OVERVIEW OF DRYERS AND THE DRYING PROCESS

A dryer is a machine that reduces the moisture content of bulk solids, manufactured parts,
and other valuable materials. It is a complex system consisting of a drying chamber, heaters,
materials handling equipment, forced convection equipment (if applicable), and others.

Drying is an essential material processing procedure. It can be technically defined as the

vaporization of absorbed moisture from wet materials. It is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer
process that may be accomplished by several mechanisms. Heat is transferred to the material,
which causes the absorbed water to vaporize. The evaporated water is then transferred to and
carried by the surrounding air or inert gas. The humidity or moisture content of the surrounding
air increases after the process. The total weight of the material decreases after the process, and
the moisture-free weight is constant throughout. Drying is carried out due to one (or more) of the
following reasons:
 To prevent the growth of bacteria, molds, and other microbes on food and pharmaceutical
products
 To keep materials from rusting and corrosion
  To improve or maintain the desirable properties of a material
 To make materials suitable for further processing, storage, handling, and transportation
 To enhance functionality, usability, and value of the product
Dryers are widely used in food, pharmaceutical, agricultural, sugar, pulp and paper,
textiles, wood, metallurgical, metal fabrication, and automotive industries, just to name a few.
Dryers are differentiated based on their mechanism in removing a material’s water
content. They come in different sizes and capacities: from small-scale dryers found in houses and
laboratories, which draw a few grams of moisture, to industrial scale-dryers, which handle tons
of wet feed per hour. Therefore, choosing a dryer with the appropriate type, size, and
specifications for a given application is essential. Different dryers can have varying effects on
the final product and material properties.
HEAT TRANSFER CATEGORIES OF DRYERS
Dryers may be categorized based on the heat transfer mechanism:
Direct Dryers
Direct dryers transfer heat to the material by convection. The heat transfer
medium is forced to have direct contact with the material to be dried. A stream of hot air
or inert gas serves as the heat transfer medium, which is blown or circulated around and
within the material. This hot air carries and supplies latent heat to vaporize the absorbed
moisture. The evaporated moisture is then picked up by the blown air.
Due to their efficiency, direct and continuous dryers are the most common
configuration of dryers in industrial practice. Their heat transfer efficiencies are higher
compared to indirect dryers. However, they have higher operating costs and may have
increased energy losses.
Indirect Dryers
Indirect dryers transfer heat to the material by conduction. The heat transfer
medium is separated from the material by a conductive partition. The material to be dried
is contained inside a drying chamber and is heated from the chamber walls. The latent
heat required to vaporize the absorbed moisture is transferred through the wall. The
evaporated moisture is then carried up by the surrounding air. The surrounding or carrier
air required by indirect dryers is much lower compared to direct dryers.
Indirect dryers are used in drying sensitive products, such as pharmaceutical
products and combustible materials since the flow of air circulating the product is
relatively low. These dryers prevent the risk of contamination during the process. They
are also used in batch drying of relatively low production volumes.
Radiant Dryers
 Radiant dryers transfer heat by directly emitting electromagnetic waves to the
material being dried. These electromagnetic waves carry thermal energy or heat and
deeply penetrate into the material. The heat absorbed by the material heat is conducted to
the moisture causing it to evaporate and combine with the surrounding air. Little heat is
lost to the surrounding air. This makes the drying process contactless and low risk for
contamination. Like indirect dryers, radiant dryers do not require large airflow and may
only need a small blower. Moreover, radiant dryers are cleaner and more environmentally
friendly compared to convective and conductive dryers.
Radiant dryers are commonly used in adhesives, paints, and coatings on part
surfaces.
The types of radiant dryers are the following:
Microwave Dryers
Microwave dryers utilize electromagnetic waves that fall within the
microwave region (300 MHz to 300 GHz). Microwave radiation can penetrate
beyond the surface of the material. Hence, these dryers are used to dry the
material from within (i.e., volumetric drying). The moisture or solvent evaporates
from the pores of the material. Microwave dryers are used to process food and
agricultural products.
Infrared Dryers
Infrared dryers utilize electromagnetic waves that fall within the infrared
region (300 GHz to 400 THz). This region falls just below the visible light
spectrum. These dryers emit energy to heat the material's outer surface, and heat
is conducted from the outer surface to the inner portion of the material. Infrared
dryers are usually equipped with forced convection equipment to increase
efficiency.
INDUSTRIAL DRYERS BY OPERATION
Industrial dryers operate on either a batch or continuous mode:
Batch Dryers
Batch dryers process a fixed volume of material at a particular drying duration. A
fixed number or quantity of materials is placed in the drying chamber; this quantity is
limited by the holding capacity of the dryer. The dried materials are unloaded from the
chamber, and the drying of the next batch of materials may be performed. Batch dryers
are used in relatively low production volumes.
Continuous Dryers
Continuous dryers accommodate a continuous, uninterrupted flow of materials
throughout their operation. Wet materials are continuously fed and transported across the
drying chamber. As the material crosses the chamber, it loses its moisture content. The
 dried products may be gathered by a buffer tank or directly fed to the succeeding
equipment. Continuous dryers are used if a large quantity of products needs to be dried.
TYPES OF BATCH DRYERS
The types of industrial batch dryers are the following:
Tray Dryers
Tray dryers consist of several trays, which contain the materials to be dried,
stacked inside the drying chamber. Air is used as a heat transfer medium that is forced to
move inside the chamber. Blowers facilitate air movement. The air gains thermal energy
when it contacts the heating coils. The heated air is blown on top of the material, causing
the moisture to diffuse and vaporize. A portion of the moisture-carrying air leaves
through the ventilation duct, while the rest is recirculated in the chamber together with a
stream of fresh, dry air. The temperature and velocity of the air may be adjusted
depending on a given product and operational requirements.
Tray dryers are the simplest type of industrial dryers; they have inexpensive initial
costs and consume less space. They are easy to operate and maintain. However, the
drying time is typically long. They may not be suitable for powdered solids.

Vacuum Dryers
Vacuum dryers operate at a low (vacuum) pressure to hasten the vaporization of
moisture or solvent absorbed by the material. The decrease in operating pressure
depresses the boiling point of the absorbed liquid; hence, these dryers operate at a lower
temperature than other industrial dryers.
The materials to be dried are loaded in trays. The dryer is equipped with a vacuum
pump to reduce the pressure inside the chamber. Heat is transferred from the chamber
walls to the material by conduction or radiation. Some vacuum dryers have a steam
jacket. The vacuum pump draws the vapor; the vaporized solvent may be recovered by
condensation and reused if necessary.
Vacuum dryers are used for heat-sensitive, hygroscopic, combustible, and
granular products. They are used in food and pharmaceutical products to keep nutrients
from degrading in high temperatures. They remove large quantities of moisture
efficiently and have fast drying times.

Pan Dryers
Pan dryers are equipped with an agitator or a mill that stirs wet materials inside a
jacketed vessel. The agitator or mill revolves slowly to increase drying rate (i.e., moisture
removed per unit time per unit area), ensure uniform heat distribution, and avoid products
sticking on the vessel walls. Pan dryers may be operated in an atmospheric or vacuum
pressure.
Pan dryers are used in drying heat-sensitive, viscous, and sticky products.

Freeze Dryers
Freeze-drying (or lyophilization) involves freezing the material to be dried and
subjecting it under vacuum pressure. It is employed for products that drastically degrade
or change at high temperatures. It preserves the material’s biological activity and
chemical properties. It is used in food and pharmaceutical products to preserve their
nutrient content and active ingredients. It is also used in biological specimens such as
blood, tissues, and proteins. However, freeze-drying takes a long time to complete.
Freeze dryers consist of refrigeration equipment, a drying chamber, holding trays,
and a vacuum pump. The sample is first frozen to at least its melting temperature to
convert the moisture and solvent within the material into a solid phase. The vacuum
pump is then activated to decrease the pressure inside the chamber. Heat transfer under
low pressure causes the solidified moisture or solvent to transform into vapor. The
vacuum pump draws the vapor sublimed off the material. The freeze dryer will continue
to run to drive off the moisture or solvent bound to the material.

Bin Dryers
Bin dryers consist of a holding tank or bin with a perforated plate at its bottom. A
fan blows ambient or preheated air through the perforated plate vertically upward. Air
surrounds the moist material, causing it to dry. The material may be arranged on shelves,
with the wettest material at the bottom. The moisture-carrying air leaves at the top of the
bin. Bin dryers are used in drying agricultural and forest products such as wood, fruits,
vegetables, grains, bamboo, and others. However, bin dryers may lack drying controls
and be used as a pre-dryer.
TYPES OF CONTINUOUS DRYERS
Tunnel Dryers

In tunnel dryers, the materials to be dried are loaded in trays attached to a trolley.
The trolleys enter at one and move slowly through the drying tunnel, wherein a stream of
hot air or gas is blown. The material dries as it moves through the tunnel. The trays may
move in either of the following directions with the air stream:
  Concurrent Configuration The material movement and the airflow are in the
same parallel direction. This configuration is the least efficient.
 Countercurrent Configuration The material movement and the airflow are in
opposite parallel directions. It is the most efficient configuration as the
temperature gradient across the chamber is more uniform — the hottest and driest
air contacts with the materials with the highest moisture content.
 Cross-Flow Configuration The airflow is perpendicular to the material
movement, thereby maximizing contact. The screen conveyor dryer is a type of
tunnel dryer that utilizes this configuration. The materials are placed in a
perforated screen through which hot air is vertically blown. Moisture is removed
from the materials as it passes through the tunnel.

The settings of the heater zones and the trolley speed may be optimized according
to the type and quantity of materials being loaded and final moisture or solvent content.
Tunnel dryers are considered as an enhancement to tray dryers. Materials
continuously enter and exit throughout their operation. The material is steady on the
trolley as it traverses the tunnel. Hence, these dryers are suitable for products sensitive to
damage or deformation, such as automotive components, electronic parts, construction
materials, glass materials, and large fruits, vegetables, and food products. Tunnel dryers
are operationally efficient in processing materials requiring long drying times.
Rotary Dryers
Rotary dryers consist of a slightly inclined metal cylinder with internal flights.
The material is fed from the upper end of the cylinder. The cylinder slowly rotates to lift
and cascade the product. Hot air or gas enters in a concurrent or countercurrent direction
with the material. The agitation caused by the rotation and internal tumbling action
results in rapid and uniform drying. The product is collected at the lower end of the
cylinder.
Rotary dryers may be classified as direct-fired or indirect-fired. In direct-fired
rotary dryers, the hot gas directly contacts the material inside the cylinder. High-
temperature air may be used to roast food products. In indirect-fired rotary dryers, heat is
conducted from the cylinder walls to the material being dried.
Rotary dryers are suitable for drying granular and non-sticky materials. They are
commonly used in drying products from a crystallization process. They are suitable for
drying salts, minerals, grains, nuts, and animal feeds.

Fluidized Bed Dryers

In fluidized bed dryers, the wet material is fed to a vessel by a screw feeder. A
stream of preheated air flows from the bottom of the vessel to keep the particles
suspended or fluidized. This stream flows perpendicular to the direction of material
travel. A horizontal air stream may be supplied to help in conveying the particles. The
extensive contact of the particles and air results in a faster drying process. Moisture-
carrying air exits at the top of the vessel. The particles carried over by this stream are
separated by a cyclone separator or a bag filter. The dried products are collected at a
point lower than the material inlet.
In vibrating fluidized bed dryers, vibration is added to enhance the fluidization of
large-sized particles and sticky and sluggish feeds.
Fluidized bed dryers are used in powdered and granular products such as grains
and cereals. Some fluidized bed dryers are designed and configured to enable batch
drying.

Agitated Vacuum Dryers

Agitated vacuum dryers consist of a jacketed vessel with an agitator. The vessel is
operated at low pressure and moderate temperature. The agitator stirs the material in
order to increase the drying rate and ensure uniform distribution of heat. The vacuum
pump draws the vapor. A cyclone filter prevents particles from being combined with the
condensate.
Agitator vacuum dryers are also used in drying heat and air-sensitive products.
They are usually placed next to filtration equipment.
Spray Dryers
Spray drying is a quick and efficient process of directly transforming a slurry,
suspension, or paste into fine dried powder form. The feed usually contains a high
amount of moisture and must be transportable by a pump. It is used to produce soaps,
detergents, milk, coffee, tea, salts, polymer resins, flavorings, extracts, pharmaceutical
products, and others.
Spray drying involves the following stages:
 Atomizing It is the process of converting the feed into a mist of fine droplets to
ensure fast drying. The feed is pumped continuously to an atomizer installed on
top of the drying chamber. There are several techniques in atomizing the feed:
o Forcing it into the orifice of a nozzle
o Mixing it with a compressed gas

o Passing it through a centrifugally accelerated rotating disc

  Drying A hot gas stream is introduced either at the top or bottom of the drying
vessel. The drying gas for solids in an aqueous solution is air. Nitrogen gas is
used for organic or flammable solvents. The moisture or solvent is removed as the
atomized feed is dispersed over the gas. The diameter of the drying vessel is large
to prevent the particles from sticking on the vessel walls. The particles settle at
the conical bottom of the vessel.
Drying takes place as quickly as a few seconds. Hence, spray dryers are used
in drying thermally sensitive products which degrade when exposed at a
substantial length of time.
 Separation and Product Collection A cyclone separator and a filter separate the
particles from the drying gas.

Flash Dryers
Flash dryers dehydrate wet granular materials by conveying them across a drying
duct. A high velocity hot gas stream flows through the duct that keeps the particles
suspended. The heat from the gas stream removes the moisture or solvent from the
product. After passing through the duct, the particles are separated from the gaseous
stream by a cyclone and a bag filter. A portion of the exhaust gas is recirculated to the
duct in order to increase energy efficiency. Flash dryers are used in drying minerals, salts,
starches, dyes, and other granular products.
Drum Dryers
Drum dryers or roller dryers dehydrate liquid feed in order to produce powders,
flakes, or granular materials. They consist of one or two internally heated drums that
rotate about their axis. Steam is flowing inside the drum, and heat is conducted through
the walls. The feed is sprayed onto the surface of the rotating drum or between the two
rotating drums. A thin film of the liquid feed sticks and dries on the hot surface. The
product's initial and final moisture contents determine its residence time on the drum
surface. A scraper removes the dried particles once the desired moisture content is
obtained.
In vacuum drum dryers, the drums are placed in a chamber with vacuum pressure.
The low pressure inside the chamber decreases the boiling point of the moisture or
solvent, causing it to evaporate at a lower temperature. Hence, vacuum drum dryers are
suitable for drying heat-sensitive products.
Disc Dryers
Disc dryers consist of multiple vertical discs mounted on a shaft, which are all
contained in a horizontal cylinder. The shaft is internally heated by steam or hot oil; heat
is conducted from the shaft to the mounted discs. The discs provide the area for indirect
drying. The wet feed in the form of slurry or sludge enters on one side of the cylinder.
Moisture or solvent from the feed evaporates as it touches the discs. The materials are
transported axially throughout the cylinder. Scrapers are installed inside the cylinder to
ensure uniform mixing and prevent the materials from sticking onto the discs. Finally, the
products are collected at the bottom of the other cylinder end.
Source:
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