Discourse

Cook formulates that formal links are facts inside language, or features

that operate within sentence. He categorizes formal links into seven

aspects: verb form, parallelism, referring expression, repetition, substitution,

ellipsis and conjunction. Each of those will be explained in a detailed way below:

1. Verb Form
It means that the form of verb in one sentence can limit the choice of the
verb form in the next. In the sentence, it seems that there is a degree of formal
connection between them, a way in which the first tense conditions all the other
2. Parallelism
It is a device which suggests the connection, simply because the form of one
sentence or clause repeats the form of another .
For example: Best friend cares without see the condition, gives without
hesitation, and understands without explanation. The form of the verb cares ,
gives, and understands , is simple present tense so the sentence above is parallel.
3. Referring Expressions
They are words whose meaning can only be discovered by referring to
other words or to elements of the context, which are clear to both sender
and receiver. Based on the place of specific item and pronoun, it can be divided
into two kinds, anaphora and cataphora and the explanations as follows:
A: Anaphora
It is one kind of referring expression where the identity of someone or
something to be given once at the beginning, and thereafter referred to as she or
he or it). For example: I promised to my friends be a good woman, they believe
in me.
The word ‘ they’ refers to ‘my friends’ which appear first .
b. Cataphora
It is another kind of referring expression where pronoun is given first, and then
kept in suspense as to its identity, which is revealed after.
For example: Her work and spirit make Mira. Who becomes one of famous
novelist in Indonesia. The word his, refers to Mira. Which appear after the
pronoun.
4. Repetition
Repetition of words can create the same sort of chain as pronouns, and
there are sometimes good reasons for preferring it. The repetition form,
which may comprise sound, words, phrase, etc.
for example: You are my red red rose.
5. Substitution
It is the representation of words or group of words in the form of
incomplete items, such as do or so for a group of words, which have appeared in
the earlier sentence.
For example: A: Do you like mangoes ? B: Yes, I think so . The word so
substitutes mangoes , so is representation of word mangoes.
6. Ellipsis
It is omitting art of sentences on the assumption that an earlier sentence or
the context will make the meaning clear (1989, p. 20). For example:
A: What are you doing?
B: Eating mango.It does not need to put “I am” before ‘eating a mango’, because
“I am” has
been understood by the receiver.
7. Conjunction
It is words and phrases, which explicitly draw attention to the type of
relationship, which exist between one sentence or clause and another
(1989, p.
21). For example: He is very good brother, so
I love him very much.
Actually, Cook formulates the conjunction into six categories they are: As the
words may simply add more information to what has already been said
(and, furthermore, add to that ). To elaborate or exemplify ( for instance, thus, in
other words ). To contrast new information with old information, or put
another
side to the argument ( or, on the other hand, however, conversely ). The words
so,
consequently, because, for this reason to relate new information to what
has
already been given in term of clauses, or in time (formerly, then, in he end, next ).
Data 1
'One morning, as Gregor Samsa was waking up from anxious dreams, he
discovered that in bed he had been changed into a monstrous verminous bug. He
lay on his hard, armored back and saw, as he raised his head a little, his domed,
brown belly, divided into arched segments; he could hardly keep the bed sheets
from sliding from his stomach's height completely to the floor. His numerous legs,
lamentably thin in comparison to his new girth, flickered helplessly before his
eyes.
“What has happened to me?” he thought. It was no dream. His room, a proper
room for a human being (albeit a little too small), lay still between the four
familiar walls. Above the table, upon which a collection of sample cloth goods was
spread out in stacks—Samsa was a traveling salesman—hung the picture which
he had cut out of an illustrated magazine a little while ago and set in a pretty gilt
frame. It depicted a woman who, with a fur hat and a fur boa, sat erect, lifting up
in the direction of the viewer a solid fur muff into which her entire forearm had
disappeared.
Gregor's glance then turned to the window, and the dreary weather—one heard
raindrops falling upon the window ledge—made him quite melancholy. “How
would it be if I kept sleeping for a little while longer and forgot all this
foolishness,” he thought; but this was entirely impractical, for he was accustomed
to sleeping on his right side, and in his present circumstances, he couldn't bring
himself into this position. No matter how hard he threw himself onto his right
side, he always rolled again into a prone position. He tried it a full hundred times,
closing his eyes because he had to avoid seeing the wriggling legs, and gave up
trying when he began to feel a slight, dull pain in his side that he had hitherto not
felt.
“Oh God,” he thought, “what a strenuous occupation I've chosen! Always on the
road, day out, day in. The rigors of the job are much greater than if I were working
locally, and, furthermore, the nuisances of traveling are always imposed upon me
—the worries about train connections, bad meals at irregular intervals, fleeting
human contact that is ever-changing, never lasting, and never expected to be
genuine. To the devil with it all!” He felt a slight itching on the top of his
abdomen. He slowly pushed himself on his back closer to the bedpost so that he
could lift his head more easily, found the itchy area, which was entirely covered
with small white spots—he did not know what to make of them—and wanted to
feel the place with a leg. But he retracted it immediately, for the contact felt like a
cold shower all over him.
a: verb form
he discovered that in bed he had been changed into a monstrous verminous bug
(1st and 2nd line)
the verb discovered is form of past influence the second verb appears, had been
changed. The second verb form is past perfect continuous because it has
happened first. The discovered is simple past tense because it is to show the act
that is done later.

b: referring expression
'One morning, as Gregor Samsa was waking up from anxious dreams, he
discovered that in bed he had been changed into a monstrous verminous bug.
The word he occurs after Gregor Samsa. As the identity of something, that is
given once at the beginning is called anaphora. Here the pronoun he is used in
reference the subject Gregor Samsa.
What has happened to me?” he thought. ( 7th line).
In this sentence he is given after me. Cataphoric.
c : conjunction
How would it be if I kept sleeping for a little while longer and forgot all this
foolishness,” he thought; but this was entirely impractical, for he was accustomed
to sleeping on his right side, and in his present circumstances, he couldn't bring
himself into this position.( Line 16 and 17)

1. In this sentence the word ‘but’ is used as conjunction. It shows two different
thoughts with in a sentence.
2. The use of conjunction and is found to connect two phrases into a sentence
and to make a relation one to another.
d: ellipsis
. It depicted a woman who, with a fur hat and a fur boa, sat erect, lifting up in the
direction of the viewer a solid fur muff into which her entire forearm had
disappeared.
There is omitting art of sentence that is called an ellipsis. before the word lifting it
should be put she is. The omitting of the word here is to makes the meaning
clearer.
Data 2
This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith
we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this
faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a
beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work
together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up
for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.
a: parallelism
With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle
together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that
we will be free one day.( 5th &6th line).
In this sentence the words work, pray, struggle, go and stand is simple present
tense. So the sentence above is parallel.
b: Repetition
With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle
together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that
we will be free one day. ( line 5 & 6).

In the above lines the word together is repeated five times. It is the word which
make a stress in saying something ( in stating the main idea in the sentence).

Data 3
International Islamic university is considered one of the best and top university
of Pakistan. Mix of both Islamic and now a days modern education in the field of
Sciences,agriculture,Business management,Computer sciences and information
technology and many more are being offered here.