Chapter 2

Basic Structures
Sets, Functions
Sequences, and Sums
 Objectives
l Sets
l Setoperations
l Functions
l Sequences
l Summations
 2.1- Sets
l An unordered collection of objects
l The objects in a set are called the elements, or members.
l A set is said to contain its elements.
l Some important sets in discrete mathematics
N = { 0,1,2,3,4,… }
Z = { … , -2,-1,0,1,2,…} Z+ = {1,2,3…}
R: the set of real numbers
ì p ü G. Cantor
Q = ír = p Î Z , 0 ¹ q Î Z ý
î q þ
V = {a, u , o, i, e}

aÎA : a is an element of the set A // a belongs to A

aÏA: a is not an element of A
 Sets…
Q1. List the members of these sets.
a. {x | x is a positive integer less than 12} b. {x | x is the square of an integer and x<100}

Q2. For each of the following sets, determine whether 2 is an element of that set.
a. {x ∈ R | x is an integer greater than 1} b. {{2},{{2}}}
c. {{2},{2,{2}}} d. {{{2}}}
 Sets…
Definitions:
l Finite set: Set has n elements, n is a nonnegative integer
l A set is an infinite set if it is not finite
l Cardinality of a set |S|: Number of elements of S
l ∅: empty set (null set), the set with no element
l Two sets are equal ßà they have the same elements
A = B if and only if "x (xÎA « xÎ B)
l AÍ B: the set A is a subset of the set B
A Í B if and only if "x (xÎA ® xÎ B)
l A Ì B: A is a proper subset of B
Venn diagram shows that A
A Ì B if and only if (A Í B)^(A ≠ B) is a subset of B
 Sets…
Q3. Determine whether each of these statements is true or false.
a. ∅ ∈ {0} b. {0} ⊂ ∅ c. {0} ∈ {0} d. {0} ⊂ {0} e. {∅} ⊆ {∅}

Q4. Determine whether each of these statements is true or false.

a. x ∈ {x} b. {x} ∈ {{x}} c. ∅ ⊆ {x} d. ∅ ∈ {x}

Q5. What is the cardinality of each of these sets?

a. {{a}} b. {a, {a}}
 Power Sets

Given a set S, power set P(S) of S is a set of all

subsets of the set S.

S= {1,2,3}

P(S)= { Ø, {1}, {2},{3}, {1,2}, {1,3},{2,3}, {1,2,3} }

 Power Sets
Q6. Find the power set of the set: {∅, {∅}}

Q7. How many elements does each of these sets have where a and b are distinct elements?
a. P({a, b, {a, b}}) b. P(P(∅))
 Cartesian Products

Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B,

denoted by A x B,
A ´ B = {( a, b ) a Î A, b Î B}
For example
A= {a, b} B= {1, 2, 3}
A ´ B = {( a,1) , ( a, 2 ) , ( a,3) , ( b,1) , ( b, 2 ) , ( b, 3)}
 Cartesian Products…
A1 ´ A2 ´ ... ´ An = {( a , a ,..., a ) a Î A , "i = 1, n}
1 2 n i i

For example
A= {a, b} B= {1, 2,3} , C = {0,1}
 2.2- Set Operations
The Union of sets A and B, denoted by A È B
A È B = { x x Î A Ú x Î B}
The difference of A and B, denoted by A-B
A-B= { x x Î A Ù x Ï B}
The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted by A Å B
A Å B=A È B-A Ç B= { x ( x Î A Ú x Î B) Ù ( x Ï A Ç B)}
Inter sec tion : A Ç B = { x x Î A Ù x Î B}
U is the universal set, complement of A is denoted by A
A=U-A= { x x Ï A}
 Set Identities
Identity – See proofs : pages 125, 126 Name

AÈ∅=A AÇU=A Identity laws

AÈU=U AÇ∅=∅ Domination laws
AÈA=A AÇA=A Idempotent laws
A= A Complementation law
AÈB=BÈA AÇB=BÇA Commutative laws
AÈ (BÈ C) = (A ÈB) È C Associative laws
AÇ (B Ç C)= (A ÇB) Ç C
A Ç (B È C) = (A Ç B) È (A Ç C) Distributive laws
A È (B Ç C) = (A È B) Ç (A È C)
AÈ B =AÇ B A ÇB =AÈB De Morgan laws
A È (A Ç B) = A A Ç (A È B) = A Absorption
AÈ A =U A Ç`A = ∅ Complement laws
Q8. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 3, 6}. Find
a. A ∩ B b. A − B

Q9. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}. Find

a. A ∪ B b. B − A.

Q10. Find the sets A and B if A − B = {1, 5, 7, 8}, B − A = {2, 10}, and A ∩ B = {3, 6, 9}.
Generalized Unions and Intersections
n
A1 Ç A2 Ç A3 Ç ... Ç An = ! Ai = { x x Î Ai , "i = 1, 2,..., n}
i =1
n
A1 È A2 È A3 È ... È An = ! Ai
i =1

= { x x Î A1 Ú x Î A2 Ú x Î A3 Ú ... Ú x Î An }

Computer Representation of Sets

• Use bit string U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
• A= {1,3,5,7,9 } è A = “1010101010”
• B= { 1,8,9} è B = “1000000110”
 Computer Representation of
Sets
l A = “1010101010”
l B = “1000000110”
 2.3. Functions / Mappings /
Transformations…
l f: A → B : function f from A to B (or function f maps A to B)

l A: domain of f

l B: codomain of f
Functions as sets of ordered pairs
Q1. What are functions?
a. f: N → N : f(x) = x2 + 2 b. f: Z → Z : f(x) = 1/(x-1)2 + 5x
c. f: R → R : f(x) = ±x d. f: Z → R : f(x) = (2x+5)2/(7-2x)
 Some Important Functions
Floor function
f: R → Z : f(x) = ëxû : largest integer that less than or equal to x.
Ceiling function
f: R → Z : f(x) = éxù : smallest integer that greater than or equal to x.

Q2. Find these values

 One-to-One/ Injective functions
Function f is one-to-one (or injective) if and only if

a ≠ b → f(a) ≠ f(b)

for all a and b in the domain of f.

Q3. Determine whether each of these functions from Z to Z is one-to-one:

a. f(n) = n3 + 1 b. f(n) = n2
 Onto Functions
A function f from A to B is called onto, or surjective, if for every element b in B
there is an element a in A with f(a)=b.

Q4. Determine whether each of these functions from Z to Z is onto:

a. f(a) = a + 1 b. f(a) = a3
 One-to-one Correspondence / Bijective Functions
Function f is a one-to-one corespondence or a bijection if it is
both one-to-one and onto.
 Inverse Functions
Let f is a bijection from A to B. The inverse function, denoted by f-1,
of f is the function that assigns to an element b belonging to B
the unique element a in A such that f(a)=b.
Hence f-1(b)=a when f(a)=b.
 Inverse Functions
Q4. f: Z → Z such that f(x) = x+1
Is f invertible? And if it is, what is its inverse?
 Composition of Functions
Let f : A → B, g: B → C
The composition of f and g, denoted by fog, is defined by:
(fog)(x) = f(g(x))

Q5. Find: (fog)(x) and (gof)(x)

f: Z → Z, f(x) = x + 1
g: Z → Z, g(x)= x2
 2.4- Sequences
l Sequence: a1, a2, a3,…, an,…
Ex: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,…: Infinite sequence
Ex: 1, 3, 5, 7: Finite sequence

l A sequence is a function from a subset of integers to a set S.

l an : image of the integer n
l ai : a term of the sequence
l {an= 1/n}: Z+→ Q è 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, …
 Sequences…
Geometric progression
f(n) = arn è a, ar, ar2, ar3, …, arn
a: initial term, a real number
r: common ratio

Arithmetic progression
f(n) = a + nd è a, a+d, a+ 2d, … , a+nd
d: common difference, real number
 Sequences…
Q1. Find these terms of the sequence {a_n}, where a_n = 2 (−3)n + 5n.
a. a_1 b. a_4

Q2. Find the first five terms of the sequence defined by each of these recurrence relations and
initial conditions.
a. a_n = 6a_{n−1}, a_0 = 2 b. a_n = a_{n−1} + 3a_{n−2}, a_0 = 1, a_1 = 2

Q3. Find the solution to each of these recurrence relations.

a. a_n = −a_{n−1}, a_0 = 5 b. a_n = a_{n−1} + 3, a_0 = 1
Some Useful Sequences
 Summations

n
am + am +1 + am + 2 + ... + an = å a j = å j = m a j = åm£ j £ n a j
n

j =m

a : Sequence
j : Index of summation
m: Lower limit
n : Upper limit
 Summations….

Theorem 1- (Summation of geometric series)

Some Useful Summation Formulae
 Cardinality

l Cardinality = number of elements in a set.

l The sets A and B have the same cardinality if and only if
there is a one-to-one correspondence from A to B
l A set that is either finite or has the same cardinality as
the set of positive integers is called countable.
l A set that is not countable is called uncountable.
l When a infinite set S is countable, we denote the
cardinality of S is |S|= ‫א‬0 (aleph null)

l For example, |Z|= ‫א‬0 because Z is countable and infinite,

but R is uncountable and infinite, and we say |R|=2 ‫א‬0
 sets countable uncountable cardinality
{a, b, …, z}, ü û <n
{x| x5 -3x2 – 11 = 0}, …
{0, 2, 4, …} ü û ‫א‬0

N, Z+, Z, Q, Z x Z, … ü û ‫א‬0

{x| 0 < x < 1}, R,… û ü 2‫א‬0