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Thyroid Storm
Authors

Binod Pokhrel1; Wajeeha Aiman2; Kamal Bhusal3.

Affiliations
1 Louisiana State University HSC
2 University of Health Sciences, Lahore Pakistan
3 Louisiana State University HSC

Last Update: July 19, 2020.

Introduction
Thyroid storm, also known as thyrotoxic crisis, is an acute, life-threatening complication of hyperthyroidism. It is an
exaggerated presentation of thyrotoxicosis. It comes with sudden multisystem involvement. The mortality associated
with thyroid storm is estimated to be 8-25% despite modern advancements in its treatment and supportive measures.
[1] Thus, it is very important to recognize it early and start aggressive treatment to reduce mortality.

The diagnosis of thyroid storm is clinical.

Etiology
Superimposed precipitating factors cause thyroid storm in patients with diagnosed or undiagnosed hyperthyroidism. It
is more common with Graves’ disease but can occur with other etiologies of hyperthyroidism, for example, toxic
multinodular goiter and toxic adenoma of the thyroid.[2]

The precipitating factors are:

Abrupt discontinuation of antithyroid medicine

Thyroid surgery

Non-thyroid surgery

Trauma

Acute illness like infections, diabetic ketoacidosis, acute myocardial infarction, cardiovascular accident, cardiac
failure, drug reaction

Parturition

Recent use of Iodinated contrast medium

Radioiodine therapy (rare)

Burns

Stroke

Medication side effect e.g. amiodarone, anesthetics, salicylates.

Epidemiology
It is a rare presentation of hyperthyroidism. Thyroid storm accounts for about 1% to 2% of admissions for
hyperthyroidism. As per the United States survey, the incidence of storm ranged from 0.57 t0 0.76 cases per 100,000

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per year in the normal population, and 4.8 to 5.6 cases/100,000 per year in hospitalized patients.[3] As per the Japanese
National Survey, the incidence of thyroid storm was 0.2 per 100,000 population per year, about 0.22% of all
thyrotoxicosis patients and 5.4% of hospitalized thyrotoxicosis patients. The average age of people with thyroid storm
was 42 to 43 years, which was similar to people with thyrotoxicosis without thyroid storm. The male to female ratio for
the incidence of thyroid storm was about 1:3, similar to thyrotoxicosis without storm group.[4]

Pathophysiology
The pathophysiological basis for precipitation of thyroid storm in patients with thyrotoxicosis is not clear. But, a
precipitating factor, as mentioned above, is always required to cause thyroid storm. Several hypotheses have been
purposed. One hypothesis suggests the incidence of thyroid storm is due to the rapid increase in thyroid hormone
levels, rather than the absolute hormone level that occurs during thyroid surgery, following radioactive iodine
treatment, after sudden discontinuation of the antithyroid drug, or after administration of the large dose of iodine in
contrast studies. The hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system with increased response to catecholamine along
with an increased cellular response to thyroid hormone during acute stress or infections, causing cytokines release and
altered immunological disturbances, are other possible mechanisms of thyroid storm. Most studies have failed to relate
higher thyroid hormone levels as a cause of thyroid storm, except for the study by Brooks and others, reported higher
free thyroid hormone among the patients with thyroid storm.[5] In other words, the degree of thyroid hormone level is
not directly related to a higher incidence of thyroid storm.[2]

The clinical features are due to the exaggerated effects of the thyroid hormone. There is intense metabolic activity
which increases oxygen requirements. The resulting tachycardia to meet the oxygen requirements can induce heart
failure and predisposes the patient to arrhythmias. Similarly, the CNS symptoms include irritability, seizures, delirium,
and eventually coma.

Histopathology
Histopathology depends on the cause of the thyroid storm. The most common cause Grave's disease shows diffuse
follicular hyperplasia along with increased thyroid receptor antibodies and increased vascularization to the tissue. If it
is a tumor causing storm, malignant cells infiltrate and destroy the thyroid tissue freely, and rupture the follicles.[6][7]

Toxicokinetics
Toxicokinetics are the precipitating factors:

Severe emotional distress

Stroke

Excercise

Pulmonary embolism etc.

History and Physical

Presentation of thyroid storm is an exaggerated manifestation of hyperthyroidism, with the presence of an acute
precipitating factor. Fever, cardiovascular involvement (including tachycardia, heart failure, arrhythmia), central
nervous system (CNS) manifestations, and gastrointestinal symptoms are common. Fever of 104 F to 106 F with
diaphoresis is a key presenting feature. Cardiovascular manifestations include tachycardia more than 140 HR/minute,
heart failure with pulmonary edema and peripheral edema, hypotension, arrhythmia, and death from cardiac arrest.
CNS involvement includes agitation, delirium, anxiety, psychosis, or coma. Gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms include
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, intestinal obstruction, and acute hepatic failure.[8] A Japanese study found
the CNS involvement to be a poor prognostic factor for increased mortality.[4]

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Physical examination findings may include high temperature, tachycardia, orbitopathy, goiter, hand tremors, moist and
warm skin, hyperreflexia, systolic hypertension, and jaundice.

Evaluation
The diagnosis of thyroid storm needs clinical suspicion based on the presentation mentioned above in a patient with
hyperthyroidism or suspected hyperthyroidism. One should not wait for lab results before starting treatment. Thyroid
function tests can be obtained which usually show high FT4/FT3 and low TSH. It is not necessary to have a very high
level of thyroid hormone to cause thyroid storm. Other lab abnormalities may include hypercalcemia, hyperglycemia
(due to inhibition of insulin release and increased glycogenolysis), abnormal LFTs, high or low white blood cell
(WBC) count.

Burch-Wartofsky Point Scale (BWPS)[2][2][2]

In 1993, the following scoring system for the diagnosis of thyroid storm was introduced:

Temperature: 5 points per 1 F above 99 F (maximum 30 points)

CNS dysfunction: 10 points for mild (agitation), 20 for moderate (delirium, psychosis or extreme lethargy), and
30 for severe (seizure or coma)

Tachycardia: 5 (99-109), 10 (110 -119), 15 (120 -129), 20 (130 -139) and 25 (greater than 140)

Presence of atrial fibrillation:10

Heart failure: 5 for mild (pedal edema), 10 for moderate (bi-basilar rales), 15 for severe (pulmonary edema)

GI dysfunction: 10 for moderate (diarrhea, nausea/vomiting or abdominal pain) and 20 for severe (unexplained
jaundice)

Presence of Precipitating factor: 10 points

Diagnosis: A total score of more than 45 is highly suggestive of thyroid storm, 25 to 44 supports the diagnosis, and less
than 25 makes the diagnosis unlikely.

The Japanese Thyroid Association (JTA)[4]

This is a different scoring system based on similar clinical findings. Thyrotoxicosis (elevated FT3 and/or FT4) is a
prerequisite, and it requires various combinations of following symptoms:

CNS manifestation (restlessness, delirium, psychosis/mental aberration, lethargy/somnolence, coma)

Fever (38 C/100.4 F or greater)

Tachycardia (130/min or higher)

CHF (pulmonary edema, rales, cardiogenic shock, or NYHA class IV)

GI/Hepatic Manifestation (Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, total Bilirubin 3 mg/dl or more

Diagnosis

Definite Thyroid Storm (TS1): Thyrotoxicosis (elevated FT3 and/or FT4) plus

At least one CNS manifestation plus one or more other symptoms (fever, tachycardia, CHF, GI/Hepatic) ‘OR’ A
combination of at least three features among fever, GI/Hepatic, CHF, or tachycardia

Suspected Thyroid Storm (TS2): Thyrotoxicosis (elevated FT3 and/or FT4) plus

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A combination of at least two features among tachycardia, CHF, GI/Hepatic, Fever ‘OR’ A patient with h/o
thyroid disease, presence of goiter and exophthalmos who meets criteria for TS1 but TFTs not available

These scoring systems are just guidelines. The actual diagnosis is based on clinical judgment. Based on the BWPS
scoring system, a score of 45 or more is more sensitive but less specific than JTA scoring systems TS1 or TS2 to detect
thyroid storm cases. BWPS score of 25 to 45 may suggest an impending storm.

A chest x-ray may be done to assess heart failure. Head CT may help exclude a neurological cause in some patients.

An ECG is often done to monitor for arrhythmias.

Treatment / Management
Treatment of thyroid storm consists of supportive measures like intravenous (IV) fluids, oxygen, cooling blankets,
acetaminophen, as well as specific measures to treat hyperthyroidism. If any precipitating factors, for example,
infection, are present, that needs to be taken care of. Patients with thyroid storm must be admitted to the intensive care
unit with close cardiac monitoring and ventilatory support if needed.[1][9]

Specific Strategic Steps for Treatment

1. Therapy to control increased adrenergic tone: Beta-blocker

2. Therapy to reduce thyroid hormone synthesis: Thionamide

3. Therapy to reduce the release of thyroid hormone: Iodine solution

4. Therapy to block peripheral conversion of T4 to T3: Iodinated radiocontrast agent, glucocorticoid, PTU,
propranolol

5. Therapy to reduce enterohepatic recycling of thyroid hormone: Bile acid sequestrant

After initial supportive measures, a beta-blocker should be started for any case of suspected thyroid storm. Typically,
propranolol 40 mg to 80 mg is given every 4 to 6 hours. Then, either a loading dose of propylthiouracil (PTU) 500 mg
to 1000 mg followed by 250 mg every 4 hours or Methimazole (MMI) 20 mg every 4 to 6 hours should be given.
Propylthiouracil is favored because it has a small but additional effect of blocking the peripheral conversion of T4 to
T3. An hour after the administration of propylthiouracil or Methimazole, give five drops of SSKI (supersaturated
potassium iodide) by mouth every 6 hours. Always administer thionamide before starting iodine solution (SSKI)
therapy. [10][11][12] This prevents the imminent increase in thyroid hormone synthesis due to increased iodine load
from super saturated potassium iodide. Hydrocortisone 100 mg IV every eight hours (or Dexamethasone 2 mg every 6
hours) should also be started. If available, oral cholestyramine 4 grams four times daily can be started for severe cases.
One should look for precipitating factors and treat them accordingly. The use of aspirin should be avoided due to its
potential risk of increasing free thyroid hormone levels by interfering with thyroid binding protein.

In the first 24 hours of treatment, propylthiouracil decreases T3 level by 45%, but Methimazole drops T3 level by only
10 % to 15%. Methimazole, whereas, causes more rapid normalization of serum T3 level after a few weeks of
treatment and it has less hepatotoxicity compared to propylthiouracil. Therefore, after initial stabilization, we should
treat with Methimazole (if propylthiouracil was started at the beginning, it should be changed to Methimazole). For
patients who cannot take oral antithyroid medicine, liquid preparation (pharmacist may have to compound) can be
given as enemas. Sometimes, pharmacists can prepare an IV form of antithyroid medicine by dissolving the tablet.[13]
[14][15]

Esmolol, a short-acting beta-blocker, at a loading dose of 250 mcg/kg to 500 mcg/kg followed by 50 mcg/kg to -100
mcg/kg/minute can be given in ICU setting. For patients with reactive airway disease, cardioselective beta-blockers
like atenolol or metoprolol should be chosen. If there is a contraindication for the use of beta-blockers, diltiazem is an
alternative.

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If thionamide therapy is contraindicated because of an allergic reaction, thyroidectomy is needed after treatment with a
beta-blocker, hydrocortisone, cholestyramine, and iodine solution. Plasmapheresis is the last resort if all other measures
fail.

Once patients’ clinical conditions improve, the iodine solution should be stopped, glucocorticoids can be tapered and
stop, and beta-blocker should be adjusted. Thionamide therapy should be titrated, and if propylthiouracil is used
initially, it should be switched to Methimazole. Patients should be recommended for definitive treatment with
radioiodine (RAI) therapy or thyroidectomy.

Surgery may be required in patients with grave's disease for the treatment of hyperthyroidism. These patients need to
be pretreated with beta-blockers, glucocorticoids, and iodine formulas. Surgery is usually done after 5-7 days.

Differential Diagnosis
Thyroid storm should be differentiated from other diseases of similar symptoms and signs.[16] As fever is the most
common presentation of multiple diseases, so it can be misdiagnosed. The differential diagnosis are:

Sepsis

Infection

Psychosis

Cocaine use

Pheochromocytoma

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

Hyperthermia

Surgical Oncology
If toxic adenoma or multinodular goiter is causing this disease, then surgical resection and radioactive iodine ablation
are the mainstay of treatment. Thyroidectomy is preferred if a patient has compressive symptoms. Patients who refuse
ablation or have contraindications to surgery can be treated with long-term antithyroid medicines.[17]

Grave's disease with intrathoracic mass causes severe compressive symptoms and thyroidectomy is preferred in these
cases. Thyroidectomy has other adverse effects like recurrent laryngeal nerve damage and hypoparathyroidism.[18]

Radiation Oncology
Radioiodine-131 (I) therapy is helpful in hyperfunctioning nodules. But the risk of hypothyroidism is 60% after a 20
year follow up in a study of I in hyperthyroidism.[20] Other factors increasing the risk of hypothyroidism in these
patients are:

Methimazole therapy

Age

Pertinent Studies and Ongoing Trials

Randomized trials are still under process for efficacies and safety of more medicines. [19]

Toxicity and Side Effect Management

Complete surgical resection of thyroid and radioiodine ablation can cause hypothyroidism. So these patients need
lifetime exogenous thyroxine therapy and should be monitored for hyperthyroidism. Dose adjustments by
endocrinologists are crucial as the patient is at the risk of both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism.[21]
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Antithyroid drugs, MMI and PTU, causes agranulocytosis. Patients on these drugs should be monitored with CBCs
especially white cell count. If white cell count starts decreasing, these drugs should be discontinued due to the
increased risk of infection.[22]

Other toxicities are hepatic failure, cholestasis, rash, gastrointestinal toxicity, and musculoskeletal pains.[23][24]

Prognosis
Thyroid storm is a real medical emergency which is fatal if left untreated. Cause of death may be heart failure,
arrhythmias or multiple organ failure. However, with treatment, most patients see an improvement within 24 hours.
Risk factors for poor prognosis include:

Advanced age

Neurological deficits on admission[8]

Failure to use beta-blockers and antithyroid medications

Need for dialysis and/or mechanical ventilation

Complications
If left untreated, thyroid storm can lead to the following complications:

Arrhythmias

High output cardiac failure

Seizures, delirium, coma

Elevated liver enzymes, jaundice

Abdominal cramps, vomiting, diarrhea

Atrial fibrillation and thromboembolism[25]

Deterrence and Patient Education

Patients with hyperthyroidism should be educated about the warning symptoms of thyroid storm, a serious but
fortunately a rare emergency. As it is a dreadful disease but early diagnosis and prompt treatment can improve the
condition. It should be discouraged to delay visiting emergency after experiencing any one of the symptoms. After the
first crisis, non-compliant behaviors should be addressed and treatment benefits and complications should be
described. [26]

Pearls and Other Issues

There are multiple factors responsible for delayed diagnosis and treatment of this emergency condition:

Unavailability of skilled thyroid surgeons

Lack of suitable nuclear medicine units

Lack of patient education

Lack of intern physician communication

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Thyroid storm is a rare life-threatening medical emergency that is difficult to diagnose. Thus, an interprofessional team
that includes an intensivist, cardiologist, endocrinologist, internist, emergency department physician, and infectious
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disease expert is recommended. These patients are best managed in the ICU and monitored by ICU nurses. Nurses need
to be fully aware of the potential complications and notify the physician if there is any change in the hemodynamic
status.

Treatment of thyroid storm consists of supportive measures like intravenous (IV) fluids, oxygen, cooling blankets,
acetaminophen, as well as specific measures to treat hyperthyroidism. If any precipitating factors, for example,
infection, are present, that needs to be taken care of first. Patients with thyroid storm must be admitted to the intensive
care unit with close cardiac monitoring and ventilatory support if needed.[1][9]

The pharmacist may need to prepare a special formula of iodine that can be administered intravenously. The use of
radiocontrast dyes may help in some patients. In some cases, plasmapheresis may be life-saving. The
nephrologist/hematologist must be involved early in the care of these patients and anticipate the need for
plasmapheresis. The team must communicate with each other to avoid the high mortality of thyroid storm.

The outlook for patients with thyroid storm is guarded and depends on patient age, number of organs involved,
comorbidity, need for mechanical ventilation, renal failure, and response to treatment.[27][28]

Continuing Education / Review Questions

Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.

Earn continuing education credits (CME/CE) on this topic.

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References
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