Bioenergetics

Patcharee Boonsiri

For Education Only

 Cell is the smallest unit of life. Metabolic processes that occur in
cells help keeping the organism alive.

In this ebook, there are 4 chapters.

Chapter 1 Bioenergetics :

Living organisms use energy for their functions and they have the
metabolic pathway to produce energy.

Chapter 2 Thermodynamics :

The laws of Thermodynamics are about conservation of energy

and the order/disorder in living organisms.

Chapter 3 Gibbs’ free energy :

This help predicting direction of the chemical reactions in cells.

Chapter 4 High energy compound ATP :

ATP is the energy currency for the living organisms.

Part 1 Bioenergetics
What are the 4 essential things the cells need?
1.molecular building blocks
2.chemical catalysts
3.genetic information
4.energy

The activities of living things require energy.

The energy help the cells to perform functions such as

growth, maintaining balance of the body or called homeostasis,
repair, reproduction, movement, and defense. This means that
all living organisms must obtain and use energy for their life.

What is energy?
Energy is ability to do work. Each cell can convert fuel to
energy in the form that our bodies can use.

Unit of Energy: Calorie, Joule (SI unit)

1 cal = 4.184 J
There are 2 forms of energy
1.Potential energy - is stored energy ( for example,
chemical, concentration gradient, electrical potential energy)
2.Kinetic energy - energy that is actively engaged in doing
work (for example, radient, thermal, mechanical energy)

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What is work?
Work is the use of energy to drive all processes other than
heat flow.
Work = force x distance

Examples of biological works.

1.Synthetic work
2.Mechanical work
3.Electric work
4.Concentration work
5.Heat production
6.Bioluminescence
What is (are) the energy source for living cells?

The first source of energy is from sunlight. The plants use

sunlight for photosynthesis. Some animals eat plants. We eat
both plants and animals. We get energy from these food. Energy
in the molecules of carbohydrate, protein and lipid is stored in
the form of the chemical bonds. We can say that energy is
derived from the chemical bond energy in food molecules.

Why do we eat everyday? This is because our cells require

a constant supply of energy to generate and maintain the
biological order in our body. Please notice that energy passes
through an ecosystem in one direction only.
Cells release the energy stored in their food molecules through
a series of oxidation reactions.

For oxidation reaction, electrons are transferred from one

molecule to another.

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Food molecules act as electron donors.

Animals consume food to obtain energy. Carbohydrates,

lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids provide chemical energy for
them.
During food breakdown (catabolism), product of oxidation rx.
has a lower energy than the donor molecule. At the same time,
e- acceptor molecules capture some energy lost from the food
molecule and store it for later use. When carbon atoms from food
molecule are fully oxidized at the end of the rx.  they are
released as CO2
Cells do not use the energy from oxidation rx. as soon as it is
released but convert it into ATP and NADH.
 Plants convert light energy from the sun into chemical
energy stored in molecules by photosynthesis. During
photosynthesis, the green plants capture light energy and
convert water, CO2, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich
organic compounds.
What is “bioenergetics” ?

Bioenergetics is the study of the transformation of energy in

living organisms. - Living organisms acquire and transform
energy in order to perform biological work.

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Energy flows into an ecosystem in the form of light and exits

in the form of heat.
Therefore, bioenergetics is the study of how organisms
manage their energy resources through metabolic pathways.
How do the food (chemical source of energy) metabolized?

Chemical source can be metabolized by metabolic network

system.
Metabolism in our body is a network of chemical reactions,
called pathways. Some of these chemical reactions occur
spontaneously and release energy whereas the other chemical
reactions are non-spontaneous and require energy in order to
proceed.

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Metabolism is the totality of an organism’s reactions that arise
from interactions between molecules.

All of the chemical reactions that take place inside cells are
the cell’s metabolism.
Metabolism help organisms to transform the chemical
energy stored in molecules into energy that can be used for
cellular processes.

Catabolic pathway- breakdown complex molecules into

simpler molecules.

Anabolic pathway - form complex molecules from simpler

molecules; biosynthesis requires energy input.

Part 1 – conclusion
Cells need energy to accomplish the tasks of life
Energy sources are obtained in the form of sunlight and
food molecules

Eukaryotic cells make energy-rich molecules (ATP and

NADH) via energy pathways including photosynthesis,
glycolysis, Krebs’ cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation

Excess energy is stored in polysaccharides (starch and

glycogen) and lipids
Part 2 –Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations.

Thermodynamics involved with the flow and interchange of heat,
energy and matter in a system of interest.

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The advantage of Thermodynamics is that it predicts

whether a reaction will occur spontaneously.

Cells are not in equilibrium

Living organisms are open systems. They can exchange

energy and matter with surroundings. The open systems involve
with a constant flow of materials in and out, preventing metabolic
pathways from reaching equilibrium. A catabolic pathway in a cell
releases free energy in a series of reactions.

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How is the energy conserved in living organism?

An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy

according to the laws of thermodynamics. There are 3 laws of
Thermodynamics. In biological systems, we usually involve with
the 1st and the 2nd law of Thermodynamics.

The 1st law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of energy)

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot
be created or destroyed.

For example,
You are transforming chemical energy from food into kinetic
energy for cycling.
Plants convert the energy of sunlight (radiant energy) into
chemical energy stored in organic molecules.

Energy flow through living systems such as cells.

Human body is an open system. It can exchange both
energy and matter with its surroundings.

Can cells use 100% of energy from food?

Transfer of energy, in the 1st law, is not 100% efficient. It

releases thermal energy or heat.
What is enthalpy?

Enthalpy (H) is the heat absorb or lost of a chemical system

at constant pressure.

For the chemical reactions, measuring enthalpy is difficult.

It is easier to measure enthalpy change or ∆H.

When a chemical reaction releases heat, e.g. dissolving

NaOH in distilled water, it is exothermic reaction and has a
negative ∆H.

When a chemical reaction absorbs heat, e.g. wash your skin

with alcohol, it is endothermic reaction and has a positive ∆H.

https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Endothermic-and-Exothermic-Reactions.jpg
What is entropy?
According to the 1st law of Thermodynamics, energy cannot
be created or destroyed, but it can change from more-useful
forms into less-useful forms. In most cases, this unusable energy
is in the form of heat.

Heat that does not do work goes towards increasing the

randomness (disorder) of the universe called entropy (S).

The 2nd law of Thermodynamics

The universe tends toward greater disorder.

Any process, including a chemical reaction, will proceed in

a direction that increases the entropy of the universe.

https://www.theunrealtimes.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/entropy.jpg

Systems tend to proceed from ordered to disordered states

(increase entropy)

Energy is needed to make ordered state. Therefore, the 1st

Law of Thermodynamics tells us about conservation of energy
among processes, while the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics tells
us about the directionality of the processes, that is, from lower to
higher entropy.
ΔS is + or – or 0?

The cells are organized into tissues, and the tissues into
organs. Your body maintains homeostasis to keep you alive. We
try to maintain “the order” in our body. For example, amino acids
can form proteins. Protein structure is highly order compare to
amino acids. ΔS of this process is -ve which means you need
energy to synthesis proteins from amino acids (which are
building blocks of proteins).
When living organism die, proteins are degrade to amino
acids. The proteins which are large, complex biomolecules are
converted into a lot of small, simple amino acid molecules. In this
event, ΔS = +ve which means that the rx. occur spontaneous.

ΔS = +ve the rx.occur spontaneous

ΔS = - ve the rx. occur in opposite direction
ΔS = 0 the rx.occur is in equilibrium

Part 2 – conclusion
The 1st law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
Energy can be transferred and transformed
During every energy transfer or transformation, some
energy is unusable, often lost as heat

The 2nd law of Thermodynamics

The disorder (entropy) in the universe is continuously
increasing
Living systems use energy to maintain order. This increase
the entropy of the universe
Part 3 – Gibb’s free energy and energy coupling

What is “free energy”?

Free enegy (G) is the energy available to do work when

temperature and pressure is uniform throughout the system, as
in a living cell.

The following formula shows the relationship between the

1st and the 2nd law of Thermodynamics.

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

Unit of ΔG and ΔH is J/mol or cal/mol

Unit of ΔS is J/mol.K or cal/mol.K

ΔG during the rx is influenced by

• Temperature
• Pressure
• Initial concentration of substrate and product
• pH of solution

ΔG o is different from ΔG o’
The standard condition of both of them are as follows: temp.
25oC (298 Kelvin). pressure 1 atm, initial conc. of 1 M for all
reactants and products. At pH 7 , we add the prime (‘) .
ΔG predicts direction of rx
ΔG is directly related to Keq or chemical equilibrium
constant.
We can calculate Keq from the chemical reaction here.

If Keq is large, the products are favored.

ΔG = - RTln Keq = -2.303 RT logKeq

When Keq > 1, ΔG is less than, 0, the process is

exergonic and will proceed spontaneously in the forward
direction to form more products.

When Keq = 1, ΔG is greater than 0, the process is

endergonic and not spontaneous in the forward direction.

When Keq < 1, ΔG equals, 0, the system is in equilibrium

and the concentrations of the products and reactants will
remain constant
For the chemical reactions

Endergonic reactions are the reactions that required an

input of energy. Reactants have more free energy than the
products.

Exergonic reactions are the reactions that that release

energy. Reactants have less free energy than the products.

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Why enzymes are needed for biochemical reaction?

Enzyme is a biological catalys. Enzyme catalyzes the

reaction in our body, then the reaction can go faster than the
reaction without enzyme.

Enzyme help lowering activation energy (Ea) of the

reactions.
Enzyme also help increasing Keq of the reactions.

Enzyme cannot change ΔG of the reaction.

ΔG can tell that the rx. can occur but cannot tell the rate
(how fast) of rx.

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How can we make the unfavorable reaction occur?

Glucose + Pi Glucose-6 P + H2O ΔGo’ = +14 kJ/mol

ATP + H2O ADP + Pi ΔGo’ = -30.5 kJ/mol
Glucose + ATP Glucose-6 P + ADP ΔGo’ = - 17 kJ/mol

Living organisms have the ability to couple exergonic and

endergonic reactions.
By coupling reaction (with ATP), the overall chemical
process is made exergonic so it can occur spontaneously due to
–ve ΔG.

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Part 3 Conclusion

A living system’s free energy is energy that can do work

under cellular conditions (break and form chemical bonds).
Gibbs’ free energy (G) – in a cell, the amount of energy
contained in a molecule’s chemical bonds (temp and pressure
constant)
Change in free energy (ΔG)
• Endergonic - any reaction that requires an input of energy
• Exergonic - any reaction that releases free energy

Living organisms have the ability to couple exergonic and

endergonic reactions
Part 4 – high energy compound

Most of oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction in general

chemistry involved the flow of electron (e-) from one compounds
to the other compounds.
Oxidation is loss of e-
Reduction is gain of e-

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In living organisms, the processes of metabolism need help

of high energy molecules. The main purpose of these high
energy molecules is to transfer either inorganic phosphate
groups (Pi) or hydride (H-) ions.

The Pi are used to make high energy bonds with many of

the intermediates of metabolism. These bonds can then be
broken to yield energy and then driving the metabolic processes.
 Hydride ions can be transferred from one intermediate to
another resulting in a net oxidation or reduction of the
intermediate.

Oxidation is a loss of hydride (or hydrogen)

Reduction is a gain of hydride (or hydrogen).

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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

ATP is the energy currency for living organisms.
The goal of catabolism is to synthesize ATP. After the body
used ATP, ATP is then break- down into adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) and Pi .

https://content.byui.edu/file/a236934c-3c60-4fe9-90aa-d343b3e3a640/1/module8/images/ATP.png
Why ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is called “energy currency” ?

1.Electrostatic repulsion of the positively charged

phosphates of phosphoanhydride bonds.

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ty7khfiHmvkRiFjicHWw0YtX_3KmRp8pusCDlj4JaDtneZpbSTsoYmR8s9OL1aMJCcguNhusR70dSONamXW8Pj_
Wuzxl7x-KzYACgLWYBxhrCg

2.Resonance stabilization : When the phosphoanhydride

bonds are broken there is an increased stability due to the
resonance of that product's structure

Conversion from ATP to ADP is an important reaction for the

supplying of energy for life processes

In a cell, the ratio of ATP to ADP concentrations is called

the "energy charge" .

If there is more ATP than ADP, the cell can use ATP to
do work.
If there is more ADP than ATP, the cell must synthesize
ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.
ATP can be synthesized by

1.Substrate level phosphorylation

Phosphate group is directly added to ADP to form ATP.

https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/8332/sub.jpg?revision=1

2.Oxidative phosphorylation
This occur at the inner membrane of mitochondria.

https://sites.google.com/site/ccellplanet/_/rsrc/1472844687089/sell-phuch-1/mi-to-khxn-de-riy-
mitochondria/mt11.gif
 NADH and FADH2 (from metabolic pathways) are reduced
forms of high energy molecules or called reducing equivalent.
They donate their electrons to the electron carriers of the
electron transport chain (ETC). After oxygen get electron (oxygen
is the final electron acceptor in this process) ATP is produced by
oxidative phosporylation.

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation

capture the energy in the redox potential of NADH and FADH2
result in ATP production.

Electron is transported from Complex I (or II)  III  IV 

V, create concentration and pH gradients.
 This look like series of sequential oxidation/reduction (redox)
reactions. In each reaction, an electron donor is oxidized and an
electron acceptor is reduced. During these processes, protons
(H+) are pumped out (from the matrix to intermembrane space of
mitochondria). This cause the different in proton concentration (or
we can called proton gradient or pH gradient) between the matrix
and intermembrane space.

https://www.anatomynote.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/15187/Oxidative-phosphorylation-electron-
transport-chain-and-chemiosmosis-diagram.jpg

Oxidative phosphorylation is the process of making ATP by

using the proton gradient generated by the electron transport
chain. Proton motive force then drives proton to go back to the
matrix through the ATP synthase.

Therefore, release of the energy in the gradient back

through the membrane through the protein ATP synthase can
drive ATP synthesis.
In electron transport chain, flow of electrons is spontaneous and
thermodynamically favorable.

Electrons flow downhill and spontaneously moving from

molecules that are strong e- DONORS to strong e- ACCEPTORS
(oxygen is the very strong acceptors). That means e- move from
high energy state to low energy state. The next carrier has
greater affinity for electrons than the previous as you can see the
standard reduction potential in the Tables.

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Why there are many steps in electron transport chain ?

We need proton gradient from many steps of electron

transport chain. Only one step is not possible for us to get enough
proton gradient.
How can ATP synthase generate ATP ?

F0F1 ATP Synthase uses the proton gradient energy for the
synthesis of
ATP.

https://acebiochemistry.yolasite.com/resources/ATP%20synthase.gif

Proton flow through the Fo channel  C unit rotates 

conformation change  ATP synthesized.

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Part 4 Conclusion
ATP is the energy currency of living cell.
ATP ADP + Pi (exergonic rx.)
can couple with many endergonic rx.

We get NADH and FADH2 (reducing equivalents which can

give e- to complex in electron transport chain) from metabolism
e.g. glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle

In electron transport chain, e- pass from complex I, II, III, IV

and O2 is the final e- acceptor.

ATP synthase use energy from proton gradient to generate

ATP (oxidative phosphorylation).

Acknowledgements
We appreciate and thank the websites that provide the
figures for this e-book. This e-book is for education only.