Ancient History

RRP 2021 - Ancient History Ready Reckoner
RRP 2021 - ANCIENT HISTORY

READY RECKONER
INDEX
Sl No Topic Pg No
1. Division of Ancient History and Sources 1  2
2. Indus Valley Civilization 2  6
3. Vedic Age 6 – 10
4. Religious Movements 10 – 14
5. Mahajanapadas 14 – 16
6. Rise of Magadha 16  17
7. Mauryan Era 17 – 21
8. Foreigner Ruling Group of Post Mauryan Period 22  23
9. Native Dynasty of Post Mauryan Period 23 – 26
10. Megalithic Culture 26 – 26
11. Sangam Age 26 – 28
12. Gupta Dynasty 28 – 32
13. Pushyabhuti Dynasty 32 – 33
14. Chalukya of Badami 33 – 33
15. Pallava of Kanchi 33 – 35
16. Development in Philosophy 35 – 37

 Sangam literature: Tolkappiyam,

1. Division of Ancient History Ettuogai, Pattupattu, Pathinenkilkanakku,
and Sources Silpadikarm and Manimekkalai.
 Plays: by Kalidas; and other writings of
 History: Navaratnas in the court of Guptas
 Written evidences available (From Vedic B. Foreign Literature:
Phase till present) Author Book Subject
 Pre-history: Magasthenes Indica Valuable information

(Greek) on Administration
 No written evidence; Archaeological and socio-economic
conditions of
evidences available, (stone age)
Mauryas
 Proto-history:
Ptolemy Geography of Geographical treatise
(Greek) India on India in 2nd
 Written evidences available; but could not Century AD
be deciphered (Eg. Harappan Period).
Pliny (Greek) Naturakus Accounts trade
History is all about understanding the past. Historia relations between
Rome and India in 1st
Sources are crucial to unravel and understand
Century AD
the past.
Anonymous Periplus of the Records personal
Sources: (Greek) Erythrean Sea voyage of Indian
coasts in 80 A.D.
 Archaeological Evidence (Artefacts)
Fa-Hien Record of the Records the Gupta
 Inscriptions (Epigraphy is a study of inscriptions) (Chinese) Buddhist Empire in the 5th
Countries (Fo- Century AD
 Coins (Numismatics is a study of coins). Kuoki)
 Literature Hiuen Tsang Buddhist Describes the social,
(Chinese) Records of the economic and
 Accounts of the Foreigners Western World religious conditions of
(Si-Yu-Ki) India in the 5th and
 Sources of History: 7th Century AD.
(Harshvardhan)
Literature
I-tsing A record of the Studies the Gupta
A. Indian Literature: (Chinese) Buddhists period under Sri
religion as Gupta in the 7th
 Vedic Literature: Vedas, Brahmanas, practiced in Century AD.
Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangas and India and Malay
Archipelago.
Upvedas.
Hwuili Life of Hiuen Accounts Hiuen
 Puranas: Stories of kings and gives (Chinese) Tsang Tsang's travel in
genealogies of the various dynasties. India.
Important source for knowing political C. Other:

history of Ancient India.
 Visakha Datta: Mudra Rakshas; Gupta
 Epics: Ramayana, Mahabharata. period, Chanakya-Chandragupta story
www.laexias.com Page 1 https://elearn.laex.in

settled life, evidence of Dentistry
 Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa: Buddhist
(Baluchistan) (Neolithic)
books written in Sri Lanka; Ashoka spread
First pottery wheel
 Divyavadan: Tibetan Buddhist book, Koldihawa Earliest evidence of rice
Ashoka spread. Bagor and Earliest evidences of Domestication
Adamgarh of animal (Rajasthan)
 Archaeological evidences:
Chirand Serpant cult (Bihar)
 Artefacts- materials used by the ancient
Burzahom Pit-dwelling and domestic dog was
people which are found at the sites, useful buried with their masters in grave.
to understand pre-historic Period. Gulfkral Pit-dwelling (J&K)
 Tools- stone and bone tools and tools Neolithic sites of Unique feature to have ash mound
made up of metals like Bronze and Iron. South India on many sites like Piklihal, Maski,
Hallur etc.
 Pottery – Black and Red Ware, Northern
Black polished ware, Polished Grey Ware
etc.
2. Indus Valley Civilization
 Pollen analysis of the floral remains.
 Burials and tools available near the  Harappan Civilization:
burials.
 First site excavated – Harappa (Dayaram
 Settlements and other architectural Sahni - 1921). So, name of the particular
remains. culture goes by the name of first site
 Inscriptions: excavated.
 Engravings on stone or other metal  It is also called as Indus Valley civilization
objects. because most of the sites are found in the
valley of River Indus.
 Rock edicts- Major and Minor and Pillar
edicts.  Also called as Proto-historic civilisation
 Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta.  Harappan Civilization is older to
Refer : Pre History (Table:1) chalcolithic cultures but advanced when
compared to the latter.
Important findings in the sites of pre-
 Geographical Area:
historic period.
Bhimbetka Homo Sapiens' Cave 500 painted  Flourished between 2500-1500BC.
Rock Shelters (MH)(Prominently
 But 2200-1800BC was its mature period.
Mesolithic site)
Mirzapur Shows that goats and sheep were  It covered the present Pakistan & North
exploited during Palaeolithic phase western and western part of India.
Atranjikhera Textile printing
 It extended from Jammu in the North to
Hastinapur Wild Sugarcane
the Narmada estuary in south, and covers
Inamgaon Statue of mother Goddess (MH) western part of UP and extends to
Mehargarh Earliest evidence of agriculture, Baluchistan, forms the western boundary.

 Refer Harappan Civilization (Table : pottery. PGW

Animal pottery.
2) bones and
food
Table: 1 Prehistory: grains
Palaeolit Mesolithi Sites Early old Tilwara Burzahom Banas
hic age c age Neolithic stone and Bajor and culture
Catego Chalcoli age- (largest Gufkral Kayatha
(Old (later age (New
ry thic age Belan Mesolithi (J&K) culture,
stone stone stone age)
age) age) valley in c site in Chopani Chamba
Mirzapur India), mandu, l region.
Time Early or In India, It started Around (U.P). Rajastha Koldihawa Malwa
period Lower it started around 2000- n.
Middle (Belan culture.
Palaeolith around 6000 B.C 1500
Palaeolith Sites like Valley, Jorwe
ic. (5 8000 B.C in India. B.C
ic – valley Langhnaj UP). culture
lakh B.C and In the of , river (earliest Daimaba
to 50000 continue sub- Narmada sabramat evidence d-large
B.C) d upto continent, and i, of pottery number
Middle 4000 Neolithic Tungabh Narmada and of
Palaeolith B.C. phase adra. valley. farming in bronze
ic (50000 started in India
Upper Bhimbetk goods
B.C- Mehrgarh
Palaeolith a and Chirand Inamgao
40000 (Baluchist
ic- Adamgar. and n-
B.C) an,
Bhimbetk Sarai senuwar largest
Upper Pakistan)
a caves, Nahar in Bihar. site, Big
Palaeolith Gujarat Rai (U.P) Deojali House
ic (40000 dunes Sanganka Hading, with
B.C to Andhra, llu (Kar) (North granary
10000 Karnatak and cachar near-
B.C) a etc. Renigunt Hills, by Malw
Artefac Hand Microlith Regional Stone a (AP) Assam). a- bull
ts axes, s- small & and Sangankal terracott
cleavers. tools temporal copper lu, as
Flakes - used in variations tools. Nagarjuna symboliz
scrappers addition in the Terracot konda, ing
made of to few old Neolithic ta Maski, religious
flakes, stone age artefacts bangles Brahmagir cult.
borers tools. that were and i in South
found. Gungeri
and beads. India. a-
blade like Polished Terracot largest
tools. stone ta hoard of
Blades tools with animal copper
and sharp figurines tools
burins. cutting . and
edges. Stone weapon.
Beehive querns Ganesh
type of and war-
hutments, pestles. close to
common Copper copper
hearths, hoards- Khetri
querns harpoon, mines
and celts,
mullers. Econo Man lived Hunting, Domestica Technolo
rings,
Specialise mic on food tion of gy wise,
axes.
d tools conditi Hunting gathering cattle and the
Ochre ons and food and plants. culture
like coloured
chisels, gathering fishing. Settled had seen
Pottery . progress
celts and Domestic and
(OCP), .
adzes. Old stone ation of sedentary
Black &
Different age was cattle life.
Red
forms of almost started. Crops like Settled
Ware,
Ice age.

Limiting Rice, agricult Agriculture & The Indus region was fertile in
the flora Wheat ure Trade. ancient times, otherwise it would
and and Ragi practise. not have supported towns and
fauna were villages.
variety. grown. The crops grown were wheat,
Social They Paintings Transform Social Barley, peas, seasum, mustard.
aspect inhabited on the ation of inequalit And in Lothal, people started
s in Caves caves in social life ies producing rice.
and rock Bhimbetk from started Indus people were the first to
shelters. a and nomadic emergin produce cotton.
Social Adamgar to settled g. Though there were structures used
grouping h reflect life. Commu to store water- Gabarbands or
s formed the social Social nity life nalas, but channel or canal
the basis life of the differences transfor irrigation seems to have been
for people. emerged ming absent.
hunting. They but not so into a Indus valley people had both short
Division depict distinct. family and long-distance trade, and also
of work activities Birth and life. foreign trade.
based on like death Settleme They used boats and bullock-carts
gender is sexual became an nt size for transportation.
evident. union, important and No use of metallic currency, but
child event in variety practised barter system of
birth, social life. in the exchange.
child size and
rearing Developed uniform system of
shapes
and weights and measures.
of
burial houses. Seals and sealings were used in
ceremony trade, as marks of ownership
. meant to guarantee the quality of
Society the product.
became Domestication of Some form of Mixed farming was
stable Animals practised in Harappan Civilization.
compared Domestication of animals on large
to scale- Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep
Palaeolith and Pigs.
ic people. Dogs and cats were domesticated.
Humped bulls were favoured and
Table: 2 Harappan Civilization kept asses and camels, which were
used as beasts of burden.
Harappan There was an ambiguous evidence
Salient features
civilization of Horse reported from Surkotada,
Town Planning The city is divided into two parts, Mohenjo-Daro and from Lothal.
and structures. the city on raised platform, Known Harappans were well known of
as Upper citadel and the lower Elephants and rhinoceros.
town known as lower citadel.
Society The society seems to be stratified
Grid system followed in based on class.
arrangement of houses and roads.
Based on the settlement patterns,
Usage of Burnt bricks, a location of granaries, objects found
remarkable feature of Harappan in Burials, one can say strongly
Great Bath, served as ritual there existed social inequalities.
bathing, found in upper citadel of People of Indus were beauty
Mohenjo-Daro. conscious-this is reflected in the
A large granary in Mohenjo-Daro dressing styles and ornaments
and six granaries in Harappa. used.
Two roomed barracks in Harappa, Different hair styles were practised
which possibly accommodated by men and women.
labourers. Ornamentation made up of
Underground Drainage system was precious and semi-precious stones
another remarkable feature of the were used by men and women.
civilization. Merchants and priests were

important class of this period. Weavers wove cloth of wool and
Though there was worship of cotton.
mother goddess, it is not so clear, Brick-laying was an important
whether the society is matriarchal craft.
or not. Boat making, Bead-making, seal
Religion and Presence of some structures with making and terracotta
Religious ritual significance indicate the manufacture were also important
practices existence of collective worship. crafts.
Great Bath, Mohenjo-Daro had a Pottery wheel was in full use.
great ritual significance. Goldsmiths made jewellery made
Prevalence of cults of fertility and up of silver, gold and precious
mother goddess worship. stones was found.
They worshiped tree spirits-Pipal Ship bulding and dockyard in
tree was worshipped. Lothal. External trade with
On the seals, a famous deity, who Mesapetomian through Lothal.
has been identified as proto-
Shiva(Pashupatideva) was found.  Decline of Indus Valley Civilization:
The deity is surrounded by animals
like ,rhino,buffalo, elephant, tiger Many theories promoted
and two antelope.
There is sufficient evidence for the  Aryan Invasion theory, supporting evidence
prevalence of phallic worship. from Mohenjo-Daro multiple wounded
Numerous stone symbols of female
sex organs (yoni worship), besides dead bodies at one place (theory refuted).
those of phallus, have been
discovered. Fertility cult was main  Destruction of sites due to floods,
feature.
(Mohenjo-Daro was destroyed by floods not
The worship of fire is proved by the
discovery of fire altars at Lothal, less than 7 times).
Kalibangan and Harappa.
They believed in ghosts and evils  Tectonic forces and earthquakes (Evidence
forces (Demophobia) and used from Kalibangan).
amulets as protection against
them.  Fire (Evidence from Rakhigarhi).
Disposal of the dead has been an
important religious activity.  Malaria (Evidence from Mohenjo-Daro).
Dead bodies were generally placed
in the north-south direction and  Drying up of rivers.
nearby the dead body the
ornaments and other objects were  Ecological changes due to deforestation,
also buried.
desert expansion etc. (most accepted
Harappan script They invented the art of writing,
but the script is not yet deciphered. theory).
The script is not alphabetical but
mainly pictographic.  Important Harappan Sites:
It is written from right to left; a
practise very common to that Place/ Excavator Archaeological Finds
region in the later times. Harappa by Daya 12 granaries –city of granaries,
Technology and The Harappan culture belongs to Ram sahni clay figurines of Mother Goddess
crafts the Bronze age.
Mohenjo-Daro by Great Granary, Great Bath,
They are acquainted with bronze, R.D. Banerjee bronze image of women dancer,
which is an alloy of copper and tin.
image of bearded man, seal of
They got copper from Khetri mines Pasupathi
in Rajasthan, although it could
also be brought from Baluchistan. Chanhudaro by City with no citadel, no bricks
Tin, they got from Afghanistan. M.G.Majumdar only stones, ink pot, terracotta
model of bullock cart
Bronze smiths constituted an
important group of artisans in the Kalibangan by Fire altars. Decorated bricks,
Harappan society. Dr.A.Ghosh ploughed field, Mesopotamian

cylindrical seal, evidence of
Rigvedic period, as it is believed that it is
animal sacrifice.
being related to this period.
Lothal by S.R.RAU Dockyard, rice husk, terracotta
horse, double burial, bead  The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains
making centre, ship seal, chess
board, terraota of horse.
in the Later Vedic Period and this region
No grid planning and drainage
came to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC
Banawali by Dr.
Bist system, toy plough. to 600 BC). Later Vedas like Yajurveda,
Surkotada by Bones of horse, pot burials Samaveda and Atharveda were composed
Jagapati Joshi
during this period.
Dholavira by Dr. Stadium, longest inscription,
Bist water harvesting system with  The Aryans were the first people in India to
unique features, city divided into
know the use of iron.
3 parts.
Rangapur by Arul Rice cultivation and rice husk. Categories Early Vedic Later vedic period
Stein Period (1500 (1000 B.C to 600
B.C to B.C)
Daimadabad Bronze images of chariot, ox etc. 1000B.C)
Southern most Harappan Site. Polity  The chief was  In later Vedic times,
Manda Northern most site. the protector of the Vidatha
the tribe or completely
Alamgirpur Eastern most site. Jana disappeared. The
Sukagendor Western most site.  However, he Sabha and Samiti
did not possess continued to hold
unlimited the ground, but
powers for, he their character
had to reckon changed.
3. Vedic Age with the tribal  Women were no
assemblies longer permitted
to sit in the Sabha,
 Sabha, Samiti,
 Evidence: and it was now
Vidhata and
dominated by
Gana were the
 Zend Avesta- an Iranian text records nobles and
tribal
Brahmanas.
assemblies. Of
names of Aryan Gods like Indra, varuna  The formation of
these, Vidhata
etc. was the oldest. wider kingdoms
These made the king more
 Hittitte- inscription in Anatolia. assemblies powerful.
exercised  Tribal authority
 Kassitte- inscription in Iraq and Mittani deliberative, tended to become
military and territorial. The term
inscription in Syria. religious Rashtra, which
functions. indicates territory,
 About Aryans: first appears in this
 The two most
important period.
 They arrived in India around 1500 BC,  The King performed
assemblies
though there is an on going debate. were the Sabha the Rajasuya
and Samiti. sacrifice, which was
 The region where the Aryans settled in Samiti was supposed to confer
general in supreme power to
India was called Sapta Sindhu (also him. He performed
nature and less
referred to as the Brahmavarta) Indus +5 exclusive than the Asvamedha,
Sabha. which meant
+ Ghaggar(Saraswati) unquestioned
 Women
control over an area
 The period when the Aryans first settled in attended
in which the royal
Sabha and
India, is known as Early Vedic Period house ran
Vidhata in Rig
uninterrupted. He
(1500 BC to 1000 BC). It is also called as Vedic times.

 A few non- also performed the cows'. boosted. However,
monarchical Vajapeya or the  The Rig Veda Barter System
states (ganas) chariot race, in mentions such persist.
are described which the royal artisans as the
whose head chariot was made to carpenter, the
was Ganapati win the race against chariot-maker,
or Jyeshta. his kinsmen. the weaver, the
 Kings started leather worker,
assuming high the potter, etc.
sounding titles like This indicates
Samrat, Ekrat, that they
Sarvbhumi, Virat. practiced all
 During this period these crafts.
collection of taxes  The term, ayas
and tributes, the used for copper
king officer was or bronze
called Sangrihitri. shows that
 The king did not metal-working
possess a standing was known.
army. Tribal units  Trade was
were mustered in scarce mostly
times of war, and, through barter.
according to one  Pottery
ritual for success in associated-
war; the king had to Painted Grey
eat along with his Ware.
people from the
same plate.  Kinship was  The later Vedic
Society
Economy  Mainly  The Aryans now the basis of society came to be
pastoral, lived a sedentary social divided into 4
agriculture was life, domesticated structure. Varnas called the
secondary. animal and  People gave Brahmanas,
 The Aryans did cultivated on a their primary Rajanyas or
not lead a greater scale than loyalty to the Kshatriyas, Vaisyas
settled life. earlier sugarcane. tribe, which and Shudras, each
Although they  Cattle still was called Varna was assigned
used several constituted the Jana. with its duty.
animals, the principal form of  Another  All the 3 higher
horse played movable property. important term varnas shared one
the most  Wheat was also which stands common feature,
significant role cultivated during for the tribe in they were known as
in their life. this period along the Rig Veda is Dvijas (twice born),
 The Rig Vedic with barley. vis. i.e., they were
people  Rice is mentioned in entitled to
 The term for
possessed sources but was not upanayana or
family (kula) is
better an important crop investiture with the
mentioned
knowledge of at this time. Beans sacred thread
rarely in the
agriculture. and Sesame and according to the
Rig Veda.
Ploughshare is pulses such as Vedic mantras.
Moong, Urad etc.  It seems that  The fourth Varna
mentioned in family in early
the earliest were also known. was deprived of the
Vedic Phase sacred thread
part of the Rig  New arts, artists
was indicated ceremony, and with
Veda though and craftsmen also
by term griha. it began the
some consider emerged i.e.
it an smelters, imposition of
Women disabilities on the
interpolation. ironsmiths,
carpenters,  The institution shudras.
 The term for of marriage
war in the Rig weavers, leather  Gotra System:
workers, jewelers, was  The institution of
Veda is established,
gavisthi or dyers and potters. gotra appeared in
 Trade was also although later Vedic times.
'search for symbols of

primitive  Literally, it means appeared
practices the cow-pen or towards the
survived. place where cattle end of the Rig
 We also notice belonging to the Veda period.
the practice of whole clan are kept.  In the age of
levirate and  People began to Rig Veda,
widow practice gotra divisions based
remarriage in exogamy. No on occupations
the Rig Veda. marriage could take had started.
 The status of place between But this
women was persons belonging division was
equal to men to the same gotra or not very sharp
and they having the same Religion  Did not believe  The two
received ancestor. in idol outstanding Rig
Upanayana worship Vedic Gods, Indra
and education, Ashrama System:  Worshipped and Agni, lost their
studied Vedas  Ashramas or four the forces of former importance.
and some of stages of life were nature as the  On the other hand,
them even rose not well established manifestation Prajapati, the
to the rank of in early Vedic times. of one creator, came to
seers  In the post-Vedic Supreme God occupy the supreme
composing texts, we hear of  Vedic Gods position in later
Vedic hymns. four ashramas: Vedic pantheon.
have been
 Monogamy was  Brahmachari or classified into  Rudra, the God of
established, student, 3 categories - animals, became
though  Grihastha or Terrestrial, important in later
polygamy and householder, Atmospheric Vedic times and
polyandry were  Vanaprastha or and Celestial Vishnu came to be
also known. partial retirement  Indra, Agni, conceived as the
and Varuna were preserver and
Varna system  Sanyasa or important protector of the
 Varna was the complete retirement Gods people.
term used for from the world.  Some signs of
 Prithvi,
color and it  But only three are idolatry are noticed
Saraswati,
seems that the mentioned in the
Usha, Aditi  Important female
Aryans were later Vedic texts.
were female deities during the
fair and the The last or the
deities. They Later Vedic Age
indigenous fourth stage had not
were not given were: Usha (goddess
inhabitants been well-
the same of Dawn), Aditi
were dark in established in Later
position as (Mother of Gods),
complexion. Vedic times.
male Gods. Prithvi (Earth
 The Dasas and  4th Ashrama only Goddess), Aryani
 People did not
Dasyus, who mentioned in (Forest Goddess)
worship for
were Jabala Upanishad and Saraswati
spiritual
conquered by reasons but for (River deity).
the Aryans, the welfare of  The mode of
were treated as Praja & Pashu. worship changed
slaves and considerably.
sudras.
 Recitation of
prayers,  Prayers continued
 The tribal chanting of to be recited, but
society was Vedic hymns they ceased to be
divided into 3 and sacrifices the dominant mode
groups- or yajnas were of placating the
warriors an important gods.
(Kshatriya), part of the  Sacrifices became
priests worship. far more important,
(Brahmins)
and they assumed
and Vaishyas.
both public and
 The fourth domestic character.
division called
 The guests were
the Shudras
known as the

Goghna or one who
 Smriti- commentaries on 4 vedas-
was fed on cattle.
 The priests who Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, 6
officiated at vedangas and 4 upavedas.
sacrifices were
regarded generously  First text in world literature.
and given
dakshinas or gifts. Rig Veda
 Theme is prayer addressed to gods.
 Gayatri mantra part of it.
Term Meaning
 1017 hymns into 10 mandalas.
 Reciter called hotri
Assembly of Brahmans and
Sabha  First text to deal with Indian music.
elders
Sama
Samiti Assembly of Commoners Veda
 Main theme is Chchedus.
Vidhata For war booty distribution

 Reciter called Udgatar.
 It deals with rhythm and sound of
Gana Highest Advisory body each hymn.
Unit Head Yajur Veda  Deals with rituals and ceremonies
Kula/ Family Kulapa  Reciter called Adhvaryu
Grama (Village) Gramani  By non-Aryans
Vis (Clan) Vispati  Themes witchcraft, sorcery.
Atharva
Jana (People) Gopa/Gopati Veda  Deals with Ayurveda, Ganithashastra.
Rekhaganita
Rashtra (the  Brahmin never recites this.
Rajan
Country)
 Most secular of all the vedas.
 Officials in Later Vedic Period
 Brahmanas:
Chief Priest, also sometimes referred to as
Purohita
Rashtragopa  Related to conduct of various ceremonies.
It is a prose version of the Vedas.
Senani Supreme Commander of army
 108 in number, Satapatha Brahmana most
Vrajapati Officer-in-Charge of pasture land
famous dealing with rituals connected with
Jivagribha Police Officer
Agricultural production and talks of Money
Spasas/ Spies who also sometimes worked as lenders called Kusidins.
Dutas messengers
 Gopada Brahmana- most voluminous.
Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes
Bhagadugha Revenue collector

 Aithreya Brahmana- about Viswamitra
and non-aryan tribes.
Sangrahitri Treasurer
 Aranyakas:
Mahishi Chief Queen
 Forest texts written mainly for hermits and
Suta Charioteer and court minstrel
students living in jungle.
 Concluding portions of Brahmanas.
 Vedic Literature:
 Consider as the link between Brahmana
 Sruti means revealed ones- All four vedas/ and Upanishad.
samhitas

 Upanishads: 4. Religious Movements

 108 in number also known as Vedantas.
 Deals with metaphysics  Causes of origin:
Katho Upanishad
Dialogue between Nachiketa and  Religious unrest in India in the 6th century
yama on concept of death.
B.C. and increased dominance of
Eso Upanishad Deals with creation
Brahmanas which was not acceptable to
Jabala Upanishad Varna ashrama dharmas
Kshatriyas.
Brihadaranyko Yannavalkya author deals with
Upanishad transmigration of souls.  The complex rituals and sacrifices
Mundako Satyameva Jayate adopted from advocated in the Later Vedic period were
Upanishad this not acceptable to the common people.
Chandogya
Childhood of Krishna in detail.  The superstitious beliefs and mantras
Upanishad
Keno Upanishad Talks about uma or Parvati confused the people.
Swetas swataro Defines shiva for first time.  Spread of new agricultural economy in
Upanishad Discusses about Bhakti
north-eastern India which called for
 Vedangas: preservation of cattle wealth.
Nirukta/Etymology Study of origin of words.  Desire of Vaishyas to improve their social

Shiksha/ Phonetics Oldest deals with pronunciation. position as due to growth of trade their
Chchendus/Metre Related to recitation economic status got a boost.
Vyakarna/Grammar Written by Panini
 Buddhism:
Basis of Indian law.
Dharmashastras- deals with  Sources
household ceremonies.
Kalpa/Rituals Sulvasutras- deals with o Ceylonese chronicles- Mahavamsa by
rekhaganita (Geometry). Mahanama, Depavamsa and Attakatha
Srutasutras-deals with social by Wattagamani.
ceremonies (marriage, birth).
Jyotisha/ Study of movement of planets o Chinese Chronicles
Astronomy and understanding events in life.
o Tibetan Chronicles- Divyavandana-
Kalachakra Buddhism.
 Upavedas:
Upavedas Associated with
 Gautama Buddha (563 BC-483 BC)
Dhanurveda (Warfare). Rig Veda o Clan: Sakya Clan
Gandhavra Veda (Music) Sama Veda
o Father: Siddhodana Mother: Mayadevi
Sthapatyaveda (Architecture) Yajur Veda
Ayurveda (Medicine) Atharva Veda o Birth Place: Lumbini on full moon day
of Visakha masa.
 Towards Renunciation: 4 sights
(i) Man suffering from old age.
(ii) Man suffering from disease

(iii) A dead body.
(iv) A saint with face brimming with
happiness.
 Teachers: Alarakama and Udraka
Ramputra
 Enlightenment: At age of 33 under Pipal
tree(Bodhivriksha) at Uruvella (Bodhgaya)
on banks of river Niranjana (Falgu).
 First Sermon: Sarnath (Deer park) on
Dharma Chakra Parivarthana to 5
disciples including Mahakasyapa (first
disciple).  Buddhist Councils
Counc Chairman
Venue Result
Great Events Symbols il and Patron
Avakranti (conception or Compilation of

White Elephant First Suttapitaka
descent) Saptaparni Mahakasyap
483 byAnanda and
Jati (birth) Lotus and Bull cave, Rajgir a, Ajatasatru
BC Vinaya Pitaka
Mahabhinishkramana by Upali
Horse
(leaving home) Divide into
Second Chullavana, Sabbakami
Nirvana/ Sambodhi Sthaviradins
Bodhi tree 383
(enlightenment) Vaishali Kalashoka and
BC
Mahasangikas
Dharmachakra Wheel(Dharmachakra with
Parivarthana (first Sermon) four spokes) Third Ashoka Mogaliputta Compilation of
250 rama Vihar, Tissa Abhidamapitta
Mahaparinirvana (passing BC Pataliputra Ashoka ka
Stupa
away)
Compilation of
Mahaparinirvana: At Kushinagar at age of 80. Vasumitra Mahavibhasha
Fourth KundalaVan Vice: shastra.
 Doctrines of Buddhism: 98 AD a, Kashmir Ashvaghosa Division into
Kanishka Hinnayan and
4 Noble Truths- ‘Arya Satyas’ Mahayana
 World is full of misery (Sabbam Dukkam)  Buddhist Sangha:

 Cause of misery is excess of desire-
Three Jewels of Buddhism-Buddha, Dhamma,
Pratitya Samputpada
Sangha
 Desire can be surmounted (Dukha
 Oldest church in world history.
Nirodha)
 Slaves, insolvents and diseased not
 Zeal can be conquered by Astangika
allowed.
marga) (Eight-Fold path)
 Meals only once a day.
 Monks rested only in rainy season.
 They not to commit 64 types of crimes
called Pathimokshas.
 Monks had- a yellow robe, needle, a piece  The chief divinities of this new sect were
of string and begging bowl. the Taras.
 Boddhisattvas:  It became popular in Eastern India,
particularly Bengal and Bihar.
 Is a person who is on the path towards
Buddhahood.  Causes for decline of Buddhism:
 Concept of Incarnation.
 It is similar to concept of Incarnations in
the Hindu Mythology.  Advent of Islam- Bakhtiyar Khilji
destroyed stupas and Nalanda University.
Like Indra holds thunder
Vajrapani
bolt  Lack of security made Buddhism move to
Avlokitesvara Padmapani Kind hearted Nepal- Tantrik Buddhism.
Stimulator of understanding
Manjushri and he holds book describing
 Adopted Sanskrit as the language of
10 paramitas preaching that aloofed the common
Maitreya Future Buddha masses.
Kshitigriha Guardian of purgatories.  Adopted many Brahmanical practices
Amitabha/Amitayusha Buddha of Heaven
 Unethical practices in Sangha further
 Difference between Mahayana and tarnished the image of Buddhism.
Hinnayan Buddhism:  Other Important terms related to
Mahayana Hinnayana Buddhism:
 Pro changers  Anti changers. Arhats - liberated beings,
 Believed that  Buddha will never be Nirvana- State of Supreme Bliss
Buddha will be reborn.
born again.  Language-Pali language. Sheel- Good Conduct
 Language-Sanskrit  Buddha was an intellectual Pravrajya- eans "to go forth" and refers to when
 Worship Buddha in not god. Worship of symbols a layperson leaves home to live the life of a Buddhist
idol form.  Considered Lesser vehicle. renunciate among a community of bhikkhus
 Considered great  Salvation to individual Sramana- one who labors, toils, or exerts themselves
vehicle  Hinayana encompasses (for some higher or religious purpose) or "seeker, one
 Believe in Salvation eighteen schools. The most who performs acts of austerity, ascetic.
to all. important for our purposes Upasampada (Pali) literally denotes "approaching or
are Sarvastivada and
 Mahayana’s nearing the ascetic tradition." In more common
Theravada.
important schools- parlance it specifically refers to the rite and ritual of
Chittmatra, ascetic vetting (ordination) by which a candidate, if
Madhyamaka deemed acceptable, enters the community as
Upasampada (ordained) and authorised to undertake
 Vajrayana: ascetic life.
Vassa- The Vassa is the three-month annual retreat
 Its followers believed that salvation could observed by Theravada practitioners. Taking place
be best attained by acquiring the magical during the wet season, Vassa lasts for three lunar
months, usually from July to October.
power i.e. Vajra.
Uposatha- The Uposatha (Sanskrit: Upavasatha) is
 The sect developed in Tibet a Buddhist day of observance. The Buddha taught
that the Uposatha day is for "the cleansing of the
 The sect believes in worship of female defiled mind," resulting in inner calm and joy.
deities Pavarana- assembly at the end of Vassa
Posadha-restoration of vows

 Jainism:  Three Ratnas (jewels of Jainism)

 It is generally believed that the founder of  Right Faith/ Samyak Shradha- belief in
Jainism was Mahavira. It is now Tirthankaras.
recognized that Mahavira was the 24th
 Right Knowledge/ Samyak Jnan-
Tirthankara.
knowledge of Jain creed.
 The sacred books of Jainism tell us that
 Right Conduct/ Samyak Karma- practice
their first Tirthankara was Rishabh, the
of 5 vows of Jainism.
founder of Jainism.
 Theories:
 Rishabh was followed by 23 Tirthankaras.
The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Purana 1. Sadvada/ Theory of may be
describe Rishabh as an incarnation of o All our judgements are relative,
Narayana. conditional and limited.
o Seven modes of prediction (Saptabhangi
 Mahavira (540 BC- 468 BC)
Nayavada)
 Clan: Gnatrika Clan
2. Anekatavada/ theory of plurality-
 Father: Siddhartha Mother: Trishala knowledge cannot be perceived in isolation.
 Birth Place: Kundagrama near Vaishali  Jain Councils:
 Teachers: Alarakama and Udraka Council Venue
Chairman And
Result
Patron
Ramputra
First Pataliputra Sthulabhadra Compilation
 Kaivalya: At age of 43 under Sal tree at 300 BC and of 12 Angas
Chandragupta
Jrimbhikagrama on banks of river Maurya
Rijupalika. Second Vallabhi Devardhi Final
512 AD Kshmasramana compilation
 First sermon: At Pava to his 11 disciples. of 12 Angas
and 12
 Places associated: Champa, Vaishali, upangas
Koshala, Mithila, Magadha and Pavapuri
 Important terms related to Jainism:
 Death: At age of 72 near Pavapuri.
Asrav - Asrav means inflow and according
 Doctrines of Jainism/ Mahavira to Jain philosophy defined as the inflow of karmas to the
soul. The influx of karmas occurs at every second in life.
 Principles/ Vows It is this process that keeps our souls wandering in this
universe and prevents it from being free.
Vows Meaning Samvara - It means stoppagethe stoppage of the influx
Ahimsa Non-Injury of the material karmas into the soul consciousness.
Satya Non-Lying Nirjara - is one of the seven fundamental principles, or

Asteya Non-Stealing Tattva in Jain philosophy, and refers to the shedding or
removal of accumulated karmas from the atma (soul),
Aparigraha Non-Possession essential for breaking free from samsara, the cycle of
Brahmacharya Chastity birth-death and rebirth, by achieving moksha, liberation.
Kaivalya - also known as Kevala Jnana, means

omniscience in Jainism and is roughly translated as
complete understanding or supreme wisdom.

Sallekhana- also known as santhara. It is the religious Shaulkika/ Collector of custom

practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually Shulkadhyaksha duties
reducing the intake of food and liquids.
Bhandagarika Treasurer
 Jainism and Buddhism Comparison  Guilds:

Jainism Buddhism
 Different Names- Shreni, Puga, Nigama,
 Non-violence  Violence is
inevitable.
Sangha, Gana, Head- Jyastha, Shresthi
 Gnana Marga for
Salvation.  Karma Marga for  Term for mobile Guild- Sartha, Head of
 Accepted God but was Salvation.
mobile guild- Sarthavaha
considered lower than Jina  Remained silent on
 Accepted idea of soul God.  Shreni dharma-
 Does not accepted
the idea of soul  Rules and regulations of guilds
 State and Varna Society during  Recognised by Dharmasastra

Buddha:  It had force of law
 Period marked second stage of
urbanization(First stage was urbanization 5. Mahajanapadas
during Harappa).
 Guild system prevailed on large scale.  Second urbanization:
 Punched marked coins were issued for  In the later Vedic period, the tribal
first time. organizations changed its identity and
 Taxes were collected directly by royal gradually shifted to the territorial identity,
agents. and the areas of settlements were now
regarded as Janapadas or states.
 Pottery- Northern Black Polished Ware
(NBPW).  In transition from tribe to monarchy, they
lost the essential democratic pattern of the
 Advanced food producing economy for
tribe but retained the idea of government
the first time with extensive tilling of
through an assembly representing the
alluvial plains.
tribes.
 Republican government was experimented
 These states consisted of either a single
where power was with the Tribal
tribe such as Shakyas, Kolias, Malas etc.
oligarchies.
 Each Janapada tried to dominate and
 The period produced texts dealing with
subjugate other Janapadas to become
sophisticated measurements called
Mahajanapadas.
Sulvasutras.
 Buddhist texts Anguttara Nikaya and
 Some Important functionaries
Mahavastu and Jain text mentions
Gahapatis Rich Peasants
sixteen Mahajanapadas.
Bhojaka Village headmen
Officers for collecting
Balisadakas
Bali voluntary tax.

The 16 Mahajanapadas was the seat of

united republic of
Mahajana eight smaller
Capitals Locations kingdoms of
padas
which Lichhavis,
Covering the Janatriks and
region between Videhas were also
Kabul and members.
Gandhara Taxila
Rawalpindi in
North Western Covering the
Province. modern districts
of Munger and
Covering the area Bhagalpur in
Kamboja Rajpur around Punch Anga Champa Bihar. The
area in Kashmir Kingdoms were
later merged by
Covering modern
Bindusara into
Paithan in
Magadha.
Asmaka Potana/ Potali Maharashtra; on
the bank of River Located in and
Godavari around present-
Kashi Banaras
day Varanasi in
Covering districts
Uttar Pradesh.
Vatsa Kaushambi of Allahabad and
Mirzapur Covering the
present districts
Covering modern
Kosala Shravasti of Faizabad,
Avanti Ujjain Malwa (Ujjain)
Gonda, Bahraich,
region of MP
etc.
Located in the
Covering modern
Mathura region at
districts of Patna,
Surasena Mathura the junction of the Magadha Girivraja/Rajgriha
Gaya and parts of
Uttarpatha &
Shahabad.
Dakshinpatha
Present day
Covering the
Rohilkhand and
modern Ahichhatra (W.Panchala),
Chedi Suktimati Panchala part of Central
Bundelkhand Kampilya (S. Panchala)
Doab in Uttar
area
Pradesh.
Modern districts
of Deoria, Basti,
Gorakhapur in
eastern Uttar
Malla Kushinara, Pawa Pradesh. Later
merged into
Magadha
Kingdom
Covering the
modern Haryana
Kurus Hastinapur/Indraprastha and Delhi area to
the west of River
Yamuna
Covering the area
of Alwar,
Matsya Virat Nagari Bharatpur and
Jaipur in
Rajasthan
Located to the
Vajji’s Vaishali north of the River
Ganga in Bihar. It

 Two types of states: 1. The Haryankas:

Monarchial Republican Between the 6th and the 4th centuries BCE,
Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Vajji, Malla, Kuru, Magadha (in present day Bihar) became the
Kosala, Vatsa, Chedi, Panchal, Kamboja, most powerful Mahajanapada.
Surasena, Matsya, Avanti Shakya, Koliyas and
and Gandhara Muriyas.  Bimbisara: (542-493 BC)
 He strengthened his position by marriage
6. Rise of Magadha alliances. He took three wives.
 Marriage relations with the different
 Causes for the rise of Magadha: princely families gave enormous diplomatic
 Advantages geographical location with prestige and paved the way for the
both Rajgir and Pataliputra situated at expansion of Magadha westward and
strategic locations. northward.
 Abundance of natural resources, such as  The earliest capital of Magadha was at

iron, enabled Magadhan rulers to equip Rajgir, which was called Girivraja at that
with effective weapons. time. It was surrounded by five hills, the
openings in which were closed by stone
 The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains walls on all sides. This made Rajgir
and sufficient rainfall were they conductive impregnable.
for agriculture produces.
 Ajatasatru: (492-460 BC)
 Rise of town and use of metallic money
boosted trade and commerce.  Ajatasatru killed his father and seized the
throne for himself. Throughout his reign,
 The princess could levy tolls and he pursued an aggressive policy of
accumulate wealth to pay and maintain expansion.
their army.
 Udayin: (460-444 BC)
 Use of elephants on a large scale in wars
with its proximity to ancient Kalinga.  His reign is important because he built the
fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and
 Unorthodox character of Magadhan Son at Patna. This was done because
society. Patna lay in the centre of the Magadhan
 Contribution of several enterprising and Kingdom.
ambitious rulers. 2. Shisunagas:
 Before Mauryas, Magadha was ruled  Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of
by 3 main dynasties: Shisunagas, who temporarily shifted the
1. Haryankas capital to Vaishali. Their greatest
2. Shisunagas achievement was the destruction of the
3. Nandas power of the Avanti with its capital at
Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100

years old rivalry between Magadha and o Alexander was impressed by Porus
Avanti. courage and strength and reinstated
him on the throne.
 Kalasoka the 2nd and last ruler was killed
by Mahapadmananda.  Effects of Alexander’s Invasion:
3. The Nandas: o Opening of land and sea route between
India and Europe.
 The Shisunagas were succeeded by the
Nandas, who proved to be the most o Gandhara school of Architecture was
powerful rulers of Magadha. So great was introduced
their power that Alexander, who invaded
o Ground for establishment of Indo-
Punjab at that time, did not dare to move
Bactrian and Parthian States.
towards the east.
 The Nandas added to the Magadhan power
by conquering Kalinga from where they 7. Mauryan Era
brought an image of the Jina as a victory
trophy. Sources of information about Mauryas
 All this took place in the reign of  Literary sources:

Mahapadma Nanda (Shudra by Varna (i) Kautilaya’s ‘Arthashastra’
and Jain by Religion). He claimed to the (ii) Megasthenese’s ‘Indica’
Ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed (iii) Visakha Datta’s ‘Mudra Rakshasa’:
all the other ruling princes. although it was written during Gupta
 Iranian and Macedonian Invasions Period, it describes how Chandragupta
Maurya got Chanakya’s assistance to
 Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C) overthrow Nandas.
 Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.) (iv) Puranas
 Effects of Persian Invasion: (v) Buddhist text Jatakas portrays a general

picture of socio-economic conditions of
 Impetus to Indo-Iranian Trade Mauryan Period.
 Provided impetus to Alexander’s invasion (vi) Buddhist chronicles Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa describe the part played by
 Introduced Kharosthi script.
Ashoka in spread in Buddhism to Sri
 Mauryan sculpture was influenced by Lanka.
Persian style, especially bell-shaped capital (vii) Tibetan Buddhist text Divyavadana gives
and Ashokan inscriptions. information about Ashoka and his efforts
to spread Buddhism.Accounts of Chinese
 Alexander’s invasion-326 BC
travellers.
 Battle of Hydapses
 Archaeological Sources:
o Between Porus and Alexander.
(i) Punch marked coins
(ii) Wooden palace of Chandragupta Maurya
in Pataliputra

(iii) Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)  Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador
(iv) Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions: There sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya
are Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts and Cave by Selecus Nikator.
inscriptions located at several places in
the Indian sub-continent.  Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went
to Chandragiri Hill, Sravanbelgola
 Ashokan Edicts: (Famous for Statue of Gomateshwar, son of
 Edicts were written on rocks & pillars Rishabnath in Kayotsurg Mudra) with
Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow
 All pillar edicts are carved out of Chunar
starvation(Sallekhana).
hills and from there they were dispatched
at different places.  Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first
time, the whole of Northern India was
 The inscriptions are mostly in Prakrit
united.
language and Brahmi script. In North
western region they are written in Prakrit  Bindusara: (298 –273 B.C.)
language & Khroshti and Aramaic script.  Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by
 In Afghanistan they are written in Aramaic his son Bindusara.
script and Greek language.  He is known by different names like
 At Sabhazgarhi and Manshera the script is Madrasar, Simhasena and Amitrochates
Khroshti  King of Syria Antiochus I sent his
 At Kandhar, the edicts found are bilingual. ambassador Diamakus to the court of
Bindusara. Antiochus I asked for sweet
Major rock edicts: various principles of dhamma
Minor rock edicts: personal history of Ashoka & wine, dried figs and a sophist. Wine and
summary of his dhamma figs were sent but sophists were not.
Pillar edicts: appendix to rock edits
 Bindusara patronized Ajivika sect.
 Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 B.C.)
 Ashoka:
 Chandragupta dethroned the last Nanda
The names of Ashoka from different sources
ruler Dhananand, he first captured the
are as:
region of North West
Ashoka Maski minor rock edict.
 Apianus tells us that in 305 BC,
Devanampriyas Ashoka
Chandragupta Maurya defeated Selecus Rajas
Gurjara minor rock edict
Nicator at the bank of river Indus, who Piyadassi Raja Barabar cave inscription
surrendered a vast territory including Aria
Piyadassi Kandhar major rock edict
(herat), Arachosia (Kandhar), Gedrosia
Rudradaman’s Junagarh
(Baluchistan) & Paropanisade (Kabul), in Ashoka Maurya
rock edict
return for 500 elephants.
 According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka
 After the treaty with Selecus Nikator, the usurped the throne after killing his 99
boundary of empire reached up-to brothers and spared Tissa, the youngest
Hindukush. one.

 This war of succession accounts for  He held that if people behaved well, they
interregnum of four years (273-269 BC), would attain Swarga (heaven).
and only after securing his position on the  Later Mauryas (232 – 185 B.C.)
throne, Ashoka had himself formally
crowned in 269 BC.  The Mauryan dynasty lasted for about 137
years.
 Radhagupta a minister of Bindusara
helped him in fratricidal struggle and  The three Mauryan rulers ruled for 90
capture throne. years and later Mauryas for only 47 years
 The queens of Ashoka were Assandhimitta,  Ashoka’s death was followed by the
Kaurvaki and Padmavati. Devi was his division of the Mauryan Empire into two
first love but she never got the status of parts- Western and Eastern.
queen.  The Western part came to be ruled by
 Under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire Kunala and then by Samprati for a short
reached its climax. For the first time, the while.
whole of the sub-continent, leaving out  Eastern part came to be ruled by
the extreme south, was under imperial Dasaratha.
control.
 The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was
 Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC assassinated in 185 BC by his commander
in 9th years of his coronation. The King -in-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga, who
was moved by massacre in this war and established his own Sunga dynasty.
therefore abandoned the policy of physical
 Mauryan administration
occupation in favor of policy of cultural
conquest.  The Mauryan government was a
centralized bureaucracy with king as
 Ashokan Dhamma
fountainhead of all the powers. However,
 Ashoka’s Dhamma was different from he was assisted by the council of ministers
Buddhism. i.e. mantri parishad.
 Dhamma propagated the tenets of  According to Kautilya / Chanakya, there
tolerance as well as moral and ethical are 7 elements of states (Saptanga theory):
conducts. 1. Raja (the king)
 Its broad objective was to preserve the 2. Mitra (Friend)
social order as with the expansion of 3. Durg (fort)
Mauryan Empire the population had 4. Amatya (the secretaries)
become heterogeneous, diverse and multi- 5. Janapada(territory)
racial. 6. Kosha (the treasure)
 It ordained that people should obey their 7. Sena (Army)
parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and
Buddhist monks and show mercy to slaves
and servants.

 Empire divided into Provinces:  Important official in Mauryan

Province Capital Bureaucracy:
Uttarpatha/ Northern Province Taxila Sannidhata Chief treasury officer
Avantirashtra/ Western Ujjain Samaharta Chief tax collector
Prachi/ Central Pataliputra Vyavharika/Dharmastha Chief justice of civil court
Kalinga/ Eastern Toshali Pradeshta Chief justice of criminal court
Dakshinpatha/ Southern Suvarnagiri Prsdesika Chief revenue officer
Rajuka Revenue settlement officer
The different rulers at various levels
Yukta Tax collector
Empire Ruler Sthanika Head of local administration
Provinces Kumara Gopa Responsible for accounts
District Pradeshika, Rajuka, Yukta Incharge of city
Nagaraka
Sub division Gopa, Sthanik administration.
Village Gramika Akshapla Account general
Sitaadhyaksha Supervised Agriculture
 Local and Municipal Administration
Panyadhyaksha Superintendent of commerce
 The provinces were divided into districts Samstha dhyaksha Superintendent of market
which were known as Vish or Ahara Superintendent of weights
Potwadhyaksha
and measures
 The three officials mentioned in Ashokan
Navaadhyaksha Superintendent of ships
edicts i.e. Yukta, Rajjuka and Pradeshika
Sulkaadhyaksha Collector of tolls
were associated with the district
Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines
administration
Lohadhyaksha Superintendent of iron
 The Gramika was the head of village
 Economy:
 Nagaraka was the chief officer responsible
 State took active participation in economy
for the law and order in the city.
 Shudras were involved in agriculture for
 The municipal administration of the cities
the first time
was excellent during Mauryan period.
 Crown land was called Sita
 Megasthenese gives an account of the
committee system of administering the  There were provisions for irrigation by
municipalities in the cities. There were 6 the state
committees of five members each. The  The normal taxation rate was one sixth of
functions of these six committees were: the produce
1. Industrial Arts.
 The weight and measures were regulated
2. Entertainment of Foreigners.
by the states
3. Registration of Births & Deaths.
 Tolls were also levied on commodities
4. Trade & Commerce.
brought to town for sale & they were
5. Public sale of manufactured goods.
collected at gate
6. Collection of taxes on the articles sold

 The state enjoyed monopoly in mining,  Negation of folk and State Oppression ans
forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture of Sunga Revolt represent People’s revolt
arms etc.  Post Mauryan Period
 Sohgaura (Gorakhpur district, U.P.)
 After the decline of Mauryas, the regional
copper plate inscription & Mahasthana
kingdoms were formed.
(Bogara district, Bangladesh) inscription
deal with the relief measures to be  Unlike Mauryas none of these regional
adopted during a famine. kingdoms could extend their political
authority over the large area equivalent to
 Army: that of Mauryan Empire. Thus, with the
 The most striking feature of Mauryan downfall of Mauryas their great empire
administration was maintenance of a huge witnessed rise of multiple regional
army. kingdoms.
 Kautilya permitted all the four varnas to  In eastern India, central India and the
serve in the army Deccan, this period saw number of native
rulers such as Shungas, the Kanvas and
 According to Pliny, Mauryas maintained
the Satavahanas.
Chaturanga bala(Four fold army) of
Infantry, Cavalry, Elephenty, Charriotry  In north-western India, this period
and an army of six lakh soldiers. witnessed a number of ruling dynasties
from central Asia.
 Mauryan also maintained a Navy.
 Communication:  The important regional kingdoms:
1. Shungas
 Royal highways were well developed.
2. Satavahanas.
 Ujjain was nodal point of all 3. The Kanvas.
communication and transport. 4. Indo-Greeks or Bactrians
 Dakshinavarta marga- Highway from 5. Sakas
Ujjain to Kanyakumari. 6. The Parthians
 Uttarapatha- Highway from Taxila to 7. The Kushans
Kanyakumari.
 Important ports- Broach/ Berigaza in west
and Tamralipti in east.
 Causes for decline:
 Highly centralized administration.
 Pacific policy of Ashoka.
 Financial crisis- Bureaucracy expanded
but the income remained constant.
 Neglect of North-West frontier.

Sakas the emphasize long
8. Foreigner Ruling Group They were branches, d on Junagarh
the branch proper inscription
of Post Mauryan Period five
branches that ruled irrigation was issued
of the western to the in Sanskrit.
Sakas with India was region, Mentions
their powerful which was that
capitals at and existed manifested Sudarshan
Political& different for four through Lake was
Regional Socio- Art and
administrat regions. centuries. the repair built by
Kingdoms economic culture
ion One In 58 B.C, of Chandragupt
Indo- First to First to Introduced branch is King of Sudarshan a Maurya
Greeks cross issue gold Hellenistic located in Ujjain lake, by and repaired
(Bactrians Hindukush. coins in art features Afghanista defeated Rudradam my Asoka.
) India and in the region, n. Sakas and an.
Pushed Earlier
Second towards can be giving rise to 1. Punjab- he took title inscriptions
century India by the definitely Gandhara Taxila ‘Vikramadit were issued
B.C advancing attributed art of ya’. in Prakrit.
2.
Scythians to a king. Buddhism. Mathura An era
tribes. King Gandhara Western started with
Ruled large Menander, school of India 58 B.C by
part of earlier art: Vikramadity
4. Upper
north- Known as a.
 Greek- Deccan
western Milinda roman art The most
India. was with famous
converted Indigenous saka ruler
Famous
to elements was
Indo-Greek
Buddhism. Rudradama
King was  Grey
Menander The n I (130-
sandstone 150A.D)
(165-145 questions
is used.
B.C) of Milinda They moved Like the In the reign
Parthians
to  Images of
He had his from Sakas they of
Nagasena, this art are
capital at Parthia, became Gondophern
Buddhist known for
Sakala Iran, to integral es, St.
monk was anatomical
(Punjab) India. part of Thomas is
recorded in accuracy,
Occupied Indian said to have
form of spatial
small polity and come to
book depth and
territory in society. India for the
known as foreshorte
north- propagation
Milinda ning.
western of
Panho.  Roman Christianity.
India when
Technolog influences- compared to
y: outer robe the Indo-
1. Use of like Kaaya, Greeks and
curtain, human Sakas.
known form
representa Gondophern
as es, most
yavani, tion, etc
famous
got from  Greek Parthian
Greeks. influences- King.
2. Greek facial
term images, The They are the They got Use of burnt
horoscop man-god Kushans nomadic assimilated bricks for
e was form etc. (Yuechis tribes of into Indian flooring and
derived or north- tradition. tiles for both
from the Tocharians central Asia. The roofing and
term ). Their Kushan flooring.
horasastr 50 A.D to empire rulers Construction
a 230 A. D extended worshippe of brick-
form the d both wells.
The Out of all They First ever Oxus to the Shiva and Red ware-

Ganga, from the plain and
Khorasan in Buddha. polished. 9. Native Dynasty of Post
Central Asia
to Varanasi
Several
Kushan
Sprinklers
and spouted
Mauryan Period
in Uttar rulers channels.
Pradesh. worshippe Introduced
Two d Vishnu. turban,
successive Kanishka, tunic, Salient
Satavahanas Shungas
dynasties in convened trousers and features
Kushans: fourth heavy long Puranas-
 Names of the
1. Buddhist coat. satavahana rulers, Bhavishya purana
Kadphises council, known as Andhra’s, tells about the
Technology:
became a occurs in the list of revival of
Kanishka Introduced Brahmanical
great Kings found in
Kadphises better Puranas. sacrifices by
patron of Shungas and
issued Gold cavalry and
coins in
Mahayana
the use of  Inscriptions: massacre of
Buddhism. 1. Nanaghat Buddhists.
India. the riding
Mathura inscription of Devi Ashokavadana
Kushans horse.
school of Naganika. account of Divya
extended Made 2. Nasik Inscription of vadana provides
art:
their power common the Gautami Balasri for the extent of
over upper It is an use of reins Shunga empire.
3. Hatigumpa
India and indigenous and saddles. inscription of Malavikagnimitra
the lower art of Kalidasa,
Used toe- Kharavela
Indus. developed mention about the
stirrup made 4. Girnar inscription of
in Shungas. The hero
Their up of rope to Rudradaman.
Mathura, of the play is
capitals- facilitate 5. Erragudi
Sarnath Agnimitra, son of
Peshawar their inscription of
Pushyamitra. It
and Ashoka.
and movement. says, their rule
Kausambi.
Mathura. Introduced  Nasik, Karle and extended up to
Material Kanheri cave Narmada river.
Kanishka is cap, helmet
used was Sources chaityas also give Inscriptions:
the most and boots.
spotted red information
popular Literature: 1. Inscriptions at
stone.
Kushan  Coins of this period Bodhgaya
It covers 1. Avaghosha temple, show
King.  Literature sources:
Buddhism, , wrote the Shungas
He started Buddhach 1. Kathasaritasagram support to
Jainism
an era arita and of Somadevasuri, Buddhism.
and
called saka Saundaran mention the 2. Dhanadeva-
Brahmanis satavahana dynasty
era, 78 A.D. anda. Ayodhaya
m. for the first time.
He took title 2. Avadanas, inscription,
Jina image 2. BrihatKatha of says that
of compositio
and Gunadya shungas
Devaputra ns of
Buddha’s 3. Kamasutra of controlled
and Kaiser. Mahayana
image are Vatasayana. Ayodhaya.
Administrati masterpiec Buddhism. 3. Yavanarajya
4. Katantara
on: es of the Vyakaranam of inscription,
Strengthene art. sarva Varma. also called as
d the idea of Maghera
It also had  Foreign accounts – Inscription,
divine origin secular Magasthenes Indica, which says that
of Kingship. element. Pliny’s Natural Shungas never
Introduced History, periplus of ruled over
Satrap Erythrean sea also Mathura.
provides information
system.
of this period.
Military
governorshi  According to Matsya Ruled around 187
purana, to 78 BCE.
p
Satavahanas dynasty The dynasty was
Political was ruled by 30 established by
kings for 400 years. Pushyamitra
shunga with
 The dynasty founded
capital at
by simukha.
Pataliputra.

 They set up their They ruled Bihar, administrative
power in upper Bengal and Uttar centres.
Pradesh and
Godavari valley, and
northern M.P.
 Religious institutions
gradually extended and individuals had
their power over The primary an essential role in
Karnataka and achievement of ensuring better
Andhra. shungas, especially social order.
Pushyamitra
 Their tough Lot of controversies
competitors were
Shunga, was to  Satavahanas were
prevent further brahmanized tribe. were there about
Sakas, who were the religious policy
disintegration of
defeated by
Mauryan empire  The famous of Shungas,
Gautamiputra satavahana King, particularly the
and to check
Satakarni. (106- Gautamiputra founder
penetration of
130A.D) Satakarni, claims to Pushyamitra
Greeks in India.
have established the
 The successors of One big invasion of shunga.
four-fold varna
Gautamiputra ruled Greeks was by It was argued they
system.
till 220 A.D Demetrius but were intolerant
 Immediate successor repulsed by  During this period, towards Buddhists.
Vasumitra, son of many indigenous Shungas revived
of Gautamiputra
Agnimitra. and foreign tribes Brahmanism, but
Vasisthiputra
Some historians were brought into not so intolerant
Pulumayi (A.D 130-
argue Kalinga King varna fold. towards other
154) set up capital at
Paithan or Kharavela defeated  Satavahanas were religions.
pratisthan in Pushyamitra the first rulers to Pushyamitra
Aurangabad district. shunga, but others make land grants to shunga erected
argue, Kharavela is the Brahmanas and Bharhut stupa.
 Sakas rule got not a contemporary Buddhist monks. They revived the
revived, of shunga.
Rudradaman  Increasing craft and caste system, and
defeated The last ruler of commerce created the social norms
Satavahanas. this dynasty artisans and based on varna
Devabhuti, was Social merchants. order got
 Yajna sri Satakarni killed by Vasudeva strengthened.
(A.D 165-194) and he established  These groups were
recovered the lost Kanva dynasty in prosperous and they
territories – north Magadha. made huge
Konkan and Malwa Administration: donations to the
from saka rulers. Buddhist cause.
Administration:  They followed
the  Satavahanas show
 Rulers strove for the administrative traces of a
ideal set forth in traditions of matrilineal society.
Dharmashastras. Mauryas. Most of the kings
named after their
 King was upholder of mother-
Dharma and divine Gautamiputra
attributes were Satakarni,
assigned to him. Vasisthiputra
 Traces of Mauryan Pulumayi, Yagnasri
administration were Satakarni.
found- District was  But basically, it was
called Ahara, officials a patriarchal ruling
were Known as family because
amatyas and succession to the
mahamatras. throne passed to the
 Military and feudal male member.
elements were found Shreni-dharma, a
in the  It is a fusion of local
elements and professional code
administration. of conduct, became
northern ingredients.
 Administration of the basis of the
rural areas was  Material culture is social order.
placed in the hands characterised with
Guilds played an
of gaulmika, head of Economic megalithic builds,
important socio-
military regiment. usage of iron, burnt
economic and
bricks, ring wells
religious role.
 Katakas and and practice of
Skandhvaras, agriculture. Gold coins and
military camps silver coins were
served as  Socketed hoes, axes, issued.

adzes, razors, Viharas were built by Mahabodhi temple
ploughshares were satavahana rulers. Mathura school of
used. Karle chaitya, is the art flourished
most famous. during this period.
 They knew the art of
Paddy  At Nasik, we have The human
transplantation. three chaityas, which depictions of this
carry the period were so
 They produced
inscriptions of realistic.
cotton.
Nahapana and The above
 They exploited the Gautamiputra. examples give, that
iron ores of they are not
Karimnagar and
 The period also saw
independent antagonistic to
Warangal. Buddhism.
Buddhist structures
 They issued lead, called stupas. The
potin copper and most famous stupas,
Bronze coins. The of this period, were
coins of this dynasty found at Amaravati
are called as and
Karshapanas. Nagarjunakonda.
 Used Gold as  The official language They used Sanskrit
bullion, but they did of Satavahanas was language, and a
not issue gold coins. Prakrit. Followed variant of Brahmi
script as Royal
 At Peddabankur, in Brahmi script.
language.
Karimnagar district,  Prakrit text,
we have found use of It is argued, that
Gathasaptasati is
fire-backed bricks, the famous
attributed to the
flat and perforated Kalidasa’s play
satavahana King
roof tiles. Literature Malavikagnimitra
called Hala.
was composed
 Pliny informs, that during this period.
Andhra country in
Manu smriti,
the eastern Deccan
which was
included 30 walled
compiled in the
towns, besides
later period,
numerous villages.
composed during
 Satavahana rulers Brahmanism was this period.
claimed to have been dominant religion.
Brahmanas.  Kanva Dynasty: (73 to 28 B.C.)
 Kings and queens Buddhism was also
performed the vedic present, but not  In 73 BC, Devabhuti, the last ruler of the
sacrifices such as got royal patronage
Asvamedha, as much as before. Sunga dynasty, was murdered by his
Vajapeya etc. minister Vasudeva, who usurped the
 Worshipped gods
such as Krishna,
throne and founded the Kanva dynasty.
Vasudeva, and
Religious others.  The dynasty was confined to Magadha only
 Mahayana form of
Buddhism  The period of Kanva rule came to an end
commanded in28 BC when their kingdom was annexed
considerable
following, especially by Satavahanas.
in the artisan class
during their period.  Chedi Dynasty:
 Nagarjunakonda and
Amaravati became  After Mauryas, the Chedi dynasty emerged
important seats of
Buddhist culture. in the Kalinga region, i.e. modern Odisha
 They focused
Many temples and
mainly on
 The capital city of this dynasty was
monasteries were cut
Art & of the solid rock decorations on the Sisupalgarh
Architecture during satavahana stone railings and
gateways to
period.
Stupas- Sanchi,  The important ruler of this dynasty was
 Chaityas and Bharhut stupa, Kharavela
 Kharavela patronized Jainism and the

11. Sangam Age
Hatigumpha inscription gives a reference of
(200 BC-300 AD)
his victories.
10. Megalithic Culture Aspects

of
Features
Sangam
 Megalith means Big Stone. age
 The Information about this period mainly  Sangam means a group of people
or association.
comes from Graves and these graves are
 It is an association of poets and
called Megaliths because they are encircled Bards, met in three different
by big pieces of stones. periods, under the Patronage of
Pandyas.
 Prominent pottery- Black and Red ware  The first Sangam was held at Ten
Madurai and attended by Gods and
 Cultural phase flourished in Peninsula legends. Agasthya Muni was the
between 1000 BC -100 AD. This shows president.The compilations of the
overlap with Sangam Age which is roughly first Sangam have perished.
200 BC- 300 AD.  The second Sangam was held at
Kapatpuram, second capital of
 Evidence of Iron Object reflect Iron Age in Pandyas, produced Tolkappiyam,
deals with tamil grammar, written
Peninsula. by Tolkappiyar (one of the 12
Saints of Agastya Muni, the first to
 Unique Feature- Evidence of Horse Burial
cross vindhyas and come to south)
from Jaunpuri.  The third Sangam was held at
 Megaliths are spread across the Indian present Madurai. It produced the
remaining Sangam literature.
subcontinent.
Literature  In addition to Tolkappiyam,
 The majority of megalithic sites are found Sangam literature consists of
Pattupattu (Ten poems),
in Peninsular India, concentrated in the Ettutogai (eight anthologies which
states of Maharashtra (mainly in deal with erotic and love poems
and poems in praise of gods),
Vidarbha), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Pathinenkilkanakku (Eighteen
Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. minor works) and three Epics-
Silappadikaram, Manimekkalai
and Saivaga Chintamani.
 Pattupattu was divided into two
groups-Aham, deals with matters,
mostly personal, concerning
subjects like love and Puram, deals
with matters, mostly public,
concerning wars, Kings etc.
 Murrugarruppadai, addressing
lord Murugan by Nakkirar,
sirupanarruppadai, deals with a
class of minstrels who sang their
bards, by Nattattanar,
Maduraikkanji, deals with the
economy of the Madurai, by

Mangudi Marudam were some  Administration:
important works under  King was centre of administration.
Pattupattu.  He was called as Ko, Mannam,
 Important work in Korravan and Vendan.
Pathinenkilkanakku, which  The court of the Monarch was
consist of shorter poems in called as ‘Avi’
comparison with Pattupattu and  Higher officials and lower officials
Ettutogai, is Tirukkural, which is were called as ‘Peruntaram’ and
a compound of shastras on ‘Siruntaram’.
Dharma, Artha and Kama, by  Important officials were-
Tiruvallur. It is called as ‘Bible ‘of Amaichchar (Minister), Purohit,
Tamil land. Dutar (Envoy), Senapatiyar
 Three Epics: (Commander), Orar (Spies).
 Silappadikarm- Written by Illango  Kingdom was divided, for
Adigal, grandson of great chola King administrative purposes, into
Karikala. It is a tragic story between Mandalam (Province), Kottam,
Kovalan of Puhar, a merchant, and a Nadu, Ur (town), Perur (Big village)
court dancer Madhavi in Pandyan and Sirur (Small village).
court neglecting his wife Kannagi. King  Valanadu, a new unit created by
Nendujelian accused Kovalan for theft
later cholas. It is an amalgamation
and responsible for the latter death.
of Nadus.
Kannagi revenges her husband death
and she became goddess in the end.  Pattinam and Puhar were coastal
 Manimekkalai -written by Sattanar. It towns and harbour areas
is a story of Manimekkalai, daughter of respectively.
Kovalan and Madhavi. It deals with the  Tamil region was divided into Five
excellence of Buddhism through the
regions (Panchatinai)
travails of Manimekkalai consequent
on the loss of Puhar city, eroded by 1. Kurinji- It is the hilly region
sea. inhabited by Kurvar and Vetar
 Sivaga Chintamani- written by practising hunting and gathering.
Tirruttakkadevar, a Jain ascetic, is 2. Palai- It is an arid region inhabited
the story of Sivaga or Jivaka. by Eyinar and Maravar practising
cattle rearing and robbing on the
 The main theme of Sangam age main routes.
was the war between three powers-
3. Mullai- It is a pastoral tract
Cheras, Cholas and Pandya’s.
inhabited by Ayar and Idaiyar
 Cheras ruled from Karur and shifting cultivation and animal
Vanji. husbandry.
 Their Royal emblem was ‘Bow’. 4. Marutam- It is a wet land, wherein
 Senguttavan, was the most popular Economy plough agriculture is practised by
ruler of Cheras. Vellalar and Ullavar.
 Cholas ruled from Urayur and 5. Neital- It is a littoral/coastal region
Kaveripattnam as their capital. inhabited by Paratvar and
Polity Valayar practising fishing and salt
 Their Royal emblem was ‘Tiger’.
extraction.
 King Karikala, was the most
popular, who founded  The above regions interacted
Kaveripattnam, on the banks of among themselves, through a
Kaveri. barter system, which became the
basis for the economic exchange
 Pandya’s ruled from Madurai.
during this period.
 Their Royal emblem was fish.
 Though, the state formation was in
 Nendujelian, was the most famous rudimentary stage, there was a list
king, who accused Kovalan, hero of of taxes collected from the people:
Shilappadhikaram, for theft. Karai (Land tax), Irai (war

booty/tribute paid by feudatories), Guptan Period Important Aspects
Ulgu (Custom duty) and Iravu
(Forced gift).  Inscriptions:
1. Allahabad inscription of
 Variyam was the basic unit of Tax Samudragupta
territory and Variyar was the Tax
2. Udayagiri cave inscription and
collector. Sanchi inscriptions of
 Both internal and external trade Chandragupta-II
flourished. Deep south had trade 3. Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription
relations with Rome. of Chandragupta-II
 Important ports of this period – 4. Bilsad, Mandsor, Damodarpur
Sources copper plate inscription of
Puhar, Kaveripattnam,
Arikamedu, Karkai on the Eastern Kumaragupta.
coast and Muziris and Tondi on the 5. Junagadh and Bhitari pillar
Western coast. inscription of Skandagupta.
 Important export of this period,  Literature sources:

from this region, was Black pepper, 1. Nitisara of Kamandaka
known as Yavanapriya (Greeks). 2. Devichandraguptam of
Visakhadutta
 ‘Tamilmandalam’ acted as an
3. Mrichchakatika of Sudraka
intermediary zone for silk trade of
China due to closure of silk route  Guptans original home lied in
by Kushans. Addition to this, the the eastern U.P.
discovery of Monsoons, by  They were subordinates of
Hippolous, acted as catalyst for Kushans, of course this is
trade in the region. contested.
 The period saw emergence of a  Srigupta was the first king
cultural unit- Tamizhakam. followed by Ghattotkacha.
Chandragupta I:
 Class differences were distinct –
Arasar (Ruling classes) and  First independent king with the
Kadasiyar (Members of lower title Maharajadhiraja.
classes).  Enlarged his Magadhan
Society kingdom with the help of
 Vellalas (Rich peasants) became a matrimonial alliance with the
dominated group, especially in the Lichchhavis.
Marutam region.
 Images of the king and his
 Hero worship entered into the queen Kumaradevi was
Tamil landscape. This is reflected engraved on one side of the
in the Virarkal, hero stones. Polity coins, made up of Gold.
 He founded a new era from
319-320 A.D, known as Gupta
Samvat.
12. Gupta Dynasty  During his regime, kingdom
covered parts of Bihar, U.P and
Bengal.
 The Age of Guptas: Samudragupta:
 Son of Chandragupta-I acceded
 After the decline of Mauryas, it was Gupta to the throne.
dynasty in Magadha which was able to  He adopted an aggressive
carve a large empire. policy of conquests, which
culminated in the formation of
 Although the empire was smaller as the Gupta empire.(Allahabad
Inscription issued by Harisena
compared to the Mauryan Empire, yet it  He adopted a five-pronged
consisted of a greater part of Northern approach towards different
regions:
India.

1. Aryavarta: The northern region  Bilsad inscription, is the
consisting of Punjab, western earliest inscription of his
U.P and northern M.P. He period.
conquered these regions by
 Mandsor inscription (436 A.D)
defeating various rulers, like
mentions Kumaragupta as
Nagasena of Nagas in Gwalior,
reigning over the whole earth.
and annexing territories.
2. South: 12 rulers of South were  Damodarpur copper plate
defeated by Samudragupta, in inscription refer to him as
the south, he followed a policy of “Maharajadhiraja” and show
grahana-moksha(capture- that he appointed governor of a
release). province.
3. Frontier Kingdoms: Kamarupa  He continued the cordial
(Assam), Samatata (SE Bengal) relations with Vakatakas.
and republics like Yaudheyas  He founded Nalanda university.
(Haryana), Malvas (Rajasthan)
Skandagupta
paid him tributes and paid
homage.  Son of Kumaragupta-I, perhaps
the last powerful Guptan king.
4. States in forest regions were
reduced to servants by him.  Empire faced hurdles from
5. Some states self-surrendered to Huns and Pushyamitra.
him by giving their daughters – However, he was successful in
later Kushanas, rulers of throwing Huns back.
Srilanka.  Junagadh inscription,
Chandragupta-II mentions about the public
(Vikramaditya) works done, especially the repair
of Sudarshan lake, by
 Son of Samudragupta and
Skandagupta.
defeated Sakas, who captured
Dhruvadevi, wife of his brother.  Bhitari pillar inscription dates
He later married her by killing to his reign gives the chronology
his brother Ramagupta. of Guptas and his conflict with
Pushyamitra and Huns.
 He ruled from Ujjain
 He brought an end to Saka  King remained as central figure
Kshatrapa rule and added the of administration.
regions of Gujarat, Kathiawar  Empire is divided into Bhukti
and west Malwa to the empire. (Uparika as head), Vishayas
Udayagiri cave inscription and (Vishayapati as head) and
Sanchi inscription gives the villages (Gramapati).
details of it.
 Guptan monarchs adopted titles
 He had matrimonial alliance like parambhattaraka,
with Vakatakas of Vidarbha and chakravarthi etc., to be
Nagas of Gwalior. considered king as divinity on
 Mehrauli iron pillar earth.
inscription, in the complex of  However, in spite of supreme
Qutub-minar, is identified with powers he was expected to
Administration
Chandragupta-II. This follow a righteous path and had
inscription says, he crossed certain duties.
saptasindhu and defeated
 King used to take advise of
valhikas of Bactria.
council of ministers and issue
 Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien visited written instructions to officials
during his period on all important matters.
Kumaragupta-I  Minister’s office was hereditary-
 Son of Chandragupta-II and Udayagiri cave inscription of
Fyzabad Chandragupta-II mentions this.
(Karamdanda)inscription,  King was assisted by
engraved by his minister, Mahanandanayaka (chief
mentions his fame having justice) in justice delivery.
spread to the four oceans. Similarly, at bhukti and

vishayas level the work was  Land became a commodity of
entrusted to the Uparikas and exchange- It is being sold and
Vishayapatis. given as gift.
 Other high officials of this  Gramikas, Kutumbikas and
period were – Mahapratihara, Mahattaras were residents of
was the chief of the palace villages as well as landowners
guards; Dutakas, associated involved in decisions over the
with implementing gifts when land transactions.
gifts of land were made to
 Ordinary cultivators were known
brahmanas.
as Krishibala, Karshaka or
Army: Kinass.
 An important minister in charge Crafts production and trade:
of peace and war called Sandhi-
 Crafts produced consisted of
Vigrahika.
domestic use items and luxury
 Officials like Pilupati (head of items.
elephants), Asvapati (Head of
 Some items were manufactured
horses), Narapti (head of foot
and others traded.
soldiers) worked in Guptan
army.  Some representatives of
merchants involved in
 Officer-in charge of stores called
administration of the district
Ranabhandagrika.
headquarters- Nagarsethi and
Revenue administration: the sarthavahana (caravan
 Land revenue and fines formed trader).
an important source of state’s  Organisations like Shreni
income. existed, which regulated the
 An official Akshapataladhikrita conduct of its members.
who entered matters in  Inequalities existed in status
registers, recovered royal dues and position in craft producers.
and fines. For example: Suvaranakars at
 One-sixth of the produce higher position and
should be claimed as the royal Kumbhakaras(potters) at lower
revenue. position.
 In addition, there was  These different craft producers
Uparikara, levied on inter-city formed Jatis (caste).
trade in cloth, oil etc. Sulka, a  By the end of Gupta period
commercial tax also levied. there was a decline of trade and
 Agriculture, production of cities, a prerequisite for a
crafts and commerce were process called ‘urban decay’.
important activities.  Varna based social order, as an
 Lands were categorized as ideal society was recognised by
Kshetra (cultivated land), Khila the Guptan state.
and Aprahata (Uncultivated  Increased land grants to
lands). Brahmanas and rise of
 Measurement of land was done- brahmana settlements called
terms like Nivartana, brahmadiyas, Agraharas.
Kulyavapa and Dronavapa were  Jatis, that emerged were given
Economy used for measurement. Society& fictious origin like varna-
 Crops grown – Barley, wheat Religion samkara.
and paddy, pulses, vegetables  In times of distress, the
and cash crops like cotton and Dharmashastras say, varna
sugarcane. social order can be deviated.
 State provided for irrigation  There were groups like
facilities and there was a chandellas, who were kept out
mechanism known as ghati- of the four-fold varna system.
yantra, also called as
araghatta, to provide water to  Women from higher varna were
fields. given lower position. In some

cases, they were treated as and a stone temple were found.
Shudras.  Buddhist university at Nalanda
 There is an absence of evidence was set up by Kumara Gupta
to prove that land grants were
given to women Brahmanas.  Nitisara of Kamandaka,
disciple of Kautilya, deal with
Religion: statecraft of the post Mauryan
 Buddhism no longer received polities. The book gives the
royal patronage in the Gupta details of Chandragupta-I
period.  In the court of Chandragupta-II,
 The two popular gods of this there were nine poets called as
period-Vishnu and shiva. ‘Navaratna’. This was
 Vishnupurana consisting of mentioned in
numerous legends of Vishnu; a Jyotirvidabharana, a treatise
law book called the attributed to Kalidasa.
Vishnusmriti was named after  The court language of the
this god. Guptas was Sanskrit. Ornate
 A famous Vaishnava work style of Sanskrit is used in the
Bhagavad-Gita, which taught writings, a deviation from the
devotion to Lord Krishna and traditional Sanskrit writing.
stressed the performance of the  Some scholars were:
functions assigned to each Amarsimha, Sanskrit
varna appeared during this grammarian and poet who wrote
period. Amarkhosha. Dhanvantri,
 Idol worship in the temples wrote Ayurveda, Varahamira
became common. wrote Brihat Samhita, deals
with architecture, temples,
 Agricultural festivals were given planets etc.
religious grab and color.
 Devichandraguptam of
 Guptas were tolerant towards Visakhadutta, deals with King
different religious sects. Ramagupta and his wife Dhruva
Literature devi, got abducted by the Sakas.
 Samudragupta and
Chandragupta-II were patrons of Then Chandragupta-II attack
art and literature. Sakas and get her and will
marry her after killing his
 Samudragupta was represented brother king Ramagupta.
on the coins as playing veena.
 Mrichchakatika of Sudraka, it
 Mostly Guptan art is religious in is dated to early 5th century A.D.
nature. It deals with love relationship
 Two-meter-high bronze image between young man,
of the Buddha, which was Charudatta and Vasantasena, a
recovered from sultanganj near rich courtesan in the Gupta
Bhagalpur. period. It is an entertainment
play.
 25-meter copper image of
Art & Buddha, as mentioned by Fa-  Kathasaritasagra by Somdev,
Architecture hien, but it is not traceable now. written in 11th century, adopted
 Beautiful images of Buddha from Gunadya’s Brihatkatha.
were made at Sarnath and  Most popular writer of this
Mathura. period was Kalidasa. His
 Most of the paintings in Ajanta, surviving works are three plays,
depict various events in the life two epics and two shorter
of Buddha, were from Guptan poems. They are:
period. 1. Malavikagnimitra: It is a love
 For the first time, images of affair between King Agnimitra of
Vishnu, shiva and other Hindu shunga dynasty and a servant
gods were found. girl Malavika.
 Few temples made of brick in 2. Abhijnanshakuntalam: It is a
Uttar Pradesh- Bhitargaon in story between King Dushyant
Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur; who on a hunting trip meets

Shakuntala, adopted daughter
 He was defeated by Pulikeshi second of
of a sage, and marries her.
3. Vikramorvasiyam: It is a story Chalukyas in battle of Narmada.
between a mortal king
Pururavas and celestial nymph  He was converted to Mahayana Buddhism
Urvasi. by Hieun Tsang, who wrote Si-yu-Ki
 Important aspects of plays (Experience of traveller).
written during this period were:
1. These are all comedies we do not  He also conducted Dharmayatras like
come across tragedies.
2. Characters of higher and lower
Ashoka.
classes do not speak the same
language; women and shudras  He himself scholar wrote Naganandam,
featuring these plays use Ratnavali and Priyadarsika.
Prakrit.
 This period saw the compilation  Banabhatta his court poet wrote
of two epics Ramayana and Harshacharita, Parvati Parinayam and
Mahabharat.
Kadambari.
 The period also witnessed
scientific works: Aryabhata
wrote Aryabhattiyam, which
 Kanauj Assembly:
introduced decimal system;
Varahamira’s Romaka
 Harsha organized a religious assembly at
sidhanta. Kanauj to honour the Chinese pilgrim
 Brahmagupta: Precede newton Hiuen Tsang.
in theory of gravitation. His
Works: Brahmaspotaka  To propagate doctrines of Mahayana
siddanta and Kandakadyaka
Buddhism.
 Causes of decline of Gupta empire:  Participations of people from many
 Huns invasion which made north-west religions in Assembly.
vulnerable.  Allahabad Assembly:
 System of land grants and feudatories who  Harsha gave away his enormous wealth as
declared independence. gifts to the members of all religious sects.
 Financial crisis.  Society and Economy:
 The four-fold division of the society –
13. Pushyabhuti Dynasty
Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vysya and Sudra –
was prevalent. The Brahmins were the
privileged section of the society and they
 Founder: Narvardhana
were given land grants by the kings.
 Capital city: Thaneswar and Kanauj
 The position of women was not
 Harsha Vardhana (606 AD- 647 AD) satisfactory. The institution of Swyamvara
 Greatest ruler also called Siladitya and (the choice of choosing her husband) had
started Harsha Era in 606 AD. declined.
 Defeated Gauda Sasanka (desecrated bodi  Remarriage of widows was not permitted,
tree) who had killed his brother in law particularly among the higher castes.
Grihavarma.

 The system of dowry had also become  A number of temples in honour of Vishnu,
common. The practice of sati was also Siva and other gods were also built during
prevalent. this period.
 Hiuen Tsang mentions three ways of  Art and Architecture:
disposal of the dead – cremation, water
 They developed the vesara style in the
burial and exposure in the woods.
building of structural temples which
 The trade and commerce had declined reached its culmination only under the
during Harsha’s period. This is evident Rastrakutas and the Hoysalas.
from the decline of trade centres, less
 No cement or mortar was used stones were
number of coins, and slow activities of
aligned together to form edifice.
merchant guilds.
 Two stage in temple construction
14. Chalukya of Badami  Aihole group
 Meguti temple
 Founder: Pulakesin first
 Vishnu temple
 Capital: Badami
 Ladh khan temple
 Pulakesin II:
 Durga temple
 The most important ruler of this dynasty
 Pattadakal group(UNESCO WHC)
was Pulakesin II. The Aihole inscription
issued by Ravikirti gives the details of his  Papanath temple
reign.  Virupaksha temple
 Notable achievement of Pulakesin II was  Sangamesvara temple
the defeat of Harshavardhana on the
banks of the river Narmada and took title 15. Pallava of Kanchi
of Parameswara.
 He sent ambassador to court of Persian  Pallavas were the natives of
King Khusrau. Tondaimandalam. They are also identical
 He was defeated and killed by Narasimha with the Pulindas mentioned in the
Varman I of Pallavas. inscriptions of Asoka.
 Administration and Society:  Mahendravarman I (600 – 630 A.D.)
 Highly centralized unlike that of the  Mahendravarman I was a follower of

Pallavas and the Cholas. Village autonomy Jainism in the early part of his career. He
was absent under the Chalukyas. was converted to Shaivism by the influence
of the Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar
 Pulakesin I performed the Asvamedha
alias Appar.
sacrifice.
 He assumed a number of titles like
Gunabhara, Satyasandha, Chettakari

(builder of temples) Chitrakarapuli, and Devadhana lands were exempted

Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa. from tax.
 The Mandagappattu inscription hails him  The Pallava inscriptions throw much light
as Vichitrachitta who constructed a on the village assemblies called sabhas
temple for Brahma, Vishnu and Siva and their committees. They maintained
without the use of bricks, timber, metal records of all village lands, looked after
and mortar. local affairs and managed temples.
 He had also authored the Sanskrit work  Society and Education:
Mattavilasa Prahasanam.
 The Pallava period also witnessed the rise
 The title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the
in painting. decline of Buddhism and Jainism.
 He is also regarded as an expert in music.  The Saiva Nayannars and the Vaishnava
The music inscription at Kudumianmalai Alwars contributed to the growth of
is ascribed to him. Saivism and Vaishnavism.
 Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.)  Their capital Kanchi (Dakshina kasi) was
an ancient centre of learning. The Ghatika
 Narasimhavarman I was also known as
(centres of learning) at Kanchi was popular
Mamalla, which means ‘great wrestler’.
and it attracted students from all parts of
 He killed Pulakesin II and assumed title of India and abroad.
Vatapikonda.
 Literature:
 He founded city of Mahamallapuram and
 Mahendravarman I composed the Sanskrit
constructed seven pagodas temple there.
play Mattavilasaprahasanam.
 Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital
 The Devaram composed by Nayannars and
Kanchipuram. His description of Kanchi is
the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by
vivid. He calls it a big and beautiful city,
Alwars represent the religious literature of
six miles in circumference.
the Pallava period.
 Administration:
 Perundevanar was patronized by
 The Pallavas had a well-organized Nandivarman II and he translated the
administrative system. The Pallava state Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in Tamil.
was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was
 Dandin wrote Dasakumarcharita on
administered by officers appointed by the
birth of Kartikeya.
king.
 Bharavi wrote Kiratarjuniyyam.
 Number of irrigation tanks were dug by the
Pallava kings. The irrigation tanks at  Art and Architecture:
Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug
 It was a great age of temple building. The
during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
Pallavas introduced the art of excavating
 Land tax was the primary source of the temples from the rock.
government revenue. The Brahmadeya
 Temple architecture developed in 4 stages  Lokayata:

Mahendravarman Bhairavakonda temple,  Propunder: Charvaka
Group under Ananteswara temple at
Mahendravarman I Undavalli  Most extreme materialistic
Mamalla group under Seven pagodas and Rathas at  Opposed quest for spiritual salvation.
Narasimhavarman I Mahabalipuram
Shore temple, Kailasanath  Denied existence of supernatural being.
Rajasimha group under
and Vaikuntaperumal
Narasimhavarman II  Accepted only those things experienced by
at Kanchi
human senses and organs as reality.
Mukteshwar and
Aparajit group under Matangeswar temple at For Holistic Coverage of Art and Culture
Nandivarman Kanchi, Parshurameswar at Segment refer La Excellence Art and Culture
Gudimallam.
Notes.
 Fine Arts: Year of
Author Original
Darshans Beginn Theme
 Music, dance and painting had also s Book
ing
developed under the patronage of the Nyaya Gauta 6th BC Nyaya It is a
Pallavas. The Mamandur inscription (spiritualist) ma Sutra logical
quest for
contains a note on the notation of vocal God. It
music. tells that
the
 The Kudumianmalai inscription referred material
power
to musical notes and instruments. Maya,
with the
 The Alwars and Nayannars composed their help of
hymns in various musical notes. God,
becomes
 The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to the
universe.
this period.
Vaisheshika(mate Kanad 6th BC Vaishes It aims is
 The commentary called Dakshinchitra was rialist) a hika to receive
Sutra happines
compiled during the reign of s in this
Mahendravarman I, who had the title life and
finally
Chitrakarapuli. ultimate
liberatio
n
16. Development through
the
in Philosophy attachme
nt of true
knowledg
 Ancient thinkers thought that man should e of
Divine.
attain four goals of Arta, Dharma, Kama
Sankhya Kapila 6th BC Sankhya It
and Moksha in life. (Materialist) Sutra explains
that the
 Salvation became the main subject of texts aim of
on darshana or Philosophy. Sankhya
is to
eliminate

all kinds  Glossary
of
physical Sabha Assembly of Brahmans and
and elders
mental
pains Samiti Assembly of Commoners
and to Vidhata For war booty distribution
receive
liberatio Gana Highest Advisory body
n.
Unit Head
Yoga (spiritualist) Mahari 2nd Yog It has 4
Kula/ Family Kulapa
shi BC Sutra chapters
Patanj and Grama (Village) Gramani
ali accepts
three Vis (Clan) Vispati
kinds of Jana (People) Gopa/Gopati
evidence
s for Rashtra (the Country) Rajan
determin Chief Priest, also sometimes
ing the Purohita
referred to as Rashtragopa
aim of
life. Supreme Commander of
Senani
army
Purva Mimansa Jaimin 4th BC Purva It is
(spiritualist) i Mimans condense Officer-in-Charge of pasture
Vrajapati
a Sutra d land
explanati
Jivagribha Police Officer
on of
Vedic Spies who also sometimes
theme Spasas/ Dutas
worked as messengers
and at
the same Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes
time, the
classifica Bhagadugha Revenue collector
tion of its
Sangrahitri Treasurer
issues.
Vedanta (Uttara Mahari 4th BC Uttara It Mahishi Chief Queen
Mimansa) shi Mimans explains
Charioteer and court
(spiritualist) Vyasa a Sutra that Suta
minstrel
Brahma
Sutra is Gahapatis Rich Peasants
for that
person Bhojaka Village headmen
who has Balisadakas Officers for collecting Bali
a real voluntary tax.
deep
desire to Shaulkika/ Collector of custom duties
know Shulkadhyaksha
God. Bhandagarika Treasurer
True
liberatio Sannidhata Chief treasury officer
n could
only be Samaharta Chief tax collector
attained Vyavharika/Dharmastha Chief justice of civil court
by
lovingly Pradeshta Chief justice of criminal
surrende court
ring to Prsdesika Chief revenue officer
Him.
Rajuka Revenue settlement officer

Yukta Tax collector Pravrajya means "to go forth" and

refers to when a layperson
Sthanika Head of local administration
leaves home to live the life of
Gopa Responsible for accounts a Buddhist renunciate
Nagaraka Incharge of city among a community of
administration. bhikkhus
Akshapla Account general Śramaṇa literally denotes
Sitaadhyaksha Supervised Agriculture "approaching or nearing the
ascetic tradition." In more
Panyadhyaksha Superintendent of commerce
common parlance it
Samstha dhyaksha Superintendent of market specifically refers to the rite
and ritual of ascetic vetting
Potwadhyaksha Superintendent of weights
and measures (ordination) by which a
candidate, if deemed
Navaadhyaksha Superintendent of ships acceptable, enters the
Sulkaadhyaksha Collector of tolls community as Upasampadā
(ordained) and authorised to
Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines
undertake ascetic life.
Lohadhyaksha Superintendent of iron
Upasampadā The Vassa is the three-
Arhats liberated beings month annual retreat
Nirvana State of Supreme Bliss observed by Theravada
practitioners. Taking place
Sheel Good Conduct during the wet season, Vassa
lasts for three lunar months,
usually from July to October.
******


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RRP 2021 - Ancient History Ready Reckoner

RRP 2021 - Ancient History Ready Reckoner

RRP 2021 - ANCIENT HISTORY

1. Division of Ancient History and Sources 1  2

2. Indus Valley Civilization 2  6

8. Foreigner Ruling Group of Post Mauryan Period 22  23

9. Native Dynasty of Post Mauryan Period 23 – 26

10. Megalithic Culture 26 – 26

11. Sangam Age 26 – 28

12. Gupta Dynasty 28 – 32

13. Pushyabhuti Dynasty 32 – 33

14. Chalukya of Badami 33 – 33

15. Pallava of Kanchi 33 – 35

16. Development in Philosophy 35 – 37

 Sangam literature: Tolkappiyam,

 Pre-history: Magasthenes Indica Valuable information

Important source for knowing political C. Other:

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 Refer Harappan Civilization (Table : pottery. PGW

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Vidhata For war booty distribution

Bhagadugha Revenue collector

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 Upanishads: 4. Religious Movements

Nirukta/Etymology Study of origin of words.  Desire of Vaishyas to improve their social

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Avakranti (conception or Compilation of

 World is full of misery (Sabbam Dukkam)  Buddhist Sangha:

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 Jainism:  Three Ratnas (jewels of Jainism)

Satya Non-Lying Nirjara - is one of the seven fundamental principles, or

Kaivalya - also known as Kevala Jnana, means

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Sallekhana- also known as santhara. It is the religious Shaulkika/ Collector of custom

 Jainism and Buddhism Comparison  Guilds:

 State and Varna Society during  Recognised by Dharmasastra

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The 16 Mahajanapadas was the seat of

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 Two types of states: 1. The Haryankas:

 Abundance of natural resources, such as  The earliest capital of Magadha was at

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 All this took place in the reign of  Literary sources:

 Effects of Persian Invasion: (v) Buddhist text Jatakas portrays a general

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 Empire divided into Provinces:  Important official in Mauryan

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