and sometimes impossible to
evaluate.
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§6.6 - SURFACE AREA
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§6.6 - SURFACE AREA
50
§6.6 - SURFACE AREA
To find the surface area of a surface of revolution, imagine approximating it with pieces
of cones.
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§6.6 - SURFACE AREA
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§6.6 - SURFACE AREA
Use the formula for the area of a piece of cone A = 2πr` to derive a formula for surface
area.
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§6.6 - SURFACE AREA
Formulas:
If we rotate the curve y = f (x) between x = a and x = b around the x-axis,
surface area =
If we rotate the curve y = f (x) around the y-axis, what will the corresponding formulas
be?
54
§6.6 - SURFACE AREA
Example. Find the surface area of the surface of revolution formed by rotating about
√
the x-axis the curve y = x between x = 0 and x = 2.
55
§6.6 - SURFACE AREA
√
Example. Find the surface area when the curve y = x between x = 0 and x = 2 is
rotated around the y=axis.
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§6.6 - SURFACE AREA
57
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
58
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
Question. What are the units of force? What are the units of work?
59
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
Note. Suppose a Calculus book is 2 pounds (US units), which is 0.9 kg (metric units).
The pounds is a unit of . The kg is a unit of .
Example. How much work is done to lift a 2 lb book off the floor onto a shelf that is 5
feet high?
Example. How much work is done to lift a 0.9 kg book off the floor onto a shelf that is
1.5 meters high?
60
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
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§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
Example. How much work is required to lift a 1000-kg satellite from the earth’s surface
to an altitude of 2 · 106 m above the earth’s surface?
GMm
The gravitational force is F = , M is the mass of the earth, m is the mass of the
r2
satellite, and r is the distance between the satellite and the center of the earth, and G is
the gravitational constant.
The radius of the earth is 6.4·106 m, its mass is 6·1024 kg, and the gravitational constant,
G, is 6.67 · 10−11.
Reference https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/satellite-and-earth.157112/
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§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
Z b
Review. In the expression W = F(x) dx what do W, F(x), and dx represent?
a
63
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
Example. In the alternative universe of the Golden Compass, the souls of humans and
their animal companions, called daemons, are closely tied. Suppose that the force
2
needed to separate a human and its daemon is given by f (x) = 10xe−x /1000 pounds,
where x represents the distance between the human and the daemon in feet. Lyra and
her daemon are currently 5 feet apart. How much work will it take to separate them
an additional 5 feet?
64
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
Example. A 200-kg cable is 300 m long and hangs vertically from the top of a tall
building. How much work is required to lift the cable to the top of the building?
Example. An aquarium has a square base of side length 4 meters and a height of 3
meters. The tank is filled to a depth of 2 m How much work will it take to pump the
water out of the top of the tank through a pipe that rises 0.5 meters above the top of
the tank?
66
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
Extra Example. A bowl is shaped like a hemisphere with radius 2 feet, and is full of
water. How much work will it take to pump the water out of the top of the bowl? Use
the fact that water weights 62.5 pounds per cubic foot.
67
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
Springs follow Hooke’s law: the force required to stretch them a distance x past their
equilibrium position is given by f (x) = kx, where k is a constant that depends on the
spring.
2. Set up the integral/s needed to find the work done in stretching the spring 3 cm
beyond its natural length.
3. Set up the integral/s needed to find the work done in stretching the spring from a
length of 20 cm to a length of 25 cm.
68
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
69
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
This pressure is the same in all directions, so the pressure on a vertical wall of the
swimming pool is:
70
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
71
§6.4 - WORK AS AN INTEGRAL AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
Example. Find the total force on the face of this vertical dam, assuming that the water
level is at the top of the dam.
72
§6.5 - AVERAGE VALUE OF A FUNCTION
To find the average of a list of numbers q1, q2, q3, . . . , qn, we sum the numbers and divide
by n:
For a continuous function f (x) on an interval [a, b], we could estimate the average
value of the function by sampling it at a bunch of evenly spaced x-values c1, c2, . . . , cn,
which are spaced ∆x apart:
average ≈
average = lim
n→∞
73
§6.5 - AVERAGE VALUE OF A FUNCTION
The resulting formula is analogous to the formula for an average of a list of numbers,
since taking an integral is analogous to , and dividing by the length of the
interval b − a is analogous to dividing by .
1
Example. Find the average value of the function g(x) = on the interval [2, 5].
1 − 5x
Is there a number c in the interval [2, 5] for which g(c) equals its average value? If so,
find all such numbers c. If not, explain why not.
74
§6.5 - AVERAGE VALUE OF A FUNCTION
Theorem. (Mean Value Theorem for Integrals) For a continuous function f (x) on an interval
Rb
a
f (x)dx
[a, b], there is a number c with a ≤ c ≤ b such that f (c) = .
b−a
Proof:
75
§6.5 - AVERAGE VALUE OF A FUNCTION
Review. The average value of a function f (x) on the interval [a, b] is defined as:
76
§6.5 - AVERAGE VALUE OF A FUNCTION
77
§6.5 - AVERAGE VALUE OF A FUNCTION
Z 5
Example. Suppose g(x) is a continuous function and g(x) dx = 12. Which of the
2
following are necessarily true?
A. For some number x between 2 and 5, g(x) = 3.
B. For some number x between 2 and 5, g(x) = 4.
C. For some number x between 2 and 5, g(x) = 5.
D. All of these are necessarily true.
E. None of these are necessarily true.
78
§6.5 - AVERAGE VALUE OF A FUNCTION
Extra Example. The temperature on a July day starts at 60◦ at 8 A.M., and rises (without
ever falling) to 96◦ at 8 P.M.
1. Why can’t you say with certainty that the average temperature between 8 A.M.
and 8 P.M. was 78◦?
2. What can you say about the average temperature during this 12-hour period?
3. Suppose you also know that the average temperature during this period was 84◦.
Is it possible that the temperature was 80◦ at 6 P.M.? At 4 P.M.?
79
§8.1 - INTEGRATION REVIEW
80
§8.1 - INTEGRATION REVIEW
Z
Example. cos4(θ) sin(θ) dθ
Z 3
dy
Example.
2 5 − 3y
81
§8.1 - INTEGRATION REVIEW
Z
1
Example. dx
x−1 + 1
1+x
Z
Example. dx
4 + x2
82
§8.2 - INTEGRATION BY PARTS
83
§8.2 - INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Note. This formula allows us to rewrite something that is difficult to integrate in terms
of something that is hopefully easier to integrate. Integrating using this method is
called:
84
§8.2 - INTEGRATION BY PARTS
R
Example. Find xex dx.
85
§8.2 - INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Review. Z
u dv =
R
Example. Integrate t sec2(2t) dt using integration by parts. What is a good choice for
u and what is a good choice for dv?
86
§8.2 - INTEGRATION BY PARTS
R
Example. Find x(ln x)2dx
87
§8.2 - INTEGRATION BY PARTS
R2
Example. Integrate 1
arctan(x)dx.
88
§8.2 - INTEGRATION BY PARTS
R
Example. Find e2x cos(x)dx.
89
§8.2 - INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Question. Which of these integrals is a good candidate for integration by parts? (More
than one answer is correct.)
R
A. x3 dx
R
B. ln(x) dx
R
C. x2ex dx
2
R
D. xex dx
Z
ln y
E. √ dy
y
90
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
91
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
Note. Here are some useful trig identities for the next few sections.
1. Pythagorean Identity:
12. sin2(θ) =
92
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
Z
Example. Find sin4(x) cos(x) dx
Z
Example. Find sin4(x) cos3(x) dx
93
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
Z
Example. Find sin5(x) cos2(x) dx
94
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
Example. Consider Z
cos2(x)dx
.
According to a TI-89 calculator
Z
sin(x) cos(x) x
cos2(x) dx = +
2 2
.
95
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
R 1 + cos(2x)
Compute cos2(x) dx by hand. Hint: cos2(x) =
2
R
Example. Compute sin2(x) dx by hand.
96
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
R
Example. Compute sin6(x) dx by hand.
97
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
Z
Review. What tricks can be used to calculate cos7(5x) sin4(5x) dx?
98
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
Which of these integrals can be attacked in the same way, using the identity
sin2(x) + cos2(x) = 1 and u-substitution?
Z
p
Z 3
D. sin (2x) cos(2x) dx
A. sin3(x) cos4(x) dx
Z 3
√ Z
cos ( x) E. tan3(x) dx
B. √ dx
x
Z Z
C. cos2(x) sin4(x) dx F. sin2(x) dx
99
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
R
Example. Compute cos2(x) sin4(x) dx by hand.
100
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
Conclusions:
Z
To find sinm(x) cosn(x) dx,
101
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
Note. Often the answers that you get when you integrate by hand do not look identical
to the answers you will see if you use your calculator, Wolfram Alpha, or the integral
table in the back of the book. Of course, the answers should be equivalent. Why do
you think the answers look so different?
102
§8.3 - INTEGRATING TRIG FUNCTIONS
Z
Example. sec(x) dx
103
§8.4 - TRIG SUBSTITUTIONS
104
§8.4 - TRIG SUBSTITUTIONS
The following three trig identities are useful for doing trig substitutions to solve some
kinds of integrals with square roots in them.
sin2(x) + cos2(x) = 1 tan2(x) + 1 = sec2(x) cot2(x) + 1 = csc2(x)
105
§8.4 - TRIG SUBSTITUTIONS
Let’s see where that answer comes from using a trig substitution.
END OF VIDEO
106
§8.4 - TRIG SUBSTITUTIONS
R 2
Review. To compute √x dx, which substitution is most useful?
49−x2
A. u = 49 − x2
B. x = sin(θ)
C. x = 7 sin(θ)
D. x = tan(θ)
E. x = 49 tan(θ)
F. x = 7 sec(θ)
107
§8.4 - TRIG SUBSTITUTIONS
Z
1
Example. Find √ dx. (Assume a is positive.)
x +a
2 2
108
§8.4 - TRIG SUBSTITUTIONS
Z 2/3
√
9x2 − 1
Example. Compute the integral dx
1/3 x
109
§8.4 - TRIG SUBSTITUTIONS
110
§8.4 - TRIG SUBSTITUTIONS
Z
2. (100x2 − 1)3/2 dx
Z r
x2
3. x 4 − dx
9
Z
4. (25 − x2)2 dx
Z √
5. −x2 − 6x + 7 dx
111
§8.4 - TRIG SUBSTITUTIONS
Extra Example. Use calculus to find the volume of a torus with dimensions R and r as
shown.
112
§8.5 - INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
113
§8.5 - INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
3x + 2
Z
5 7
dx = ln |1 − x| + ln |x + 3| + C
x2 + 2x − 3 4 4
Let’s see where this answer came from.
114
§8.5 - INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Z
1
Review. True or False: 2
dx = ln |2x2 − 7x − 4| + C
2x − 7x − 4
115
§8.5 - INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
2x2 + 7x + 19
Z
Example. Find dx
x2 − 5x + 6
116
§8.5 - INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
117
§8.5 - INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
4x2 + 3x + 7
Z
Example. How would you set up partial fractions to integrate this? dx
x3 − 4x2 + 4x
4x2 + 3x + 7 A B
A. = +
x(x − 2)2 x x−2
4x2 + 3x + 7 A B
B. = +
x(x − 2)2 x (x − 2)2
4x2 + 3x + 7 A B C
C. = + +
x(x − 2)2 x x − 2 (x − 2)2
4x2 + 3x + 7 A Bx + C
D. = +
x(x − 2)2 x (x − 2)2
118
§8.6 INTEGRATION STRATEGIES
119
§8.6 INTEGRATION STRATEGIES
For each integral, indicate what technique you might use to approach it and give the
first step. You do not need to finish any of the problems.
Z
Z sin(x)
6. dx
1. x3 ln x dx 3 + sin (x)
2
x3
Z Z
2. cos2(x) dx 7. dx
25 − x2
3
Z
Z
dx x
3. 8. √ dx
25 − x 2
x ln(x) Z √
Z
4. arcsin(x) dx 9. e x dx
x +1
Z 2
5. √ dx
x
120
PHILOSOPHY ABOUT INTEGRATION
121
PHILOSOPHY ABOUT INTEGRATION
122
PHILOSOPHY ABOUT INTEGRATION
123
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
124
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Z π
2
tan(x) dx
0
Question. What is so improper about them?
or,
(Type II)
or both.
125
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
To integrate over an infinite interval, we take the limit of the integrals over expanding
finite intervals Z ∞
1
Example. Find 2
dx
1 x
Z ∞
Definition. The improper integral f (x) dx is defined as ...
a
Z ∞
We say that f (x) dx converges if ...
a
126
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Z b
Definition. Similarly, we define f (x) dx as ...
−∞
Z b
and say that f (x) dx converges if ...
−∞
Z −1
1
Example. Evaluate dx and determine if it converges or diverges.
−∞ x
END OF VIDEO
127
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
128
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Z ∞
1
Question. For what values of p > 0 does dx converge?
1 xp
129
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Example. Find the area under the curve y = e3x−2 to the left of x = 2.
130
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
When the function we are integrating goes to infinity at one endpoint of an interval,
we take a limit of integrals over expanding sub-intervals.
131
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
x
Example. Find the area under the curve y = √ between the lines x = 1 and x = 2.
x2 −1
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1 2 3 4 5
END OF VIDEO
132
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Review. True or False: If f (x) is continuous on (1, 2] and f (x) → ∞ as x → 1+, then
R2
1
f (x) dx diverges. (Hint: remember the pre-class video on Type 2 integrals.)
Z 10
4
Example. Find dx .
1 (x − 3)2
4
Note. Since blows up at x = 3, this integral must be computed as the sum of
(x − 3)2
two indefinite integrals.
If you compute it without breaking it up YOU WILL GET THE WRONG ANSWER!
133
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Z ∞
1
Question. For what values of p > 0 does dx converge?
1 xp
Z 1
1
Question. For what values of p > 0 does dx converge?
0 xp
134
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Theorem. Comparison Theorem for Integrals: Suppose 0 ≤ g(x) ≤ f (x) on (a, b) (where a or
b could be −∞ or ∞).
Z b Z b
(a) If f (x) dx , then g(x) dx also.
a a
Z b Z b
(b) If g(x) dx , then f (x) dx also.
a a
135
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
∞
2 + sin(x)
Z
Example. Does √ dx converge or diverge?
2 x
136
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Review. If 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ g(x) on the interval [a, ∞), then which of the following are true?
R∞ R∞
A. If a f (x) dx converges, then a g(x) dx converges.
R∞ R∞
B. If a f (x) dx converges, then a g(x) dx diverges.
R∞ R∞
C. If a f (x) dx diverges, then a g(x) dx converges.
R∞ R∞
D. If a f (x) dx diverges, then a g(x) dx diverges.
E. None of these are true.
137
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
∞
cos(x) + 7
Z
Example. Does dx converge or diverge?
1 4x + 5x − 2
3
138
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
∞
3x2 + 2x
Z
Example. Does √ dx converge or diverge?
7 6
x −1
139
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Z ∞
√
x2 − 1
Extra Example. Does dx converge or diverge?
2 x3 + 3x + 2
140
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Z ∞
2
Example. Does e−x dx converge or diverge?
0
141
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Question. What are some useful functions to compare to when using the comparison
test?
Z ∞
1 1 1
Question. True or False: Since − ≤ 2 for 1 < x < ∞, and 2
dx converges, the
x xZ 1 x
∞
1
Comparison Theorem guarantees that − dx also converges.
1 x
142
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
143
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Z ∞
Example. Find x cos(x2 + 1) dx
−∞
144
§8.9 -IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Z ∞ Z t
Question. True or False: f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
−∞ t→∞ −t
145
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
146
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
Example. For each sequence, write out the first three terms:
)∞
3n + 1
(
1.
(n + 2)! n=1
)∞
k+3
(
2. (−1)k
3k k=2
147
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
1
a1 = 2, an = 4 −
an−1
Example. Write out the first three terms of this recursive sequence.
148
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
Example. Write a formula for the general term an, starting with n = 1.
A. {7, 10, 13, 16, 19, · · · }
(starting with n = 0)
An arithmetic sequence can also be written:
149
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
Example. For each sequence, write a formula for the general term an (start with n = 1
or with n = 0).
B. {3, 0.3, 0.03, 0.003, 0.0003, · · · }
n o
2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , · · ·
15 75 375 1875
C.
D. {3, −2, 43 , − 98 , . . .}
Definition. A geometric sequence is a sequence for which consecutive terms have the
same common ratio.
If a is the first term and r is the common ratio, then a geometric sequence has the form:
150
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
Example. For each sequence, write a formula for the general term an, starting with
n = 1.
E. {− 29 , 16
4
, − 25 , 36 , . . .}
8 16
END OF VIDEO
151
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
152
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
1 3 9 27
Example. Consider the sequence − , , − , ,···
2 10 50 250
1. What are the next three two terms in this sequence?
153
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
∞
n2 · 5
Example. Consider the sequence (−1)
n! n=0
1. What are the first three terms in this sequence?
154
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
1 3 9 27
B. − , , − , ,···
2 10 50 250
n o
2, 3, 4, 5, · · ·
1 2 3 4
C.
155
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
∞
X
an
n=1
n o∞
1
Example. Consider the sequence 2n n=1 . If we add together all the terms, we get the
series:
∞
X 1
=
2n
n=1
156
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
∞
X
Definition. The partial sums of a series an are defined as the sequence {sn}∞
n=1
, where
n=1
s1 =
s2 =
s3 =
sn =
∞
X
Definition. The series an is said to converge if :
n=1
157
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
∞
X 1
Example. For the series 2+n
, write out the first 4 terms and the first 4 partial
n=1
n
sums. Does the series appear to converge?
158
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
∞
1
Question. What does it mean for the sequence k to converge vs. diverge?
4 k=1
∞
X 1
Question. What does it mean for the series k
to converge vs. diverge?
k=1
4
∞
X 1
Question. Does the series k
converge or diverge?
k=1
4
159
§10.1 - SEQUENCES AND SERIES INTRO
Example. Using your calculator, Excel, or any other methods, compute several partial
sums for each of the following series and make conjectures about which series converge
and which diverge.
A. 4 + 0.2 + 0.02 + 0.002 + · · ·
∞
X
B. (−1) j
j=1
∞
X k
C.
k+1
k=1
160
10.2 SEQUENCES
10.2 Sequences
161
10.2 SEQUENCES
B. {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, · · · }
C. {3, −2, 34 , − 89 , . . .}
162
10.2 SEQUENCES
B. {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, · · · }
C. {3, −2, 34 , − 89 , . . .}
164
10.2 SEQUENCES
∞
n−5
Example. Is the sequence monotonic? Bounded?
n2 n=1
165
10.2 SEQUENCES
Review. Recall that a geometric sequence is a sequence that can be written in the form:
166
10.2 SEQUENCES
∞
5 · 0.5n
•
3n−1 2
9 27
• 4/3, 2, 3, , . . .
2 4
167
10.2 SEQUENCES
168
10.2 SEQUENCES
The following are some techniques for proving that a sequence converges:
)∞
(−1)tet−1
(
Example. Does converge or diverge?
3t+2 t=0
)∞
ln(1 + 2en)
(
Example. Does converge or diverge?
n n=1
So ... replace an with f (x) and use l’Hospital’s Rule or other tricks from Calculus 1 to
show that lim f (x) exists.
x→∞
170
10.2 SEQUENCES
)∞
cos(n) + sin(n)
(
Example. Does converge or diverge?
n2/3 n=5
Trick 3: Use the Squeeze Theorem: trap the sequence between two simpler sequences
that converge to the same limit.
171
10.2 SEQUENCES
Example. {n + sin(n)}∞
n=0
172
10.2 SEQUENCES
173
10.2 SEQUENCES
)∞
4 · πk
(
k2
Example. Does + k converge or diverge?
2k2 − k 6 k=3
174
10.2 SEQUENCES
Question. Do the limit laws help establish the convergence of this sequence?
3 − 2n ∞
n+
2 n=2
175
10.2 SEQUENCES
True or False:
1. If {ak } converges, then so does {|ak |}.
176
10.2 SEQUENCES
n (−1)n o
Example. Does n2
converge or diverge?
177
10.2 SEQUENCES
True or False:
1. Suppose an = f (n) for some function f , where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. If lim f (x) = L then
x→∞
lim an = L.
n→∞
2. Suppose an = f (n) for some function f . If lim an = L, then lim f (x) = L.
n→∞ x→∞
178
10.2 SEQUENCES
179
§10.3 - SERIES
§10.3 - Series
180
§10.3 - SERIES
∞
X 5(−2)i
Example. Is a geometric series? If so, what is the first term and what is the
i=2
32i−3
common ratio?
181
§10.3 - SERIES
∞
X
Question. For what values of r does the geometric series arn converge?
n=0
Stragegy:
1. Find a formula for the Nth partial sum sumN k
k=0 a · r .
2. Take the limit of the partial sums.
182
§10.3 - SERIES
∞
X
Conclusion: The geometric series arn converges to when .
n=0
∞
X
The geometric series arn diverges when .
n=0
∞
X 5(−2)i
Example. Does converge or diverge?
i=2
32i−3
END OF VIDEO
183
§10.3 - SERIES
∞
X 3xn−1
Example. For what values of x does the series converge? What does it
n=2
2n
converge to (in terms of x)?
184
§10.3 - SERIES
185
§10.3 - SERIES
∞
X 3
Example.
n=2
n2 − 1
186
§10.3 - SERIES
∞
X
a n − bn =
n=1
∞
X
c · an =
n=1
where c is a constant.
187
§10.3 - SERIES
∞
X 4 · 5n − 5 · 4n
6n
n=1
188
§10.3 - SERIES
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
Question. True or False: If an diverges and bn converges, then (an + bn)
n=1 n=1 n=1
diverges.
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
Question. True or False: If an diverges and bn diverges, then (an + bn) di-
n=1 n=1 n=1
verges.
189
§10.3 - SERIES
∞
X ∞
X
Question. True or False: If an converges, then so does an.
n=1 n=5
∞
X ∞
X
Question. True or False: If an converges, then so does an.
n=5 n=1
190
§10.3 - SERIES
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
Question. True or False: If an = A and bn = B, then an · bn = A · B
n=1 n=1 n=1
∞ ∞ ∞
X X X a n A
Question. True or False: If an = A and bn = B, then = .
bn B
n=1 n=1 n=1
191
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
192
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
∞
X 1
n=1
n2
193
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
∞ Z ∞
X 1 1
The series 2
is closely related to the improper integral 2
dx .
n=1
n 1 x
194
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
∞
X 1
√
n=1
x
195
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
196
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
∞
X ln n
Example. Does converge or diverge?
n
n=1
END OF VIDEO
197
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
∞
X k
Example. Does converge or diverges?
k+1
k=1
P
Note. If the sequence of terms an do not converge to 0, then the series an ...
∞
X
then the series an diverges.
n=1
198
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
∞
X
Example. t sin(1/t)
t=1
∞
X
Example. (−1)n
t=1
P
Note. If the sequence of terms an do converge to 0, then the series an
.
199
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
Z ∞
1
Review. We know that 2
dx converges to 1. Which of the following are true?
1 x
∞
X 1
A. 2
converges.
n=1
n
∞
X 1
B. 2
= 1.
n=1
n
C. Both of the above.
D. None of the above.
200
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
∞
X n
Example. Does converge or diverge?
en
n=1
201
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
1 1 1 1
+ + + + ···
5 8 11 14
202
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
∞
X 1
Question. For what values of p does the p-series converge?
np
n=1
203
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
204
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
Rn =
R∞ R∞
Use the pictures above to compare R2 to 2 f (x) dx and 2
f (x) dx where f (x) is the
positive, decreasing function drawn with an = f (n).
205
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
R∞ R∞
Use the pictures above to compare Rn to n f (x) dx and n+1
f (x) dx where f (x) is the
positive, decreasing function drawn with an = f (n).
≤ Rn ≤
Example. (a) Put a bound on the remainder when you use the first three terms to
∞
X 6
approximate 2
.
n=1
n
(b) Use the bound on the remainder to put bounds on the sum s∞. Hint: s∞ = s3 + R3.
(c) How many terms are needed to approximate the sum to within 3 decimal places?
Note: by convention, this means Rn < 0.0005.
207
§10.4 - THE DIVERGENCE TEST AND THE INTEGRAL TEST
208
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
209
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
P∞ P∞
Theorem. (The Comparison Test for Series) Suppose that n=1 an and n=1 bn are series and
0 ≤ an ≤ bn for all n.
1. If converges, then converges.
2. If diverges, then diverges.
Note. The following series are especially handy to compare to when using the com-
parison test.
1. which converges when
2. which converges when
210
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
∞
X 3n
Example. Does converge or diverge?
n=1
5n + n2
211
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
P P
Theorem. (The Limit Comparison Test) Suppose an and bn are series with positive terms.
If
an
lim =L
n→∞ bn
where L is a finite number and L > 0, then either both series converge or both diverge.
∞
X 3n
Example. Does converge or diverge?
n=1
5n − n2
212
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
P∞ P∞
Review. The (Ordinary) Comparison Test for Series: Suppose that n=1 an and n=1 bn
are series with positive terms and 0 ≤ an ≤ bn for all n.
1. If converges, then converges.
2. If diverges, then diverges.
213
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
P∞ P∞
Review. Suppose an and bn are series with positive terms. Which of the follow-
ing will allow us to conclude that ∞ bn converges? (More than one answer may be
P
correct.)
X∞
A. lim an = lim bn and an converges.
n→∞ n→∞
an
= 0 and ∞ an converges.
P
B. lim
n→∞ bn
an 1
= and ∞ an converges.
P
C. lim
n→∞ bn 3
an
= 5 and ∞ an converges.
P
D. lim
n→∞ bn
P P
Review. The Limit Comparison Test: Suppose an and bn are series with positive
terms. If
an
lim =L
n→∞ bn
where L ,
then:
214
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
Question. How to decide whether to use the Ordinary Comparison Test or the Limit
Comparison Test?
215
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
∞
X 3n − 5
√
n=1 n3 + 2n
216
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
∞
X n sin2(n)
Example. Decide if converges or diverges.
n=3
n3 + 7n
217
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
∞
X n sin2(n)
Example. Decide if converges or diverges.
n=3
n3 − 7n
218
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
an
Question. True or False: For an, bn > 0, if lim = 0, then the series an and bn have
P P
n→∞ bn
the same convergence status.
an
Can anything be concluded if lim = 0?
n→∞ bn
219
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
and ∞
X
bn = 2 + (−1) + (1/2) + (−1/4) + (1/8) + (−1/16) + . . .
n=1
P∞
Note that is a geometric series with ratio r = −1/2.
n=1 bn
P P
Since an ≤ bn for all n, and bn converges, an also converges, by the Ordinary
Comparison Test.
220
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
221
§10.5 - COMPARISON TESTS FOR SERIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
222
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
223
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
Definition. An alternating series is a series whose terms are alternately positive and
negative. It is often written as
∞
X
(−1)k−1bk
k=1
224
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
Does the Alternating Harmonic Series converge? Hint: look at ”even” partial sums
and ”odd” partial sums separately.
225
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
satisfies:
1.
2.
3.
then the series is convergent.
226
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
Example. Which of these series are guaranteed to converge by the Alternating Series
Test?
A. √5 − √5 + √5 − √5 + √5 − √5 + ···
2 3 4 5 6 7
B. 2
2 − 12 + 23 − 13 + 42 − 14 + 25 − 51 + · · ·
C. 1
8 − 14 + 27
1
− 91 + 64
1 1
− 16 + 125
1 1
− 25 + ···
227
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
228
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
∞ 2
n n
X
(−1) 3
n=1
n −2
229
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
∞
X
(−1)k (1 + k)1/k
k=1
230
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
We want to put a bound on the remainder. Call the sum of the infinite series s∞ and
the nth partial sum sn.
1. Write an equation for the nth remainder Rn.
231
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
232
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
233
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
X
Definition. A series an is called absolutely convergent if
Example. Which of these series are convergent? Which are absolutely convergent ?
∞
X
1. (−0.8)m convergent abs. convergent
m=0
∞
X 1
2. √ convergent abs. convergent
k=1 k
∞
X 1
3. (−1) j convergent abs. convergent
j
j=5
234
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
Question. Is it possible to have a series that is convergent but not absolutely conver-
gent?
X
Definition. A series an is called conditionally convergent if
Question. Is it possible to have a series that is absolutely convergent but not conver-
gent?
235
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
∞
X
Review. Which of the following statements are true about a series an?
A. If the series is absolutely convergent, then it is convergent.
B. If the series is convergent, then it is absolutely convergent.
C. Both are true.
D. None of these statements are true.
Question. Which of the following Venn Diagrams represents the relationship between
convergence, absolute convergence, and conditional convergence?
236
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
∞
X cos(nπ/3)
n=1
n2
237
SECTION 10.6 - ALTERNATING SERIES
∞
X cos(n) + sin(n)
n=2
n3
238
§10.7 - RATIO AND ROOT TESTS
239
§10.7 - RATIO AND ROOT TESTS
arn
P
Recall: for a geometric series
P
Theorem. (The Ratio Test) For a series an :
∞
a
n+1
X
1. If lim = L < 1, then an is .
n→∞ an
n=1
∞
a
n+1 a
n+1
X
2. If lim = L > 1 or lim = ∞, then an is .
n→∞ an n→∞ an
n=1
∞
a
n+1
X
3. If lim = 1, then an .
n→∞ an
n=1
240
§10.7 - RATIO AND ROOT TESTS
241
§10.7 - RATIO AND ROOT TESTS
∞
X
Review. In which of these situations can we conclude that the series an converges?
an+1
A. lim =0
n→∞ an
an+1
B. lim = 0.3
n→∞ an
a
n+1
C. lim =1
n→∞ an
a
n+1
D. lim = 17
n→∞ an
an+1
E. lim =∞
n→∞ an P
Review. (The Ratio Test) For a series an :
∞
a
n+1
X
1. If lim = L < 1, then an is .
n→∞ an
n=1
∞
a
n+1 a
n+1
X
2. If lim = L > 1 or lim = ∞, then an is .
n→∞ an n→∞ an
n=1
an+1
3. If lim = 1 or DNE , then .
n→∞ an
242
§10.7 - RATIO AND ROOT TESTS
243
§10.7 - RATIO AND ROOT TESTS
244
§10.7 - RATIO AND ROOT TESTS
245
§10.7 - RATIO AND ROOT TESTS
246
§10.7 - RATIO AND ROOT TESTS
247
§10.7 - RATIO AND ROOT TESTS
Rearrangements
P
Definition. A rearrangement of a series an is a series obtained by rearranging its
terms.
P P
Fact. If an is absolutely convergent with sum s, then any rearrangement of an also
has sum s.
P
But if an is any conditionally convergent series, then it can be rearranged to give a
different sum.
Example. Find a way to rearrange the Alternating Harmonic Series so that the rear-
rangement diverges.
Example. Find a way to rearrange the Alternating Harmonic Series so that the rear-
rangement sums to 2.
248
§10.8 - STRATEGY FOR CONVERGENCE TESTS FOR SERIES
249
§10.8 - STRATEGY FOR CONVERGENCE TESTS FOR SERIES
List as many convergence tests as you can. What conditions have to be satisfied?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
250
§10.8 - STRATEGY FOR CONVERGENCE TESTS FOR SERIES
Question. The limit comparison test and the ratio test both involve ratios. How are
they different?
251
§10.8 - STRATEGY FOR CONVERGENCE TESTS FOR SERIES
Example. Which convergence test would you use for each of these examples? Carry
out the convergence test if you have time.
∞
X 2n
1.
n=1
n3
∞
X ln n
2. (−1)n
n+3
n=1
∞
X 1
3. √
3
n=1 n2 + 6n
∞
X 1 1
4. − n
n! 2
n=1
∞
X n2
5.
n=1
en2
∞
X 3
6.
n ln n
n=1
252
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
Suppose we want to approximate a function f (x) near x = 0. Assume that f’s derivative,
second derivative, third derivative, etc all exist at x = 0.
253
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
Review. Let f (x) be a function whose derivatives all exist near x = 0. Suppose that
f (x) can be approximated by a degree 3 polynomial of the form
P3(x) = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + c3x3
in such a way that the function and the polynomial have the same value at x = 0 and
also have the same first through third derivatives at x = 0.
Write an expression for the polynomial coefficient c3 in terms of f (3)(0).
254
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
Review. Let f (x) be a function whose derivatives all exist near x = 5. Suppose that
f (x) can be approximated by a degree 4 polynomial of the form
P4(x) = c0 + c1(x − 5) + c2(x − 5)2 + c3(x − 5)3 + c4(x − 5)4
in such a way that the function and the polynomial have the same value at x = 5 and
also have the same first through fourth derivatives at x = 5.
Suppose f (5) = 1, f 0(5) = 3, f 00(5) = 7, f (3)(5) = 13, and f (4)(5) = −11. What are the
coefficients of the polynomial?
255
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
Note. For a function f (x) whose derivatives all exist near a, suppose we have a degree n
(n)
polynomial Pn(x) such that Pn(a) = f (a), P0n(a) = f 0(a), P00
n (a) = f (a), · · · Pn (a) = f (a).
00 (n)
If Pn(x) is written in the form c0 + c1(x − a) + c2(x − a)2 + c3(x − a)3 + · · · cn(x − a)n, what
are the coefficients c0, · · · cn in terms of f ?
Definition. For the function f (x) whose derivatives are all defined at x = a, the poly-
nomial of the form
256
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
257
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
T9 (x)
T3 (x)
f (x)
-2 2 4 6
T6 (x)
-5
258
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
Example. Find the 7th degree Taylor polynomials for f (x) = sin(x) and g(x) = cos(x),
centered at a = 0.
259
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
Example. Find the 4th Taylor polynomial for f (x) = ex centered at a = 0. What is the
error when using it to approximate e0.15?
260
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
√
Example. Use polynomials of order 1, 2, and 3 to approximate 8.
261
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
Definition. For a function f (x) and its Taylor polynomial Pn(x), the remainder is written
Rn(x) =
Theorem. (Taylor’s Inequality) If | f (n+1)(c)| ≤ M for all c betwen a and x inclusive, then the
remainder Rn(x) of the Taylor series satisfies the inequality
|Rn(x)| ≤
262
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
263
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
Example. How many terms of the Maclaurin series for ex should be used to estimate
e0.5 to within 0.0001?
265
§11.1 - APPROXIMATING SERIES WITH POLYNOMIALS
266
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
267
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
Informally, a power series is a series with a variable in it (often ”x”), that looks like a
polynomial with infinitely many terms.
Example.
∞
X (2n + 1)xn 5x2 7x3 9x4 11x5
= 3 + 3x + + + + + ···
n=0
3n−1 3 9 27 81
is a power series.
Example.
∞
X (5n)(x − 6)n 52(x − 6)2 53(x − 6)3 54(x − 6)4 55(x − 6)5
= 1 + 5(x − 6) + + + + + ···
n=0
n! 2! 3! 4! 5!
268
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
where x is a variable, and the cn’s are constants called coefficients, and a is also a
constant called the center .
269
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
∞
X
Example. For what values of x does the power series n! (x − 3)n converge?
n=0
270
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
∞
X (−2)n(x + 4)n
Example. For what values of x does the power series converge?
n=0
n!
271
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
∞
X (−5x + 2)n
Example. For what values of x does the power series converge?
n
n=1
END OF VIDEO
272
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
1 1
B. + + 1 + x + x 2
+ x 3
+ x4
+ ···
x2 x
C. 1 + 3 + 32 + 33 + 34 + · · ·
D. None of these.
273
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
∞
X
Example. Find the center of the power series nn(7 + 3x)n. For what values of x does
n=1
it converge?
1 n
Hint: lim 1 + = e.
n→∞ n
274
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
∞
X (−5)n(2x − 3)n
Example. Find the center of the power series √ . For what values of x
n=0 3n + 1
does it converge?
275
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
∞
X x2n
Example. For what values of x does the power series converge?
n=0
(3n)!
276
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
∞
X
Theorem. For a given power series cn(x − a)n, there are only three possibilities for conver-
n=0
gence:
1.
2.
3.
Definition. The interval of convergence is the interval of all x-values for which the
power series converges.
1.
2.
3.
277
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
Question. If the interval of convergence of a power series has length 6, then the radius
of convergence of the power series is:
Question. Which of the following could NOT be the interval of convergence for a
power series?
A. (−∞, ∞)
B. (−4, 1]
C. (0, ∞)
D. [ 29 , 100
3 ]
P∞
Question. If the series n=1 cn5n converges, which of the following definitely con-
verges? (The cn represent real numbers.)
A. ∞ n
P
n=1 cn (−3)
P∞
B. n=1 cn(−5)n
C. ∞ n
P
n=1 cn (−7)
D. None of these.
278
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
1. What is f ( 31 )?
279
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
∞
X
We can think of the partial sums of xn as a way to approximate the function 1
1−x
n=0
with polynomials:
s0 =
s1 =
s2 =
s3 =
sn =
280
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
2
Example. Express as a power series and find the interval of convergence.
x−3
281
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
x
Example. Find a power series representation of
1 + 5x2
END OF VIDEO
282
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
1
Review. 1−x can be represented by the power series:
1
Question. 1−x is equal to its power series:
A. when x , 1
B. when x < 1
C. when −1 < x < 1
D. for all real numbers
E. It is never exactly equal to its power series, only approximately equal.
283
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
1
2.
1 + x4
x3
3.
1 + x4
284
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
285
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
•.
•.
286
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
d
[5 + 3(x − 2) + 4(x − 2)2 + 8(x − 2)3] =
dx
...
Z
5 + 3(x − 2) + 4(x − 2)2 + 8(x − 2)3 dx =
has a radius of convergence R > 0, then f (x) is differentiable on the interval (a − R, a + R) and
(i) f 0(x) =
Z
(ii) f (x) dx =
The radius of convergence of the power series in (i) and (ii) are both R.
287
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
Question. Why does the summation sign for the derivative of a power series start at
n = 1 instead of n = 0?
288
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
Example. Find a power series representation for ln |x + 2| and find its radius of conver-
gence.
289
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
2
1
Example. Find a power series representation for .
4x − 1
290
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
Z
x
Example. Find a power series representation for dx and use it to approximate
Z 1 8 + x3
x
dx, accurate to two decimal places.
0 8 + x 3
291
S11.2 PROPERTIES OF POWER SERIES
Summary:
∞
1 X
• We started by representing the function with the power series 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · ·
1−x n=0
∞
X 1
• We used the equation = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · as a template to find the
n=0
1−x
power series for many other related functions, by:
• These same techniques can be used with other templates to build new power series
out of old ones.
292
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
293
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
Definition. Suppose a function f (x) has derivatives f (k)(a) of all orders at the point a.
The power series
294
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
Question. What is the difference between a Taylor series and a Maclaurin series?
Question. What is the difference between a Taylor series and a Taylor polynomial?
295
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
1
Example. Find the Taylor series for f (x) = centered at a = 5.
x
296
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
Example. Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = sin(x) and g(x) = cos(x). Find the radius
of convergence.
297
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
Note. The Taylor series for f centered at a converges to f on an interval I if and only if
...
Question. Does the power series of sin(x) actually converge to sin(x) on its radius of
convergence?
298
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
Example. Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = ex. What is the radius of convergence?
299
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
Example. Use the Maclaurin series for f (x) = ex to find the Maclaurin series for g(x) =
2
x3e−x .
300
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
301
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
p(p − 1)(p − 2) . . . (p − n + 1)
Definition. The expression is written as ,
n!
pronounced , and is also called a .
p
Note. 0
Example. Write the Taylor series for f (x) = (1 + x)π using choose notation.
Definition. The binomial series is the Maclaurin series for (1 + x)p, where k is any real
number. That is, the binomial series is the series:
(1 + x)p =
303
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
1
Example. Find a Maclaurin series for f (x) =
1−x
304
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
305
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
∞
X 5 5 5
Extra Example. If P(x) = (x − 2)n = 5 + (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 + · · ·, find P000(2).
n=0
n! 1! 2!
A. 5
5
B.
2!
5
C.
3!
5 · 23
D.
3!
E. None of these.
Extra Example. Find a power series P(x) such that P(n)(5) = n for all n ≥ 0.
X∞
A. n(x − 5)n
n=1
∞
X (x − 5)n
B.
(n − 1)!
n=1
∞
X (x − 5)n
C.
n!
n=1
D. None of these
306
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
307
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
308
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
2
e−x − 1 + x2
Example. Use a Taylor series to evaluate lim
x→0 x4
309
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
310
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
2
− x2
Example. 1. Find a power series representation for e .
2
− x2
R
2. Find a power series representation for e dx.
Z 1
1 − x2
2
3. Use the first three terms of your power series to estimate √ e dx.
2π −1
312
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
Example. Use a MacLaurin series from this table to find the sum of the Alternating
Harmonic Series.
313
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
Example. Find a power series for the solution of the differential equation. Can you
guess what function this power series represents?
y0(t) = 6y + 9 y(0) = 2
314
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
√
Example. Find the Maclaurin series for g(x) = eix, where i = −1.
315
§11.3 - TAYLOR SERIES
316
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
t x y
-2 5 8
-1 3 5
0
317
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
318
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
319
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
320
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Review. Which of the following graphs represents the graph of the parametric equa-
tions x = cos t, y = sin t. (The horizontal axis is the x-axis and the vertical axis is the
y-axis.)
C.
A. B.
321
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
√ Methods:
1. x = 5 t, y = 3 + t2
2. x = et, y = e−t
3. x = 5 cos(t) + 3, y = 2 sin(t) − 7
322
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
323
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Example. What is the equation for a circle of radius 8 centered at the point (5, -2)
1. in Cartesian coordinates ?
2. in parametric equations?
324
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Example. Find parametric equations for a line through the points (2, 5) and (6, 8).
1. any way you want.
325
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Example. Use the graphs of x = f (t) and y = g(t) to sketch a graph of y in terms of x.
326
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Extra Example. The graphs of x = f (t) and y = g(t) are shown above. Select the graph
of the parametric curve described by these equations.
C.
A.
B. D.
327
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
328
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
ARC LENGTH
Example. Find the length of this curve.
329
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
331
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Example. Find the exact length of the curve x = cos(t) + t sin(t), y = sin(t) − t cos(t),
from the point (1, 0) to the point (−1, π).
332
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Example. Write down an expression for the arc length of a curve given in Cartesian
coordinates: y = f (x).
2
Example. Find the arc length of the curve y = 12 ln(x) − x4 from x = 1 to x = 3.
333
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
If we fix the t-value where the curve starts (t = a), but vary the t-value where the curve
ends (t = b), we can think of this as a function of b:
334
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
TANGENT LINES
The slope of the tangent line for a curve y = p(x) (given in Cartesian coordinates) is:
If the curve is given by parametric equations x = f (t), y = g(t), then the slope of its
tangent line is:
335
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
336
§12.1 - PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Review. The slope of the tangent line for a parametric curve x = f (t), y = g(t) is given
by:
Example. The graph of the curve x(t) = 2 cos(t) + cos(2t), y(t) = sin(2t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π is
drawn below.
1. Find the equations of the tangent lines at the point (−1, 0) on the curve.
2. Find the coordinates of all the points on the curve where the tangent line is vertical.
337
§12.2 POLAR COORDINATES
1. (8, − 2π
3 )
2. (5, 3π)
3. (−12, π4 )
Note. A negative angle means to go clockwise from the positive x-axis. A negative
radius means jump to the other side of the origin, that is, (−r, θ) means the same point
as (r, θ + π)
338
§12.2 POLAR COORDINATES
339
§12.2 POLAR COORDINATES
Review. Points on the plane can be written in terms of Cartesian coordinates (x, y) or
in terms of polar coordinates (r, θ)
where r represents ...
The quantities x and y and r and θ are related by the equations ...
340
§12.2 POLAR COORDINATES
√
Review. Convert the point P = (− 3, 3), which is in Cartesian coordinates, to polar
coordinates. (More than one answer may be correct.)
A. (1, π3 )
√ π
B. (2 3, 3 )
√
C. (2 3, − π3 )
√ 2π
D. (2 3, 3 )
√ −π
E. (−2 3, 3 )
341
§12.2 POLAR COORDINATES
Example. Plot the following curves and rewrite using Cartesian coordinates.
A. r = 7 B. θ = 1
342
§12.2 POLAR COORDINATES
Example. Plot the following curves and rewrite the first one using Cartesian coordi-
nates.
C. r = 12 cos(θ) D. r = 6 + 6 cos(θ) (an example of a limacon)
343
§12.2 POLAR COORDINATES
344
§12.2 POLAR COORDINATES
345
§12.2 POLAR COORDINATES
1 2 3
4 5 6
(a) r = ln(θ)
(b) r = θ2
(c) r = cos(3θ)
(d) r = 2 + cos(3θ)
θ
(e) r = cos( )
2
3θ
(f) r = 2 + cos( )
2
346
§10.4 AREA IN POLAR COORDINATES
Goal: Find a formula for the area of a region whose boundary is given by a polar
equation r = f (θ).
347
§10.4 AREA IN POLAR COORDINATES
Step 2: Divide our polar region with boundary r = f (θ) into slivers ∆A that are
approximately sectors of circles.
348
§10.4 AREA IN POLAR COORDINATES
Example. Find the area inside one leaf of the flower r = sin(2θ)
349
§10.4 AREA IN POLAR COORDINATES
Extra Example. Find the area of the region that lies inside both flowers: r = sin(2θ)
and r = cos(2θ)
350
§4.4 - L’HOSPITAL’S RULE
ln(x)
Example. lim √
x→∞ 3 x
351
§4.4 - L’HOSPITAL’S RULE
ex
Example. lim+
x→5 x − 5
Example. lim+ xx
x→0
352
§4.4 - L’HOSPITAL’S RULE
353
§4.4 - L’HOSPITAL’S RULE
354
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Differential equations are equations that involve functions and their derivatives. For
example,
dy √
1. dx = x
2. y0 = 1 + y2
d2 y
3. dx2
= −4y
4. y = x + y
0
Solving a differential equation means to find all functions y = f (x) that satisfy it.
Sometimes it is useful to find a particular solution, with a given initial condition, such
as y(2) = 5.
355
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
dy √
Example. dx = x
1. Solve this differential equation.
356
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Example. y0 = 1 + y2
1. Verify that y = tan(x) is a solution to this equation.
2. Is y = tan(x) + 3 a solution?
3. Is y = 3 tan(x) a solution?
4. Is y = tan(x + 3) a solution?
357
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Example. ”Separate” the differential equation by moving all y’s to the left side and all
x’s to the right side, to find all solutions to the equation
y0 = 1 + y2
358
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
359
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
360
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
361
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
d2 y
Example. dx2
= −4y
1. Show that an equation of this form describes the motion of a spring.
362
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Example. y0 = x + y
1. This equation is harder to solve or guess solutions for, but we can get approximate
solutions by plotting the “slope field”.
x y y0 (note: y0 = x + y)
363
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
2. Sketch some curves whose tangent lines fall on this slope field.
3. Sketch an approximate solution to the differential equation that satisfies the initial
condition y(−1) = 1.
364
§9.1, 9.2, 9.3 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Example. For each situation, set up a differential equation. If you have extra time at
the end, you can solve the equations.
1. The rate of cooling of an object is proportional to the temperature difference be-
tween the object and its surroundings. Write a differential equation to describe the
temperature of a cup of coffee that starts out at 90◦ C and is in a 20◦ room.
2. A population is growing at a rate proportional to the population size .
3. The logistic population model assumes that there is a maximum carrying capacity
of M and that the rate of change of the population is proportional to the product
of the population and the fraction of the carrying capacity that is left.
365