CHAPTER ONE

INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION—WHAT IS IT?

Authors’ definitions of international communication

 Okunna (2002): International communication as the exchange of meanings across
national frontiers and between two and more countries.
 Ekeanyanwu (2005): International communication as simply the communication
between two or more nations or communication across international boundaries.
 Aina (2003): International communication typifies the communication exchange or
interaction transcending national, political, cultural, and economic boundaries and it is
facilitated by the interdependence of nations, groups, and individuals.
 Ahuja (1978: 229): International communication is the communication process between
different countries or nations across frontiers.
 Prosser (1978): International communication is the interaction which takes place across
national political boundaries.
 Markcham cited in Aina (2003: 12): International communication is defined as people
speaking to people and governments speaking to governments. He explains further that
international communication is often done by national governments through
representatives or spokespersons engaged in ―various actions and transactions on a bi-
national and multinational basis.
 Taylor (1997) quoted in Aina (2003): International communication is communication
between two or more parties (people, governments, organisations), who are located in
different geographical regions. (International communication between representatives of
government is referred to as diplomacy and when that breaks down, as ―conflict‖ or
―war)
 Robert Fortner (1993): International communication is communication that occurs across
international borders, that is over the borders of nation-states. Like many others, he
explains further that message must transcend international border before it could be
regarded as international communication.
Attributes of international communication
1. It must be across a nation‘s boundary
2. It must involve at least two individuals, organisations or groups and government of different
territories.
3. It must be of interest to international audience (The type of issue, the message must be global)
4. It must feature in an international media
5. It must be encoded in one of the international languages
6. The gravity of the story, message or information must be of international value
Categorisation of International communication
1. Official Transaction (which is government-run communication activities). The government
can run the steps that direct political effect, such as diplomacy and propaganda; or indirect
impact measures, such as: promoting international education.
2. Unofficial Transaction also called transnational interactions (namely communication
activities involving non-governmental parties). International communication activities can take
place between people to people, institutions and institution, organization and organization across
borders.
Scopes of International communication
World news
The study of international communication includes a deep attention to the circulation of news
among different countries. Therefore, when the media of one country cover news from abroad,
international communication is taking place. International communication is also concerned
with the power of media organizations (such as conglomerates and news agencies), issues such
as cultural imperialism and media imperialism.
Culture
The nature of the information that is circulated can be categorized as cultural when it involves
such thing as music, films, sports, TV shows from one country to another.
Scientific
It is scientific for instance when it involves research papers published abroad, scientific exchange
or cooperation.
Education
Today, international conferences, international seminars, international journals, international
debates and many other educational oriented gathering of international scholars have brought
forth various new global discoveries and inventions. Besides, it has indeed enriched and
expanded archives and libraries. Researchers across the globe find it easier nowadays to get
materials and contributions of others on any topic of interest by getting across to professionals
through any of international or social media.
Political
It is ppolitical when it involves policies & diplomatic relations between two and more countries,
International Organization e.g. AU, UNO, EU, ECOWAS etc, international espionage, etc.
conflict resolutions and security matters.
Trade relations
International communication in trade relations occurs during import and export, exchange rates,
currency values.
Co-operations
This involves international communication involving foreign assistance in monetary or
technological areas, etc.
Entertainment (Sports, etc)
Why Study International Communication?
1. Enhancement of peaceful co-existence among countries and promotion of peace and conflict
resolution through arbitration and reconciliation.
2. Enhancement of mutual
Ideological development (the campaign for democracy and capitalism has almost made it the
world political ideology, sending other political ideology into extinction)
 Political development (Through bilateral and multilateral agreement between and among
countries, many states are borrowing policies that are likely to yield rapidly towards
development from others).
 Economic (Information sharing and further development in international communication
would continue to facilitate and promote economic policies for development regardless
where it originates).
 Education development (Scholars around the globe, researchers, students, and
professionals on the either sides of the international boundaries are operating within a
global village where both formal and informal education is now at the door steps of all)
  Technological development (boom in global innovation with free access to information
among the innovators who are now working together to build on the existing technology).
 Social development (socialisation across the globe where people relate with one another
freely through social media platforms).
 Legal development (helps to avoid conflicts that might result from international relations
among countries of the world, provides guidelines to protect the interests of individuals
as well as nations involved in international communication and put in place International
Court of Justice, which is an arm of United Nations (UN).
What necessitate the need for international communication?
 The need for an individual to depend on another individual; the need for a group to
depend on another group; and the need for a nation, state or country to depend on another
bring about interdependency and at the same time build relationship between them.
 The interdependency between countries of the world and the competition between the
international and multinational companies and organisations compel international
communication. When individuals, groups, nation or state feel the need to be seen, heard
and recognised within and outside their territory, international communication becomes
the instrument to achieve this.
 Emergence of media of communication such as TV, Radio, Newspaper and films and the
introduction of new media facilitate and promote international communication. As a
result, millions of people can communicate with each other in real time, across national
boundaries and time zones, through voice, text, and pictures, and, increasingly, a
combination of all three. We now live in a digitally globe where the flow of data across
borders has grown rapidly, boosting international commerce/economy, politics and socio-
cultural relations across borders.
 The need for international communication was due to the increasing effects and
influences of globalization. .
 The rate at which relationship and interdependent among countries grow.
 CHAPTER TWO

FUNCTIONS / RELEVANCE OF INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION TO THE

GLOBAL SOCIETY

 Keeps the nations informed about happenings around the world

Human societies have been characterized by the need for interdependency. Such
interdependency is made possible by mutual friendship and cordial relations. Mutual friendship
and cordial relations is the product of effective communication which results into mutual
understanding. Effective communication herein refers to international communication.
 Provides the platform for the nations of the world to express their
need for interactions
Issues of trade relations (imports and exports), exchange rates, currency values, foreign
assistance in monetary or technological areas, sports etc are major areas in which states and
whole entities are drawn into contracts and contacts to hammer out procedures for smooth
relations among them. International Communication therefore provides the platform for the
nations of the world to express their need for interactions, and to make such interrelations
possible, smooth, profitable, easy and equilibrium.
 Creates, develops and maintains platform for mutual understanding
between and among nations
One of the basic objectives of International Communication is to create, develop and
maintain a platform for mutual understanding between and among nations. The emphasis here is
on mutual understanding through a friendly relations, not just relations. Communication is
central to any cordial relations.
 Performs traditional functions of mass communication globally
International communication performs traditional functions of mass communication of
surveillance, news and information gathering, news and information dissemination,
interpretation, analysis, education and entertainment across the globe.
 Facilitates diplomatic process
High level international communication skills are employed in diplomatic process.
Diplomacy, according to Ezeuku (1998) is the art, practice and science of finding
accommodation and mutual relations among nations. It is also a technique to support the
implementation of foreign policy for each country to fight for the attainment of interests in
another country.  Therefore, International communication is a veritable means of expressing
foreign policies, carrying out negotiations and dialogue among sovereign entities, arbitrating
between aggrieved nations and reconciliation of warring states. Effective international
communication is basic to effective conflict resolution between and among nation states.
 Provides the platform for effective economic and trade relations
between and among nations
International communication provides the platform for effective economic and trade
relations between and among nations. Issues of trade relations (imports and exports) exchange
rates, currency values, and foreign monetary assistance are most often successfully and smoothly
handled and contracts signed with the skillful use of International communication. Even other
non-state actors in International relations, such as UNO and its agencies, the AU, the EU, OPEC,
NATO, use International communication to effect meaningful and profitable transactions.
Okunna (2002) says that a prominent feature of these bodies is that their employees show
charming prowess on communication skills especially in issues of foreign policies and
diplomacy.
 Creates a true forum for interdependency
No man is an island and we all need someone to lean on. Those popular sayings in effect
mean that there is need for interdependency. In this interdependent world, we are affected by
almost any events almost everywhere. Therefore, nations of the world have realized that they
can only survive with some form of social, economic and political cooperation with other
nations. International communication has proved to be a major means through which a concrete
social economic and political cooperation between and among nations could be achieved.
 Serves as major channel through which a healthy socio-economic, and socio
political cooperation is made possible
International communication has overtime, proved to be a major channel through which a
healthy socio-economic, and socio political cooperation among states could be achieved. This is
particularly important as most nations in the world, including USA and the UK, have discovered
that they cannot survive without other nations.
 Promotes world peace and unity
World peace and unity is facilitated by International communication. This is achieved
when the international mass media disseminate news and information with such in-depth analysis
and interpretation that provides greater understanding among the citizens of the globe.
Surveillance, according to Okunna (2002), is the provision of a constant stream of information
about events in society and about the society itself”(p. 274). No wonder, one time president of
United States of America once said that if he was to choose between the press and a government
without the press, he would rather choose the press. International communication paves the way
for greater understanding among the citizens of the globe and this in turn promote global peace
and unity.
 Promotes intercultural relations across the globe
The nature and constituents of players in the world communication arena help to promote
understanding between the different cultures in the globe. Such players as AP, UPI, AFP,
REUTERS etc. recruit and maintain international correspondents in major cities all over the
world. Since these correspondents live among the people where they cover, they try to
understand their languages, values and philosophies of life. Such understanding is in turn
transmitted along with the news, information and entertainment, ideologies etc being
disseminated globally. Thereby providing a platform for the world to understand and appreciate
the culture of one another.
 Promotes tolerance of the culture of one another
International communication helps nations to tolerate the culture of one another. It
prevents culture shock, which according to Ezeanyanwu (2005) is the confusion and
disorientation caused by contact or mingling with civilization other than one’s own. Just imagine
your initial reaction when you saw the French man (or woman) kissing his visitor at meeting him
or her, or rather, he makes an attempts to kiss you (female) as a way of greeting. You will
probably, as a Nigerian, be reluctant to accept such as a lady from a man. Then imagine how the
English man sees for a first time, a Yoruba man or woman to be précised, either prostrating or
kneeling down to greet an older person, instead of mere handshake. There certainly would be an
initial apprehension and misunderstanding and consequent embarrassment caused by that contact
with civilization different from the one we are used to.
 No doubt these are instances of cultural shocks that the international communication has
helped to prevent. Civilization involves people and their languages, mores, values, norms,
ideology and philosophy. Understanding of other people’s culture is made possible through
international communication process.
Promote resistance of cultural imperialism
Cultural imperialism is the suppression of others culture by seemingly superior alien
culture imposed on the local culture. The study of international communication helps to
distinguish between what constitutes culture shock that should be tolerated and the other hand,
what is cultural imperialism that must be resisted. No one should be made to tolerate cultural
subjugation.
 Facilitates Globalization
Villagisation of the globe involves what Marshal Mcluhan, in “The Medium is the
Message” termed the global village. The global village operates through the network of
communication and information enabled by international communication. Therefore, events
from far distance across borders are gathered and disseminated by world agencies through highly
sophisticated and state of the art equipments. Such equipment are upgraded from time to time in
order to meet the ever growing need for information gathering and dissemination for the
consumption of the globe.
 Accomplishes all the functions of communication globally
International communication accomplishes all the functions of communication and even
more. Such communication functions include the collection, storage, processing of news and
information, socialization, motivation and provision of a forum for debate and discussion on
public issues. Others are the transmission of knowledge and intellectual development
(education), cultural promotion, provision of entertainment for collective recreation and
enjoyment, and the integration of nations and societies with one another so as to understand and
appreciate others’ living conditions viewpoints and aspirations better.

Barriers/challenges to international communication in the global village

International communication is not that simple, as cutting across national boundaries has
its own attendant problems and complications. However, in spite of the complications,
international communication still thrives.
Language difference
The world is made up of peoples with different languages. These multifarious languages
affect free flow of communication. It is not possible for example, a Chinese newspaper to be sold
in Nigeria because of language barrier. However, there are certain languages that have developed
over time that they are spoken in many countries. For example, English, French, Spanish, etc.
they are called lingua franca. Lingua franca has made it possible to communicate to a number of
countries without difficulty. Communication is universal. But the acceptable and recognized
languages of international communication are limited.
Illiteracy
Though. Illiteracy exists in all countries, even among the so called indigene of the
international languages, it is mostly in the third world countries. This results in inability of target
public to understand the information disseminated through the world press.
Variation in basic cultural beliefs
Culture is diverse. In different parts of the world you have different cultures. Even in a
country there are different cultures. Culture is conveyed in communication. Owl as a bird means
good tiding in America while in some parts of Nigeria, it is a sign of bad omen. Cats in Britain
are lovely pets while in some parts of Nigeria cats are for witchcraft. In these situations,
international communication is bound to have problem.
Inequality of communication facilities
The International Press (World Press) State of Art facilities are highly intimidating to
those of their counterpart in the third world countries. As a result, News gathering and
dissemination is always one sided, qualitatively and quantitatively.
Economy
The world is like a conveyor belt whereby developing countries supply raw materials to
developed countries which in turn supply finished or manufactured products to the developing
countries. Finished products have higher value and price and move money to the developed
countries while the developing countries have only raw materials with low value and price. Low
value and price means less money and therefore, the developing countries lack the wherewithal
to purchase enough communication equipment and receiver sets as well as execute
communication project. Therefore, they are not on equal footing for reciprocal communication.
Time
In different parts of the world, there are time differences. When it is morning in some
countries, it is night in some others. Communication is bound to have problems because of the
differences. A business man who wants to call another in the morning might notice that the other
man is sleeping at midnight in his own country. If it is broadcasting, message directed to people
in some parts of the world might get to them when they are deep in sleep. Therefore, it is a
problem.
However, the problem has been resolved by instituting an international time called
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) which is used to determine the time of communication.
 Technology
Technology is lopsided. Developed countries have low, inferior or no technology. As a
result, there appears difficulty in communicating to some countries in the developing countries.
This has affected international communication.
Nevertheless, notwithstanding the lopsidedness, technology has been the driving force of
international communication. It no longer requires running from one country to another to
deliver letters as done in the olden times.

International media structure/ownership.

Public Ownership: This occurs when the media industry is totally own by the government in a
country. In this situation, private individuals and organisations are not allowed to own and
operate mass media.
Private ownership: In this structure, ownership of the mass media is in the hands of the private
individuals and organisations. There is free market where anybody that has the means can own
and operate mass media.
Joint ownership: It is the combination of both public and private ownership structure. The
private individuals and organisations are allowed to own mass media alongside the governments
but most often with conditions.
Ownership Structure of the International Media
Media oligopoly
An oligopoly is when a few firms dominate a market. When the larger scale media companies
buy out the more smaller-scaled or local companies, they become more powerful within the
market.
Media Merger
Media mergers are a result of one media related company buying another company for control of
their resources in order to increase revenues and viewership. As information and entertainment
become a major part of our culture, media companies have been creating ways to become more
efficient in reaching viewers and turning a profit.
 CHAPTER THREE

THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Theories are important to understanding issues in international communication. Theory

can be thought of as our understanding of the way things work. It is the set of ideas of varying
status and origin which may explain or interpret some situations. The following theories of
international communication explain why certain situations exist within the discipline.
Free flow of information theory
Proponents of a free flow of information based their arguments on the liberal discourse.
This is the rights of individuals to freedom of opinion and expression. They argue that media
proprietors should have complete agency and have the right to sell and advertise their goods
wherever and to whoever they wish. According to Ayish (2001), discourses on the notion of the
“free flow of information” existed during the Cold War when the international community was
characterised by the bi-polar division between capitalism and socialism. During this period, flow
of news, analysis, propaganda and entertainment gushes forth from some countries, it floods into
some and trickles sluggishly into others. As opposed to Marxists, who were proponents for state
regulation on communication and media outlets, the concept of free flow of information reflected
the Western capitalist belief that markets should not be controlled or censored.
Summary
Free Flow of Information
-Emerged during Cold War with division between capitalism and socialism.
-Central tenet of democracy/ media promote democracy
-Third World critiques it because it causes unequal flow of information between areas and not
actually 'free' but imbalanced in favor of the North/West (US)
World-system theory
Immanuel Wallerstein, a sociologist, developed World Systems Theory and its three-level
hierarchy, namely: core, periphery, and semi-periphery. Core countries are dominant capitalist
countries that exploit peripheral countries for labor and raw materials. Peripheral countries are
dependent on core countries for capital and have underdeveloped industry. Semi-peripheral
countries share characteristics of both core and peripheral countries. The proponent of the theory
suggests that the way a country is integrated into the capitalist world system determines how
economic development takes place in that country. These three groupings or sectors of nation
states have varying degrees of interaction on economic, political, cultural, media, technical,
labour, capital, and social levels. It is expected that the zones exhibit unequal and uneven
economic relations, with the core nations being the dominant and controlling economic entity.
According to Wallerstein, the world economic system is divided into a hierarchy of three
types of countries: core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral. Core countries (e.g., U.S., Japan,
Germany) are dominant, capitalist countries characterized by high levels of industrialization and
urbanization.
Core countries are capital intensive, have high wages and high technology production
patterns and lower amounts of labour exploitation and coercion. Core countries own most of the
world's capital and technology and have great control over world trade and economic
agreements. They are also the cultural centers which attract artists and intellectuals. Core
countries extract raw materials with little cost. They can also set the prices for the agricultural
products that peripheral countries export regardless of market prices, forcing small farmers to
abandon their fields because they can't afford to pay for labour and fertilizer. The wealthy in
peripheral countries benefit from the labour of poor workers and from their own economic
relations with core country capitalists.
Peripheral countries (e.g., most African countries and low income countries in South
America) are dependent on core countries for capital and are less industrialized and urbanized.
Peripheral countries are usually agrarian, have low literacy rates and lack consistent Internet
access. Peripheral countries generally provide labour and materials to core countries.
Modernization theory
Modernization theory is a theory used to explain the process of modernization that a
nation goes through as its transitions from a traditional society to a modern one.  In general,
modernization theorists are concerned with economic growth within societies as indicated, for
example, by measures of gross national product. Mechanization or industrialization are
ingredients in the process of economic growth. Modernization theorists study the social,
political, and cultural consequences of economic growth and the conditions that are important for
industrialization and economic growth to occur.
Although there are many versions of modernization theory, major implicit or explicit
tenets are that
(1). societies develop through a series of evolutionary stages;
(2). these stages are based on different degrees and patterns of social differentiation and
reintegration of structural and cultural components that are functionally compatible for
the maintenance of society;
(3). contemporary developing societies are at a premodern stage of evolution and they
eventually will achieve economic growth and will take on the social, political, and
economic features of western European and North American societies which have
progressed to the highest stage of social evolutionary development;
(4). this modernization will result as complex Western technology is imported and traditional
structural and cultural features incompatible with such development are overcome.
There are many different versions of modernization theory. We will discuss the opposing
views of the Marxist and capitalist versions, a Western version, and a present-day version of
modernization theory.
Dependency Theory
Dependency theory originates with two papers published in 1949 – one by Hans Singer,
one by Raúl Prebisch – in which the authors observe that the terms of trade for underdeveloped
countries relative to the developed countries had deteriorated over time. The premises of
dependency theory are that:
1. Poor nations provide natural resources, cheap labour, a destination for obsolete
technology, and markets for developed nations, without which the latter could not have
the standard of living they enjoy.
2. Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various means. This
influence may be multifaceted, involving economics, media control, politics, banking and
finance, education, culture, and sport.
Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and
underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the
former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich
ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system".
 The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory, an earlier theory of development
which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's
underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some
time in the past, and that therefore the task in helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is
to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as
investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency
theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive
versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and,
importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy.
Structural theory of imperialism
The structural theory of imperialism of Galtung in 1971 can be considered as a
development and improvement of dependency theory. Imperialism is defined as a special type of
dominance of one collectivity, usually a nation,
over another. Basic is how the center in the imperialist nation establishes a bridgehead in
the center of the dominated nation by tying the two centers together. Structural theory of
imperialism argues that the world consists of Centre and Periphery nations, and each nation, in
turn, has its centres and peripheries. Imperialism is conceived of as a dominance relation
between collectivities, particularly between nations. It is a sophisticated type of dominance
relation which cuts across nations, basing itself on a bridgehead which the centre in the Centre
nation establishes in the center of the Periphery nation, for the joint benefit of both. The
followings are postulations of the theory of structural imperialism:
1. there is harmony of interest between the center in the Center and the center in the
Periphery nation;
2. there is more disharmony of interest within the Periphery nation than within the Center
nations;
3. there is disharmony of interest between the periphery in the Center nation and the
periphery in the Periphery nation. For 1 and 2 - The centers are tied together and the
Center periphery is tied to its center; that is the whole essence of the situation;
The center in the Periphery only serves as a transmission belt (a commercial firms,
trading companies) for value (raw materials) forwarded to the Center nation. This value enters
the Center in the center, with some of it drizzling down to the periphery in the Center. There is
less disharmony of interest in Center than in the Periphery, so that the total arrangement is
largely in the interest of the periphery in the Center.
There is disharmony of interest between the Center nation as a whole and the Periphery
nation as a whole. Misleading because there is harmony of interest between the two centers, and
beliefs that imperialism is merely an international relationship, not a combination of intra- and
inter- national relations. Concentration of trade partners- A Periphery nation should have the
most of its trade with its Center nation. High exports and imports in Periphery as opposed to the
Center. The commodity concentration- the tendency for Periphery nations to have only one or
very few primary products to export. There is a dependency of the Periphery on the Center.
Galtung is not only referring to existing inequalities among regions, nation-states and
collectivities, but also put emphasis on the probability of the existence of inequalities within a
particular region, nation-state and/or collectivity (Madikiza & Bornman, 2007). The centre-
periphery relationships are sustained and strengthened by the flows of information and
reproduction of economic activities. These create institutional relations that work for the interests
of the dominant groups. These “cores” or “centres” within peripheral states can deliver a
bridgehead through which the centre can enact its dominance of the periphery. In terms of
culture, values and attitudes, elites in the periphery are often nearer to elites in the centre than to
the people in their own country (D. K Thussu, 2000)
 Theory of hegemony
According to D. K Thussu (2000), the theory of hegemony is created on the work of the Italian
Marxist, Antonio Gramsci (1891 - 1937), who died in prison under the Fascist regime in Italy.
Hegemony "leadership, rule") is the political, economic, or military predominance or control of
one state over others. In Ancient Greece (8th century BCE – 6th century CE), hegemony
denoted the politico–military dominance of a city-state over other city-states. The dominant
state is known as the hegemon. However, in the 19th century, hegemony came to denote the
"Social or cultural predominance or ascendancy; predominance by one group within a society or
milieu". Later, it could be used to mean "a group or regime which exerts undue influence within
a society."
The idea of Gramsci‟s in the theory of hegemony is rooted in the concept that the
dominant social group in society has the capability to implement the intellectual and moral
direction over society at large and to build a new system of social coalitions to supports its aims.
In accordance with Gramsci‟s viewpoints, society is perceived as the site of struggle among
interests through the domination of one ideology over others (Littlejohn & Foss, 2005). Also, it
could be used for the geopolitical and the cultural predominance of one country over others;
from which was derived hegemonism, as in the idea that the Great Powers meant to establish
European hegemony over Asia and Africa.
In international communication, the concept of hegemony is generally used to
conceptualize political function of the mass media, as a key player in propagating and
maintaining the dominant ideology and also to explain the process of media and communication
production, with dominant ideology shaping production of news and entertainment (Virtual
University of Pakistan, n.d).
The Marxist theory of cultural hegemony, associated particularly with Antonio Gramsci,
is the idea that the ruling class can manipulate the value system and mores of a society, so that
their view becomes the world view (Weltanschauung): in Terry Eagleton's words, "Gramsci
normally uses the word hegemony to mean the ways in which a governing power wins consent to
its rule from those it subjugates".
Critical theory
As a term, critical theory has two meanings with different origins and histories: the first
originated in sociology and political philosophy, while the second originated in literary studies
and literary theory. We are concerned with the sociological and political perspective of critical
theory.
Critical theory was first defined by Max Horkheimer of the Frankfurt School of
sociology in his 1937 essay Traditional and Critical Theory as a social theory oriented toward
critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to
understanding or explaining it. It distinguished itself as a radical, emancipatory form of
Marxian theory.
Core concepts are of critical theory are:
 That critical social theory should be directed at the totality of society in its historical
specificity (i.e. how it came to be configured at a specific point in time).
  That critical theory should improve understanding of society by integrating all the major
social sciences, including geography, economics, sociology, history, political science,
anthropology, and psychology.
Also known as "social critical theory", Max Horkheimer described a theory as critical as
long as it seeks "to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them." Critical
theory was established as a school of thought primarily by five Frankfurt School theoreticians:
Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, and Erich Fromm.
Modern critical theory has additionally been influenced by György Lukács and Antonio
Gramsci, as well as the second generation Frankfurt School scholars, notably Jürgen Habermas.
In Habermas's work, critical theory transcended its theoretical roots in German idealism, and
progressed closer to American pragmatism. Concern for social "base and superstructure" is one
of the remaining Marxist philosophical concepts in much of the contemporary critical theory.
Political Economy
Political economy is a term used for studying production and trade, and their relations
with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and
wealth. The science of Political Economy rests upon the notion that utility, wealth, value,
commodity, labour, land, capital, are the elements of the subject; and whoever has a thorough
comprehension of their nature must possess or be soon able to acquire a knowledge of the whole
science. Communications examines the institutional aspects of media and telecommuncation
systems. As the area of study focusing on aspects of human communication, it pays particular
attention to the relationships between owners, labour, consumers, advertisers, structures of
production, and the state, and the power relationships embedded in these relationships.
Originally, political economy meant the study of the conditions under which production
or consumption within limited parameters was organized in nation-states. In that way, political
economy expanded the emphasis of economics, which comes from the Greek oikos (meaning
"home") and nomos (meaning "law" or "order"). Thus, political economy was meant to express
the laws of production of wealth at the state level, just as economics was the ordering of the
home. In its contemporary meaning, political economy refers to different, but related, approaches
to studying economic and related behaviours, ranging from the combination of economics with
other fields to the use of different, fundamental assumptions that challenge earlier economic
assumptions:
 CHAPTER FOUR
FORMS OF INTERNATIONAL MEDIA

Books as a medium of International Communication

Books was the first medium of communication through which information circulated among the
very few literates.
Forms of Books for International Communication
(a) Religious Books
Religious books spread up bilateral agreement and enhance mutual relations between and among
countries of the same doctrine and as a result promote international communication among them.
Examples are:
i. Bible
ii. Qur‘an
iii. Bhagwad Geeta
iv. Upanishads
v. The Vedas
vi. Dasatir vii. Avesta
Religious books help in spreading holy messages across the world. Besides, the books travel far
beyond the limit set making the religious messages reaching the nooks and crannies of the globe.
Religious books also enhance cultural sharing, cultural diversity, cultural acquisition as well as
acculturation.
(b) Academics Books
Academic books share knowledge to various individual across the globe on areas or disciplines
that interest them and importantly, people from various parts of the world contribute to works on
different subjects, purposely meant to upgrade people‘s knowledge and to widen their scopes in
various disciplines. Example of Academic Books are
i. Textbooks
ii. Academic Journals
iii. Professional Journals
iv. Conference proceedings
v. Literatures/Literary books
(c) Reference Books:
A reference work is a compendium of information, usually of a specific type, compiled in a book
for ease of reference. That is, the information is intended to be quickly found when needed.
Examples are:
i. Dictionaries
ii. Encyclopaedias
iii. Compendia
iv. Atlas
(d) Motivational/General Interest Books
These are books that influence inbuilt traits in individuals and are most time read for pleasure
during leisure hours because the are more of entertainment than education.
Functions of books to International Communication
i. International books provide insight on issue of global importance to the reader
ii International books give readers global perspectives on issues
iii. International books provide reader with new understanding of issues of global importance.
iv. International books expose readers to new discoveries pertaining to history so the reader
apply to or amend what already exists about a particular global topical issue.
iv. Book transports readers into different worlds and cultures, as well as, informs readers about
ancient civilizations and tradition.
vi. Books teach new technologies and literature, foreign languages, and are good companions.

Newspapers and Magazines

Various events and efforts led to international newspapers in the form we have it today.
 59 B.C.: Acta Diurna the first newspaper is published in Rome.
 1556: First monthly newspaper Notizie Scritte published in Venice.
 1605: First printed newspaper published weekly in Antwerp called Relation.
 1631: The first French newspaper published, The Gazette.
 1645: Post-och Inrikes Tidningar is published in Sweden and is still being published
today, making it the world's oldest newspaper.
1690: The first newspaper is published in America, Public Occurrences.
 1702: The first English language daily newspaper is published called the Daily Courant.
The Courant was first published (periodical) in 1621.
 1803: First newspapers published in Australia, the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales
Advertiser.
 1833: The New York Sun newspaper costs one cent - the beginning of the penny press.
 1844: First newspaper published in Thailand.
 1848: The Brooklyn Freeman newspaper is first published by Walt Whitman.
 1850: P.T. Barnum starts running newspaper ads for Jenny Lind, the "Swedish
Nightingale" performances in America.
 1851: The Post Office starts offering a special cheap newspaper rate.
 1855: First newspaper published in Sierra Leone.
 1859: The first newspaper published in Nigeria, Iwe Iroyin fun Awon Ara Egba ati
Yoruba. It was published in one of the Nigeria indigenous languages, Yoruba.
 1860: A "morgue" in newspaper terms means an archive. The New York Herald starts the
first morgue.
 1871: First newspaper published in Japan - the daily Yokohama Mainichi Shimbun.
Famous newspaper interview with explorer Stanley Livingston published.
 1873: First illustrated daily newspaper published in New York.
 1877: First weather report with map published in Australia. The Washington Post
newspaper first publishes with a circulation of 10,000 and a cost of 3 cents per paper.
 1880: First halftone photograph (Shantytown) published in a newspaper.
 1885: Newspapers are delivered daily by train.
 1887: The San Francisco Examiner published.
 1903: The first tabloid style newspaper, the Daily Mirror is published.
 1955: Tele-typesetting is used for newspapers.
 1967: Newspapers use digital production processes and began using computers for
operations.
Roles of international news papers
i. Newspaper is a channel of International Communication that carries news about wide
varieties of current events.
ii. Newspapers appears regularly and frequently with news and advertisements with information
of practical value to the readers
iii. International newspaper make the worlds afar look nearer.
iv. International newspapers provide a source of entertainment through their stories and through
such features as comic strips and crossword puzzles.
v. International newspapers provide citizens with information on government and international
politics. For instance, during the American presidential election that ousted Donald Trump,
African were very conversant of the goings in American polls and policies because they got the
information from international dailies.
Why the content of international news in local newspapers doesn‘t qualify them as
international newspapers.
Some national dailies such as The Guardian, The Punch, etc carry international news and
information most often in their inner pages. This however does not qualify them as international
newspapers.
i. Such newspapers have limited coverage . The volume of international news found in the
Nigerian dailies is less in percentage to what could qualify some of them as international
newspapers. The same is applicable to many national dailies in many countries of the world.
ii. The hard copies of such local papers hardly cover the nooks and crannies of the country let
alone going abroad. Therefore, such newspapers do not cross borders.
iii. International newspapers do not only cover news around the world but also circulate beyond
their region or continent.
iv. It is very difficult and expensive to circulate the hard copies of dailies across countries not to
talk of circulating them beyond their countries and even go beyond their regions.
v. Local newspapers do not have international news value such as New York Times, considered
to be international newspaper.
Radio
Radio is the transmission of signals through free space by modulation of electromagnetic waves
with frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of
oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space. Information
is carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property of the radiated waves, such as
amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. When radio waves pass an electrical conductor, the
oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. This can be detected and
transformed into sound or other signals that carry information.
Television
The etymology of the word television has a mixed Latin and Greek origin, meaning "far sight":
Greek tele (τῆλε), far, and Latin visio, sight (from video, vis- to see, or to view in the first
person). Television (TV) is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving
images that can be monochrome (black-and-white) or coloured, with accompanying sound.
"Television" may also refer specifically to a television set, television programming, and
television transmission. Commercially available since the late 1920s, the television set has
become commonplace in homes, businesses and institutions, particularly as a vehicle for
advertising, a source of entertainment, and news.
Role of television and radio in International Communication
i. Radio and TV broadcasting International news featuring international occurrences and current
affair programmes that interest international audience.
ii. radio and TV provide the network for international broadcasting because it is through national
network that international communication is most often achieved.
iii. radio and TV transmit different international news programmes aimed at different audiences,
depending on age, socio-economic group or those from particular sections of society. 'Magazine-
style' television shows may mix global news coverage with topical lifestyle issues, debates or
entertainment content.
Film Industry
Film industry consists of the technological and commercial institutions of filmmaking: i.e. film
production companies, film studios, cinematography, film production, etc. The first feature film
ever made was The Story of the Kelly Gang, an Australian film based on the infamous Ned
Kelly. Others are as follows:
1906: Dan Barry and Charles Tait of Melbourne produced and directed The Story of the Kelly
Gang, a silent film that ran continuously for a breathtaking 80 minutes.
1911: other than Australia began to make feature films. By this time Australia had made 16 full-
length feature films.
1910s: the film industry had fully emerged with D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation.
1900s: motion picture production companies from New York and New Jersey started moving to
California because of the good weather and longer days. Although electric lights existed at that
time, none were powerful enough to adequately expose film; the best source of illumination for
movie production was natural sunlight. Besides the moderate, dry climate, they were also drawn
to the state because of its open spaces and wide variety of natural scenery.
The major business centres of film making are in the United States, India, Hong Kong and
Nigeria..
The United States has the oldest film industry (and largest in terms of revenue), and Los Angeles
(California), is the primary nexus of the U.S. film industry. India is the largest producer of films
in the world. Indian film industry is multi-lingual and the largest in the world in terms of ticket
sales and number of films produced. Largest film industry in India is the Hindi film industry
mostly concentrated in Mumbai (Bombay), and is commonly referred to as "Bollywood", an
amalgamation of Bombay and Hollywood. China Hong Kong is a filmmaking hub for the
Chinese-speaking world (including the worldwide diasporas) and East Asia in general. For
decades it was the third largest motion picture industry in the world (after Indian and
Hollywood) and the second largest exporter of films. Nigeria Nollywood, Nigeria's booming
film industry is the world's third largest producer of feature films. Unlike Hollywood and
Bollywood, however, Nollywood movies are made on shoe-string budgets of time and money.
An average production takes just 10 days and costs approximately $15,000.
The Nollywood phenomenon was made possible by two main ingredients: Nigerian
entrepreneurship and digital technology. Experts credit the birth of Nollywood to a businessman
who needed to unload thousands of blank tapes and to the 1992 video release of Living in
Bondage, a movie with a tale of the occult that was an instant and huge-selling success. It wasn't
long before other would-be producers jumped on the bandwagon.
New Media
New media is a broad term in media studies that emerged in the latter part of the 20th century.
Although there are several ways that New Media may be described, Manovich (2002) defines
New Media by using eight simple and concise propositions:
1. New Media versus Cyberculture – Cyberculture is the various social phenomena that are
associated with the Internet and network communications (blogs, online multi-player gaming),
whereas New Media is concerned more with cultural objects and paradigms (digital to analog
television, iPhones). New Media as Computer Technology Used as a Distribution Platform –
New Media are the cultural objects which use digital computer technology for distribution and
exhibition. e.g. (at least for now) Internet, Web sites, computer multimedia, Blu-ray disks etc.
New media provides on-demand access to content anytime, anywhere, on any digital device, as
well as interactive user feedback, creative participation and community formation around the
media content. New media also enable the "democratization" of the creation, publishing,
distribution and consumption of media content.
 CHAPTER FIVE

THE WORLD PRESS—NEWS MOVING ACROSS BORDERS

The world press

The active actors in this system, where news is moved across borders to facilitate such
interaction between and among states are News agencies. According to Okunna (2002) they
provide no less than 75% of world news. Some correspondents report back to media in their own
countries, others report to agencies which distribute their dispatch regionally or globally, or to
internationally circulated magazines and attempt to achieve a more universal outlook. This
explains how states are in regular contact with one another.
News agencies
A news agency is an organization that gathers news reports and sells them to subscribing
news organizations, such as newspapers, magazines and radio and television broadcasters. A
news agency may also be referred to as a wire service, newswire, or news service, adjuncts or
extenders. They are bodies or organizations concerned with the gathering and disseminating of
world news. These bodies specializes in sourcing, processing, interpreting and analyzing and
disseminating of world news and information to other mass media organizations otherwise
known as subscribers.
Commercial services
News agencies can be corporations that sell news (e.g., Press Association, Thomson
Reuters and United Press International). Other agencies work cooperatively with large media
companies, generating their news centrally and sharing local news stories the major news
agencies may choose to pick up and redistribute (i.e., Associated Press (AP), Agence France-
Presse (AFP) or American Press Agency (APA).
Governments may also control news agencies: China (Xinhua), Russia (ITAR-TASS) and other
countries also have government-funded news agencies which also use information from other
agencies as well. Commercial newswire services charge businesses to distribute their news
(e.g., Business Wire, GlobeNewswire, Marketwire, PR Newswire, PR Web, PR NewsChannel,
Pressat, CisionWire, and ABN Newswire).
The major news agencies generally prepare hard news stories and feature articles that can
be used by other news organizations with little or no modification, and then sell them to other
news organizations. They provide these articles in bulk electronically through wire services
(originally they used telegraphy; today they frequently use the Internet).
Corporations, individuals, analysts, and intelligence agencies may also subscribe.
News sources, collectively, described as alternative media provide reporting which emphasizes a
self-defined "non-corporate view" as a contrast to the points of view expressed in corporate
media and government-generated news releases. Internet-based alternative news agencies form
one component of these sources.
Importance of agencies
 News agencies are crucial to international communication for the following reasons:
• They gather and distribute world news and information
• The provide subscribers (other mass media organizations across the world) with news and
information from all over the world.
• They have correspondents in every cities of states or nations and consequently provided
their subscribers extensive details on events all over the globe.
• No country has the resources to cover the whole world and report all the global event.
Therefore, the principle of comparative cost advantage applies and is exploited by the
subscribers.
• News reports of individual nations cover only areas of interest to them. But the agencies
provide news and information about the rest of the world.
• News agencies employ a team of experts and professionals at great cost for effective news
coverage and dissemination.
Classification of news agencies
One importance feature of news agencies is their classification. In this direction, three
classes emerge.
• Transnational/International or World News Agencies
• Continental or Regional News Agencies
• National News Agencies
Transnational News Agencies
There are five transnational agencies in the world, namely:
• Reuters
• Associated Press (AP)
• Agence France Press (AFP)
• United Press International (UPI)
• Telegrapfoe Agensvo Sovetskovo Soyuza (TASS)
Reuters, Associated Press (AP), United Press International (UPI), and Agence France Press
(AFP) are considered as the “Big Four” for the following reasons:
• Coverage: they presently dominate the gathering and dissemination of global news and
information
• Ownership: they are owned by the developed capitalist countries in the West
• Location: They are strategically located in big cities from where events and news
emanates.
• Technologies: they have, at their disposal advanced information technologies and
equipment to effectively execute their mission.
Let us consider them one after the other.

REUTERS
Type Division
Industry News agency
Founded October 1851
Headquarters New York, United States
Owner(s) Thomson Reuters
Website www.reuters.com
Reuters occupy the first place on the list of transnational agencies.  Reuters came
into existence in year 1851. It was established by Paul Julius Reuter. It is an international news
agency which has its headquarters in London and is based in United Kingdom. The main aim of
this organization is to bring the breaking news to newspaper or television sets even if it costs
their lives. An example can be seen in Israel war, Iraq war or China’s Cultural Revolution. This
news agency came into lime light when it printed the paper of Abraham Lincoln’s assassination.
It transmits news in French, English, Arabic, Spanish, German, Italian, Russian, Chinese,
Japanese, and Portuguese. The company initially covered commercial news, serving banks,
brokerage houses, and business firms. The first newspaper client to subscribe was the London
Morning Advertiser in 1858. Newspaper subscriptions subsequently expanded.
Over the years Reuter's agency has built a reputation in Europe and the rest of the world
as the first to report news scoops from abroad. Almost every major news outlet in the world
currently subscribes to Reuters. Reuters operates in more than 200 cities in 94 countries in about
20 languages. The last surviving member of the Reuters family founders, Marguerite, Baroness
de Reuter, died at age 96 on 25 January 2009, having suffered a series of strokes.
Criticism and controversy
 Policy of objective language
Reuters has a strict policy toward upholding journalistic objectivity. This policy has caused
comment on the possible insensitivity of its non-use of the word terrorist in reports, including
the 11 September attacks. Reuters has been careful to use the word terrorist only in quotes,
whether quotations or scare quotes. Reuters global news editor Stephen Jukes wrote, “We all
know that one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter, and that Reuters upholds the
principle that we do not use the word terrorist.” The Washington Post media critic Howard Kurtz
responded, “After the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, and again after the attacks on the World
Trade Center and Pentagon, Reuters allowed the events to be described as acts of terror. But as
of last week, even that terminology is banned.” Reuters later apologized for this characterization
of their policy,[9] although they maintained the policy itself.
The 20 September 2004 edition of The New York Times reported that the Reuters global
managing editor, David A. Schlesinger, objected to Canadian newspapers’ editing of Reuters
articles by inserting the word terrorist, stating that “my goal is to protect our reporters and
protect our editorial integrity.”
However, when reporting the 7 July 2005 London bombings, the service reported, “Police said
they suspected terrorists were behind the bombings.” This line appeared to break with their
previous policy and was also criticized.[11] Reuters later clarified by pointing out they include the
word “when we are quoting someone directly or in indirect speech,” and the headline was an
example of the latter.[12] The news organization has subsequently used “terrorist” without
quotations when the article clarifies that it is someone else’s words.
In 2011 the Journal of Applied Business Research published research by Henry I. Silverman, of
Roosevelt University that concluded that “Reuters engages in systematically biased storytelling
in favor of the Arabs/Palestinians.”[13] Reuters denied the allegations.[14]
 Photograph controversies / Accusations of anti-Israel bias
Reuters was accused of bias against Israel in its coverage of the 2006 Israel–Lebanon conflict, in
which the company used two doctored photos by a Lebanese freelance photographer Adnan Hajj.
On 7 August 2006, Reuters announced. It had severed all ties with Hajj and said his
photographs would be removed from its database.
In 2010 Reuters was criticized again for “anti-Israeli” bias when it cropped the edges of photos,
removing commandos’ knives held by activists and a naval commando’s blood from photographs
taken aboard the Mavi Marmara during the Gaza flotilla raid, a raid that left nine Turkish
activists dead. It has been alleged that in two separate photographs, knives held by the activists
were cropped out of the versions of the pictures published by Reuters. Reuters said it is standard
operating procedure to crop photos at the margins, and replaced the cropped images with the
original ones after it was brought to the agency’s attention.

ASSOCIATED PRESS

Type Not-for-profit cooperative

Founded May 1846[1]
Headquarters New York City, New York, U.S.
Area served Worldwide
Key people Gary B. Pruitt, President and CEO
Industry News media
Products Wire service
Revenue US$627.6 million (2011)[2]
Operating
US$34.2 million (2011)[2]
income
Net income US$193.3 million (2011)[2]
Employees 3,400
Website www.AP.org

The Associated Press is an American multinational non-profit news agency

headquartered in New York City. The AP is a nonprofit cooperative owned by its contributing
newspapers, radio and television stations in the United States, all of which contribute stories to
the AP and use material written by its staff journalists. The AP staff is represented by the
Newspaper Guild union, which operates under the Communication Workers union, which
operates under the AFL-CIO. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are
AP subscribers, paying a fee to use AP material without being contributing members of the
cooperative. As of 2005, the news collected by the AP is published and republished by more
than 1,700 newspapers, in addition to more than 5,001 television and radio broadcasters. The
photograph library of the AP consists of over 10 million images. The Associated Press operates
243 news bureaus and it serves at least 120 countries, with an international staff located
worldwide. Associated Press also operates The Associated Press Radio Network, which
provides newscasts twice hourly for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. The AP
Radio also offers news and public affairs features, feeds of news sound bites and long form
coverage of major events. As part of their cooperative agreement with The Associated Press,
most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local
news reports. For example, on page two of every edition of The Washington Post, the
newspaper's masthead includes the statement, "The Associated Press is entitled exclusively to use
for re-publication of all news dispatches credited to it or not otherwise credited in this paper and
all local news of spontaneous origin published herein."
The AP employs the "inverted pyramid formula" for writing that enables the news outlets
to edit a story to fit its available publication area without losing the story's essential meaning and
news information. Cutbacks at longtime U.S. rival United Press International, most significantly
in 1993, left the AP as the primary nationally oriented news service based in the United States,
although UPI still produces and distributes news stories and photos daily. Other English-
language news services, such as Reuters and the English-language service of Agence France-
Presse, are based outside the United States.
In 1994, London-based Associated Press Television (APTV) was founded to provide
agency news material to television broadcasters. Other existing providers of such material at the
time were Reuters Television and Worldwide Television News (WTN).
In 1998, AP purchased WTN and APTV left the Associated Press building in the Central London
and merged with WTN to create Associated Press Television News (APTN) in the WTN
building, now the APTN building in Camden Town.

Agence France Presse (AFP)

Agence France-Presse
Type Not-for-profit news agency]
Industry News media
Founded Paris (1835)
Headquarters Paris, France
Products Wire service
Employees 2,260
Website afp.com

Agence France-Presse (AFP) is a French news agency, the oldest one in the world, and
one of the three largest with Associated Press and Reuters. It is also the largest French news
agency. Currently, its CEO is Emmanuel Hoog and its news director Philippe Massonnet. AFP is
headquartered in Paris, with regional offices in Nicosia, Montevideo, Hong Kong, and
Washington, D.C., and bureaus in 150 countries. It transmits news in French, English, Arabic,
Spanish, German, and Portuguese.
Historical background of AFP
The agency was founded in 1835 by a Parisian translator and advertising agent, Charles-
Louis Havas as Agence Havas. Two of his employees, Paul Reuter and Bernhard Wolff, later set
up rival news agencies in London and Berlin respectively, starting 1848. In order to reduce
overheads and develop the lucrative advertising side of the business, Havas's sons, who had
succeeded him in 1852, signed agreements with Reuter and Wolff, giving each news agency an
exclusive reporting zone in different parts of Europe. This arrangement lasted until the 1930s,
when the invention of short-wave wireless improved and cut communications costs. To help
Havas extend the scope of its reporting at a time of great international tension, the French
government financed up to 47% of its investments.
Established as a state enterprise, AFP devoted the post-war years to developing its
network of international correspondents. One of them was the first Western journalist to report
the death of the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin on March 6, 1953. AFP was keen to shake off its
semi-official status, and on January 10, 1957 the French Parliament passed a law establishing its
independence.
In 1982, the agency began to decentralize its editorial decision-making by setting up the
first of its five autonomous regional centres, in Hong Kong, then a British Crown colony. Each
region has its own budget, administrative director and chief editor. In September 2007, the AFP
Foundation was launched to promote higher standards of journalism worldwide. The mission of
the AFP "... is' 'defined by its statutes: to report events, free of « all influences or considerations
likely to impair the exactitude » of its news and « under no circumstances to pass under the legal
or actual control of an ideological, political or economic group."
In October 2008, the Government of France announced moves to change AFP's status, notably
by bringing in outside investors. AFP is a government-chartered public corporation operating
under a 1957 law, but is officially a commercial business independent of the French government.
AFP is administered by a CEO and a board comprising 15 members:
 Eight representatives of the French press;
 Two representatives of the AFP personnel;
 Two representatives of the government-owned radio and television;
 Three representatives of the government. One is named by the prime minister, another by
the minister of finance, and a third by the minister of foreign affairs.
The board elects the CEO for a renewable term of three years. The AFP also has a council
charged with ensuring that the agency operates according to its statutes, which mandate absolute
independence and neutrality. Editorially, AFP is governed by a network of senior journalists.
The primary client of AFP is the French government, which purchases subscriptions for its
various services. In practice, those subscriptions are an indirect subsidy to AFP.

United Press International (UPI)

Industry Journalism
1958 as United Press International
Founded
1907 as United Press Associations
Headquarters Washington, D.C., United States
Parent News World Communications
Website UPI.com

Historical Background of United Press International

. United Press International (UPI) is a once-major international news agency, whose
newswires, photo, news film and audio services provided news material to thousands of
newspapers, magazines and radio and television stations for most of the twentieth century. Since
1982, it has become much smaller, with a different customer base and product focus.
 Formally named "United Press Associations" for incorporation and legal purposes, but
publicly known and identified as United Press or UP, it was created by the 1907 uniting of three
smaller news syndicates by the Midwest newspaper publisher E. W. Scripps. In 1958 it became
United Press International after absorbing the International News Service (INS). As either UP or
UPI, the agency was among the largest newswire services in the world, competing domestically
for about 90 years with the Associated Press and internationally with AP, Reuters and Agence
France-Presse.
At its peak, UPI had more than 2,000 full-time employees; and 200 news bureaus in 92
countries; it had more than 6,000 media subscribers. With the rising popularity of television
news, the business of UPI began to decline as the circulation of afternoon newspapers, its chief
client category, began to fall. Its decline accelerated after the 1982 sale of UPI by the Scripps
Company.
Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union
The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (Russian: Телеграфное агентство
Советского Союза, Tyelyegrafnoye agyentstvo Sovyetskogo Soyuza; abbr. TASS), was the
central agency for collection and distribution of internal and international news for all Soviet
newspapers, radio and television stations. It had a monopoly on official state information which
was delivered in the form of TASS Report (Russian: Сообщение ТАСС, Soobshchyeniye TASS).
It was established on 25 July 1925 by a decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the
Soviet Union. Tass was created from the Russian Telegraph Agency (ROSTA), the first state
news agency in Soviet Russia. The agency was frequently infiltrated by the Soviet intelligence
and security agencies, the NKVD and GRU. Many of its employees also voluntarily served as
information sources of intelligence to the NKVD (later, the KGB).
In 1959, Alexander Alexeyev was dispatched to Cuba on a fact-finding mission, ostensibly
working for TASS. In 1961 Ria Novosti was created to supplement TASS, mainly in foreign
reporting and human-interest stories. After 1971, TASS was elevated to the status of State
Committee at the Government of the Soviet Union. Tass had affiliates in 14 Union republics
(Russian republic was covered by Tass itself). TASS had bureaus and reporters in 110 countries,
with a daily output equal to 750 newspaper pages, translated into eight (non-Soviet) languages. It
had nearly 5000 employees, with about a fifth being journalists.
Characteristics of Transnational/International or World News Agencies
 Transnational news agencies operate across the globe.
 Their correspondents or reporters are in almost all major cities around the globe.
 Transnational news agencies have the responsibility of monitoring and reporting events
in the city of operation as such events take place almost simultaneously.
 They are equipped with advanced information technologies that can facilitate
dissemination of information globally the minute it happens to their office.
 They create a global village. For instance when all correspondents of one of the
Transnational News Agency in all major cities of the world forward news and
information to the same office. It could be said that the world is being reported, like a
village. This is why we can talk of a global village.
 The Agency in turn gather the various news and forward the most interesting and news
worthy to their subscribers. At this point, you could sit in the comfort of your house and
read, listen to or watch events, taking place around the world, regardless of the distance,
time and magnitude of the events.
Transnational news agencies are very important for the following reasons:
• They source and distribute news and information from and to the whole world
• They facilitate the traditional role of the media, i.e. Education, Information, and
Entertainment on a global level.
• They are instrumental to a true global village that the world has turned into. In fact the
world is regarded as global village today thanks to the activities and operations of the “Big
Four.”
• They provide the platform for nations to co-exist, formulate policies and establish
diplomatic ties since through them, those nations are informed about the situation in other
countries, while neighbouring countries with centuries of enmity, all rely on them for news.
For example, their subscribers include government controlled Arab media and conservative
Israel allies – sworn enemies
• They ensure elimination of culture – shock as they educate their target audience, which is
the world at large about others culture.
The Continental/Regional News Agencies
As the name implies, continental or regional news agencies are agencies that may have
subscribers in many countries but whose operations are not spread to every part of the globe.
Please note that the major difference between Transnational and Regional Agencies is:
Transnational or World News Agencies maintain correspondents and subscribers in all the major
cities in the globe while the regional news agencies maintain reporters and subscribers only
within their continents or regions.
Examples of Continental/Regional News Agencies include:
• Kyodo of Japan
• Pan African News Agency (PANA) or Africa
• Indian Press Trust (IPT)
• Tanjug of Yugoslaria
• Non-aligned News pool
Pan African News Agency (PANA)
The Pan African News Agency (PANA) was established in April 1969 at the OAU, now
AU headquarters in Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, during a conference of African
Ministers of Information. It was not until May 25, 1983 that PANA commenced operations with
its headquarters in Dakar, the capital of Senegal. The aim of Pan African News Agency
(PANA), was to serve as a means of decolonizing information in Africa, a way to liberate
African information from imperialist domination and foreign monopolies and to gear it towards
the promotion of development. PANA was further established to protect African interest in the
sourcing and distribution of global news and serve to unify the AU, while independent nations
pursue their different goals. Its ownership belongs to the countries of African continent
Objectives of PANA
Several of the aims and objectives of PANA are more political in nature than
professional. . Therefore, PANA’s aim is to counter Western Media Imperialism and to remain
a communication organ of the OAU. PANA’s political objectives include:
 to promote the aims and objectives of the Organization for African Unity for the
consolidation of the independence, unity, and solidarity of Africa;
 to give more information about and assist in the liberation struggle of peoples against
exploitation and oppression,
 to work for the integration of African countries and strengthen cooperation by ensuring a
rapid and constant dissemination of objective and reliable information.
As a mass media organization, PANA has the following objectives:
 to promote an effective exchange of political, economic, social and cultural information
among member states;
 to establish a Data Bank on Africa;
 to contribute towards the development of established news agencies, national news
agencies, and the establishment of a multinational institute of information,
 to cooperate with African news agencies so as to have a greater impact on the press,
radio, television, and cinema.
PANA's Convention makes it clear that it is intended to play a political role. PANA is an
intergovernmental international organization. Its members are states and not national news
agencies. PANA's governing institution consists of representatives of member states, and it is
these states which are expected to pay contributions.
National news agencies
News Agencies Equally operate within their respective countries. These are called
National News Agencies. It is present in almost all the countries of the world e.g. Nigeria (The
News Agency of Nigeria, (NAN) GHANA (Ghana News Agency).
News agency of Nigeria (NAN)
The News Agency of Nigeria (NAN) was established by the Nigerian Federal
Government through Decree No. 19, of May 10, 1975, thanks to Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo's.
NAN took off on October 2, 1978. Its mandate was to report issues of Nigerian interest in
accurate and factual reports. In addition, it is required to seek, obtain and distribute news and
information to subscribers via subscriptions, payment or exchange of international, regional,
local and other news materials and news features. NAN is also empowered to present any kind
of news that is complete, objective on any matter of public or national interest within and outside
the country. It generates revenue from its numerous subscribers, in addition to annual subsidies
granted it by the Government.
NAN Editorial Policy
NAN's policy was derived from its mission as provided by its enabling decree. In its
editorial policy, it seeks to 'uphold the integrity of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and promote
harmonious relationship between and among the various ethnic components of the country. This
is to be achieved through informed and enlightened opinion or comment NAN brings to bear on
its discussion of national and international issues.
One of the major thrust of NAN's editorial policy is that which prohibits it from seeing
itself as an opposition to the government or government’s interests. Through its duties as 'a
national or international purveyor of news', it must be objective in reporting criticisms of public
policy. Besides, NAN is not expected to be addicted to such journalism tenets of neutrality, or
impartial arbiter as it is expected to always be resolutely on the side of Nigeria on any issue
without prejudice to its adherence to the truth which must at all times be its guiding light and
governing principle.'
NAN is expected to report development issues than conflicts, crimes and disasters. The
agency's activities are monitored to ensure compliance through the Ministry of Information and
National Orientation.
NAN's operations are carried out through five departments. (i) The managing director's
office, the editorial department, the technical service department, the marketing department and
the administration and finance department.
 In terms of its approach to newsgathering, NAN, by its constitutional mandate, focuses
more on news stories about Third World countries than about developed countries. This is in
reaction to the perceived imbalance in world information through the revelations of McBride
Commission Report of 1980 on the NWICO. As earlier mentioned, NAN places premium on
developmental news more than conflict, crime and disaster. Most importantly, the agency
focuses on news stories from the federal capital, state and other urban centers of Nigeria than
from rural areas. It has a bias for developmental journalism than other genres.
Achievement of NAN
Despite the obstacles in its ways, NAN has responded to the challenges and needs of
time, and has proved its ability to survive. Besides, the agency provides good percentage of
news features which are used by radio and television stations, as well as newspapers and
magazines in the country.
Difference between news agencies and international mass media
News agencies are bodies or organizations concerned with gathering and dissemination of world
news. Also referred to as adjuncts or Extenders, these bodies specializes in sourcing, processing,
interpreting, analyzing and disseminating of world news and information to other mass media
organizations otherwise known as subscribers.
International mass media, on the other hand are media of communication that are used for
disseminating information to wide, scattered and heterogeneous audiences, globally. The
international media are owned by western nations. For example, CNN, Newsweek, Time, BBC,
VOA, radio France, sky power and so on, since they own the international media, they also
determine the editorial content. However, today, we have the internet with its social platforms
where very often, a source disseminate information for anyone anywhere to comprehend.
International mass media provides communication from varied media that shape our
global context through various political, economic, social, and cultural factors. International
media can be dispersed and consumed via traditional or digital media. Its broad range connects
the world from the bleakest lands to the busiest of cities. . Human interactions and
communication transactions are more closely examined with the help of technological tools and
concepts such as surveillance cameras and behavioral targeting advertisements.

CHAPTER SIX

THE CHALLENGE OF FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION IN GLOBAL

COMMUNICATION

Imbalance in world news flow

In International Communication, imbalance refers to the unequal flow of mass media messages
from the First World or the industrialized countries to the Third World also known as the
underdeveloped or developing nations. A flow of news, analysis, propaganda and entertainment
gushes forth from some countries, floods into some, and trickles sluggishly into others.
Global news flow (also referred to as international news flow) is a field of study that deals with
the news coverage of events in foreign countries. It describes and explains the flow of news from
one country to another. We can identify two types of imbalances in world news flow:
(i) Quantitative imbalance (ii) Qualitative imbalance
Quantitative imbalance
Quantitative news flow simply mean that the world news flow mainly originates in the big
information producing countries of the First World (advanced capitalist nation in North America,
Western Europe, and Japan) and proceeds in uneven fashion into the rest of the world. The so–
called second world (advanced socialist nations (the former USSR and Eastern Europe) are no
more and they are in a state of flux, striving to find the right formula of economic stability and
political freedom. The third world (developing, economically underdeveloped nation largely in
Africa, Latin America and Asia) is primarily a receiver of small amount of global information
and does little to add to the global flow (cultural Imperialism). The result of this unevenness flow
is that certain countries enjoy far more coverage than do others. This inequality generates much
of the third world’s dissatisfaction with First World Journalism.
Therefore, quantitative imbalance refers to the disparity between the volume of news and
information emanating from the developed world and intended for the developing countries and
the volume of the flow in the opposite direction. According to Mastanha Masnoudi, former
secretary of State for information in Tunisia, almost 30 percent of the world news flow emanates
from the major transnational agencies; however, these devote only 20 to 30 percent of news
coverage to the developing countries, despite the fact that the latter account for almost three
quarters of mankind. This results in a veritable fact monopoly on the part of the developed
countries.
A 2014 study, examining 35 popular news website in ten different languages over a two-year
study period, found that "the United States is by far the most prominent country in the news sites
that we studied from around the world, except for the French and Arabic ones" and the "network
structure of news links clearly exhibits [the U.S.'s] key position as the centerpiece of a global
system."
It was argued that Western agencies provide the Third World countries with too much coverage
of the west and too little information about their own regions and other parts of the Third World.
They certain further that too much of this information is inappropriate to Third World needs and
filtered through the distorting lens of Western cultural, politician and social values.
For instance, In 1971, the Associated Press estimated that every day outside of the United States,
AP news is read or seen on television or heard on radio by one billion people. The AP claims to
be the largest news - gathering organization in the world, In 1975, Visnews, a company owned
largely by Reuters and the BBC, which is the leading Supplier of television news film, reported
that Visnews film appeared on virtually all of the world’s television screens. This explains why
the dominance of Western and particularly Anglo American organizations in the international
flow of news is at the center of the world-wide debate over what has come to be known as the
new world information order.
The debate however is larger than new flow. Three distinct areas of concern can be defined.
Qualitative imbalance
Proponents of a new world order argue that the prevailing nature of news flow directly
leads to misperception of the Third World, because of the preponderance of unavoidable Third
World news in the international media. They contended that just as information plays a
paramount role in international relations, both as a means of communication between people and
as an instrument of understanding and knowledge between nations (Masmoudi 1984) it can also
be the genesis of misperception and misunderstanding. To a large segment of the world’s
population, the media portray reality. Many people are notable to see that the media are not
infallible and, the maxim seems to be: if the media say so, it must be true, thus, in a situation
where the Western Press and news agencies paint less than wholesome pictures about the
developing countries, the ultimate image of incapability, corruption and poverty is inevitable.
Fenby (1986) admitted that the “developing countries were suffering from portrayal as incapable,
corrupt and coup ridden, unworthy of help and largely responsible for their own predicaments”
On one hand, it is asserted that Western media, particularly the international wire services and
the major domestic media whose influence extends beyond the borders o the country, largely
ignore the Third World, devote the meager coverage of this two-thirds of humanity mostly to
"bad" news Like natural disasters, coups and social unrest while ignoring the positive
accomplishments in political, economic and Social development, and most damning of all, see
the Third World from the alien perspective of Western values. This distorted view of the Third
World is transmitted to audiences in the West and in other Third World Countries which must
rely on the Western news agencies for their international news.
Causes of imbalance in news global news flow
Third world views
The Third World views or grievances are based on the following reason:
1) Monopoly of infrastructure for gather and disseminating information.
2) Under-news coverage,
3) Unidirectional flow of information,
4) Negative information or news,
5) Short shrift,
6) No third world perspective in the news reporting.
Monopoly of infrastructure
The Third World countries are bitter that the first or western world monopolises the
infrastructure for gathering and dissemination information and thus control the international
media.
Major News Agencies
The Third World countries contend that the major world news agencies such as United Press
International, Associated Press, Reuter, Agence France Press and TASS control news gathering
and circulation. What the third world media do is to receive news as handed to them by the
Western news agencies with its attendant Western value and colouration.

 Broadcasting frequency spectrum

The international telecommunication union controls the allocation of broadcasting spectrum all
over the world. The union is dominated by western nations which have the technology and
money to contribute to its project. Thus determine who gets what, when and how. No third world
country has that privilege and so they shout imperialism
 International Satellite Facilities
The western countries have satellites shot in space. They in turn allocate frequency to third world
countries to use in their communication needs. None of the world countries satellite in space, the
only test shot from a third world country as done by India it is just a test shot. Because of this,
third world countries complain of blue chip imperialism.
  International Media
The international media are owned by western nations. For example, CNN, Newsweek,
time, BBC, VOA, radio France, sky power and so on, since they own the international
media, they also determine the editorial content.
 Communication technology
The third world countries also complain of the domination of technology by the west and
accuse them of being insincere in the so – called technology transfer. They say why they
battle to invent on thing, the west is coming up with sophisticated inventions and
discoveries in communication that would place them in perpetual dominance. They cite the
computer, E-mail, internet, and hologram and so on.
Under news coverage
The third world countries complain that they are been under-covered in news reporting. They
say a lot of things happen in the third world centuries demanding the attention of the world
countries demanding the attention of the world but only very few are covered. Rather, they
say the west continues to dominate the world news. They agitated that this happens even
when the third countries constitute 70% of the world.
Uni-directional flow of information
Apart from under-coverage, they complain of the direction of news flow in the world media.
They say that most news are generated in the west and disseminated for the consumption of
the third world countries. That means that news flows unidirectional from the west to the
third world countries not vice-versa. The implication they complain is that their citizens know
more about West than they know about their countries. They are brainwashed and see West
values as ideal and role models or standards.
Negative information or news
They are embittered that even when news emanate from the Third World countries, the news
are usually negative, what makes news in the third countries are genocide such as happened
in Rwanda, coups, corruption, violence, negative culture and so on. They say this give Third
World countries negative image that scare investors and tourists.
Short shrift
They also complain that even when the Third World countries are reported in the
international media, they are given short shrifts. That means that the news is so brief that
audience get little or nothing in grasping it.
No third world perspective in the news reporting
The third world countries complain that the way the news is even reported is even biased
against the Third World countries. The perspective of news is Western, there is no Third
World perspective to the news.
Second world views
The second world countries are the socialist countries of the world. They also have their view
t the controversy.
(1) Claim being the most under-reported
(2) Détente
(3) Support of the third world
Claim being the most under-reported
They claim that if under-coverage should be the issue that they are the most under-covered in the
international media. The West retorted that if they are the most under-covered that they should
be blamed. They argued that since the second world preferred a closed social system, there was
no way they could be well covered.
Détente
The second world countries are f the view that if détente would be realized that there should be
balanced information flow that would guarantee understanding and promotion of peace. Détente
is the relaxation of tension in the cold war as a result of understanding and peace.
The second world countries reiterated that they are in support of the call for new world
information and communication order adding that the present order is unfair to the third world
and the second world.
First world view
The First World countries view the debate and controversy arising from the call for a new
information order as baseless and waste of time.
However, they view the issue from the following viewpoints:
 Professional base
 Reciprocal negative coverage
 Admission of guilt
Professional base
They reason that if there is bias in the coverage of third world countries, it probably
could emanate from the professional bias which comes from editorial judgment of the gate
keepers. They contend that nobody singles out the third World countries for the purpose of bias.
They say that professionally negative things are news whether they happen n the Third world or
First World.
They concluded by saying that in all aspects of human endeavor bias can be spotted. That even
the Third world countries themselves are biased in reporting news among themselves and even
within their individual countries. And, therefore, it is wrong to single out the West for criticism.
Reciprocal negative coverage
They complained that the result of content analysis carried in the media if many Third
world countries shoed that news about America was negative.
They therefore, wondered the rational for criticism of the west.
Admission of guilt
In spite of their defense, they, however, agreed that the accusation of unfair coverage is
obvious and glaring, judging from empirical data available.

CHAPTER SEVEN

THE NEW WORLD INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION ORDER (NWICO) --

JUSTIFICATION, CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS

The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO, also shortened to New World
Information Order, NWIO or just, more generally, information order) is a term coined in a debate
over media representations of the developing world in UNESCO in the late 1970s early 1980s.
The NWICO movement was part of a broader effort to formally tackle global economic
inequality that was viewed as a legacy of imperialism upon the global south.  The term was
widely used by the MacBride Commission, a UNESCO panel chaired by Nobel Peace
Prize laureate Seán MacBride, which was charged with creation of a set of recommendations to
make global media representation more equitable. The MacBride Commission produced a report
titled "Many Voices, One World", which outlined the main philosophical points of the New
World Information Communication Order.
. The report then proposed five main ideas of action to progress these goals:
1. Include communication as a fundamental right.
2. Reduce imbalances in the news structure.
3. Strengthen a global strategy for communication while respecting cultural identities and
individual rights.
4. Promote the creation of national communication policies to be coherent and lasting in the
processes of development.
5. Explore how the NWICO could be used to benefit a New International Economic
Order (NIEO).[7]
Justification for the proposed five main ideas of action to progress
A wide range of issues were raised as part of NWICO discussions. Some of these involved long-
standing issues of media coverage of the developing world and unbalanced flows of media
influence. But other issues involved new technologies with important military and commercial
uses. The developing world was likely to be marginalized by satellite and computer technologies.
The issues included:
 News reporting on the developing world reflects the priorities of news
agencies in London, Paris and New York. This is true as reporting of natural disasters and
military coups is considered newsworthy rather than the fundamental realities.
 At the time four major news agencies are in full control of over 80% of global news flow.
 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states "everyone has the right ... to seek, receive
and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers". This
validates the fact that NWICO discussions were, at their core, based upon human rights.
 The case of unbalanced flow of mass media from the developed world (especially the United
States) to the underdeveloped countries was alarming. Everyone watches American movies
and television shows.
 Advertising agencies in the developed world have indirect but significant effects on mass
media in the developing countries. Most of the messages of these ads are considered to be
inappropriate for the Third World.
 There exists an unfair division of the radio spectrum. A small number of developed countries
controlled almost 90% of the radio spectrum. Much of this was for military use.
 There were similar concerns about the allocation of the geostationary orbit (parking spots in
space) for satellites. At the time only a small number of developed countries had satellites
and it was not possible for developing countries to be allocated a space that they might need
ten years later. This might mean eventually getting a space that was more difficult and more
expensive to operate.
 Satellite broadcasting of television signals into Third World countries without prior
permission was the order of the day and this is widely perceived as a threat to national
sovereignty. The UN voted in the early 1970s against such broadcasts.
 There were also cases of use of satellites to collect information on crops and natural
resources in the Third World at a time when most developing countries lacked the capacity
to analyze this data.
 At the time most mainframe computers were located in the United States and there were
concerns about the location of databases (such as airline reservations) and the difficulty of
developing countries catching up with the US lead in computers.
 The safety and protection of journalists from violence was in question. There were cases of
journalists being targeted by various military dictatorships in Africa and Latin America in
the 1970s. As part of NWICO debates there were suggestions for study on how to protect
journalists and even to discipline journalists who broke "generally recognized ethical
standards". However, the MacBride Commission specifically came out against the idea of
licensing journalists.
Challenges faced by NWICO
The UNESCO work on the NWICO was immediately met with criticism from many areas. An
interim report released in 1979 by UNESCO was targeted by the American Newspaper
Publishers Association and the American Society of Newspaper Editors. And they also were
troubled by the phrase "New World Information and Communication Order", seeing it as a dog-
whistle for the use of government propaganda in the guise of information flow balance.
The United States government was hostile to NWICO. According to some analysts, the United
States saw these issues simply as barriers to the free flow of communication and to the interests
of American media corporations. It disagreed with the MacBride report at points where it
questioned the role of the private sector in communications. It viewed the NWICO as dangerous
to freedom of the press by ultimately putting an organization run by governments at the head of
controlling global media, potentially allowing for censorship on a large scale.  There were also
accusations of corruption at the highest level of UNESCO leadership in Paris. While the Carter
administration had been responsive to the goals of UNESCO, the Reagan administration took on
a different approach. The work of UNESCO was perceived by this administration to limit both
individual and press freedoms. Additionally, anti-communist cold war sentiments were gaining
increased traction in the United States. The US eventually withdrew its membership in UNESCO
at the end of 1984.
The report itself was controversial, as many viewed it as lending strength to the Communist and
nonaligned blocs. M'Bow backed a compromise resolution that eliminated the more radical
proposals of the report, however hard liners resisted these changes. Likewise, the United States
warned that they would not provide funds or technical assistance if UNESCO appeared to desire
government control of media.

CHAPTER EIGHT
GLOBALIZATION—CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS

Definition
Globalization means the speedup of movements and exchanges (of human beings, goods, and
services, capital, technologies or cultural practices) all over the planet. One of the effects of
globalization is that it promotes and increases interactions between different regions and
populations around the globe.
In 1995, Martin Khor, President of the Third World Network in Malaysia, referred to
globalization as colonization. Concurrently, Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson, in his book The
Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization (2001), stated that globalization:
is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter,
things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which
somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit,
with somebody on the other side of the world.
Anthony McGrew’s explains that:
“globalization [is] a process which generates flows and
connections, not simply across nation-states and national territorial
boundaries, but between global regions, continents and
civilizations. This invites a definition of globalization as: ‘an
historical process which engenders a significant shift in the spatial
reach of networks and systems of social relations to
transcontinental or interregional patterns of human organization,
activity and the exercise of power.’”
WHO defines globalization as ” the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of
peoples and countries. It is generally understood to include two inter-related elements: the
opening of international borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people and
ideas; and the changes in institutions and policies at national and international levels that
Causes of globalization
Globalisation is not a new phenomenon. The world economy has become increasingly
interdependent for a long time. However, in recent decades the process of globalisation has
accelerated; this is due to a variety of factors, but important ones include improved trade,
increased labour and capital mobility and improved technology.

Main reasons that have caused globalization by Tejvan Pettinger

Improved transport
Improved transportation has made global travel easier. For example, there has been a rapid
growth in air travel, enabling greater movement of people and goods across the globe.
Containerisation.
From 1970, there was a rapid adoption of the steel transport container. This reduced the costs of
inter-modal transport, making trade cheaper and more efficient.
Improved technology 
Modern technology has made it easier to communicate and share information around the world.
E.g. internet.
Growth of multinational companies 
The presence of multinational companies has led to a global presence in many different
economies.
Growth of global trading blocs 
The growth and increase in global trading blocs which have reduced national barriers. (e.g.
European Union, NAFTA, ASEAN)
Reduced tariff barriers 
There is now reduction in tariff barriers and this encourages global trade. Often this has occurred
through the support of the WTO.
Firms exploiting gains from economies of scale 
Firms now exploit gains from economies of scale to gain increased specialisation. This is an
essential feature of new trade theory.
Growth of global media.
Global trade cycle. Economic growth is global in nature. This means countries are increasingly
interconnected. (e.g. recession in one country affects global trade and invariably causes an
economic downturn in major trading partners.)
Financial system increasingly global in nature. When US banks suffered losses due to the sub-
prime mortgage crisis, it affected all major banks in other countries who had bought financial
derivatives from US banks and mortgage companies.
Improved mobility of capital.  In the past few decades, there has been a general reduction in
capital barriers, making it easier for capital to flow between different economies. This has
increased the ability for firms to receive finance. It has also increased the global
interconnectedness of global financial markets.
Increased mobility of labour. People are more willing to move between different countries in
search for work. Global trade remittances now play a large role in transfers from developed
countries to developing countries.
Internet. This enables firms to communicate on a global level, this may overcome managerial
diseconomies of scale. The firm may be able to get cheaper supplies by dealing with a wider
choice of firms. Consumers are also able to order more goods online E.G. Dell Computers takes
orders online and can meet customer specifications.
What Are the Benefits of Globalization?
Globalization impacts businesses in many different ways. But those who decide to take on
international expansion find several benefits, including:
1. Access to new cultures
Globalization makes it easier than ever to access foreign culture, including food, movies, music,
and art. This free flow of people, goods, art, and information is the reason you can have Thai
food delivered to your apartment as you listen to your favorite UK-based artist or stream a
Bollywood movie.
2. The spread of technology and innovation
Many countries around the world remain constantly connected, so knowledge and technological
advances travel quickly. Because knowledge also transfers so fast, this means that scientific
advances made in Asia can be at work in the United States in a matter of days.
3. Lower costs for products
Globalization allows companies to find lower-cost ways to produce their products. It also
increases global competition, which drives prices down and creates a larger variety of choices for
consumers. Lowered costs help people in both developing and already-developed countries live
better on less money.
4. Higher standards of living across the globe
Developing nations experience an improved standard of living—thanks to
globalization. According to the World Bank, extreme poverty decreased by 35% since 1990.
Further, the target of the first Millennium Development Goal was to cut the 1990 poverty rate in
half by 2015. This was achieved five years ahead of schedule, in 2010. Across the globe, nearly
1.1 billion people have moved out of extreme poverty since that time.
5. Access to New Markets
Businesses gain a great deal from globalization, including new customers and diverse revenue
streams. Companies interested in these benefits look for flexible and innovative ways to grow
their business overseas. International Professional Employer Organizations (PEOs) make it
easier than ever to employ workers in other countries quickly and compliantly. This means that,
for many companies, there is no longer the need to establish a foreign entity to expand overseas.
6. Access to New Talent
In addition to new markets, globalization allows companies to find new, specialized talent that is
not available in their current market. For example, globalization gives companies the opportunity
to explore tech talent in booming markets such as Berlin or Stockholm, rather than Silicon
Valley. Again, International PEO allows companies to compliantly employ workers overseas,
without having to establish a legal entity, making global hiring easier than ever.
Challenges of Globalization
While globalization offers many benefits, it’s not without challenges. Velocity Global’s 2020
State of Global Expansion™ Report: Technology Industry reveals some of the top challenges
that U.S. and UK tech leaders face when taking their companies global, and leaders of other
companies likely face the same obstacles.
Some of the hurdles companies face when going global include:
1. International Recruiting
It’s not surprising that 30% of U.S. and UK tech leaders cited international recruiting as their
most common challenge. Recruiting across borders creates unknowns for HR teams. First,
companies create a plan for how they will interview and thoroughly vet candidates to make sure
they are qualified when thousands of miles separate them from headquarters. Next, companies
need to know the market’s demands for salaries and benefits to make competitive offers. To
ensure successful hires, HR teams must factor in challenges like time zones, cultural differences,
and language barriers to find a good fit for the company.
2. Managing Employee Immigration
Immigration challenges cause a lot of headaches internally, which is why 28% of U.S. and UK
tech leaders agreed it was one of their top challenges. Immigration laws change often, and in
some countries, it is extremely difficult to secure visas for employees that are foreign nationals.
The U.S., for example, is getting stricter with granting H-1B visas, and Brexit makes the future
of immigration to the UK uncertain.
5. Loss of Cultural Identity
While globalization has made foreign countries easier to access, it has also begun to meld unique
societies together. The success of certain cultures throughout the world caused other countries to
emulate them. But when cultures begin to lose their distinctive features, we lose our global
diversity.
6. Foreign Worker Exploitation
Lower costs do benefit many consumers, but it also creates tough competition that leads some
companies to search for cheap labor sources. Some western companies ship their production
overseas to countries like China and Malaysia, where lax regulations make it easier to exploit
workers.
7. Security challenges
Globalisation has brought security challenges to the international community. New challenges
and issues of international security posed by the globalization include terrorism, various forms of
extremism, separatism, growth of the crime rates, corruption, weapons of the mass destruction,
regional conflicts, ecological catastrophes etc.

CHAPTER NINE
A GLOSSARY FOR JOURNALISTS

This glossary is divided into three parts, the first consists of terminology commonly used in
newspaper and wire services. The second includes the principal terms used in computer
technology for newspapers and wire services, and has Some limited application to the electronic
media where computers are used. The third applies solely to broad cast journalism.
1. For Newspapers and Wire services
A COPY Also known as a matter. Fart of a news story, based mainly on advance
materials, that is based mainly on advance materials, that is later
completed by placing a lead on top of it. Used by newspaper mainly.
AD An advertisement
ADD Additions of any kind to a news Story.
ADVANCE News story based on factual material about a forthcoming event, Such as
the advance text of a speech, parade line of march, etc.
ACATE: 5½ point type as a unit of advertising, 14 agate lines equal one column
inch.
AMS: Morning newspapers
ANGLE: An approach to a Story also, various parts of a story.
ANPA: American Newspaper Publishers Association.
AP: Associated Press.
APME: Associated Press Managing Editors.
ASSIGNMENT: Duty given to a journalist.
BANK: Also called a deck; the part of a headline that usually follows the top or
the cross line, often both.
BANNER: A headline across Page 1, of four columns or more sometimes known as a
streamer. It is confused with a binder, a headline across the top of an
inside page,
B COPY: Also known as B matter. Part of a news story, based mainly on advance
material, which may be completed by topping it first "with A copy and
then with a lead. Many newspapers omit the A Copy and top B copy with
a lead directly.
BEAT: An exclusive story; al so, a series of places regularly visited by a reporter
to gather news .
BEN DAY: Process named for Editor Pem Day of the New York Sun. It is a shading
pattern of dots or lines used in photoengraving as background for photos,
type or line drawings.
BF: Bold-face type. It is heavier and darker than regular type.
BODY: Part of a story that follows the lead. Also, the name of type in which
regular newspaper reading matter is set.
BOX: Brief story enclosed by a border; many modern boxes have "only top and
bottom borders. Those put in the middle of a related story are called drop-
ins.
BULLDOG : Early newspaper edition.
BULLET IN: Brief dispatch Containing major news. Usually no more than 20-30
Words.
BYLINE: Signature on a story
C&LC: Caps and lower case (small letters).
CAPS: Capital letters. Also called upper case.
CAPTTON: Descriptive material accompanying illustrations, cartoons, etc.
CENTER SPREAD: Also called a double truck on tabloids The two pages in the center
fold of a newspaper.
CITY EDITOR: Boss of the local news staff in the United States. Now called metropolitan
editor by some papers.
CITY ROOM: Properly, the news room. Seat of the editorial operation of a newspaper.
CLIP: A newspaper clipping. Called a cutting by the British.
COPY: Universally known as the name of material write by a journalist.
COPY DESK: Where copy is edited, cut and headlined.
COPY EDITORS: Also called copy readers. They edit and headline the copy. Not to be
confused with proofreaders, a function of the pre computer mechanical
staff, whose duty was to catch errors in proof.
CORRESPONDENT: When reporters go out of town, they sometimes call themselves
correspondents. In broadcast media, a correspondent is a job Classification
of more importance than the basic reporter
COVER: To obtain news.
CREDIT LINE: To credit a picture, cartoon, etc, to the Source.
CROP: Reducing the size of an illustration before it is put into printed form.
CRUSADE: Also known as a campaign, a series, a Long reporting job. It is an effort by
all parts of an editorial staff to persuade the public to act, or to refuse to
act, in some matter involving the public interest.
CUB: An untrained newspaper person,, usually a reporter. A term used more by
the' public than by newspaper people, Who generally call a beginner a first
year reporter.
CUT: An engraving, but al so applied to all kinds of newspaper illustration.
CUTLINES: The part of a caption that describes an illustration.
DATELINE: The place from which a news story is sent. Many newspapers now omit
the date from the dateline.
DEADLINE: Closing time for all copy for an edition. There are different deadlines for
the city desk, news desk, copy desk, Closing of pages in thee composing
room, etc.
DESKMAN OR WOMAN: An editor in the newsroom .
DTNGBAT: Decorations in type.
DOPE STORY: Also called a think piece; soft news, Supposedly based on reliable opinion,
Which seeks to develop trends.
DUMMY: A drawing, usually tree hand, outlining the position of news stories and
cuts on a page by designating slugs and kinds of headlines
EARS: Boxes on either side of the nameplate on Page 1 of a newspaper -one
usually encloses the weather, the other the naMe of the edition.
EDITION: Remake, or revision of some of the pages of a newspaper, including page
1.
EDITORIAL: Comment on the news in the name of the news organization itself.
EM: Through usage this tern has become interchange able with a pica, the
name applied to a lineal measurement of 12 points (one-sixth of an inch)
or to a square of 12-Point type. Originally an em was the square of any
size of type.
EN: Half an em. Also called a nut to avoid phonetic confusion.
FILE: The act of dispatching copy to or from a news Center, except when it is
sent by a messenger.
FILLER: Small items used to fill out columns where needed.
FLAG: Newspaper nameplate on Page 1.
FLASH: In general news, a rarely used message of a few words describing a
momentous event.
FOLI0: Page number and name of paper.
FOLO: Also called follow, follow-up, follow story, sequence of news events after
a news break.
FUTURE BOOK: Date book of future events.
HANDOUT: Generic term for written publicity.
HEAD: Name for all headlines.
HOLD FOR RELEASE: Instruction placed on news that must not be used until receipt of a
release, either used as H°R.
HTK: Abbreviation of Head to Kum (Printers spelling). Placed on copy when the
headline is to be completed after the copy is cleared.
HUMAN INTEREST: News or features With emotional appeal.
INSERT: Addition to a story written in such a way that it can be placed anywhere
between the end of the first paragraph and the beginning of the last
paragraph.
ITALICS: Type face with characters slanted to the right, as contrasted with roman, or
upright, characters.
JIM-DASH: A 3-em dash i
JUMP: Continuation of a Story to another page.
JUMP LINE: A continuation line.
JUSTIFY: To fill out a line of type, a column of type or a page of type.
KILL: Elimination of news material at any stage in the processing.
LAYOUT: Arrangement of illustrations.
LBAD: Beginning of a story, which may be a sentence, a paragraph or several
paragraphs, depending on the complications involved.
LIBEL: Any defamatory statement expressed in writing, printing or other visible
form.
LIGATURE: Two or more united characters of type, such as ae, fi.
LOBSTER: The Working shift that usually begins with midnight and runs through to
about 10 or 11am.
LOGOTYPE: Also called a logo. A single matrix containing two or more letters used
together, such as AP or UPI. It is also another name for the flag, or
nameplate.
LOWER CASE: Small letters.
MAKEOVER: Redoing a page.
MAKEUP: Assembling the newspaper or magazine.
MARKUP: A proof or clipping, pasted on paper and marked to show where changes
are to be made and, what new material is to be used.
MASTHEAD: Statement, usually on the editorial page, of the newspaper's ownership,
place of publication and other offices. Sometimes confused with the flag
or nameplate.
MORGUE: News library.
MUST: When this word is put o copy, it means the story must be used.
NEW LEAD: Also called a New top, Nulead or NL. It is a fresh beginning on a story
already sent or in the paper and is so written that it joins with the old story
smoothly at a paragraph that can be designated at the end of the new lead.
A lead all is a short top that fits on a new lead.
OBIT: An obituary.
OFFSET: A system of printing. Also known as cold type.
OVERNIGHT: Also called overnite or overniter. It is a story for the first edition of an
afternoon newspaper of the following day; also, for the overnite circle of a
 wire service. In morning newspaper terminology an overnight refers to an
assignment to be covered the next day.
OVERSET: Type left over from an edition. Usually wasted.
PHOTOCO MPOSITION: Typesetting by photography, replacing metal.
PICA: 12-point type, and also a lineal measurement of 12 points.
PICK UP: Also written pickup in printers' shorthand. This is the name for that
portion of a story in type that should be placed at the end of a new lead, or
other news material.
PICKUP LINE: Line at top of wire service copy that includes the word "add, " the point of
origin of the story and the last few words of the preceding page. It is used
to assemble the whole story in order. Often shortened to PU.
PLAY: The display given to a story or picture. Most editors 'talk of playing a
story, rather than playing it up or down, these latter expressions are more
frequently used by the public.
PMS: Afternoon newspapers.
POINT: Basic printing measurement, roughly equivalent to 1/72 of an inch.
POOL: Selection of one journalist or a small group of them to cover for a large
group.
PRECEDE: Brief dispatch, such as a bulletin or editorial, note, that introduces a story
but is separated from it by a dash.
PRINTER: Also called a Teletype or TWX. It produces Copy by electrical impulses
actuated by a perforated tape, or some other means.
PROOF: Inked impressions of type for the purpose of making corrections,
RWRITE: A Writer for a, newspaper or Wire service, whose work consists in part of
redoing stories and in part of writing original copy for the reporters who
turn in notes by telephone or Wire.
RIM: Outer edge of copy desk. Extinct where terminals are used to read copy.
RUNNING STORY: Another name for the B copy -A Copy lead process, Usually it,
means a chronological story of an event topped by successive leads
as the news changes.
RUNOVER: Another name for a jump.
SCOOP: An exclusive, story.
SHIRTTAIL: Additional material, related to a longer story and separated from it by a
dash.
SHORT: A brief story.
SIDEBAR: A separate piece, related to a main story on the same subject.
SITUATIONER: An interpretive story describing a particular news situation.
SLOT: Seat of the head of an old-fashioned horse shoe copy desk.
SLUG: Each story has a name, which is called a slug.
SPLIT PAGE: First page second section in a paper of two sections.
SPREAD: Any story that takes a headline big enough to be used at the top of an
inside page.
STEREOTYPE: plate cast from a mold or image of a page of hot type.
STET: Copy editors and printer instruction, "Let it stand "
TICK: About two inches of type.
STRINGER: Occasional correspondent paid by the amount of space per story, The
length of the clippings is called the "string”
SWIGN SHIFT: A shift operated by workers who swing from one shift to another on
different days
TAKE: A page of copy.
THIRTY: Telegraphers Morse code symbol for "The End."
TURN RULE: Some time s written as T. R. "T. R. for 2d ADDSTORM" means a second
addition to a story about a storm is expected.
UPI: United Press International.
WIRE SERVI CE: A press association, a wholesaler of news.
WRAPUP: Also called a roundup. Summary of events in a broadly developed news
situation.

FOR COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

AL HANUMERIC: Use of both letters and numbers in print or otherwise.
AUTOFUNCTIONS : Commands placed on Copy to instruct computer in type sizes,
column widths, etc.
BANDWIDTH: Specifies range within a band of wavelengths, energies or
frequencies.
BAND: Transmission speed rate would 'be 1,200 bits (or 150 characters),
per second.
BIT: In a computer tape or memory, this is the physical manifestation of
a bit by electrical impulse a magnetized spot or a hole.
BITSTREAM: Network 's complete flow of digitalized information

Bibliography